initial commit of ebook 44750HEAD main

author: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:56:39 -0700
committer: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:56:39 -0700
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Library Of Work and Play: Home Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner.
+    </title>
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44750 ***</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="497" height="800" alt="Cover" />
+<div class="caption"></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+<h1>THE CHILDREN'S LIBRARY OF WORK AND PLAY. Home Decoration</h1>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_f_endpaper_a.jpg" width="300" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Front Endpaper A</p></div>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_f_endpaper_b.jpg" width="300" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Front Endpaper B</p></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2 class="h2l">THE LIBRARY<br />
+OF WORK AND PLAY</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Bibliography">
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Carpentry and Woodwork</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Edwin W. Foster</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Electricity and Its Everyday Uses</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Gardening and Farming</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Ellen Eddy Shaw</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Home Decoration</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Housekeeping</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Elizabeth Hale Gilman</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Mechanics, Indoors and Out</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Fred T. Hodgson</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Needlecraft</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Effie Archer Archer</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Outdoor Sports, and Games</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Outdoor Work</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Mary Rogers Miller</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Working in Metals</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Charles Conrad Sleffel</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="FRNT" id="FRNT"></a><img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="600" height="934" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hanging a Picture</span><br />
+The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="532" height="800" alt="Title Page" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">HOME DECORATION</p>
+<p class="center">
+BY PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training
+School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical
+High School and Director of the Evening
+School of Trades, Springfield, Mass.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Garden City</span>            <span class="smcap">New York</span></p>
+<p class="center">DOUBLEDAY, PAGE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center">1916</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+<p class="center">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
+INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN</p>
+
+<p class="center">COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p class="p6" />
+
+<p class="center">TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA<br />
+THIS BOOK<br />
+<span class="smcap">WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE<br />
+IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED</span>
+</p>
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p class="p6" />
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Some</span> pure lovers of art discard the formula,
+<i>Art for Progress, the Beautiful Useful</i>,
+fearing lest the useful should deform the
+beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand
+attached to the muse's arm. They are solicitous for
+the sublime if it descends as far as to humanity.
+Ah! they are in error. The useful, far from circumscribing
+the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less
+splendid, clad less in purple and emerald&mdash;suffers
+she any diminution of majesty and of radiant
+grace, because, foreseeing an insect's thirst, she
+carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop needed
+by the bee?</p>
+
+<div class="authsc">Victor Hugo.</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</a></h2>
+
+<p>This volume is the result of an effort to bring together
+in close relation with fundamental principles
+of design a variety of practical problems which are
+more or less closely connected with the general
+problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive
+ability of boys and girls from twelve to
+eighteen years of age. While the book is mainly
+a record of the author's experience and observation
+in this department of educational work, he has
+received many suggestions from co-workers in the
+same field. It will be impossible to give credit to
+all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the
+preparation of this book: but special acknowledgments
+are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts, who furnished
+the material for the chapter on Pottery and several
+drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace
+L. Bell for the illustrations and descriptions embodied
+in the chapter on Block Printing; to Mr.
+Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work;
+to Mr. Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson
+who contributed many of the specifications for the
+problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth
+M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to
+the subject of dress as related to the principles
+of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S. Flower, of
+Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs
+and much of the descriptive matter for the
+chapter on Weaving.</p>
+
+<div class="bibauth">Springfield, Mass.</div>
+
+<div class="auth"><div class="caption">C. F. W.</div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr class="trs"><td class="tocch">CHAPTER</td><td></td><td class="tocpg">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">I.</td><td class="tocti"> Introductory&mdash;The Story of a House</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">II.</td> <td class="tocti">Decorations and Furniture</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">III.</td> <td class="tocti">Pictures</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">IV. </td><td class="tocti">The Arrangement of Flowers</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">V. </td><td class="tocti">Decorative Fabrics</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VI. </td><td class="tocti">Dress and the Principles of Decoration</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VII. </td><td class="tocti">Furniture Making</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VIII.</td> <td class="tocti">Finishing and Re-finishing</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">IX.</td><td class="tocti"> Hand Weaving</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">X. </td><td class="tocti">Pottery</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">XI.</td><td class="tocti"> Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and <br />
+Other Materials</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">XII.</td><td class="tocti"> Concluding Suggestions&mdash;Country Homes</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hanging a Picture</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#FRNT"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr class="trs"><td class="tocti">&nbsp;</td><td class="tocpg">FACING PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys
+ of the Woodworking Sections of the
+Vocational School</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLI">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical
+ High School were not Overlooked in the
+Distribution of the Work on the House</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLII">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">A Table Runner of Russian Crash
+ and Pillow Cover with Geometrical Design</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLIII">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Window Draperies with Stencilled Border</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLIV">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with
+Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch, a
+Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and
+ Couching Stitch</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLV">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Finishing a Library Table</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVI">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Weaving a Rug</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVII">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVIII">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers,
+Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand
+ Woven</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#ALCOVE">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover,
+ Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLX">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Girls at Work on Pottery</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXI">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Bowls</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXII">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Vases and Fern Dishes</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXIII">312</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Tiles</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXIV">316</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXV">318</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Decorative Forgings</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXVI">364</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class = "ph1"><a name="HOME_DECORATION" id="HOME_DECORATION">HOME DECORATION
+</a></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="600" height="288" alt="A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys" />
+<div class="caption">A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I">I</a><br /><br />
+<small>INTRODUCTORY</small></h2>
+
+<h3>THE STORY OF A HOUSE</h3>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">To design</span>, plan, and build a house is a task
+that rarely falls to the lot of boys and girls.
+In fact, it is not the common experience
+of men and women to build houses without the aid
+of architects, masons, and carpenters. Such a task,
+however, was recently offered to certain classes in
+one of the public schools of a well-known New England
+city. It was, indeed, a school problem, and
+yet there was something about it that seemed to
+suggest larger and more interesting things than are
+ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did
+not seem at all like some school work. It was more
+like real life; for all boys and girls must some day
+have homes of their own, and here was a chance
+to learn how the house, which is an important
+part of every home, is planned and built. It is
+hardly necessary to say that this work&mdash;or play,
+if you like that word better&mdash;was undertaken with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+genuine enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of
+the pleasure of interest and of accomplishment&mdash;full
+of the joy of doing something worth while&mdash;from
+the beginning to the end.</p>
+
+<p><i>The House a Work of Art.</i>&mdash;One of the first lessons
+learned by these young builders&mdash;perhaps the
+most important one of all&mdash;was that a great many
+things have to be thought of in planning a house,
+if the thing is to be well done. It is not simply
+a question of deciding how many rooms one will
+have, arranging them in some conventional order,
+and building the house around them with whatever
+external features style or fancy may dictate. Too
+many houses, it is true, are planned, or at least
+put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever
+goes into them in decoration or furniture is generally
+chosen either for necessary use or for display&mdash;not
+with any thought of the real comfort and
+satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings.
+People who are satisfied with such dwellings seem
+to show less appreciation of art, the highest product
+of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who
+decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs
+of their own weaving and who ornamented their
+pottery and their utensils and implements with
+wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+designs. Modern cave dwellers in apartment
+houses with all the conveniences of their ready-made
+surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression
+in their home belongings that encouraged
+and delighted even the savage. The most extreme
+example of this form of degeneracy is found in the
+suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the
+age of concrete construction, now at hand, means
+that we are to have concrete houses poured into a
+standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours,
+and finished for occupancy in a day or two.</p>
+
+<p>The boys and girls of this story would not have
+accepted a machine-made, standardized house if
+one had been offered them, ready for use. There
+was a special purpose for which their house was to
+be planned and built, as there generally is in the
+case of any real house. No style A, B, or C, chosen
+from any series of pattern-built or moulded houses,
+could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could,
+would they willingly give up all the fun of planning
+and building and furnishing? Would they forego
+the lessons of experience to be learned from all
+this work? This is always a large part of the
+satisfaction which comes to any one who builds
+his own house. In the present instance it was the
+chief motive, since the boys and girls who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+planning this house were not expecting to make
+their home there.</p>
+
+<p><i>Why the House Was Built.</i>&mdash;What, then, was the
+purpose for which this house was to be built; and
+what were the specific problems involved in realizing
+this purpose? It was to be a practice house
+for the girls of the household technology course.
+This meant that it should be, so far as possible,
+a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple
+one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most
+important factor in determining the character
+of the design. A limited appropriation&mdash;about
+$1000&mdash;for building material was available. Economy
+of space as well as of expense was also important.
+The only available land was a triangular
+lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet
+in area. This limited the dimensions of the floor plan
+to 24 by 35 feet. It was decided to develop the design
+within these dimensions, on a rectangular plan, with
+one story and a hip roof, because such a design would
+present comparatively easy problems in framing and
+insure a building of pleasing external proportions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN</h3>
+
+<p>In attacking the problem of design the method
+of approach was determined by the fact that school-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+girls and school-boys were to be the architects and
+builders. House planning, home decoration, and
+household management were important subjects of
+study on the part of the girls and various forms of
+drawing and constructive work were required of all
+the boys of this school; so they all felt that they
+had a right to contribute something out of their
+study and experience that might be of value in
+working out this problem. The design must therefore
+be a composite of the best features of many studies.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Composite Design.</i>&mdash;The rooms required for a
+house of this character were thought to be a hall,
+a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen, a pantry,
+a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen
+closet. Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would
+satisfy the demands of a house to be used to give
+practical training in all the essentials of plain
+housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests.
+With these requirements in mind and with full
+knowledge of all the limitations of the problem,
+the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were
+taking the course in household technology, entered
+into a lively but friendly competition with each
+other to produce the most acceptable design and
+draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted
+from this competition that it was difficult<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+to select the best. It was therefore decided to
+combine in a new and final plan the best features
+of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions
+of the problem with equal success. Two
+of these were selected as having the greatest number
+of good points. From these the final floor plan
+was developed and the necessary modifications
+made in the original drawings to make the general
+design of the building fit the plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="600" height="525" alt="Floor plan of the model house" />
+<div class="caption">Floor plan of the model house</div>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+<i>The Hall.</i>&mdash;It may be of interest to note how some
+of the details of the problem of design were worked
+out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall,
+it was easily seen that economy of space required
+that the room should have small dimensions. In
+fact, it did not need to be a separate room at all.
+It could easily be a space between the living room
+and the dining-room, separated from both by means
+of porti&egrave;res and joined upon occasion with either
+room or with both, thus making possible a reception
+room or a dining-room of good size, or one large
+room. Of course, the central idea of a hall must
+not be lost sight of in providing for a desirable
+extension of other rooms. It should suggest a
+warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the
+fireplace may fulfil the double function of giving
+the cheer of the hearth-stone at all times and the
+comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The
+absence of a stairway, since none was needed, was
+a favourable circumstance. Appropriate decoration
+and furnishing in due time were to add a
+few distinguishing marks so that the house could
+retain, without any appreciable sacrifice of space,
+the dignity of an entrance hall.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Living Room and the Dining-room.</i>&mdash;The relative
+positions of the living room and the dining-room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+as already stated, were determined by the
+location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct
+and self-evident, and determined the features
+of design that lent themselves most readily to
+appropriate decoration. In the living room the
+floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration
+with regard to their final treatment, to
+give pleasing proportions and harmonious colouring.
+The same was true of the dining-room, though
+its different purpose suggested a different design.
+An abundance of light was important for both
+rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such
+windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing
+drapery effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kitchen and Its Appointments.</i>&mdash;No room
+demanded so much study as the kitchen. In the
+first place it was necessary to make provision for
+a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily
+be needed in a house of this size, because in this
+case it was designed to be used as a practice kitchen
+and must therefore be large enough to accommodate
+a considerable number of girls&mdash;at least
+eight&mdash;at one time. This point assumed so much
+importance in the minds of the young designers
+that they were constantly tempted to rob other
+rooms of the space that was due them in order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever adjustments
+and combinations the necessary floor dimensions
+were secured without unduly cramping other
+features of the plan. The range, laundry tubs,
+and sink were conveniently located near each other
+with the tubs at such a height that when not in
+use the cover was flush with the top of the range,
+forming a shelf on which kettles and other kitchen
+utensils could be easily placed as they were moved
+back and forth from the range. It was thought
+that it would be very desirable, if not necessary, to
+have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of
+sheet metal.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan
+that the range is very near the door into the passageway
+leading to the bedroom, the living room,
+and the hall. This point received due consideration;
+but in view of the compensating advantages
+the arrangement was thought allowable, inasmuch
+as the door into the passageway would be used
+only occasionally. There seemed to be no more
+convenient location for the passageway, which was
+designed to give privacy to bedroom and bath
+room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency
+requiring it, easy communication between the
+kitchen and the bedroom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+<i>Special Features.</i>&mdash;The pantry was located between
+the kitchen and the dining-room for obvious
+reasons&mdash;to give easy communication in serving
+and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place.
+In place of a kitchen closet a cabinet was provided
+for as being on the whole the more serviceable
+of the two. It is always desirable to have an
+entry or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved
+for the refrigerator; but the need of providing as
+much room as possible in the kitchen itself seemed
+to justify the omission of the lobby. Another
+unusual feature&mdash;this time not an omission&mdash;is
+to be found in the window of the bedroom closet.
+Such a window, although not common, was thought
+to be very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a
+possible protection against moths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing.</i>&mdash;These
+were by no means all the features of design that
+had to be considered. As already suggested, there
+was much study given to the question of interior
+decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage.
+This was simply necessary forethought; for much
+of the attractiveness, restfulness, and homelike
+atmosphere of any house is created by the architect,
+who, in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways,
+and windows, disposes his wall areas so that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves
+naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces
+for a few choice pictures and opening up beautiful
+vistas. Such house-planning, begun with clear
+vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every
+detail, may often lead to a harmony of effects as
+pleasing to people of artistic temperament as a
+symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical
+composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic
+gradations of form and colour and harmony
+of musical tones is a very close one, and the
+appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent
+person, on seeing a suite of rooms designed
+and arranged by a real artist, though he may not
+understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm
+of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack
+of any jarring or discordant notes in the decoration,
+the simplicity, fitness, and real beauty, not of any particular
+part, perhaps, but of the whole combination.
+We often find ourselves using the same language
+whether we are describing the work of an artist-architect
+or the work of a musical composer.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN</h3>
+
+<p><i>Adaptation to Purpose.</i>&mdash;Our young architects
+discovered that there are certain fundamental
+principles or laws that must be observed at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+very beginning, if a really good and true design is
+to be made. The first of these laws is the <i>law
+of adaptation to purpose</i>. The application of this
+law was illustrated in the location of the various
+rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions
+agreed upon for each, and in the details of arrangement,
+especially in the kitchen and other rooms
+connecting with it. But this law is universal in
+its application. It determines not only the broad
+features of the plan but the details as well. It
+does not permit anything useless or superfluous
+to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims
+at efficiency and strength. It dictates the details
+of construction all along the line, from the framing
+of the building to its finish and its decoration. It
+even determines the character of the furniture and
+the amount of it. Adaptation to purpose is a
+ruling principle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simplicity.</i>&mdash;Another great principle that revealed
+itself as the plans of the house developed
+may be called the <i>law of simplicity</i>. This is one
+of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the
+realm of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry
+that the straight line is the shortest distance between
+two points. Not less evident is the fact that
+when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+about it in the simplest and most direct way. The
+natural tendency of all motion is along a straight
+line&mdash;so reads the first law of motion. Analyze
+the most complex forms and processes of nature and
+we shall find them due to the harmonious combination
+of the simplest elementary lines and movements.
+But the same law of simplicity which
+invariably marks the works of nature gives strength
+and beauty also to the works of man. Thus, in
+discussing the various problems that developed
+as the designing of the house progressed, it was
+found&mdash;as of course it should have been&mdash;that
+the solution which met the test of simplicity, while
+satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the
+true one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Correlation.</i>&mdash;A third great fundamental principle
+that found expression in these studies of the
+house plans was the <i>principle of correlation</i>. Not
+only must each part of the design be adapted to
+its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must
+support all other parts and receive support in
+return. It is like cooperation or team-work in
+play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room
+in a house bears some natural relation to every
+other room, and even the objects in the same room
+or in adjoining rooms must assist each other,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+whether their purpose be utility or decoration or
+a combination of both. Only by due attention
+to the mutual relations of the various elements
+that must enter into the composition, can the
+designer produce those pleasing space effects, those
+blendings of colour tones, those manifest relations
+between the various objects, useful or decorative,
+that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to
+a complete design.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE COLOUR SCHEME</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Floor the Foundation.</i>&mdash;Almost unconsciously
+our young architects found themselves under the
+guidance of these three great fundamental principles
+of design. When they came to the problem
+of specifying the finish for the floors and other
+wood work of the hall, living room, and dining-room,
+they found that this problem was intimately associated
+with the larger question of the colour
+scheme as a whole. The mutual dependence of all
+the elements concerned could not be overlooked.
+It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation
+of the room, should be darker than the walls
+and ceiling and the general tone of the furnishings,
+in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight
+and firmness for the support of the entire room and
+all it might contain. The effect of solidity could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+be produced by staining the floor boards or by providing
+a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large
+ones as well as small ones. There was no question
+of carpets. These, of course, are not allowable in
+a model house. A few rugs were already available,
+and others could be procured by buying them or by
+making them. A properly toned floor, however,
+is desirable, even with a most generous covering
+of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor
+a coat of stain when it was ready to be finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Colour Schemes.</i>&mdash;But what was the
+colour to be? The designers were thus brought
+face to face with that difficult but important problem
+which all who plan houses have to solve before
+they can hope to bring their work into harmonious
+adjustment with the various natural and
+human conditions that must be satisfied in the
+final product, if it be made a good example of the
+designer's art. The problem of the colour scheme
+is fundamental. Upon this depends not only the
+tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but also,
+to a certain extent, as has already been suggested,
+the kind of woods to be used in the interior finishing,
+and whether they are to be painted, stained, or
+left in their natural colours. It will determine
+the material and the colours of the porti&egrave;res, curtains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+cushions, lamp shades, picture frames, vases;
+in fact, it will largely settle the decorative character
+of every article placed in the rooms. The consideration
+of movable objects, however, may be deferred
+till the more substantial and fixed elements are
+decided upon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Southern Exposures and Cool Colours.</i>&mdash;In settling
+the all-important question of the colour scheme
+the first point to be considered was the location
+of the rooms with reference to light and to external
+surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure
+and nothing to interfere with their being flooded
+with sunlight need to be protected against the glare
+of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of
+colour are the best&mdash;dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain
+blue tones, and the medium grays&mdash;light, cool
+colours that counteract the overbrilliancy of direct
+sunlight and give a positively tempered feeling to
+the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too,
+perhaps because they are the tints associated with
+distant views, the cool colours make a room seem
+larger than it really is.</p>
+
+<p><i>Northern Exposures and Warm Colours.</i>&mdash;Northern
+rooms, on the other hand, do not generally suffer
+from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm colours
+are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+and golden browns will seem to bring sunlight into
+a sunless room. Our designers noted the fact
+that many of the rooms in the house they were
+planning must be comparatively dark. The house
+was to face the high brick walls of the neighbouring
+school building, not more than twenty-five feet
+distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure.
+A warm colour treatment, therefore,
+was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown,
+or yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding
+point was the location of the hall and its relations
+to the other rooms. It was, first of all, the
+hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it
+was dark. Its walls must have the sunniest
+of all colours&mdash;a rich golden yellow. The same
+would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps
+a brown with yellow enough in it to be well in tune.
+The dining-room could safely be darker and more
+luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden
+yellow of the hall; but it must not be decidedly
+red. The ceilings of these three rooms, whether
+beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the
+walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint.
+This might well be a light corn yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath
+room, and kitchen was not so important a question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+as the decoration of the three front rooms.
+Utility and sanitary conditions were important
+things to be considered. Light tints were decided
+upon, which in the bedroom might be relieved, in
+the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures
+in some warm tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interior Woodwork.</i>&mdash;With the colour scheme
+settled it was a comparatively easy matter to
+decide what should be the general tone and character
+of the interior woodwork. The floors of the
+three front rooms, since they were to be closely
+associated, required the same solid colour, which
+could well be a walnut brown, darker than any of
+the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable
+for the dining-room and gum wood for the
+living room, either of which could be extended to
+the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the
+hall, leaving the oak for the dining-room, found
+much favour. It was finally decided, however,
+to adopt for the three front rooms the combination
+of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom
+and bath room, where suggestions of cleanliness
+are peculiarly appropriate, were specified to
+be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was
+decided upon for the kitchen and its accessory
+rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>As soon as the chief features of design were
+decided upon, preparations were made for carrying
+them out in the actual work of building; for the
+house was not to be a "castle in air." The first
+step was to put these ideas on paper and work out
+the details of construction in clearly executed and
+accurately dimensioned drawings. These included,
+as the first to be used, the working drawings for
+the framing and other rough woodwork, blue print
+copies of which were to be put into the hands of
+the boys of the elementary vocational school, who
+were to carry out this part of the building plans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="601" height="352" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Front or north elevation of the model house</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Working Drawings.</i>&mdash;A considerable number
+of detailed drawings had to be made before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+work of construction could be wisely begun. This
+furnished an interesting set of problems for the
+mechanical drawing groups of the technical high
+school. The material for this work consisted of
+rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct
+dimensions as determined in the plan accepted
+as the result of the competition in design. These
+preliminary sketches required much study on the
+part of both boys and girls, under proper guidance,
+in order to find out what the elements of construction
+should be, what dimensions were required,
+and how the various parts should be put together.
+It was an experience of great value to all, but
+especially to those boys who were looking forward
+to architectural draughting as a possible vocation.
+They got an inside view of the importance, on the
+one hand, of accurate working drawings as a basis
+for good construction and, on the other hand,
+a practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough
+knowledge of constructive principles, in order to
+make correct working drawings. They saw that
+the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted
+with all the detailed processes employed by the
+carpenter or mason, informed upon all the conditions
+to be met, and knowing the best ways of meeting
+them. They gained impressions which should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+help them, in studying the work of great architects,
+to look beyond the exterior, however pleasing it
+may be, for those elements of strength and beauty
+that characterize all good workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLI" id="PLI"></a><img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="600" height="391" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the Woodworking Section
+of the Vocational School</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate I]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>How the Work Was Distributed.</i>&mdash;It will be recalled
+that boys and girls were to be coworkers
+in the designing, planning, and building of the
+house. The boys were to be held responsible
+for the drawings, the decorating after designs
+made by the girls, and the higher grades of
+woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms
+and the making of the furniture. They were to
+do the wiring for the electric lights, the bells, and
+the interior telephones; and they were to install
+all the fixtures in connection with this wiring.
+Boys from the metal-working sections were to do
+the necessary piping for gas and water and some
+of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating
+plumbing are strict and well enforced, as
+they should be, it was necessary to keep this
+most essential feature of the work under charge of
+licensed plumbers. But this requirement did not
+remove even the plumbing of the building from the
+field of public school work; for, fortunately, this
+city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the
+trades school department, under the direction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+licensed plumbers of high standing, who were glad
+to have given them, as an exercise for their classes,
+a practical problem in house plumbing. The boys
+in the forging classes were not overlooked in the
+distribution of the work on the house. Many of
+the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed
+to be made in the school forge shop. The
+girls designed and made rugs, curtains, porti&egrave;res,
+and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving
+and stencilling; and they contributed many
+decorative articles in clay, copper, leather, and
+other materials. Thus every technical department
+of the school was brought into service; for in
+the building of a house there is to be found something
+to enlist the interest of every boy and girl.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLII" id="PLII"></a><img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution
+of the Work on the House</div>
+<div class="capl"> [Plate II]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Boy Foremen in Charge.</i>&mdash;To bring about the right
+distribution of the work and to marshal the working
+forces effectually required the oversight and management
+of an experienced instructor. But much
+of the work of direction was delegated to competent
+boys. The preliminary tool work in the
+school shops had revealed those who were especially
+observant and capable as leaders, and those who
+worked best under specific directions. Thus the
+twenty boys of the vocational school who set the
+posts and framed the house worked sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+in pairs&mdash;one being the chief foreman and the
+other the helper&mdash;sometimes in gangs of three or
+four under a foreman. The plan was varied according
+to the nature of the work in hand. When
+leaders of more technical knowledge and skill were
+needed, as was the case in setting the window frames
+and directing the shingling, capable boys from the
+technical high school were placed in charge of groups
+of younger boys from the vocational school. In this
+way the work was advanced in several directions at
+the same time; and the advantage was not all in the
+advancement of the house construction. It was a delightful
+and profitable experience for all the boys, not
+unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat
+when school days are over and they take their place
+in the more serious affairs of life. In after years they
+may look back upon the first house that they helped
+to build and recall the part they took, their companions
+in the work, and the good time they had withal.</p>
+
+<h3>SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+<p><i>Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills.</i>&mdash;The first
+step in actual construction was to mark off the lot
+and set the batter boards. These were made by
+driving three stakes to form a right angle about
+four feet from the point where each of the four main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+corners of the house was to be located. Two
+rough boards, one for each side of each angle, were
+nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes,
+with their upper edges all brought to the same
+level. It is very important to set these batter boards
+with accuracy, since their function is to carry the
+lines which mark the dimensions and level of the
+ground floor. In the present instance their first
+use was to locate the concrete posts on which the
+sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of
+these posts, which were 4 feet long and 8 inches
+square, were put in position by first setting moulds
+or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were
+those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and
+filling them with a mixture of concrete and crushed
+rock. It was not thought necessary to remove
+the moulds after the hardening of the concrete.
+In fact, the sills were framed and placed in position
+resting on these boxes before sufficient time had been
+given for the concrete to harden. The sides of the
+boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that
+they could be easily broken off just below the ground,
+exposing the projecting ends of the concrete posts
+for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch
+first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch
+face, the two long sills being spliced over posts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+using a long halved joint. Mortise and tenon
+joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the
+corners. The floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce
+were gained into the sills with the top faces flush
+with the top of the sill and crowning (<i>i. e.</i>, bending)
+upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers
+was taken off at the sill on a strip of furring&mdash;spruce,
+<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch thick by 2 inches wide&mdash;which
+was moved out to the centre near the line
+of bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked
+timbers into line. The bridging was then nailed
+in, the outside last to prevent springing the sills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="600" height="872" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan A. Framing details</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A)
+it will be noticed that the corner posts and centres
+were not mortised into the sills, but were simply
+butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was
+a time when carpenters would have regarded such
+a method as altogether wrong; but those were the
+days of great corner posts and heavy studding,
+placed two or three times as far apart as is the
+practice now. It was thought that placing the
+studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common
+practice in modern house framing, removed the
+necessity of mortising into the sill. Mortising is
+still recognized, however, as a good thing to do
+and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Plan A also shows how the outside walls were trussed
+over openings; and Plan B shows how the corners
+of the building were tied by the lapping of the
+double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters
+were placed on the top of the plate.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="600" height="828" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The window frame details are shown in a series
+of cuts (Plan C) which for the sake of completeness
+are drawn to show also the interior finish, not
+usually represented in the framing drawings. A
+detailed description of these features of construction
+is unnecessary, since the dimensions and relations
+of the various elements and the technical
+terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated
+in the illustrations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="600" height="788" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan C. Details of interior finish
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is
+shown which includes the framing, the base board,
+and the lath and plaster. It should be stated,
+however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was
+recommended to the student architects&mdash;a new
+product in paper board especially designed for walls
+and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The
+use of this material removed the necessity of the
+"grounds" shown in the drawings and always
+needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when
+the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered.
+In the detail of the dado cap, which will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+on the page of construction drawings, the dotted
+lines show how the cap was to be expanded into
+a plate rail, requiring the addition of brackets
+with a bed moulding between, in the finishing of the
+walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings
+will also be found a detail showing a section of the
+beamed ceiling finish.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily understood that none of the
+finishing work called for in the detailed drawings
+was begun until the rough carpentry on the house
+was practically completed. All the rough work,
+which included framing, boarding, shingling, laying
+of the lining floors, and putting up partitions,
+was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections
+of the vocational school. This is an elementary
+industrial or trade school, admitting from the
+grades below the high school boys who have attained
+the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some
+mechanical trade. It represents a new and promising
+experiment in American education. The
+building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity
+for the boys of this school to show the honesty
+of their purpose in enrolling themselves to learn
+the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their
+right to have the chance.</p>
+
+<p>So the house was built by the combined efforts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+of the boys and girls of the public schools of this
+New England city, unassisted by professional architects
+or paid labourers. How they carried out
+with their own hands the designs for decorating
+and furnishing the house is told in the succeeding
+chapters of this book, which also suggests wider
+applications of the principles of household decoration
+as possible to be made in the homes of clever
+boys and girls throughout the country. To carry
+out these suggestions will mean work&mdash;but work
+of a kind that gives pleasure to the worker and to
+many others. It was work for the young designers
+and builders of whom this story tells, but they said
+it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure
+quite equal to that found in doing with one's own
+hands an exceptionally good thing. The true
+craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of
+these master workmen, Stradivarius, the violin
+maker, so George Eliot tells us, made his confession
+thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">" ... God be praised!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Antonio Stradivari has an eye<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That winces at false work and loves the true,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With hand and arm that play upon the tool,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As willingly as any singing bird<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Because he likes to sing and likes the song."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="II" id="II">II</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE</small></h2>
+
+<div class = "blockquot">
+<p>Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or
+believe to be beautiful&mdash;<i>William Morris</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> decorating and furnishing of a house
+have their true beginning in good architectural
+design. It is a mistake to proceed
+upon the theory that decoration necessarily
+implies something added for its own sake&mdash;something
+beautiful in itself but selected and applied
+without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of
+the room in which it is to be placed and without
+considering the relation of this room to neighbouring
+rooms and to more remote surroundings.
+The truth is, a decorative object may or may not
+be intrinsically beautiful; but however beautiful
+it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in an
+appropriate setting. And the decorator who is
+actuated by the true spirit looks to the architect
+for inspiration and finds his greatest successes
+in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+lead when one should follow is neither good art nor
+good sense.</p>
+
+<p>There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be
+taken too seriously. It would also be a mistake
+to run to the other extreme and adopt at the outset
+a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified
+like contract work to be carried out and completed
+on a certain date soon after the house is
+built. The problem is one of growing interest,
+especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the
+smaller objects of use or beauty, and for its best
+and happiest solution requires time and study.
+Only the broad and fundamental features can
+be settled in advance. The important thing is
+to have the main lines, dimensions, space relations,
+and colour schemes settled with due regard to
+utility and appropriateness and, as the work of
+construction proceeds, to keep all details in harmony
+with this general plan.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Colour Harmony in the Model House.</i>&mdash;It will be
+remembered that the colour scheme of the hall,
+living room, and dining-room of our model house
+was settled quite early in the development of the
+design. Standing near the centre of the living
+room and looking through the hall into the dining-room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+one may see at a glance how some of the
+details of decoration were worked out in keeping
+with the general treatment. The walnut brown
+stain of the floors gives a good foundation of
+colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and
+yellows of all the lower wall spaces. The suggestion
+of olive green in the frieze of the living
+room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing
+browns and harmonizes well with the woodwork
+of this room, which, it will be remembered, was
+designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful
+wood, when properly treated, presents a
+surface of satin-like texture and soft colour tone.
+In the dining-room a corner of which is shown
+in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of
+colour where it is needed and is in keeping with
+the fumed oak trim. The wide openings into
+the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together
+with the long, unbroken lines of the beamed
+ceilings, give the impression of generous width.
+The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone
+and relieved of monotonous spacings by the location
+of the necessary doors and windows, are of
+great assistance in increasing the apparent size of
+the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds
+for pictures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+<i>Redecorating Old Houses.</i>&mdash;It is, of course, true
+that the decorating and furnishing of a house or
+an apartment cannot always have a new and original
+architectural design as the basis for the solution
+of the problems involved. As a matter of
+fact, in the great majority of cases, the houses in
+which homes are made are already built and have
+been previously occupied. Often they are very
+old houses, presenting difficult and even impossible
+tasks for the decorator. Sometimes, however,
+such houses are all the more desirable if they bear
+the marks of age that suggest a past of dignity
+and charm. But the spirit which inspires the
+artist in decorating and furnishing a house already
+built is the same as that which controls his thought
+when he can begin with the foundation of a new
+and original design. His first thought is to discover
+how beauty may be enhanced and at the
+same time unity of purpose and harmony of treatment
+be preserved. His constant care is to avoid
+incongruous elements, however beautiful they may
+be in themselves or however appropriate in other
+houses. His general aim is to use his art to develop
+the design as it is, if there be any design at
+all, and make the most of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decoration as a Corrective.</i>&mdash;But this does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+prevent him from attempting to counteract the
+blunders of faulty design and bad architecture.
+Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of
+the work of decorators and furnishers, both professional
+and amateur. If the lines and space
+divisions of a room be not good, the decoration
+must be planned with a view to giving the needed
+harmony of proportions, or at least the appearance
+of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may be
+made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling
+paper or tinting one or two feet down the walls
+of the room to meet the picture moulding. The
+effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high
+base board or by wainscoting. If the ceiling be
+too low, the depressing effect may be largely overcome
+by extending the picture moulding along the
+top of the wall spaces close to the ceiling. This
+is a desirable thing to do in the living rooms of
+most modern houses. Striped wall papers of
+proper tones may be used in low rooms with good
+effect in increasing their apparent height. Bad
+wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging
+door-ways, substituting porti&egrave;res for the doors,
+and by arranging the drapery over windows to
+give the effect either of increasing or of diminishing
+their height, as the conditions may require.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+<i>Wall Papers.</i>&mdash;Probably no element of decoration
+furnishes so many pitfalls to ensnare the
+unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a
+victim to a captivating design as it appears in the
+few square feet of wall paper displayed on the
+dealer's rack. The same interesting figure, spread
+out in endless repetition on the four walls of the
+living room, may create an atmosphere of unrest
+and positive discomfort keenly felt by sensitive
+persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the
+absence of all the conditions that should really
+determine it. After all, it is not the paper which
+is beautiful in the roll that should be selected,
+but only that which will become beautiful when
+hung upon the walls of a certain room. Papers
+with large figures should be avoided unless there
+is a special reason for using them. They always
+have the effect of reducing the apparent size of
+everything associated with them. They make a
+small room appear dwarfish and a large one over
+decorated unless well relieved by plain spaces
+harmonizing in colour with the large-figured patterns.
+Strong contrasts in colour values should
+also be avoided, not only between the designs
+and the ground colour of the wall paper itself,
+but also between the paper and other objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+importance in the room. The principle of gradation
+in colour values, which does not as a general
+thing allow the placing together of light and dark
+shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony
+of colour tones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of Decorative Design.</i>&mdash;The one fact
+never to be lost sight of by the decorator is the
+real nature of true decorative design. It is never
+a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms
+of plants or animals, it does not aim to represent
+them in a naturalistic way. Some of the best
+decorative designs do not even suggest natural
+forms; but, whether they do or not, the central
+idea is the repetition of good combinations of
+line and form in closely related colours and values
+on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they
+should be more or less highly conventionalized.
+Anything that destroys the idea of flat surfaces
+in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration.
+In the nature of the case, a wall can have but one
+plane. Clusters of flowers or patterns of any
+kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or
+back of it, are out of place and therefore offend
+the sense of fitness. Such incongruities are sometimes
+so pronounced that they positively shock
+the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+have been known to give such pain to sensitive
+persons as to drive them from the room.</p>
+
+<p><i>Advantage of Plain Walls.</i>&mdash;Decorative designs,
+however, are not essential in wall papers. The
+main point in the treatment of walls is to secure
+and preserve a good background. If one is in
+doubt as to the kind of figure or pattern to be used,
+which is often a perplexing question, it is well to
+leave them out altogether. Plain walls are always
+good if the colour tone is right; for colour
+is the main thing in wall decoration. The decorative
+effects of form may be brought out in the
+porti&egrave;res and window draperies, which may easily
+carry more elaborate patterns when associated
+with plain walls than is desirable with figured wall
+decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain
+porti&egrave;res and curtains are much to be preferred.
+In our model house, as has been explained, the wall
+decorations were designed to offer a plain background
+of colour. The figured borders of the
+porti&egrave;res and curtains, combined with the careful
+gradation in the colouring of the floors, wall spaces,
+and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this
+background that nothing further was needed to
+avoid monotony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases.</i>&mdash;It is, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+a good rule to omit whatever is unnecessary. To
+observe this rule wisely is to escape much that is
+positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs,
+too great variety in decorative material,
+too many decorative objects, however great their
+individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture,
+too many interesting things in whatever
+direction one may turn, create an oppressive and
+disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest
+which it should always be the aim of home decoration
+to dispel. And yet it may not always be best
+to set aside our treasures because they do not
+seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of
+decoration or are not apparently needed to complete
+it. It is, in fact, often very difficult to determine
+where the line should be drawn between
+what is needed and what is not needed. The
+fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a final
+test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things
+that may be introduced into a scheme of decoration
+already well thought out and be given a trial.
+Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected
+needs or add a new charm that at once proves
+its right to be retained.</p>
+
+<p>To take a step like this, somewhat out of line
+with accepted rules as strictly interpreted, is entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+safe if this step is dictated by good taste
+and does not lead the young decorator too far
+afield. Exceptional treatment of any kind should
+show proper restraint, and such restraint, when
+it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in
+itself an attractive feature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Precise Rules not Always Practicable.</i>&mdash;The truth
+is, the rules of decoration, though founded upon
+fundamental principles of art, are not rules of
+precision like those founded upon mathematical
+principles. In the nature of the case they must
+in their application yield more or less to circumstances.
+It is, for example, a good general rule
+to determine the colour scheme and background
+first and accommodate other decorative features
+to these as a foundation; and yet it is possible
+for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify
+a complete reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete
+case. A young artist was the fortunate
+possessor of a considerable number of Japanese
+and Chinese embroideries and other Oriental ornaments.
+He wished to make these the main
+decorative materials for one of his rooms. The
+embroidered figures were in yellow and white
+on a deep, strong blue, the general effect being
+quite dark. There were in the collection several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+prints, showing the typical dull reds, dark blues,
+and yellows of Japanese art. Now the room
+itself happened to be one that, under the general
+principle of colour schemes as determined by exposure
+and other fixed conditions, would demand
+warm colours on its walls. It would easily support
+a rich red frieze with appropriate combinations
+in floor, dado, and ceiling. This would set
+off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture,
+but it would rule out the Oriental decorations.
+One or the other must give way; and,
+since the value of these decorative materials was
+beyond question, it was decided to try them, even
+at the cost of setting aside the general rule. The
+whole matter resolved itself into selecting a proper
+background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries;
+and for these the best colour was a
+gray blue&mdash;the coldest of colours. But when the
+whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion
+and the cold background was fully employed
+in setting off the rich colours and exquisite
+workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies,
+all the circumstances that ordinarily determine
+the choice of backgrounds were forgotten in the
+charm of originality. No one thought of the
+exposure as requiring warm colours, the dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+oak trim was not noticed, and the mahogany furniture
+was still in keeping. The result was so
+absolutely satisfying that no one who saw it could
+question the good taste displayed in this very
+original plan of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>But such exceptional cases should not shake
+our confidence in the fundamental principles of
+decoration. It is true that these principles cannot
+be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably
+in all cases, and it is unreasonable to assume
+that any form of treatment is the only one possible
+in any given case. Modifications in the application
+of these principles are always possible,
+but the principles themselves are as unalterable
+as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to
+summarize them thus as the</p>
+
+
+<h3>TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION</h3>
+<div class="blockquotl">
+<p>Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be
+beautiful or those that be useful.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in
+the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters
+under the earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in
+thine house.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great
+masters of decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background.</p>
+
+<p>Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make
+the most of it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of faulty
+design and bad architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with over-decorated
+wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor
+permit insane arrangements of anything that is thine.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony
+of thy decorations.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything
+that is thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator
+to show originality but at the same time to acknowledge
+his dependence upon those who have preceded him.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>THE FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p><i>Relation of Furniture to Decoration.</i>&mdash;So much
+for the treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings.
+We may now turn to the more special consideration
+of those objects of use or beauty that are
+to be associated with these backgrounds&mdash;furniture,
+pictures, lamp shades, and small ornaments.
+That these are closely related to decoration
+has been implied in all that has been said. They
+are, in fact, in themselves elements in the decorative
+scheme and as such must obey the same
+laws. Their value, however, depends more or
+less upon their utility, and for this reason they
+seem to require consideration somewhat apart
+from their merely decorative functions. This is
+especially true of furniture, which would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+very little reason for being if it were not for its
+usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>In designing the furniture for the model house
+the questions that constantly suggested themselves
+were: What is this piece of furniture under consideration
+to be used for? What form, construction,
+and finish will enable it to give the best service?
+What features of design are needed to render
+it suited to its surroundings? In considering
+the furniture for the model house it was most
+natural to apply these tests to the various rooms in
+order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A library desk in fumed oak</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="300" height="514" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hall of the Model House.</i>&mdash;First, there is the
+hall. This is the room into which a visitor is
+first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets
+his first impressions. But in this house it is a
+very small room and designed to serve not merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+as a place for the formalities of welcome but also
+as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its
+furniture must consist largely of the fireplace.
+There is no room for a hall settle nor even for a
+chair. A mirror,
+simply but richly
+framed, might hang
+on the wall near the
+front door, balanced
+by a picture on the
+opposite wall behind
+the door. An umbrella
+rack should stand
+outside on the porch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="500" height="265" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall settle&mdash;simplicity, strength, dignity</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hall Furniture in
+General.</i>&mdash;The halls
+of modern houses
+vary greatly in their
+relative importance.
+In some the traditions
+of the old English
+manor houses
+seem partially to survive.
+In medi&aelig;val England the hall was the principal
+room, if not the only one comfortably furnished.
+When modern houses combine the living room and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+library or reception room with the hall, there is need
+of something more than hall furniture of the formal
+kind. The requirements of comfort must be met.
+But, generally speaking, hall furniture is of little
+real use. Odd chairs, attractive by reason of their
+oddity, the richness of the materials used in their
+construction, or some other assertive quality, but
+not fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable
+in the hall. The hat and coat rack of our fathers
+has been declared insane and no longer appears
+in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found
+the hall settle, which is of real use. It should
+be designed on simple lines and give the impression
+of strength and dignity. If the hall is to
+be used as a waiting room for guests, a few good
+chairs, conveniently placed, will be needed for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+their comfort and a choice picture or two on the
+walls will add greatly to their pleasure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_068b.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A satisfactory writing desk</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Living Room Furniture.</i>&mdash;In furnishing living rooms
+there is bound to be a wide range for the exercise
+of good taste because
+of the variety
+of needs to be met and
+the large facilities
+afforded in the markets
+for meeting these
+needs with due regard to
+artistic requirements.
+It will be quite impossible
+to go into detail
+in discussing so large a topic. The important
+thing is to keep in mind the central idea of
+a living room&mdash;the place of all places where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+the freedom, comfort, and protection of home
+life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere
+of the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity,
+and good cheer. Every article of furniture should
+be there to serve a genuine need, and it should
+be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged,
+top-heavy tables; light, weak chairs; chairs
+on casters or rockers; sofas with carved backs or
+couches with none at all,&mdash;these have no place
+in the living room. The long, straight lines of the
+craftsman or mission style of furniture are in the
+right direction; but if these be used at all they
+must be made quite general, since few other styles
+harmonize with them. Wicker or reed furniture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+is a notable exception. When well designed it
+will fit in almost anywhere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An ample library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="400" height="545" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A plain but useful magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frequent combination of the library with
+the living room requires a suitable adjustment of
+the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable
+magazine rack, which may be easily made, will
+relieve the tables of an accumulation of weeklies
+and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+or without doors, are to be preferred to the more
+ordinary high ones because this form harmonizes
+better with the lines of a room, which are generally
+longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are
+used, it is well to break up the glare of the glass
+by heavy sash, the spacing of which may be arranged
+in a very pleasing manner. Good design
+in library tables calls for ample size. Firmness
+and convenience as well as satisfactory proportions
+should control the choice of a writing desk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="300" height="335" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A low bookcase with sash doors</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dining-room Furniture.</i> Only a few elements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+enter into the design for the furnishing of a
+dining-room; but they are evident and should have
+a controlling influence. The table and chairs are
+for a definite purpose and this should show itself
+in good design. Heavy construction is permissible
+since the chairs are to be moved but little
+and the table is practically stationary. Moreover,
+weight and generous dimensions are suggestive of
+bounty and good service. The rectangular extension
+table is most readily adjusted to varied demands,
+but the round table is preferable for the family circle;
+and for a company of twelve or fifteen a large,
+round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary
+extension table, has been found very attractive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A round dining table</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous but not overdone</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in
+furnishing a living room, so richness, within one's
+means, is an appropriate aim in furnishing a dining-room.
+The history of sideboard design might
+be cited in proof of this statement, if proof were
+needed. Probably no single article of furniture
+has been subjected to greater elaboration; but
+the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience
+may be secured without overdoing it. The
+unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an interesting
+study for one who wishes to design and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+construct his own in conformity with the architecture
+of his dining-room. The buffet or serving
+table furnishes an equally interesting, though
+simpler, problem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="400" height="370" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A buffet of simple but effective design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet
+as a feature of the architecture of the room is to be
+preferred to the movable cabinet designed for this
+purpose, because of its richer decorative possibilities.
+Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case,
+not for the full display of china and glassware but
+to give a suggestive glimpse of it. As this cabinet
+is for decoration and not for show, it is well to avoid
+plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+are frequently employed with good effect. The
+decorative effect of old and odd pieces of china&mdash;not
+too many of them&mdash;is most appropriately
+employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is
+better to leave the plate rail bare than to load it
+with commonplace crockery and inappropriate
+ornaments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="299" height="240" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Chamber Furniture.</i>&mdash;The bedroom speaks for
+itself. A dainty freshness in all its appointments
+is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the distinctive
+purpose of this room to provide. The
+necessary articles of furniture are a bed, a dressing
+table, a bureau or chiffonier, a few chairs, and, if
+there be no bath room attached, a commode or
+wash stand. A couch is an appropriate addition;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+and here, if anywhere, rocking chairs are allowable.
+When the bedroom must be used more or
+less as a living room or sewing
+room, as it too often unfortunately
+is, furniture to serve such
+uses must be provided. In selecting
+or designing all this furniture,
+lightness, and simplicity
+of design, combined with
+strength, should be allowed a
+controlling influence. The recognition
+of this idea has given
+great popularity to the brass
+or iron beds; but it is possible
+to design and construct beds of
+oak, maple, or other woods that
+harmonize with the rest of the
+furniture, carry out the idea of daintiness, and have
+sufficient strength for service.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="200" height="404" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Leaded panes</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of these suggestions on furniture design
+are being carried out in fitting up the model house
+described in our introductory chapter. A small
+house like this, limited to one story, does not permit
+great variety in its furnishings. Certain standard
+conditions, however, were to be met here, as
+everywhere else, and the young designers found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+much pleasure and great profit in working out the
+furniture problems. Some of the construction details
+will be given in
+the later chapters.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="300" height="401" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Duxbury chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p><i>Arrangement Follows
+Selection.</i>&mdash;The problem
+of furnishing a
+home is not fully settled
+when the questions
+of design have
+been answered and
+the right selections
+made. After selection comes arrangement, or,
+to speak more accurately, after a certain amount
+of selection a certain amount of arrangement;
+for, as has already been suggested, there is considerable
+dependence of one upon the other.
+It is not wise to drop the arrangement till
+the selection is complete, for the simple reason
+that the happiest choices are often the late ones,
+determined by the disposition of the earlier ones.
+And yet in the main the order as stated is the
+true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality
+and taste. While artistic principles still
+hold sway, they yield more readily to exceptional
+interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household,
+to the demands of style, and to the larger
+number of possibilities for pleasing effects when
+the question is one of the arrangement of things
+already well chosen for their usefulness and for
+their artistic value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A dainty bed in white maple</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Utility the Controlling Principle.</i>&mdash;The problems
+of arrangement, however, are by no means vague
+and uncertain. The natural law of adaptation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms
+obedience to it has become a settled custom. No
+one, for example, would think of placing the dining
+table in any other place than the centre of the
+dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the
+centre of one end. The sideboard, serving table,
+and china closet likewise fall into their natural
+places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though
+perhaps to a less degree, present comparatively
+easy problems in furniture arrangement when due
+regard is paid to the purposes for which such rooms
+are designed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Appropriateness.</i>&mdash;But it is in the
+library and the living room that we find the most
+difficult and at the same time the most interesting
+problems. And this is due to the operation of the
+same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the
+variety of uses and the diversity of useful objects
+that make the problem somewhat complex. However
+refined and beautiful the different units may
+be, there must be some arrangement of them into
+working groups. The important elements should
+dominate and those of lesser importance should
+fall naturally into related but subordinate places.
+The easy corner with its couch, pillows, and its
+low seats, has a definite function to perform. So<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases
+and library table, the Morris chairs and
+tabourettes, the window seats and screens, the writing
+desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp,
+the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort
+that may belong to it. The various centres of
+interest should be accentuated by grouping around
+them the most appropriate furnishings and the
+most suggestive decorative features. It may be
+well to add one word of caution, and that is that a
+proper balance should be maintained between the
+various centres of arrangement in order that no
+part of the room may seem neglected and bare.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Danger of Overcrowding.</i>&mdash;Finally, the one
+great danger to be avoided in meeting the requirements
+of good arrangement is the temptation
+to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed
+living rooms suffer from an embarrassment
+of riches. Such overcrowded rooms are
+worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot
+topple over and sink as one might well wish them
+to. To secure the right things and just enough
+of them, arranged with a proper balance between
+utility and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true
+to-day as it ever was in the arrangement and beautifying
+of the home, and, for that matter, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+everything that concerns every-day life&mdash;just as
+true as it was in ancient times when men wrote
+those famous inscriptions over the doors of the
+temple at Delphi: over one, <span class="smcap">know thyself</span>, and
+over the other, <span class="smcap">the golden mean of not too much</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="III" id="III">III</a><br /><br />
+<small>PICTURES</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me, not that they
+dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque. Nothing astonishes men
+so much as common sense and plain dealing. All great actions have been
+simple, and all great pictures are.&mdash;<i>Ralph Waldo Emerson</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> decoration of a room is generally not
+complete without pictures. There is, of
+course, great value in good pictures entirely
+aside from their decorative effect; and too
+great care cannot be exercised in their selection.
+But our present purpose is to consider them as
+decorative features; for, though a decoration is
+not a picture, pictures themselves are properly
+regarded as important elements in the general
+scheme of decoration. And this is especially true
+as regards matting and framing, the distribution of
+pictures upon the wall spaces, and the method of
+hanging them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Space Relations.</i>&mdash;A picture mat
+and frame are simply elements of finish, and their
+function is to give the picture a certain individuality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+and yet connect it harmoniously with the
+space in which it hangs. In fact, the wall space
+is a part of the framing of the picture. The importance
+of giving some study to the relations of
+all the spaces involved is evident. The mat and
+the frame should not be of equal width. Here is a
+fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing. No
+definite rules can be given; sometimes the one,
+sometimes the other should give way. Generally
+speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical pictures,
+and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal
+pictures. But variation from this rule is possible
+and even necessary through the grouping of several
+pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger
+of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In
+the houses of the well-to-do, and even in the homes
+of those of moderate means, too many pictures,
+rather than too few, are often found. The example
+of one New England home, known to the author,
+may be mentioned. The house is new, of generous
+proportions, and it is the home of an artist.
+There are few pictures on the walls, but they are
+distributed with rare artistic effect. There are
+many good pictures stored in the attic because
+there is no suitable space in which to hang them.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Japanese Way.</i>&mdash;The Japanese have taught<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+us many valuable lessons in art, and in the matter
+of the number of pictures to be displayed they have
+a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their
+practice to hang a single choice picture for a season
+in a space where it may be best enjoyed, and then
+after a time to replace it with another picture, and
+this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit.
+There are many conditions that determine the
+selection of the picture to be displayed. It may be
+the preference of a guest, or it may be the season
+of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give
+a certain picture special significance. There is,
+in this singular custom, a very definite service
+which the picture is made to perform, and it is given
+an individuality which perhaps has no parallel
+in our own practice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures.</i>&mdash;If a considerable
+number of pictures are grouped together,
+it is quite essential that all the pictures of the group
+should be of similar character and tone and similarly
+framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all
+of the same size, nor, indeed, is such agreement
+desirable except in so far as is required to give
+proper balance to the group. Small pictures in
+light frames are, of course, the most desirable
+for such grouping, and if possible there should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+an evident reason for the grouping. A series of
+photographs of a certain locality, for example,
+might form a group of four or five or even more
+pictures so that they could be easily seen together
+and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection
+of photographs in passe-partout bindings, especially
+if they deal with subjects in any way related,
+may form an attractive group. But pictures of
+any considerable size or those having decided individuality
+are generally not suited to any plan
+of grouping. They should appear by themselves,
+in frames and other surroundings which accentuate
+their peculiar merits.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kind of Frame.</i>&mdash;The material of the frame,
+its colour, and the colour of the mat are determined
+by the tone of the picture. Oil paintings easily
+support gilt frames and should be hung in good
+light. Pictures of light values with white mats
+are well finished in narrow gilt frames. Carbon
+photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are
+appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium
+colour, and appear best when hung against a dark
+wall. The truth of these statements will hardly
+be questioned by any one who has a good sense of
+colour harmony. But there are many other elements
+that enter into a concrete problem of picture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+framing that cannot be brought under general
+rules or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely
+upon the tests of trial. In framing and hanging pictures,
+as in many other things, observation and experience
+are the best teachers. Some suggestions
+may be found in the following record of two actual
+framing problems that were satisfactorily solved.</p>
+
+<h3>FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS</h3>
+
+<p>The conditions which had to be met in this
+problem are plainly shown in the framed picture
+as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a
+small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It
+is interesting because of its representation of a
+sewing room in one of the high-class homes of
+the colonial period. The mistress and her two young
+daughters are engaged in sewing and embroidery.
+Patterns are displayed upon the wall; the furniture
+is appropriate and evidently an example of the
+best of the period. All these details are suggestive
+of the delightful home life of our grandmothers.</p>
+
+<p>Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and
+to properly emphasize its details; and it requires
+a simple, narrow frame. The mat was accordingly
+made 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide.
+The tone of the mat selected was a light bluish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+gray, forming a good connecting link between
+the bright colours of the picture and the gray of
+the wall against which it was to be placed. Since
+it was to hang directly over a fine old mahogany
+table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a
+mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown
+in the picture with that of the room.</p>
+
+<p>The frame was made with mitred corners of
+perfectly plain, square-edged birch, which readily
+takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first
+applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to
+dry. A surfacing coat of shellac, coloured to match
+the stain, was next put on, allowed to dry, and then
+carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to
+guard against rounding the edges and corners. A
+coat of varnish was next applied, which, after hardening
+for one week, was rubbed first with pumice
+stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil.
+A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put
+on, which was lightly rubbed with rotten stone
+and water to give the half dull effect required to
+match the antique mahogany table.</p>
+
+<h3>FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE</h3>
+
+<p>The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's
+Saint Anthony, 16 inches in height by 20 inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+horizontally. The frame is made of quartered
+oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth;
+and it is well joined with mitred corners. A picture
+of this character needs no mat. Indeed, it would
+have been the height of presumption to strive
+to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic
+meaning and treatment. It must be left to itself
+as much as possible. The dimensions of the frame
+are therefore determined by the size of the
+picture itself.</p>
+
+<p>The picture hangs against a light gray wall in
+good light, somewhat apart from other pictures.
+It was a happy thought thus to recognize its dignity.
+It was given further distinction by finishing
+the oak frame so that it should not associate
+itself with the other woodwork in the room. Since
+the room in which the picture was to hang has a
+light ash trim and most of the furniture a mahogany
+finish, this requirement was easily met.</p>
+
+<p>But there are many ways of finishing a frame
+to avoid too close association with the commonplace
+that would have been anything but appropriate
+to such a picture as this. A gilt surface,
+a silver-gray tone, or a highly polished golden oak
+are possible blunders. Nothing should be done
+to call attention to the frame of any picture, least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one.
+The frame should seem to be a part of the
+picture, repeating its prevailing tones with a
+richness in keeping with the composition of the
+picture itself. The colour should be a rich, dark
+brown, but not so dark as to obscure the figure
+of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft
+and smooth.</p>
+
+<p>There are several brown stains which, properly
+applied, would give the desired effect. For the
+colour it was thought best to rely upon Van Dyke
+brown, which may be used either with alcohol or
+turpentine. It is not desirable to use a water stain
+in a case like this because it would raise the grain,
+necessitating sand-papering, which should be avoided
+as much as possible on picture frames in order to
+keep the edges and corners intact. Ammonia
+fuming preserves the figure of the wood better
+than any other form of staining, but it was thought
+that the oak might not take on a tone dark enough
+to meet the requirements. It was decided, however,
+to try the fuming method and to tone up with a
+thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not
+sufficiently dark. The ammonia process resulted
+in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour too light. A
+thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+applied and when dry this was followed by a very
+thin coat of shellac&mdash;mostly alcohol&mdash;coloured
+to match the stain. This was to fill partially the
+grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated
+with wax finish and well rubbed to restore the soft,
+satin-like surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="499" height="236" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A group of passe-partouts</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PASSE-PARTOUTS</h3>
+
+<p>Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is
+one of the little arts of home decoration, though it
+is by no means an unimportant one. It is easy
+to learn and it involves small expense in time and
+money, but it furnishes a means of preserving
+many pictures of real worth in themselves or of
+value to their owners because of pleasant associations;
+and it is in itself a delightful occupation.
+It offers the same chances for artistic effects in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+colour harmony and contrasts, in spacing, and in
+the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult
+methods of framing do, with the added advantage
+that one need not be deterred by the question of
+expense from discarding an unsuccessful result
+and trying again.</p>
+
+<p><i>Varieties of Binding.</i>&mdash;Passe-partout binding is
+made in a great variety of colours. It costs from
+ten to twenty cents per roll of twelve yards, according
+to colour and quality, and it may be purchased
+of dealers in artists' supplies. For general
+use the ordinary width of binding&mdash;<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch&mdash;is required; but extra narrow widths are
+supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a
+contrasting colour. For these margins the gold
+and silver narrow bindings are, with certain pictures,
+very effective; but white and other light
+colours are often used for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artistic Colour Effects.</i>&mdash;The choice of the colour
+for the principal binding should be controlled mainly
+by the tone of the picture, with which, as a general
+thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more
+or less of a contrast in colour between the picture
+and the binding is permissible; but the most artistic
+effects are obtained when mats are used.
+These should, of course, be in harmony with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+colour tones and general character of the picture.
+It may be a harmony of agreement if there is a
+border of light tone between the picture and the
+mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing.
+Without such a border it will be necessary to show
+a pleasing contrast of tone. But in almost all cases
+when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat
+the predominant colour or some other prominent
+characteristic of the picture. For example, if it
+be a picture of an English hunting scene with
+mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be
+of a light greenish hue and the binding red. If
+it be a landscape photograph in sepia tones, a white
+or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown
+binding is a good combination. A Scotch scene
+is appropriately framed in a plaid binding. In
+this case it is the subject of the picture rather than
+the colour that suggests the binding. But in all
+cases opportunity is offered for carefully selecting
+the colour combinations, planning the spacing,
+and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character.
+Thus one of the simplest of decorative
+processes presents large artistic possibilities.</p>
+
+<p><i>An Actual Problem.</i>&mdash;The various steps in the
+process of framing a picture in passe-partout binding
+may perhaps be best understood by giving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+an example of it. The actual problem is to frame
+a silhouette&mdash;an original drawing in black India
+ink on light gray paper, 8 by 10 inches in size,
+with the longer dimension vertical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The materials and tools
+required are as follows: A piece of glass the size
+of the picture (8 by 10 inches), since no border is
+needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may
+be cut from an old box cover, the same size as the
+glass; a generous yard of black passe-partout binding;
+two passe-partout rings, which cost five cents per
+dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife
+or a pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed
+nail.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;With these materials in hand it
+will require scarcely more than twenty minutes
+to complete the work. The first step is the setting
+of the rings. This is accomplished by punching
+two small holes in one of the pieces of pasteboard
+two inches from the edge chosen for the top and about
+one inch from each side. Through these holes the
+points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close
+to the pasteboard. Bending the points over in
+opposite directions fastens the ring firmly. This
+is a comparatively large picture. Had it been small&mdash;say
+4 by 5 inches or smaller&mdash;only one ring in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+the centre, fastened about 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches from the
+edge, would have been needed.</p>
+
+<p>The picture is now mounted on the second piece
+of pasteboard by fastening it at the upper corners
+with a little paste. It is desirable to use as little
+paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard
+are then brought together, care being taken that
+the rings are on the outside, and the glass laid over
+the picture. These parts are now ready to be bound
+together. The sides are bound first. This is done
+by cutting two pieces of the binding <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+longer than the short edges of the picture, wetting
+the gummed side and laying it along the edge of
+the glass so that it will lap <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch over the
+face of the glass. Each end of this binding will
+extend <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch beyond the glass. The rest
+of the binding is now folded over upon the pasteboard
+back, taking pains to draw it down close to
+the edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is
+permanently fastened. The <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch that
+projects at each end is then folded over the corner
+and pressed down as close as possible to the edge
+of the glass and pasteboard. The upper and lower
+edges are bound in the same way, excepting that the
+pieces of binding are first cut the same length as
+the edges over which they are to be pasted, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+before they are pasted on, the two corners on the
+side to be pasted to the glass are cut off <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other
+corners are also trimmed back to about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch. The accompanying drawing shows more
+clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The
+purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are
+pasted over the top and bottom edges of the glass,
+it is seen that they have been cut to give the appearance
+of mitred corners, and that when folded
+over the edges upon the back of the pasteboard
+no rough edges of binding are left exposed at the
+corners.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="500" height="161" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the binding strips are trimmed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the lessons of experience in this work is
+that it is well to take great pains in centring
+the binding strips accurately before pasting them
+on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made
+to correct a mistake by removing the binding and
+pasting it on again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats,
+borders, and double bindings, are scarcely more difficult
+than the simple example just described, though
+they will require more time. It is well to begin with
+the easier problems. When borders and double
+bindings are used the narrow passe-partout strips
+are pasted on first, with proper care to cut the
+mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately
+before pasting them down upon the glass. The
+edges are bound last. This partly covers the
+brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along
+the edge of the glass, and leaves a narrow line of
+colour exposed as a border just inside the
+binding.</p>
+
+<h3>HANGING PICTURES</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="400" height="317" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A correct method of hanging pictures</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>How to Hang Pictures.</i>&mdash;If wire be used for hanging
+pictures, it should be as small and inconspicuous
+as possible. In place of the braided steel wire,
+which may be needed for large pictures, a single
+brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for
+those of lighter weight. In all cases where the wire
+shows it should appear as two vertical lines against
+the wall and not as a single wire bent over a single
+hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly
+seen and so manifestly failing to conform with any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+lines of a room. Levelling the picture may be easily
+managed by using only one wire, making it continuous
+through the screw eyes on the back of the picture.
+These screw eyes should be placed near the
+top of the frame&mdash;about one sixth the whole vertical
+width of the picture from the top&mdash;so that the picture
+may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever
+possible, however, pictures should be hung without
+showing the wire at all. This may be easily managed
+without seriously marring the finish of some rooms by
+driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower
+wall which is to come directly behind the top of the
+picture, allowing them to project about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+inch and bending them up a little with a pair of
+pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice,
+small pictures may be hung in this way on fine
+upholstery tacks. It is often possible, when the
+wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado
+cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze.
+Whenever it is necessary, as it often is, to suspend
+wires by means of the so-called picture hooks
+from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above
+the frieze, some attention should be paid to
+the colour of these hooks. Bright metal hooks
+showing over a delicately coloured moulding are
+in bad taste. Some people prefer to use the
+inverted V suspension in order to reduce the number
+of these picture hooks. But it is far better to
+retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible
+wires and colour the hooks to make them less
+conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>In determining the height of pictures it is only
+necessary to remember that they are placed upon the
+walls to be enjoyed. While monotony in height
+is to be avoided, the average eye level should not
+be disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an
+effective placing of a picture in the dining-room of
+the model house.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV">IV</a><br /><br />
+<small>THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"I know not which I love the most,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Nor which the comeliest shows;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The timid, bashful violet,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Or the royal-hearted rose;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The pansy in her purple dress,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The pink with cheek of red,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Like a bashful maid, her head."<br /></span>
+</div>
+<div class="auth"><i>&mdash;Ph&oelig;be Cary</i></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Formerly</span> when the furniture, pictures, and
+draperies had been arranged in our rooms, with
+perhaps a few pieces of bric-&agrave;-brac, we considered
+their decoration quite complete. But we have
+learned how much cheerfulness a few simple flowers,
+properly arranged, impart to the same rooms;
+and so flowers have come to be considered as almost
+essential to the complete decoration of the home.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Lesson From the Japanese.</i>&mdash;If we have learned
+much from the Japanese in regard to the arrangement
+and hanging of pictures, from them we have
+learned more about the artistic arrangement of
+flowers. They have taught us to value the stem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+and leaves of the flower as essential to an artistic
+arrangement, that flowers of the same kind should
+be grouped together, and that harmony and blending
+of colour are necessary to secure the most artistic
+effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together.</i>&mdash;We may
+have been in the habit of putting several different
+kinds of flowers together and of being satisfied with
+such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us
+that when several different kinds of flowers are combined
+in one grouping the full beauty of each is
+lost; and after a few experiments we shall come to
+see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a
+summer camp with which I am familiar it was the
+daily duty of one of the younger boys to go for the
+wild flowers we used for keeping the camp gay. He
+often brought home snug little bunches of the flower
+of the wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be
+used together. No pleasing arrangement could be
+made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring
+long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and
+gather branches of the rose, especially those with
+the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a flat
+dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the
+vine hang over the mantel, and he quickly saw that
+it "looked prettier&mdash;more as though it were growing."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+When a few of the stalks of the wild rose
+were arranged by themselves in a green glass vase
+he pronounced them much "prettier than when
+mixed up with other flowers."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Way of the Garden.</i>&mdash;In our gardens we plant
+the sunshiny daffodils by themselves, the sweet
+peas grow in a mass together, and we have beds of
+roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement
+of our flowers indoors we shall realize their
+decorative qualities to the utmost. So we may
+consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging flowers,&mdash;to
+use only one kind of flower, with its stems and
+leaves, arranging them loosely, rather than to have
+many in a compact grouping. One single, long-stemmed
+rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall,
+slender glass is more decorative and gives us more
+pleasure than a dozen roses stripped of their foliage
+and crowded into a small vase.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exceptions.</i>&mdash;While the above rule should be
+generally followed, there are exceptional instances
+of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of flowers
+of two or more kinds together. Among these we
+may mention the combining of field daisies and
+buttercups, or buttercups with the grasses among
+which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the
+wild carrot may sometimes be effectively combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+with some other flower. The spikes of the cardinal
+flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour, but very
+stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a
+few sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and
+makes it more pleasing.</p>
+
+<h3>COLOUR ARRANGEMENT</h3>
+
+<p>We have just considered the grouping of flowers
+by themselves. There is another element to be
+considered before we can have artistic results, and
+that is arrangement as to colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colour Grouping.</i>&mdash;We may not all be sensitive
+to colour ourselves, but in arranging flowers we
+should always keep in mind the pleasure that is to be
+given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour
+grouping that will offend those whose colour sense
+is keen. There are three colour schemes that can be
+followed with success and satisfaction to all. In
+one we group together only flowers of the same
+colour, as red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris,
+not red, pink, and white roses, nor all of the various
+colours of sweet pea.</p>
+
+<p>Another arrangement calls for shades and tints
+of the same colour. With many flowers it is possible
+to get exquisite effects by following this scheme.
+For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+to deep purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of
+damp moss. Sweet peas have beautiful shades
+of pink that can be combined, as well as shades
+of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so
+effective as when the various shades of yellow, orange
+and brown are used together. The garden aster
+of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure
+in colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and
+purples, a variety of pink tones, beautiful reds, and
+perfect white ones.</p>
+
+<p>And the white ones! What shall we do with
+these? Three or four pure white asters of the same
+variety may be used together; or two or three white
+ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or
+pink ones. White may be combined with any
+colour with good results. Nature is a good teacher
+here for she gives us both the coloured and the white
+in almost every variety of flower. For example there
+are crimson cosmos and white cosmos, scarlet geraniums
+and white geraniums, blue violets and white
+violets, and so on through a great many varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Combination of Complementary Colours.</i>&mdash;Another
+colour grouping that is sometimes desirable makes
+use of the complementary colours. The salpiglossis,
+a garden flower that ought to be better known than
+it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+orange-yellow flowers that are so effective together.
+The iris also has flowers of complementary colours,
+yellow and violet blue being common among them.</p>
+
+<h3>THE FLOWER HOLDERS</h3>
+
+<p><i>A Flower Composition as a Picture.</i>&mdash;Having
+learned something about the artistic use of colour,
+we come to the consideration of the arrangement of
+the flowers, and this includes the vase or other receptacle
+used for holding them. An artistic flower
+composition is a picture; and as the mat and frame
+give finish to a picture hanging on the wall, so the
+vessel holding flowers should give the required finish
+to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be
+simple in design, have graceful lines, and serve only
+as a medium to set off the flowers to the best advantage.
+There should be as little decoration as
+possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used
+they must blend or harmonize with the colour
+schemes of the flowers placed in them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Receptacles for Flowers.</i>&mdash;It often is a problem
+to find the most fitting thing for holding flowers;
+but in the reliable Japanese shops one can always
+find some simple holders, and there are very good
+designs in the clear and in the green glass that are
+inexpensive and appropriate. As a rule the less expensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+the article the better adapted it is as a suitable
+holder for flowers. One need never mourn that
+she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they
+and their cheap imitations are among the most
+unsuitable of holders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Four Typical Flower Holders.</i>&mdash;Let us suppose our
+equipment includes four simple receptacles,&mdash;a
+small, clear glass fish globe such as may be had for
+twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve
+inches in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring
+a little at the top, costing twenty-five cents; a
+large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale green tint,
+eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar
+and a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight
+inches in height, which may be bought for sixty or
+seventy cents.</p>
+
+<p>The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums
+and their leaves are loosely arranged in it. The
+stems show through the water and glass and form
+a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses
+may be most artistically grouped in it. I have seen
+a very charming combination of mignonette and
+bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as a
+harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the
+various shades of California poppies and their
+foliage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A fish globe with daisies</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed
+roses: and a few yellow daffodils or the narcissus with
+their leaves look equally well in it. Poppies for a day,
+in the same vase, have
+given pleasure to the
+beholder. At Easter
+it has joyously borne
+a stalk of two perfect
+lilies, and in the
+autumn tall spikes of
+salvia have been
+equally at home in it.</p>
+
+<p>Our tall Japanese
+jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need to
+remember that in tall or vertical compositions the
+vase should be about one third the height of the
+whole combination; so this is adapted to holding
+branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if
+one is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about
+three branches from these are effective in it.
+Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally well placed
+here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and
+chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions
+has been two or three branches of pine
+bearing their brown cones.</p>
+
+<p>The possibilities of the smaller green jar are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+numerous, and only a few are given as suggestions.
+A loose arrangement of jonquils and their leaves,
+or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter
+stemmed lilacs, either the
+purple ones or the white
+ones, may be placed in it.
+An arrangement of white
+field daisies, and one of
+yellow roses, have been found
+equally successful. One
+soon discovers the harmony
+and balance that exist between
+the flower and holder.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE BACKGROUND</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="250" height="486" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A tall vase with narcissus</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Space and Harmonious
+Surroundings.</i>&mdash;To obtain
+the largest decorative effect
+we must have not only
+artistic grouping and harmonious setting of flowers,
+but space and background, just as are needed for the
+hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition
+has lost all decorative effect from being placed in
+too small a space and surrounded by distracting
+objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on
+an errand and forgot my errand in the pleasure I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+derived from seeing some beautiful yellow chrysanthemums,
+three or four, I think, in a yellowish
+brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for
+a background the upturned leaf of the table. It
+stood some little distance from anything else, a shaft
+of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at
+it I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative
+arrangement of flowers. It was the feature
+of the room that held one's attention.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="500" height="483" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Flowers for the Dining Table.</i>&mdash;If we can have
+flowers in but one room in the house, it may be
+difficult to decide which one it shall be. Since
+it often happens that the dining-room is the only
+room where a busy
+family comes together
+for any length of time,
+flowers should certainly
+be introduced here that
+all may share their
+beauty and cheer. Any
+arrangement for the
+home table should be
+moderately low; and
+there are many simple
+flowers that can be used in this way to advantage.
+For instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence
+or common bluet (root and all), to be
+found in any field in the spring, and put them in a
+shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration
+for the table is the result. Flowers with any
+degree of fragrance should never be used in the
+dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is
+offensive to many people, and when combined with
+the odour of food doubly so.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="300" height="310" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An arrangement of roses in a small jar</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At a luncheon served by the girls in the model<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+house the floral decoration for the table was a half
+dozen single, yellow jonquils with their foliage,
+placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the
+girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge
+and the walls and furniture in browns, nothing could
+have been more harmonious than these few simple
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Expensive Flowers not Necessary.</i>&mdash;It is evident
+that for floral decoration neither expensive nor
+lavish displays are necessary, that simplicity is
+the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of
+wild flowers in their season are more truly artistic
+than many expensive hot-house flowers. In this
+country we do not, as the Japanese do, make a
+festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we
+rightly appreciate and utilize the flowers of each
+season, we may give a touch of festivity to the life
+of every day.</p>
+
+<p>In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate
+than an arrangement of pussy willows or
+branches of the alder with its tassels, while the red
+maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that
+will brighten any room. A clump of blood root
+in a small jardiniere is as decorative as the expensive
+plants one may see in the home of some friend.
+The flowers of the field and the garden offer so many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+possibilities for decorative results that no one's home
+need lack the cheery touch which they can give.</p>
+
+<p>There is a personal element in flowers such as
+is not found in any other means of decoration,
+not even in pictures, with the single exception of
+good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can
+almost believe that they feel an interest in all that
+we have said about them. If they really could know,
+would they not approve the principles that we have
+laid down? We may fancy that they <i>would</i> approve
+and that, if they could really speak and we would
+listen, they would tell us so in some such language
+as the following:</p>
+
+<h3>WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT</h3>
+
+<p>Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our
+own kind.</p>
+
+<p>Don't make a confusion of colour with us.</p>
+
+<p>Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses.</p>
+
+<p>Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a
+part of the decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills
+around us.</p>
+
+<p>Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household
+goods; we need space and a background.</p>
+
+<p>Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining
+table.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Do</i> love us and use us in the home as much
+as possible. This is well for you. By so doing
+not only will your love of us increase, but your
+artistic perception of the fitness of things will
+constantly enlarge. For truly has it been said,
+"The poorest woman in the world, if she has faith
+in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with
+light; she can always place there some flowers."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="V" id="V">V</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIVE FABRICS</small></h2>
+
+<h3>PORTI&Egrave;RES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS,
+TABLE MATS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate discontent with
+plain, smooth surface&mdash;<i>Lewis F. Day</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">No kind</span> of decorative art offers greater
+possibilities for touching the right&mdash;or the
+wrong&mdash;chord than that which makes use
+of fabrics. Porti&egrave;res, curtains, cushion covers, table
+runners and mats, lamp shades, and many other furnishings,
+in which fabrics are involved, present problems
+that quickly engage the interest of the amateur
+decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and,
+when well worked out, add greatly to the attractiveness
+of artistic surroundings. And every house becomes
+a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when
+the possibilities of development in this direction are
+realized. Here, as everywhere else, decorative art
+is secondary to architectural design and must never
+fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to
+follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Example of the Model House.</i>&mdash;The wide doorways
+connecting the hall, the living room, and dining-room
+of our model house made doors undesirable
+and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division
+between the rooms and to soften the lines of the
+wood finish. They were made to harmonize with
+the colour scheme but were darker and richer in
+tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of
+direct sunshine, suggested the light style of drapery;
+and the preference given to straight-lined, substantial
+furniture, made in the school shops, led as
+a natural consequence to cushions and coverings
+of leather or coarse fabric, in order to bear out the
+idea of simplicity, directness, and durability in
+craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have
+been out of place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Utility to be Regarded.</i>&mdash;The highly decorative
+function of such accessories makes it doubly necessary
+to exercise care in selecting materials, designing
+the ornamental features, and properly placing
+the completed article, in order that the requirements
+of use be not subordinated to the demands of art.
+It must never be forgotten that utility is the basis
+of all true decoration. Portieres were originally
+a substitute for doors&mdash;a means of closing an
+opening between rooms. It must be possible always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+for them easily to serve this purpose. Hence
+loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole, should
+be used. Porti&egrave;res may properly be made of heavy
+cloth and they may have a lining harmonizing or
+in pleasing contrast with the tone of the principal
+fabric. They should always be at least opaque.
+Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a
+substitute for shades or curtains. They should not
+shut out the light but soften it. They should,
+therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable
+material, and be hung so that they can be easily
+taken down for cleaning. The simplest style of
+hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets,
+is the best. Since there is no need of frequently
+sliding them over the rod, it is well to hang them
+by means of a hem, stitched two or three inches from
+the top of the drapery, through which the rod may
+be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners,
+made of durable material and decorated with colours
+that are washable, are manifestly more serviceable
+than those that look fresh only when new, and
+hence are more in keeping with the idea of
+sincerity in household decoration. There is
+necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in
+plumbing if it is to meet the tests with equal success.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLIII" id="PLIII"></a><img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="" />
+
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="captions">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdc"><div class="caption">Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed
+Cotton Cloth.</div></td>
+<td class="tdc"><div class="caption">Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed
+and Embroidered End Panels</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+<div class="capl">[Plate III]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>How such decorative features are worked out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+from beginning to end, is told in the following directions
+for a few practical problems which are known
+to be practical, because they have been actually
+carried through from the design to the completed
+article. This detailed and complete explanation,
+with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest
+many similar problems which every home offers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BLOCK PRINTING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Decorating a Table Runner</i>.&mdash;This
+problem is easily separated into four distinct parts&mdash;making
+the design, cutting the block, printing,
+and finishing. The materials needed are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="materials">
+<tr><td class="tdl">(1) Making the design</td><td class="tpl">(2) Cutting the block</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ordinary drawing paper</td><td class="tpl">Gum wood</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Rice paper</td><td class="tpl">Small penknife</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Charcoal</td><td class="tpl">Vise</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pencil</td><td class="tpl">Sand-paper, fine</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Japanese or sable brush, medium size</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Water-proof India ink</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">(3) Printing the design</td><td class="tpl">(4) Finishing the runner</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Printing board</td><td class="tpl">Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Sheet of glass</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Oil paints</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Turpentine</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Palette knife</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Cotton batting</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Cheese cloth</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="300" height="289" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The peacock design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;To carry out the problem as illustrated,
+it is necessary, first of all, to make the design.
+Geometry, nature, and the imagination are satisfactory
+sources upon which to draw for the motif.
+If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one
+should study for suggestions the figures in Oriental
+rugs, photographs of early Eastern art, and the
+fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some
+good geometrical designs, like that used on the
+pillow cover illustrated on <a href="#Page_104">page 104</a>, were made
+by school-girls after drawing many figures found in
+rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying
+numerous reproductions of Coptic designs. In
+no case was the block pattern in the least like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+designs studied. They served only as ideas to start
+with and led to the production of truly original
+work. It is essential to keep a few simple principles
+in mind in working out the design: (1) Both the dark
+and light shades in the patterns
+should be varied in
+size and form to avoid a
+monotonous result and should
+be as beautiful in proportion
+as possible. (2) There should
+be a centre of interest, one
+part of the design dominant&mdash;more
+attractive than any
+other. (3) The design must be a unit&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the parts must hold together. All feeling of unity
+is lost if the parts of the design call attention to
+themselves to the exclusion of the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="200" height="206" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Block used in printing the
+peacock design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing.</i>&mdash;It will be
+found desirable to make many preliminary sketches
+in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a part of each
+sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately
+the dark and light effect. These should be compared,
+keeping clearly in mind the principles stated
+above. When one possessing the right qualifications
+has been found, the next step is to draw on a
+fresh piece of paper an accurate 3-inch square and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+copy upon it the satisfactory design in pencil outline.
+This should be done very carefully, that the spirit of
+the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When
+the drawing is completed it must be put into shape
+to be transferred to the block. To do this we fasten
+a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace
+with very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces
+with black ink, using a brush. This brush work
+may be done directly without the pencil line if the
+drawing underneath shows very plainly through the
+paper. When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design
+may be cut out on the edge of the 3-inch square.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bird pattern</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block.</i>&mdash;A block<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+3 &times; 3 &times; <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inches will now be required. This
+should be procured and sand-papered. One face
+of it should then be covered with a coating of library
+paste, the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down
+smooth. If the design is symmetrical it should be
+pasted on the block, ink side up, but otherwise with
+the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon
+the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may
+then fasten the block in the vise and, holding the
+blade of the knife at a slight angle and always
+away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design
+along the outlines. These must be kept very smooth
+and sharp. All of the white shapes should be cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually
+an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background,
+but it will be found after practise in printing
+that the larger spaces should be cut deeper and
+that, when the edges or corners of
+the block form a part of the background
+instead of the dark pattern,
+they also need a deeper cut. The
+paper that still adheres to the face of
+the block may now be removed by
+rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper
+laid upon something hard and smooth like glass in
+order that the block may have an absolutely
+level surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A flower and leaf design</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_123.jpg" width="200" height="198" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Block used in
+printing this
+design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Padded Board.</i>&mdash;All block printing should be
+done upon a padded board. A very convenient
+one can be made by laying upon a bread board three
+or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over
+these several thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place
+of these an ironing board may be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Material Required.</i>&mdash;It is essential to select for
+the runner a piece of crash of fine texture and even
+weave. This is sold under the name of Russian
+crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies
+considerably in quality. It is very difficult to
+print well upon the coarser grades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_124.jpg" width="400" height="384" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Alternating animal and geometrical design</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="399" height="142" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Blocks used in printing this design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Trying the Colours.</i>&mdash;After deciding upon a colour
+which will harmonize with the general colour scheme
+of the room in which the table runner is to be used,
+it is in order to mix the paint and try the block upon
+a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze
+a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a
+sheet of glass and blend thoroughly with the palette
+knife, thinning with turpentine to the consistency
+of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from
+the tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other
+colours mixed with it will change its hue and intensity;
+black or white will alter the value. Tie a little
+cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+or old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove
+from the raw edges all ravellings that might drop
+into the paint. Spread out quite thin upon the
+glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press
+the pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed
+all it will. Now charge the block by lightly
+pounding its surface with the pad. Press the block
+upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment
+will it be possible to determine just the right
+quantity of paint to mix, its brilliancy of tone, its
+consistency, how heavily to charge the block, etc.
+A good print shows the texture of the cloth through
+it, is even in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If
+the print looks like a painted spot, or if, when quite
+dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the paint
+used was too thick or else the block was too heavily
+charged. Different materials require different
+treatment. For a thin silk the block should be
+very lightly charged and lightly though evenly
+pressed upon the material. In printing upon crash<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+it is necessary to press the block very firmly upon
+the material; and frequently, to insure getting a
+sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to
+tap the block lightly with a hammer or wooden
+mallet. If one has a steady hand, the block can
+easily be lifted at one side to determine just where
+the extra pressure is needed. The block should be
+thoroughly rubbed with old cloth after each impression
+is made and occasionally sand-papered
+to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The
+first print made after sand-papering the block is
+liable to be a little less distinct than the others and
+should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the
+material.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centring the Work.</i>&mdash;A good way to plan the placing
+of the panel design is to run a basting thread
+across the crash between two of the woven threads.
+Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread,
+and, using these guides, print the design, beginning
+with one of the central units.</p>
+
+<p><i>Additional Features.</i>&mdash;Considerable charm can be
+added to the pattern by filling some of the spaces
+with a simple darning or running stitch in some
+bright colour. The embroidery thread used should
+be rather fine. It is well to finish the ends of the
+runner by button-holing with ravellings of the crash.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel may be
+embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed
+edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colours.</i>&mdash;The following list of oil colours will be
+found practical: ivory black, flake white, burnt
+sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome yellow,
+chrome green, permanent blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials.</i>&mdash;Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk
+pongee, cr&ecirc;pe de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached
+muslin are excellent materials for block printing.
+Beautiful background tones can be obtained by
+dyeing the two latter with easy dyes.</p>
+
+<p>In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood,
+maple, or holly may be used. It is possible to get
+along without a vise by fastening the block between
+two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board.
+Success is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks
+while simply held in the hand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laundering.</i>&mdash;If the material used for the foundation
+is washable, block printed articles can be
+satisfactorily and easily laundered in soapy, lukewarm
+water. The colours are not injured in the
+least. A liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes
+used in place of turpentine, insuring still greater
+permanency of colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Applications of Block Printing.</i>&mdash;Other articles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+suitable for decoration by block printing are
+curtains, pillow covers, table covers, cushion covers,
+bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many
+sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament
+articles for personal use, such as aprons and scarfs.</p>
+
+
+<h3>STENCILLING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Window Draperies</i>.&mdash;Making the design,
+cutting the stencil, printing, and finishing form
+the divisions of the problem to be worked out. A list
+of necessary materials follows:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="materials">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdl" >(1) Making the design</td><td class="tpl">(2) Cutting the stencil</td><td class="tpl">(3) Printing</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Charcoal</td><td class="tpl">Sheet of glass</td><td class="tpl">Large board</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pencil</td><td class="tpl">Sharp penknife</td><td class="tpl">Blotting paper</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Reflector</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Turpentine</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ordinary drawing paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Oil paints</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Tracing paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Bristle brushes</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Carbon paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Pins</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Stencil paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;Suggestions as to the method of
+procedure in making a design have been already
+given in the section on block printing. The principles
+of design to be considered are outlined there
+also. In working out this problem, however, several
+new things come up for explanation: (1) The
+difference between a design to be stenciled and one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the
+method of joining units to form a border; (3) the
+method of turning a corner in a border design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLIV" id="PLIV"></a><img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="500" height="747" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and
+Executed by a School Girl</div>
+<div class="capl"> [Plate IV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>The Stencil Bands.</i>&mdash;By studying the illustrations
+accompanying this section and by experimenting
+with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will be seen that
+in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the
+color in the finished work are completely separated
+from one another by bands of varying widths.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_131.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A stencilled pattern&mdash;portion of pillow cover</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve
+to hold the stencil together and are connected
+throughout the design. Though they may be as
+wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+much narrower than one eighth of an inch, as they
+are easily broken; and, unless carefully pinned down
+when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under
+them and ruin the work. In a block print design
+no connection of the light or separation of the dark
+parts has to be considered. In the illustration of
+the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed
+as compared with the stencilled pattern&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the dark represents the stencil paper, the light
+the openings through which the paint is applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_132.jpg" width="300" height="301" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The stencil for this pattern</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Complete Unit.</i>&mdash;It will be readily understood
+that a border may be made up by repetition of
+one unit which is a complete thing in itself. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+unit in such a case may be made very long and
+narrow, so that in repeating it along the vertical
+edge of a curtain it produces a narrow band, while
+along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A
+border worked out in this way, with perfectly
+straight and practically continuous margins, is very
+structural in character, emphasizing, as it does,
+the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery.
+The effect is strong and dignified. The corner in
+this kind of border presents no difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Subordinate Unit.</i>&mdash;By studying the illustration
+in <a href="#PLIV">Plate IV</a> it will be seen that the unit of the
+border in this case is not complete in itself, but that
+the very conventional flower and stem composing
+it are joined to the next unit by what might be called
+a subordinate unit, composed, in this case, of a
+leaf form. The units are so closely spaced that a
+structural effect is fairly well obtained&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+upper and lower edges of the border are nearly
+straight, giving a feeling of restfulness to the design
+that never accompanies one with broken or wavy
+edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Designing the Corner.</i>&mdash;Having planned a design
+for the straight running border of the curtains, take
+a reflector and experiment with the corner. The
+reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece,
+3<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> by 6 inches being a convenient size. The edges
+should be very straight and the corners square.
+Hold the reflector at various points along the border
+and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these
+possible corners which will be reflected in the glass,
+and when one sufficiently strong and interesting
+is found draw a light line along the edge of the
+reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the
+corner of the border to be made. Avoid making a
+border of this kind too deep or, when turned for
+the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and
+heavy band.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Outline Drawing.</i>&mdash;The dark and light design
+having thus been worked out in charcoal, the next
+thing to do is to make a very careful pencil-outline
+drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner
+and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do
+the tracing, pin a piece of very thin paper over the
+finished part, and trace with a well sharpened and
+fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside
+down, fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing
+underneath. After tacking it down, trace the remainder,
+using a firm, even pressure and being careful
+exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of
+the pattern thus transferred by going over it with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+a sharp, hard point, and continue as before until you
+have a border of which both the vertical and horizontal
+sections are from 9 to 12 inches long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transfer to Stencil Paper.</i>&mdash;Now, take a piece of
+stencil paper and square up one corner. Fasten
+the pencil drawing securely to the stencil paper
+along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between
+the two, and trace the design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting the Stencil.</i>&mdash;Before cutting the stencil
+for the curtain a beginner should do a little practising
+upon an extra piece of the paper. Trace a portion
+of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a sheet of
+glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife
+cut along the outline of the pattern. The knife
+should be held at a slight angle and the cut made
+completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil
+paper should never be pulled out but will fall out
+without aid when the cutting is completed. After
+a little practice it will be found a simple matter to
+cut the design with perfectly smooth edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suitable Materials for Stencilling.</i>&mdash;For the curtains
+fine cheese cloth or batiste will be found excellent.
+Even unbleached muslin will make attractive curtains
+where expense must be carefully considered.
+Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure
+white materials will be found less pleasing than those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+that are quite creamy in tone. Scrim in a charming,
+grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good, soft
+quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is
+not advisable to hemstitch this material before
+stencilling as in case of accident or failure so much
+work is lost; but the hems should be carefully
+planned and basted, those along the inner edges of
+the curtains being narrower than the bottom hems.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Colours.</i>&mdash;The color scheme of the room should
+be carefully considered in deciding upon the colour
+or colours to be used in stencilling. If two colours
+are chosen, they should be of the same value&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the two colours should form equally dark spots
+in order that the pattern of the border may appear
+in the same dark and light as the original charcoal
+sketch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinning the Stencil.</i>&mdash;When ready for the actual
+process of stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting
+paper upon a board and over this place the corner
+of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the
+curtain so that the edge of the border when printed
+shall be about half an inch from the hem and the
+edges of both shall be absolutely parallel. Use as
+few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil
+close to the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing the Paint.</i>&mdash;Having mixed the oil paint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+with turpentine or stencil mordant, using an old cup
+or glass for each colour, practise stencilling upon a
+small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under the
+cloth and pin the stencil down with great care.
+Use short, stiff bristle brushes for the stencilling,
+one for each colour. Remove almost all the paint
+from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper.
+When it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil
+the pattern by pounding the brush upon the exposed
+portions of the cloth, working close to the
+edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil,
+the edges are blurred, the paint was too thin or
+the stencil not carefully pinned down. If, on the
+other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty,
+so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in
+these places, you may be sure that the paint
+used was too thick or that the brush was too wet.
+The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as
+thin and the brush as dry as possible. Hold the
+stencilled sample up to the window and see whether,
+when the light shines through it, the colour appears
+right.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Real Process.</i>&mdash;When confident that the
+process is understood and that the colour is satisfactory,
+proceed to stencil the corner of the curtain.
+Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+clean piece of cloth to use in case of accident.
+When removing the pins from the stencil wipe each
+one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling it
+with care that none of the slender bridges may be
+broken. Replace the stencil, fitting a section of
+it to the finished work. Put the pins in the holes
+already made, otherwise the paint will get into
+them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling,
+a section at a time, until the border is completed.
+Do not fold the curtains until the stencilling
+is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material
+can be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make
+the best finish; but careful hand hemming will look
+well upon material like fine batiste.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Valance.</i>&mdash;The curtains should hang in vertical
+folds from the top of the window to a point slightly
+below the window sill. They should be drawn back
+at each side of the window and the space between at
+the top filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps
+deeper if the window is very high. This valance
+should have the border stencilled upon it and should
+be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains.
+Sometimes, as in the illustration in <a href="#PLIV">Plate IV</a>, a
+valance running across the entire width of the
+window is used. In this case it is run upon an extra
+rod in front of the one from which the curtain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+hangs. Double rods for this purpose can be
+bought.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Possible Problems.</i>&mdash;As stencilling can be
+employed in practically the same place and upon
+the same materials as block printing, it is only
+necessary to refer to the lists given at the end of
+that section of this chapter for suggestions as to
+further possibilities in the way of home decoration
+by stencilling.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EMBROIDERY</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Table Mat</i>.&mdash;As in the preceding problems,
+the first thing to do is to plan the design roughly
+in charcoal or soft pencil in order to get the dark and
+light relations and the best proportions possible.
+If convenient, the mat should be made for use with
+some special lamp or vase. By measuring the base
+of this object it is easy to determine the size of the
+plain central space, which may be either circular
+or square in shape. The forms in the decorated
+part may be made of various shapes, but it is well
+to keep them very simple in outline. Straight lines
+alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated
+in <a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, or a combination of straight and curved
+lines, as in the one shown in <a href="#PLIII">Plate III</a>. After working
+out the design very accurately with a hard pencil,
+the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of
+carbon paper, taking great care to get the straight
+edges of the design even with the threads of the
+crash.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches.</i>&mdash;The
+simple running or darning stitch should be employed
+in embroidering the pattern. Two or more colours
+may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining
+with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive
+mat. Other good combinations are green and
+white, blue and white, blue and green, soft dull
+blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts
+the pleasing contrasts that may be found.
+The brighter colour should always be employed in
+the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in
+<a href="#PLV">Plate V</a> was embroidered in dull green and red
+mercerized cotton. After the darning was completed
+it was found that the red used in the small
+circles alone was too conspicuous, although it was
+very dull in tone. This defect was completely
+remedied and a perfect unity given to the design
+by outlining the forms in a couching stitch,
+using both colours. This was done by laying
+a green thread along the edge of each spot
+and taking a stitch of red over it at equal
+intervals.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLV" id="PLV"></a><img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">CROCHETED PANELS</div>
+<div class="caption"><table class="tablecp4" summary="captions">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdl" >A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch</td>
+<td class="tdl">A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Designed and Executed by School Girls</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate V]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>After the embroidered pattern is done one may
+finish the mat with fine, close hemstitching or by
+button-holing the edge with ravellings of the crash.
+The latter method is usually more pleasing. The
+simple darning stitch can also be used to make
+very attractive borders for table runners, sofa
+pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated
+in <a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, besides being used to enrich a
+great variety of block printed or stencilled articles.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Satin Stitch.</i>&mdash;Another effective and easy
+embroidery stitch to be used in decorating articles
+for the home is the over-and-over or satin stitch.
+When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen
+in which the threads can be easily counted, transfer
+the design, after having carefully drawn it in pencil
+outline, to paper marked off into little squares.
+This can be bought where kindergarten supplies
+are sold. Redraw the outline of the design, following
+exactly the lines on the paper, and at the
+same time keep as close as possible to the original
+form. Let a certain number of threads of linen
+represent a square of the design and copy the pattern
+in the satin stitch or even the cross stitch if
+preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the
+cloth is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>A pattern worked out on cross section paper in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+this way can also be crocheted, as illustrated in
+<a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, and set into linen or some of its many
+imitations to decorate numberless articles for home
+or personal adornment. This crocheted work, if
+evenly done in fine thread, is quite suggestive of
+the Italian filet lace.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI">VI</a><br /><br />
+<small>DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And that the other maidens of the little town might know it,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she thought they said."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> considering the dress of the person as related
+to home decoration one is not so far afield
+as one may seem to be at first thought. It is
+true that dress has a variety of functions to perform
+that have no connection with the subject of decoration;
+and yet there is much that is common to both.
+Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the
+design and general make-up of their costumes, must
+observe the same laws that govern design wherever it
+is applied, as an expression of the artistic sense in
+the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line and
+proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use
+and to a great variety of special conditions, simplicity,
+symmetry, restraint, are all involved in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a
+room; and in most cases success or failure in one
+field has its counterpart in the other. Have we
+not often remarked of a house or of a room that
+it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him";
+and do not attractive costumes give pleasure to
+others than those who wear them for the same
+reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged
+rooms afford similar enjoyment to those who live
+in them?</p>
+
+<p><i>Art and the Fashions.</i>&mdash;In discussing the parallel
+between art in clothing and the more stable art
+of home decoration it must be admitted, of course,
+that style in dress introduces some embarrassing
+questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer
+wonderful changes with every season. And yet
+people of artistic feeling and good taste, succeed
+in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between
+the changing demands of fashion and the established
+principles of art as applied in dress.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Be Well Dressed.</i>&mdash;The well-dressed woman
+knows how to select her clothes and how to wear
+them. She must study her own figure and know
+her defects as well as her good points. With this
+knowledge she can learn to subdue the one and bring
+out the other. She should have a clear conception<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to it.
+To acquire this training the principles of the art
+of decoration must be understood and applied.
+She should never wear a garment of a certain style
+simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make
+it conform to her individual type.</p>
+
+<p><i>Good Lines.</i>&mdash;Decorative design in dress must
+follow the construction lines of the figure and not
+destroy them. These are the much discussed good
+lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal
+lines break the figure and increase the breadth,
+while vertical lines give the appearance of height.
+It is the simple lines, conforming to and following
+the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The
+taste of most women leads them to desire simple
+clothes; but through ignorance or inexperience
+many of these women fail to achieve that aim. A
+stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen
+wearing a dress with lapels or ruffles over the
+shoulders. This only serves to accentuate her defect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unity and Harmony.</i>&mdash;In all forms of decoration
+harmony is essential&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, all the parts that are
+to be combined must agree with one another and
+with their surroundings. To secure this in dress
+is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress
+hat with plumes should not be worn with a tailored<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+suit in the morning; and yet we often see such a
+combination. Here the lack of harmony is between
+the parts of the costume; but the entire costume
+must be suited to the peculiarities of figure. There
+are women who never look well in the straight lines
+of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to
+them. They must tone down the effects of the lines
+by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock, or some such
+softening elements of dress. Others do not look
+well in fluffy things. Each must know what is
+becoming and dress accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Colours.</i>&mdash;Every season we hear that
+certain colours are to be worn. Many women will
+choose a colour because they like it without considering
+whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little
+attention to a few well-known facts will help them
+to avoid failures of this kind. It is generally recognized
+that light colours seem to increase the size.
+Striped materials should not be worn by the stout
+women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots
+are also very dangerous for her; but she may choose
+a pattern with pin-point dots scattered over the
+surface at some distance from each other. She is
+always safe in a plain, dark colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colour and Complexion.</i>&mdash;In deciding on a becoming
+colour one must take into account the colour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+the hair and eyes and the tone of the complexion.
+It has been thought that young girls can wear clear,
+light shades and that older women should keep to
+dark, quiet colours; yet there are older women who
+wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender charmingly
+and many young girls who cannot wear blue or
+pink. It is quite impossible to make accurate colour
+rules, because it would be hard to find two complexions
+that require exactly the same colour setting.
+It is well, however, to study combinations of different
+colours with the idea of finding the right
+colour, to use in any costume, the amount of each,
+and the best arrangement to give a proper
+balance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proportion.</i>&mdash;The importance of the principle
+of proportion is often overlooked, but beauty of
+dress is never possible if it be neglected. A
+well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must
+have given consideration to the relation of the size
+and shape of the head to the lines of the entire figure.
+Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head,
+and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect
+it, and, through harmony of colour and proportion
+of line and mass, to improve the appearance of the
+whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure,
+uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+in choosing a hat one should select a style that is
+in good proportion to the size of the head and to the
+height of the figure. If the mass of the head is
+increased disproportionately by too large a hat,
+the entire figure is apparently shortened and the
+natural proportions destroyed. One often wonders
+why photographs of people with hats on look so
+old-fashioned and sometimes so ridiculous. It is
+because the hat is not in good proportion. The
+Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never
+look queer. Their hats bear the right relation to
+the head and the figure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appropriateness.</i>&mdash;The general proportions of a
+hat or a gown may be good, but the addition of the
+decoration may destroy all the good effect obtained
+by securing the right relation of line and mass. The
+aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and
+strengthen the whole. Beauty of dress, therefore,
+depends upon simplicity and appropriateness of
+the material used as well as upon the form and
+arrangement of the material. Wherever ornament
+is used it must fulfil the condition of fitness to place;
+otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming
+a hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat
+before a mirror, and place the hat comfortably upon
+her head; then with the aid of a hand glass she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+should try the trimming in different positions until
+the best effect is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The designs in trimming should be appropriate
+to the garment. The size of the design and the kind
+of form used should be considered. Simple forms are
+the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there
+is great advantage in plain materials. They always
+work to greater economy than stripes or plaids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Influence of Occupation.</i>&mdash;The well-dressed woman
+should realize how great is the influence of occasion
+and occupation. Some gowns were intended only
+for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see
+them worn on the street cars or for shopping. I
+have always approved of the rule in many shops
+which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns.
+Formerly it was the old finery which was used for
+every-day wear. Now the business woman to
+be successful has to exercise more thought upon her
+clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have
+harder wear and must be appropriate for her work.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of school-girls and children must not
+be overlooked. It should be as simple as possible
+and above all else it should be comfortable. It
+should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing
+should not interfere with any function of the body.
+But we often see children dressed with much lace,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+with many ruffles, and even with jewellery; and
+we have seen school girls wearing net waists,
+plumed hats, and high-heeled shoes. What an
+infraction is this of the principle of appropriateness
+in dress!</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII">VII</a><br /><br />
+<small>FURNITURE MAKING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by thought
+that labour can be made happy&mdash;<i>John Ruskin</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> chief purpose of this chapter is to outline
+the most important general facts upon
+which good furniture making is based and
+to give specific directions for working out a number
+of typical problems, following designs which have
+been proved in completed articles made, for the
+most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No
+attempt is made to give this great subject complete
+and systematic treatment; for this would involve
+many problems in constructive design and a corresponding
+number of working drawings, with
+specifications for the selection and preparation of
+materials and for the work of construction&mdash;a
+subject so extensive that it would easily overrun
+the limits of a single chapter. The aim is rather
+to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of
+experience in constructive work with special reference
+to our main subject of household decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is taken for granted that the interested reader is
+familiar with the use of the common hand tools
+for woodworking or that he can, with some assistance,
+perhaps, easily command their use. It is
+not thought necessary, therefore, to describe in
+detail the proper method of using tools, but rather
+to offer practical suggestions on the selection,
+preparation and constructive use of woodworking
+materials and, in the series of problems which
+follow, to give some helpful hints on the way woodworking
+tools should be used. It is also assumed
+that in most cases the very great advantage of
+woodworking machinery may be utilized, especially
+in preparing the materials and bringing them
+within easy reach of the hand-tool processes. The
+true art-craft spirit, which always honours handwork
+as the supreme method, may not hesitate to
+command the services of machines so long as it
+does not become slavishly dependent upon them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK</h3>
+
+<p>The first thing that should claim the attention
+of the artistic woodworker is the selection and preparation
+of his materials, commonly known as the
+stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the
+greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make
+sure that his woods are taken from the right parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of selected timber and that they are properly
+sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this
+cannot be overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut
+from the sides of a tree, will in drying, invariably
+curve across their grain. It is only those that
+are cut from the centre to the outside of the tree
+that may be depended upon to remain approximately
+true; for, after this cutting, the grain runs directly
+through the thickness of the board, or nearly so.
+Boards taken from timber in this way are said to
+be "quarter sawed"; those cut by sawing through
+the logs from side to side, as is always done with
+soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to
+be "plain sawed." This is illustrated in the accompanying
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quartered Oak.</i>&mdash;In the case
+of oak, the quarter sawing not
+only maintains a flat surface
+but greatly improves the appearance
+of the stock when finished.
+The popularity of
+quartered oak for furniture
+may therefore be said to be
+well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods. It
+is as good as it looks.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="200" height="207" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Quarter sawed log</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+to oak because the appearance of the grain and
+the strength of most woods is far from being improved
+by this method of cutting. Thus ash and
+gum wood and all the softer woods sometimes used
+in furniture making are plain sawed. We shall,
+therefore, generally find stock from these woods
+curved and twisted badly so
+that it will be necessary, in
+selecting material for large
+surfaces such as table tops, to
+pick out the straight parts for
+these surfaces and save the
+remainder to be cut into the
+smaller pieces which will always
+be needed. These pieces can be easily planed
+without much loss of thickness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156a.jpg" width="400" height="50" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">End of quarter sawed board</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156b.jpg" width="400" height="207" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plain sawed log</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156c.jpg" width="400" height="63" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">End of plain sawed board</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><i>Kiln-dried Lumber.</i>&mdash;This bending and twisting
+of the boards does not take place as soon as they
+are sawed out of the log, but gradually during the
+process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+kiln-dried, the more gradual the seasoning the less
+the bending. Lumber is kiln-dried by stacking it,
+with air spaces left between the boards, in steam-heated
+closets or kilns, where the process of drying
+is carried on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried
+lumber, therefore, retains its shape quite as well
+as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile.
+But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed
+to remain in a dry place as long as possible before
+using it so that it will have a chance to change all
+that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent
+shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker
+never undertakes to make furniture from stock that
+he does not know to be perfectly dry and well
+seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is
+more likely to shrink, warp, and crack, but also
+because it cannot be depended upon to hold the
+glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other
+methods of finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Planing Down to a Flat Surface.</i>&mdash;Since boards
+are seldom perfectly flat, even if one has taken the
+greatest pains to select well-seasoned stock, it will
+almost invariably be necessary to work them down
+to a plane surface when they are glued up or joined
+together in any way. To accomplish this result
+it is necessary to plan the arrangement of the pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+in such a way that the concave of the bend shall
+fall on the same side, as shown in the illustration,
+and thus provide for the final working down with
+the least possible removal of stock. They can be
+arranged on a level bench top or floor with the
+convex side down so that they will lie as flat as
+possible. The boards should then be taken out
+one by one and their edges should be carefully planed
+so that they will match together in the position in
+which they are laid. It will be necessary to take
+each board from its place and return it several
+times in order that this matching may be made as
+perfect as possible. The object of all this is to prevent
+the entire arrangement from springing&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+from acquiring any new bend or twist when the
+parts are glued up. In joining boards to form
+large pieces of glued-up work, like table tops, it
+is customary to strengthen the joints by means
+of dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work
+may be safely glued up without dowelling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_158.jpg" width="500" height="61" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fastening Glued-up Work.</i> It will be readily
+understood upon a little reflection that all plain
+glued-up work should be allowed to move slightly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+upon the framework to which it is attached; for
+even after it is well seasoned and well finished all
+woods will swell slightly in a damp atmosphere
+and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest
+movement being across the grain. Solid table
+tops, therefore, should never be fastened down
+firmly upon the framework with glue or with screws,
+but should be secured by means of buttons screwed
+to the under side of the top which travel in grooves
+cut in the framework and thus allow for expansion
+and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate
+the method of attaching the table-top buttons.
+Much of the warping and splitting of furniture is
+due to the failure of the designer or maker to observe
+this precaution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="400" height="277" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening table tops</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece
+or several glued together as just described, the
+cabinet-maker planes off one side first and then,
+using this side as the working face, gauges to the
+required thickness and planes off the other side if
+necessary. If the work be upon glued-up stock,
+it is well to plane off the projecting edges of the
+concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat
+easier and may be all the planing that will be necessary.
+If it be single pieces of stock that need
+to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is
+first planed out to a flat working face on one side
+before putting the plane to the opposite side.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Surface Plate.</i>&mdash;Planing to a flat surface requires
+some device to guide the eye. If the surface
+be very uneven at first, a beginning may be made
+in the planing without much assistance; but a
+point will finally be reached when neither the unaided
+eye nor the hand can determine whether or
+not a surface is flat. To determine this a surface
+plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a
+block of cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it
+from being bent&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, an inch or more&mdash;and with
+a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on
+one side. This surface is well chalked over. When
+the wood surface which is being planed down is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved
+it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood
+will become marked with the chalk and so indicate
+to the cabinet-maker what parts are to be removed.
+By making several tests of this kind he is able to
+plane to a good flat surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="500" height="160" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Winding sticks</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Winding Sticks.</i>&mdash;If the amateur's workshop is
+not provided with a surface plate, a simple means
+of testing for a flat surface is by means of two
+narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing
+them on their narrow edges across each end of the
+piece, as shown in the illustration, and sighting
+across their upper edges. The slight projections
+in the surfaces of the board can be determined in
+this way and planed off until the two top edges
+of the sticks are found to be level. These winding
+sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made,
+with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions
+may be 1 &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 30 inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of True Surfaces.</i>&mdash;It may be well to
+add that all this care to produce flat and parallel
+surfaces is not merely for the purpose of giving a
+good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces
+are necessary for the good of the work as a whole,
+for they form the basis from which other surfaces
+are gauged and other parts "trued up"&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+made square or otherwise geometrically correct.
+When the main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work
+are properly shaped, all the framework and other
+parts may be brought into line without bending
+or twisting. All such strains should be religiously
+avoided in good cabinet work. The natural curves,
+twists, or projections of the stock used should be
+removed by the use of the proper tools and never
+be strained to force any of the parts into
+their proper places or shapes. Such efforts
+produce strains which are transmitted to other
+parts, displacing them, causing new defects
+or a general failure of the parts to support each
+other.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Systematic Plan of Work.</i>&mdash;When the cabinet-maker
+undertakes to make either a single piece of
+furniture or several pieces, he goes about it in a very
+systematic way. Consulting his working drawing
+he makes an accurate list of the different pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+that will be required. For example, if he is to make
+a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will need
+four legs or posts 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches square by 22<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inches long, a front rail and a back rail each <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 22 inches, two side rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 24
+inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is
+completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful
+selection of the lumber and prepares the pieces
+in the rough, allowing economically for the necessary
+working waste. Economy of time and labour is also
+secured by keeping together all parts on which similar
+work is to be done. Thus, if several parts are to
+be sawed to the same width or fashioned to the same
+curves, it is generally the best plan to work these
+parts out together while the machines and tools
+are set for this purpose. Such a plan not only
+saves time but, partially at least, it obviates the
+danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow
+a systematic order of work. All sawing to rough
+dimensions should be done before the pieces
+are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the
+latter operations should generally all be completed
+before laying out and cutting the joints.
+As the work progresses toward completion
+great saving of time and much comfort will
+result from keeping the completed parts in good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+condition and so arranged that they can be easily
+assembled.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GLUING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Necessity of Good Joints.</i>&mdash;After the selection
+and preparation of the material for the stock, the
+next important general process that demands attention
+is gluing; for good cabinet work implies
+good glue and a knowledge of how to use it. Prepared
+glue, such as is sold in bottles, is unsatisfactory
+for work of any consequence. A good woodworker
+always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it
+may be made ready for use on short notice. The
+glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It should be
+applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to
+which it is applied clamped up quickly before the
+glue chills. It is the glue which penetrates the wood
+that holds the parts together and not a layer of
+glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is
+therefore evident not only that joints and surfaces
+should be well smeared with glue, hot and thin
+enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the
+parts should be clamped up quickly while the glue is
+still hot so as to prevent any surplus from remaining
+in the joint. This is an additional reason for making
+close fits in all joints&mdash;in those which are to
+be glued up as well as in those which are not. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+is a common fault of beginners to be satisfied with
+loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the
+glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture
+found in the markets falls to pieces for the same
+reason. Such work should never be allowed to pass.
+It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of
+the true office of glue and is nothing more nor less
+than a falsehood in wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="499" height="179" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of holding framing parts square while glue is setting</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Systematic Methods Required.</i>&mdash;As in the preparation
+of stock and working it up, so in gluing, system
+is all important. The hand screws or clamps should
+be made ready and adjusted to the required width
+so that they may be quickly placed in position as
+soon as the glue is applied. The whole process
+must be managed as quickly as possible because
+the joints must be tested before the glue has had
+time to set. A carpenter's large square should be
+used for testing the right angles, since it is more reliable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+than the small try squares. It will frequently be
+found necessary to hold framing pieces square while
+the glue is hardening. This can easily be done by
+nailing small strips of waste stock across the parts,
+as shown in the drawing. A beginner should be cautioned
+not to attempt to glue up too many joints at
+one time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece
+should be glued up separately and left to set before
+the attempt is made to glue the whole rectangle
+together. The two remaining joints, however, should
+be glued and clamped together at the same time.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PICTURE FRAMING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Inexpensive Framing Stock.</i>&mdash;Picture-frame stock
+can be easily obtained of dealers in artists' supplies
+and in furniture stores in a great variety of styles.
+Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely finished
+that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore,
+often best to secure the stock for frames in this way.
+It is, however, somewhat expensive, so that, when
+economy is important, it behooves the young woodworker
+to prepare his own framing stock.</p>
+
+<p>Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or
+less may be made from matched oak flooring, a
+section of which is here illustrated, by planing off
+the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+to furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames
+of any thickness can, of course, be cut out from the
+ordinary stock. A special tool for cutting the
+inset is desirable but not necessary. A <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even
+with a hand saw and the necessary removal of the
+wood accomplished by means of careful chiselling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_167a.jpg" width="500" height="111" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Picture framing stock made from oak flooring</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_167b.jpg" width="500" height="228" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The mitre joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Mitres.</i>&mdash;Frames may be joined at the corners
+in various ways. A common way is by the mitre
+joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure good
+joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres
+be cut on an angle of exactly 45 degrees and that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+the pieces for the corresponding sides of the frame
+be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is
+generally not exact enough to produce angles of
+sufficient accuracy even when an ordinary mitre
+box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore, will
+require a little truing with a small plane. Great
+care must be exercised also in fitting the corners
+together. The common bench square is not large
+enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay
+a carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit
+the two pieces of the frame against the sides of the
+square, testing each corner in that way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="400" height="522" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Clamping mitre joints</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Gluing the Joints.</i>&mdash;If the corners are unusually
+well fitted, a good joint can be made by first sizing
+the ends with glue and then firmly pressing the pieces
+together upon a true surface, leaving them undisturbed
+for four or five hours until the glue is hard.
+By sizing the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly
+filling the end pores with glue, rubbing it into the
+pores with another block. Generally speaking,
+however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping
+device. If a special clamping device is
+not available, one can be easily made by gluing small
+soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the
+corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing.
+In a half hour or so these blocks will become firmly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+set so that the mitre joints may be glued together,
+clamping them up with a hand screw. As already
+explained under the general directions on gluing,
+it is good practice for a beginner to glue up opposite
+corners and not attempt to glue up the two
+remaining corners until the first two are well set.
+When the first two corners are well set they should
+be nailed; and before the two remaining corners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+are glued it is well to try the parts together to see
+if they do not require a little correcting before
+gluing. These joints also should have light nailing
+after the glue has been set. In nailing, small holes
+should be made with a brad awl or drill in order to
+avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails
+should be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Defect of Shrinking.</i>&mdash;With proper tools the
+mitre joint is the easiest one to make, but it has
+one unavoidable defect, especially in wide frames.
+It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and
+almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so
+that wide frames, however well finished, must be
+expected to shrink a little after they are joined
+together. As most of this shrinking is across the
+width of the stock it is evident that it will tend
+to open the mitre joints on the inside of the corners.
+This is what happens almost invariably with joints
+made in this way from wide stock in picture framing.
+The same defect is also frequently observed
+in the interior finishing around windows and doors.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="250" height="183" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Halved lap joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are three other methods of joining the corners
+of picture frames&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, the halved lap joint,
+the mortise and tenon joint, and the dowelled joint.
+A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds
+of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+that no one of them is open to the same objection
+that attaches to the mitre joint. All these joints
+require accurate cutting and rather more of it
+than the mitre joint
+requires, but they are
+more easily glued up. The
+halved lap joint is easily
+clamped up with a common
+hand screw, even when the
+frame is a very large one.
+But the other two require long clamps in order to
+pull the joints up well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<img src="images/i_171a.jpg" width="399" height="220" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mortise and tenon joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="200" height="351" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dowelled joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Character of the Frame.</i>&mdash;The kind of joint required
+depends upon the general character of the frame&mdash;whether
+it is to be heavy or light, wide or narrow,
+and whether made of picture frame moulding or of
+the plain framing stock with round or flat face;
+and the character of the frame is a matter of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+design, determined by the kind of picture, by its
+setting, and by other considerations discussed in
+Chapter III. How the plan for
+the construction of the frame
+for any given picture is influenced
+by such considerations may be
+seen in the example which
+follows:</p>
+
+
+<h3>MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE
+PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>This photograph is 60 inches
+long by 16 inches wide. It is a
+copy in brown tones of a classic
+painting by Otto Kneille&mdash;<i>The
+Education of Athenian Youth</i>, the original of
+which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in Berlin.
+It represents a spacious hall or court showing
+three of the large marble columns and a massive
+seat in which an old man reclines while
+another old man is expounding some doctrine
+to him and to a group of younger men gathered
+around. In the centre of the scene a boy lies
+flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript.
+Near him several youths under the direction of
+a master, are contending in feats of strength.
+The composition is one that suggests weight and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+power. It may appropriately hang in the hall or
+in the library over a wide, low bookcase.</p>
+
+<p>A picture of this character needs no mat and must
+have a wide, heavy frame. The stock chosen was
+oak, 4 inches wide, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches thick, and flat faced.
+The size and weight of such a frame, including the
+glass, demand firmness of construction as the first
+consideration. The stock is too wide for successful
+mitring because shrinking would naturally open
+and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed
+together with mortise and tenon joints, well glued.
+A dowelled joint might have sufficed, but it would
+not have the same strength. The mortises were
+cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left
+on the long horizontal pieces. This was in conformity
+with the usual method of joining framework&mdash;for
+example, door frames, window frames, panel
+frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest
+possible length is invariably given to the
+vertical parts.</p>
+
+<p>The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating
+the darkest tones of the picture. Long screw
+eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from the top,
+so that the picture might hang nearly flat against
+the wall. A strong braided wire about 75 inches
+long was run through the eyes and securely looped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+at each end, so that a little more than an inch of
+wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since
+the picture was to have a prominent place on a
+certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart allowing
+for the two widths of the frame as well as for the
+length of the picture were driven into this wall,
+and the heavy photograph was easily hung and
+balanced without exposing the wire to view.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_174.jpg" width="300" height="380" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A knock-down bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The problem of design was to plan
+a simple, inexpensive
+bookcase which could
+be easily transported
+and set up in a student's
+room and which would
+hold approximately
+two hundred books.
+The drawings show
+how these requirements
+were met in the design.
+When in use it is held
+together by keyed
+shelves at the top and
+bottom. The necessary stiffness is given to it by
+the base pieces which are fastened both to the sides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional
+stiffness is given by drawing up the three middle
+shelves to the sides by means of screws. Upon
+removing the screws and the keys the bookcase is
+easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact
+form for transportation. It is equally easy
+to set it up again. It has no back and may therefore
+stand away from the wall as well as against it.
+Its contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity
+which will harmonize with modest surroundings
+and yet not bar it from keeping company with
+more pretentious furnishings.</p>
+
+<p>The original of this design was actually made up in
+white wood, stained and finished to harmonize with
+black walnut furniture; but it may be made up in oak,
+ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for
+furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is
+as follows, the sizes allowing for finishing to the
+dimensions as given in the drawing: For the ends,
+two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches &times; 4 feet 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches;
+for the short shelves, three pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inches &times; 3 feet 1 inch; for the long shelves, two
+pieces, <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches &times; 3 feet 5 inches; for
+the base pieces, two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 6<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; inches &times; 3
+feet; for the keys, one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 1 foot.
+In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+round-headed blued screws, and one half dozen
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch No. 10 flat headed blued screws.</p>
+
+<p>The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross
+cut saw, back saw, compass, jack-plane, smoothing
+plane, block plane, spokeshave, try square, steel
+square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver,
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>, and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> inch bits and bitstock, and <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inch chisels, gauges, and sand-paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;All the stock should be jointed,
+planed to width, and smoothed with sand-paper.
+The two end pieces should be squared to length,
+the top corners rounded, and the curve at the
+bottom cut as shown in the drawing. Care should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+be exercised in sand-papering not to round the
+edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should
+then be marked off on the end pieces and squared
+across, care being taken to have both ends spaced
+alike. To do this plane the ends together, with their
+edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure
+off each of the spaces with correct allowance for the
+thickness of the shelf and mark these spaces across
+the edge. Then, separate the end pieces and with
+the marks on the edges as a guide, square across
+each of the end pieces on the inside
+and mark with a knife. In allowing
+for the thickness of the shelves it
+should be remembered that the
+stock, though originally <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch in thickness, has been planed
+and sand-papered, some of the
+shelves perhaps having been finished
+down more than others. It will
+therefore be necessary to measure and allow for
+the thickness of each shelf separately.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="200" height="283" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of gaining-in
+the shelves</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The three middle shelves are "gained" in&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+set into grooves in the upright ends&mdash;<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will be better
+craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across
+the full width of the end pieces but stopped, say,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+one inch from the edge, the shelves being cut
+to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be
+done, the grooves should be cut out carefully
+with a chisel. If the grooves be carried across
+the full width of the end, they may be cut down
+with a back saw and then chiselled out.
+To insure a good fit in either case care should be
+exercised not to cut outside the knife lines.
+Chisel the bottom of the grooves carefully
+so that they will be uniformly <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+deep.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to cut the mortises for the top
+and bottom shelves. The dimensions for these
+should first be laid off on the stock by means of a
+gauge. They should then be bored well inside the
+marks and carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling
+is done, however, knife lines should be marked
+on the outside of the end pieces exactly opposite the
+gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves,
+the greatest care will need to be exercised that the
+chisel does not cut outside the knife lines. In
+working for a close fit it is better to err on the side
+of removing too little stock at first, if one must
+err at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little
+more in the final fitting. It is quite impossible
+to replace stock once removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In measuring for the length of the shelves it should
+not be overlooked that the top and bottom shelves
+are to carry the tenons to be keyed through the end
+pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately
+with a rip saw, and the stock between them removed
+with a chisel after a deep knife line has been made.
+After fitting these tenons to the mortises and finishing
+them, the mortises for the keys should be
+cut, using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked
+that the outside face of each key mortise
+is cut on an angle, as illustrated.
+The three middle shelves are
+then cut to length, the ends
+squared by means of a block
+plane, and corners cut out to fit
+the grooves.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_179.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details of the keys</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parts are now ready
+to be put together temporarily
+and squared up in order to fit in the base
+pieces more perfectly than could be done by mere
+measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set
+back these base pieces <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch from the
+front and back faces.</p>
+
+<p>After all the parts are carefully fitted they should
+be assembled and the key and screw fastenings
+inserted. When this is accomplished the bookcase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part
+of furniture making it is reserved for treatment
+in a later chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HANGING BOOK RACK</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_180.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hanging book rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;It is designed to plan a light but
+strong book rack, to be fastened to the wall of a
+chamber. Since it is intended to occupy the space
+that might be given to pictures it is properly as
+simple in construction as a picture frame, depending
+upon good proportions and symmetry to give a
+pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design,
+which is illustrated above, meet these requirements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+and also harmonize with the general
+form and outline of books. Both shelves
+may be used for books, if desired, but the design
+permits them to be confined to the lower shelf,
+reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a
+bit of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of
+bric-&agrave;-brac. The mortise and tenon joints give
+the essential stiffness and strength without requiring
+the use of heavy stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Since strength with lightness
+is an essential feature to realize in the working
+out of this design, soft woods should be avoided.
+Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in
+common use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and
+hard to work. White wood is comparatively light
+and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash
+excepting that it is closer grained. Since this
+book rack is to be used in a chamber in which the
+wood trim is in enamelled white and most of the
+furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally
+appropriate to make it of white wood, to be finished
+in enamelled white, or of bay wood as a basis for
+mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the
+latter course.</p>
+
+<p>The stock requirements for carrying out this
+design are as follows: 2 back posts, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times; 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times;
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1 &times; 18
+inches; 1 back rail, <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 37 inches; 1 end
+rail, 1 &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 44 inches; and 2 shelves, <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 7
+by 37 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="500" height="296" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tools needed are much like those required
+in the previous problem&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the same planes,
+saws, bitstock, squares, and the gauge; but there
+will be needed a <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch bit, <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box,
+and a mallet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_183.jpg" width="200" height="417" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details
+and dimensions for
+hanging book
+rack (end)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The details of construction required
+are as follows: Dressing the stock pieces,
+cutting the posts to length, cutting the points on
+the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+to length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving
+on the end rails, cutting and fitting the shelves,
+cutting, fitting, and fastening the back rail,
+arranging the clamps and other
+appliances for gluing up, and cleaning
+off the glue after hardening.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the tenon is applied to the rail</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stock pieces should be first
+"dressed" down to the drawing dimensions.
+This means that they
+should be planed and sand-papered
+preparatory to laying out the cutting
+dimensions. The front and
+back posts should be cut to length
+in the mitre box, care being taken
+to allow an extra <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch for the
+pointed ends at the top and bottom.
+These pointed ends are cut in the mitre
+box by raising one end of the post and sawing
+to lines squared around the post <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch from
+the other end. The angle of the cut is made
+uniform by resting the raised end of the
+post on a block lightly nailed on the inside
+of the mitre box, thus giving the same elevation
+for all the posts. The 1-inch by 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane
+designed for that purpose, and afterward cut to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+length as called for. The blind mortises should
+be made not more than <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch deep, and the
+tenons <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch shorter in order not to strike
+the bottom of the mortise. One of these rails
+should be accurately laid out with knife lines and
+the rest marked
+from this as a
+pattern. The
+drawing shows the
+location of the
+tenon with reference
+to the part of
+the rail on which
+the shelf rests.
+This is the most convenient position for cutting the
+tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre
+uprights should be halved on after the end rails
+are in position, being cut for this purpose as illustrated
+in the drawing. They may be allowed to
+stand out <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch beyond the face of the end
+rail, and in making the joint an equal amount of
+stock is to be taken from the rail and from the
+upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length
+and the ends fitted with the block plane and dropped
+into place, being lightly glued and nailed with
+brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+the top back rail should be halved in, being left
+to the last in order that the more important fitting
+of the shelves may be more easily accomplished.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="200" height="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the centre
+uprights are
+halved on</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care
+must be exercised to set clamps out ready for use
+before the glue is applied so that the
+parts may be promptly drawn up in
+position. After gluing they should be
+allowed to remain about ten hours in
+order that the glue may properly harden
+before the clamps are taken off.
+All the extra glue squeezed out of
+the joints in clamping must be scraped
+off with a chisel, after the glue has
+hardened a little; and any remaining
+spots of glue must be carefully
+removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave
+anything to interfere with the filling and finishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AN UMBRELLA STAND</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;So far as the question of use is
+concerned, no problem of design could be more
+definite than this one, since an umbrella rack can
+have but one use. The only elements of beauty
+possible are found in simplicity, proportion, and
+the general effectiveness of the construction for
+meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+four square, straight posts, squared at the ends,
+which are allowed to project a little above the top
+to avoid a box-like effect. All the
+joints are mortised except the division
+bars at the top. The cross pieces at
+the base are made wider not only to
+conceal the drip pan but to give a
+more stable appearance to the whole
+rack.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="150" height="303" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An umbrella stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Oak is selected
+as perhaps the most appropriate
+wood; but other woods, if the surroundings
+require it, may be used to good
+advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable
+of the woods used for furniture and takes well a
+great variety of finish. It is also quite easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner
+posts 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 27<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches; four top rails
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 9 inches; four base rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times; 9
+inches; two division bars <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 9<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches;
+four cleats <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 9 inches; and one board <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times;
+7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches to support the pan.</p>
+
+<p>The same tools in general will be required as in
+the previous exercises, but it will be necessary to
+add a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch bit, a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch chisel, a steel scraper,
+and two short clamps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_187.jpg" width="500" height="719" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for umbrella rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;All the stock should be planed
+to size, scraped, and sand-papered with the exception
+of the base board for the pan, since that is hidden
+from view. The scraper corrects all slight
+unevenness of surface and removes scratches and
+other blemishes. Care should be taken in sand-papering
+to rub always with the grain of the wood
+and to avoid rounding the corners. The corner
+posts should first be cut to proper length and the
+tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises
+are then to be located, bored, and chiselled up.
+The top and bottom rails should be laid off and the
+tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have
+them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have
+to be pared off slightly, as illustrated in the drawing,
+to allow room for each when they come together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_188.jpg" width="500" height="212" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Top rail tenons (left) and Bottom rail tenons(right)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+them up, and test them for accuracy. While these
+parts are in the clamps, measurements should be
+taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made,
+allowing extra length of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch in each end
+for the tenons to enter the top rails. These cross
+pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as
+shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to
+be thick enough to take up all the space on the inside
+of the posts so as to hide the corner, as illustrated
+in the sketch showing the bottom construction.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing.
+It is not necessary to explain this process in detail,
+since it has already been thoroughly explained in
+the general section on gluing. It is not necessary
+to glue on the cleats on which the pan rests; they
+may be nailed in. When the base is glued together
+measurements may be taken for the pan.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A MAGAZINE STAND</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem calls for an attractive
+article of furniture which should also be useful as
+a receptacle for magazines and current newspapers.
+An enclosed portion between two of the shelves
+is desired to conceal from view and preserve for a
+time the more valuable papers, parts of magazines,
+or clippings, as may be found convenient. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+perspective sketch on this same page shows how
+these simple requirements are met. The overhanging
+top adds character and strength to what
+might otherwise seem too light
+for the load it is intended to
+carry.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_190.jpg" width="200" height="308" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Oak is
+selected as a suitable wood because
+of its strength and
+durability; for this stand
+is likely to be in almost constant
+use. A light wood, delicately
+finished, would soon
+show wear.</p>
+
+<p>The stock list, according to the drawing, may be
+itemized as follows: 4 corner posts 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+36 inches; 4 upright slats <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1 &times; 34 inches; four
+shelves <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 17 inches; one piece for the
+top <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 14 &times; 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+12 inches; 1 piece for the door <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 8 &times; 15<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches
+for the ends and the back of the closet 1 piece <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 8
+&times; 36 inches; 1 pair 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch brass butts with screws
+for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch.</p>
+
+<p>The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a
+smoothing plane, steel square, try square, knife
+gauge, fine cross cut saw, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch bit and bit stock,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+key-hole saw, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch chisel, mallet, nail set,
+hammer, screw-driver, and steel scraper.</p>
+
+<p>The principal operations are as follows: Planing
+to size; scraping and sand-papering stock; squaring
+ends and smoothing them to the required length;
+laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises
+for top rails; making the rails; assembling the main
+parts; fitting ends and sides of the closets; hanging
+the door and putting on the fixtures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_191.jpg" width="500" height="419" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Construction.</i>&mdash;Smoothing with the plane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+and scraping are very important and they should be
+completed before any sand-papering is done because
+particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood,
+will dull the steel tools. All three operations are
+needed to remove the marks of the machine tools
+of the factory, in order to give a good finish in the
+end. The scraper follows the plane, removing
+the unevenness which the latter leaves on board
+surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing touches.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="300" height="137" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of mortising</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the
+shelves should be squared off, cut to length, and block
+planed. The posts should then be cut and accurately
+trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with
+a knife line for the gains into which the corners
+of the shelves are to be fastened. Since the posts
+are perfectly square, no attention will have to be
+given to their exact location in marking or cutting
+the gains; but when
+the mortising for the
+rails is laid out, care
+must be exercised to
+mark them so that
+the mortises will come on the proper faces for
+assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well
+not to work up to the end of the post but to cut
+back, say <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch, as shown in one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+details. The rails may now be laid off and the tenons
+cut and fitted. It is exactly 8<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches between the
+shoulders of the rails. Since the shelves are 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+inches wide, one inch is thus left on each side to be
+gained into the posts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_193.jpg" width="200" height="163" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening shelf</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parts are now ready for the first assembling.
+To do this it is convenient to have a clear bench
+top on which the posts may be laid on one side, face
+down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped
+into place, the other two posts placed on top, and
+the whole clamped firmly together. This is the
+preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing
+the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right,
+it should be taken apart again, and, after glue has
+been applied to the tenons and to the ends of the
+shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled
+and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true.
+Before the glue hardens the
+shelves should be nailed into the
+posts, as indicated in the drawing.
+In this case it is the nail
+that is the main stay. The glue
+is accessory, adding much to
+the stiffness of the construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_194.jpg" width="350" height="165" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening posts to the top</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top may now be set on and fastened by screws
+or by brads driven through into the posts and well set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+so that they may be concealed by putty, coloured to
+match the stain used. The end slats should be fastened
+on in the same way. The back and ends of the
+closet are next cut to size and bradded in. The door
+is then fitted and, to break the surface a little, an
+ornamental design
+is cut in the
+centre. Still further
+relief is given
+by setting in
+the door <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch from the
+edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The
+door is now hung on brass hinges, the stop and
+catch added, and the stand is ready for staining
+and finishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This is to be a table designed on
+simple lines and of good proportions. It is to have
+no drawer but as much shelf room as conveniently
+possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut
+out to allow a chair to be drawn up on either side.
+The end shelves may be regarded as designed to
+combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding
+much to its usefulness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;For a table of this kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+oak is very appropriate. The following list gives
+the stock required for one table. The widths
+and the thickness are as called for in the drawing,
+but the lengths are given
+a little long to allow
+for cutting. A board
+not less than 9 inches
+wide and 10 feet long
+will be needed as stock
+for the top, the dimensions
+of which are <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+26 &times; 39 inches. A 10-inch
+board, 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> feet in length, will also be
+required for the shelves. There will also be needed
+four legs 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 30 inches; eight slats <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+&times; 18 inches; two back pieces <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 2 &times; 20<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches;
+two rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times; 32 inches; and two rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times;
+20 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_195.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A light library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same tools will be required as in the foregoing
+problems excepting that a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch bit and
+a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch chisel will be required for mortising, and
+two 3-foot clamps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first step in the construction
+is to dress the stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering
+it, and working the various parts to size.
+The lengths, however, of all parts excepting the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of
+construction, these parts are needed. The legs
+are at once cut to length and the mortises laid out,
+bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each
+leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted,
+glued, and bradded from the under side. The end
+and side rails may then be laid off for shoulders
+and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should
+be made <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch wide.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_196.jpg" width="500" height="254" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In gluing up, the top should receive attention
+first, in order to allow the longest possible time
+for testing the work under the inevitable changes
+due to continued seasoning. Great care must always
+be exercised in making the glued joints. It
+is often necessary to make them over on account
+of the development of cracks. Proper care, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+will prevent this. The general directions for gluing,
+given at the beginning of this chapter, will be of
+service.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the top has been glued the four short
+side pieces may be glued to the shelf, taking pains
+to make good joints before applying the glue.
+It should be noted that the inside ends of these
+short pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important
+that the ends on opposite sides should be exactly
+squared across, as indicated in the drawings. This
+may be accomplished by first locating the centre
+of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c
+in the drawing, and measuring 7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches each way
+to the line of the back pieces, which are to run
+across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue
+is hardened the ends should be squared and made
+true to set into the gains when the table is assembled.
+Finally, the legs, the rails, and the shelf may be
+assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside
+to harden before the clamps are removed.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under
+side before the glue hardens. After standing a
+few hours the table will be ready for the <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is
+to be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be
+cut to length. They project slightly below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+shelf, and are fastened in position by screws. The
+top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed,
+after which it may be fastened on the frame by
+means of screws and buttons, as already described
+in the early part of this chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This table, as the illustration shows,
+is designed to be of simple style, without a drawer
+or side shelves, and with the bottom shelf keyed
+into the base rail.
+Heavy, square legs,
+and mortise and tenon
+joints are called for.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_198.jpg" width="300" height="270" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A heavy library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The
+mission type
+of furniture, to which
+this design belongs,
+suggests oak as the
+fitting wood. The
+stock for the top, the dimensions of which are to
+be <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 28 &times; 44 inches, may be cut in three
+pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For
+the shelf a board <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 12 &times; 43 inches is required.
+There are needed also four legs 2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 30 inches; two side rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 4 &times; 36
+inches; two end top-rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 4 &times; 22 inches; two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+end bottom rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 4 &times; 22 inches; and for
+keys a strip 1 &times; 2 &times; 28 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_199.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same tools are required as were needed in
+the foregoing problem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;Since this table has a larger
+top than the light library table, even greater pains
+must be taken than in the case of the smaller table
+to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts
+should be laid off together and the necessary mortises
+and tenons cut and fitted, as in the previous
+case. The two end rails may be glued into the legs
+first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put
+in place last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened
+in without gluing by means of the tenons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat
+longer than is really needed so that they may appear
+to be as effective as they really are; and they
+should be tapered at least <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch in order
+to drive up well. A small brad may be driven
+in to keep them from getting loose when the work
+shrinks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="400" height="352" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (end)</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This is to be an upright bookcase,
+with five shelves and an overhanging top. Some
+variety of surface is afforded by the arrangement of
+the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves
+are made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other
+problems.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_201.jpg" width="300" height="473" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bookcase with glazed doors</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The stock required for one
+bookcase of this pattern is as follows: two end pieces
+<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 11<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 48<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches; for the top and bottom,
+two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 12 &times; 40
+inches; four shelves <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+11 &times; 40 inches; for the
+sides of the doors, four
+pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2 &times; 45
+inches; for the top and
+bottom rails of the doors,
+four pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 18
+inches; for the middle
+rail, one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2 &times;
+18 inches; for the sash,
+one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch
+&times; 6 feet; for the back,
+enough <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch stock to
+cover the space 38 &times;
+46 inches. In addition
+to this there will be required four hinges, two catches,
+a lock, and glass for the sash as dimensioned in
+the drawing. It is not necessary, however, to
+cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may
+be set in the full width of the door so that the
+small sash divisions may be apparent rather than
+real.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The tools for this problem are the same as those
+used in previous problems with the addition of a
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch bit and <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch chisel, and a rabbet plane,
+or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet
+for the glass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_202.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment
+of the stock, since it is practically the same
+as that employed in preceding problems. The
+details for cutting dimensions are given in the
+accompanying drawings. It would be well for the
+young woodworker to study these carefully and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+make out a working plan of procedure similar to
+that which has been outlined in other problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first thing to do is to erect
+the bookcase&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, to cut the sides, the top,
+the bottom, and the back pieces to proper form and
+dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten
+them. It will be noticed that the sides and top are
+rabbeted out, as indicated in one of the small
+drawings, so that the edge of the back will not
+show when it is nailed in position. The bottom
+shelf is also made narrow enough to allow the back
+boards to be brought down over it and nailed
+to the edge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="500" height="146" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of concealing ends of back boards</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the case is erected the doors should be laid
+out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons,
+and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for
+the glass. If it is decided to use one large light
+at the top of the door instead of six small ones,
+the sash effect for this light will have to be made
+of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+When the doors are ready for setting the glass it
+may be held in place by small <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> round strips,
+bradded in behind it. Great care should, of course,
+be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains
+which might give them such a twist that they
+could not be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of
+all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling
+of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted
+is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow
+a little stock for trimming off, both on the sides
+and on the ends, when the doors are finally fitted in.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A ROUND CENTRE TABLE</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_204a.jpg" width="250" height="246" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for round
+centre table</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_204b.jpg" width="200" height="330" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of top mortise</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="500" height="796" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for round centre table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem calls for a table of
+mission style with square legs set into the circumference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+of the table flush with the top and having
+tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity
+of form combined with strength characterizes the
+design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Quartered oak is recommended
+for a table of this design. The stock
+required for one table is as follows: four legs 2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 27 inches; two cross rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 3 &times; 29 inches;
+one piece of 3 &times; 12 &times; 20 inches for the curved rails;
+and stock enough to make a round top 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inches
+thick and 27 inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The only tools desirable to provide, in addition
+to those previously used, are a trammel and spokeshave
+or a circle plane.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first step is to join up and
+glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden
+and dry while the other work is being accomplished.
+The stock for the legs may then be dressed
+and the bottom mortises marked and cut through
+the posts. Care must be taken to transfer the
+marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may
+be accurately outlined on the face. Care must
+also be taken in cutting the mortises, in order to
+make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail
+of the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons
+of the curved rail, shown on <a href="#Page_180">page 180</a>, should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+consulted before laying out this work. It should
+be noticed that the legs project 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches above
+the top rail. After the top mortises are cut the
+cross bottom rails should be halved together and
+the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed that
+the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled
+off, but this should not be done until the fitting is
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>In laying out the plan of work for the construction
+of the curved rails the trammel comes
+into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside
+and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with
+a large steel square, draw straight lines from the
+centre or pivot point, making an exact quarter circle.
+This is shown in one of the drawings on <a href="#Page_180">page 180</a>.
+Then, parallel with each straight line and on the
+inside, mark off other lines one half the thickness of
+the leg. This locates the shoulder of the tenon. The
+pattern should then be carefully cut out of the
+thin board and used as a template for marking out
+on the stock the form of the curved rails. After
+these rails are band sawed and smoothed, the
+tenons may be cut.</p>
+
+<p>When the framing parts of the table have all
+been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued.
+Finally the top is placed face down on a bench top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it
+and centred to give the correct position of the
+insets for the legs. These should be laid off with
+great care, the outline reproduced exactly on the
+opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and
+frame should then be fastened together from the
+under side. After a few finishing touches have
+been given to the projecting ends and exposed
+surfaces, the table will be ready for the filling and
+varnishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A LIBRARY DESK</h3>
+
+<p>This is the most ambitious of the special problems
+in furniture making here suggested. Details
+are given in the drawings on the opposite page.
+If the young woodworker can give sufficient time
+to it and can command the services of a few machine
+tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake.
+Most of the operations required in its construction
+have already been carefully explained
+and need not be repeated as detailed directions.
+There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making
+called for in this problem which were not
+required in the others. They will therefore need
+explanation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A library desk</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Panelling.</i>&mdash;To avoid the difficulties which would
+result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice
+to make use of the panel. The design of the panel
+is easily understood. It consists of a framework
+of ordinary thickness, put together usually with
+mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of this
+framework are grooved, and into the groove is
+fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the
+frame which fills the space between the sides of
+the frame. The panel board may be in one piece
+of wide stock or it may be glued up. It may be
+of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel,
+or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side,
+and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case
+only the edges of the board are made thin enough
+to run in the groove of the panel frame. In this
+problem the panel board is to be made of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+stock, flat on the outside, and inset <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch.
+The back of the panel board is flush with the frame
+and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue
+all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock
+of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink
+appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become
+warped or twisted. The panel, on account of
+its greater width, may and generally does swell
+and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to
+move easily in the grooves so that its changes may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish
+the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to
+the rails, not to the panel board.</p>
+
+<p><i>Danger in the Power Saw.</i>&mdash;The panel frame
+may be constructed by hand, but if a circular
+saw be available it will be found of great service.
+Beginners, however, should employ the services
+of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk
+involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band
+saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The
+necessary operations should be carefully laid out
+on the partially finished stock, with a good square
+and gauge. A combination plane is quite essential
+for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own
+gauge. Care should be taken to make all measurements
+from the centre of the piece, and gauge and
+square always from the face sides and from the face
+edges of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to
+make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. In
+gluing up, the directions already given in the section
+on gluing should be followed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sand-papering.</i>&mdash;There is a legitimate use for
+sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on
+this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind
+of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised
+in the directions for furniture making. In furniture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+manufactories sand-papering machines are among
+the most expensive machines to be found in the
+shops; and their high cost is of course justified by
+their productive value. It is quite impossible to
+work down large pieces to a good surface by the
+process of planing. If a sand-papering machine
+is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker,
+it will be very desirable for him to send all large
+pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to
+the factory in order to have them run through the
+machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering
+by hand considerable pressure should be
+applied as evenly as possible and always along the
+grain. Any movements directly across the grain
+or at an angle are sure to show through the finish.
+The process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper
+around a block of wood about 2 &times; 4 inches in
+diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same
+dimensions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A MORRIS CHAIR</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="300" height="312" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Morris chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History of the Design.</i>&mdash;Among furniture designs
+the Morris chair has become a classic. It takes its
+name for its originator, William Morris, the great
+English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps
+more than to any other person, we are indebted for
+sane and honest work in furniture design and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+all forms of household decoration, not only in
+England but in other European countries and in
+America. And probably no one of his creations
+has done more to
+teach the lesson of
+simplicity, comfort,
+and utility in
+furniture than the
+Morris chair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 497px;">
+<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="497" height="659" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_215.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be well to
+add, however, that
+like many other
+famous works of
+art, the original
+design of William
+Morris has suffered
+much in countless imitations. The furniture shops
+display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities
+under the name of Morris chairs which are
+nothing less than an insult to the great name they
+bear. But the life of all imitations of original and
+really great ideas is bound to be short. Only the
+good and true, which are the original, survive. The
+really valuable features of the original Morris chair
+design, combining beauty of material with simplicity
+of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+upon the hearts of all people who have found solid
+comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+this problem are illustrated on <a href="#Page_50">page 50, chapter II</a>.
+Both are in quartered oak. The one on the right is
+stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the
+seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium
+brown leather. The one on the left is in light fumed
+oak with cushions of mahogany velour. On account
+of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter
+in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions
+of the smaller one will be followed in this
+problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+ash which, with a centre table and stool, were
+designed and made for a college girl's room; and a
+large part of the work of constructing the three
+pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_216a.jpg" width="400" height="96" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of pins</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing
+shown on the preceding page the young woodworker
+who undertakes this problem should select
+his stock according to the following list: 4 legs
+2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 24 inches; two arms 3 &times; 5<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 38
+inches; two bottom side rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 6 &times; 26 inches;
+two top side rails <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 26
+inches; two bottom rails (front and
+back) 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 6 &times; 24 inches; one top rail
+(back) <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 24 inches; two
+back uprights 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 25 inches;
+three cross pieces for back (lower)
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 2<sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 20 inches; one cross piece
+for back (top) <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 6 &times; 20 inches;
+one bracket 1 &times; 3 &times; 18 inches; four
+pins 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches square.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_216.jpg" width="150" height="421" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of Morris
+chair arm</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In sawing up the stock, allowance
+should be made of course, for necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+waste in working down to the drawing dimensions.
+The arms are drawn with a curve and may be
+fashioned by band sawing them out of 3-inch stock.
+There will be a considerable saving in material and
+labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the
+effect of the curve is very pleasing. The back slats
+may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another
+attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make
+and just as serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>The process of construction does not differ in
+general from that already described in some of the
+foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here
+in detail. The method of finishing this and all
+other furniture referred to in the problems will
+be explained in the following chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture,
+it will be necessary to provide casters for it. The
+Acme Pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair
+referred to in this problem. It makes use of a steel
+ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into
+the legs so as to leave only about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch of
+the ball exposed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HALL CLOCK</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_218.jpg" width="500" height="825" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall clock
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The original
+of the hall clock was
+designed and made by
+Mr. Egbert E. MacNary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Design.</i>&mdash;This clock was designed and built to conform
+to the requirements of the space allotted to it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+The lines of the case are all straight; there are no
+spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. A hall
+clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal;
+for all the other lines such as tops of window casings,
+picture moulding,
+etc., are horizontal.
+If the clock
+stood out of doors
+under the stars,
+then the top might
+be spired or
+pointed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="300" height="575" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction detail of a hall clock</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The construction,
+as indicated
+in the sketches, is
+simple and substantial.
+The long
+sides extend the
+entire height of
+the clock, being
+firmly joined into
+the base and head.
+The works are supported
+between
+these sides. The
+wood is <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm
+brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and
+weight are of brass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter.</i>&mdash;The long door
+has a panel of transparent leaded glass. This
+leaded glass work is a most fascinating process.
+The lead strips required for it were purchased of a
+dealer in lead specialties. Stained glass window
+concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. A
+full-size drawing was made of the design for the
+glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the
+pattern. A ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used.
+One caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use
+a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. <i>It
+should never be used twice in the same cut.</i> One
+stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made
+will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused
+by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The
+glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter
+used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut
+against a straight edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soldering.</i>&mdash;The long lines of the design are in one
+piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside
+edge. To solder the pieces together, the glass and
+lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads
+(about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+board close against the outside strips, so as to hold
+the pieces in position. A small bead of soldering
+paste is placed on each joint. A small soldering
+"iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are
+used. The copper may be "tinned" by filing the
+point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering
+paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder
+wire. The point will become coated with the
+solder, or, as we say, "tinned." The iron will
+need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of
+the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the
+best result.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by
+driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+a hard wood wedge. The piece of oak was revolved
+around the dial by means of a nail driven through
+the centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short
+arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was
+swung around about 1 inch and the groove continued.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_222.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of raising the dial rings</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="250" height="243" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dimensioned dial piece of clock
+before edges are turned</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The length of the pendulum depends upon the
+number of teeth in the escape wheel. It was necessary
+in the case of this clock to take out the escape
+wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22
+teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>OUTDOOR FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p>The greatest charm of home life in the summer
+season is rarely found within the house. This
+is especially true in the village or in the country,
+where nature is at her best; but even in city homes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings
+a small yard, a bit of garden, or any
+means of connecting the home
+with "God's great out-of-doors,"
+though it be but a
+sheltered balcony or a window
+garden, the touch of nature is
+not lost. It is possible, however,
+for art to assist nature;
+and in many cases her assistance
+is very much needed.
+It is certainly true that nature cannot be left
+wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the
+village or city home. If there be a garden, as
+much forethought must be exercised in planning
+it and as much pains taken in developing and caring
+for it as is called for in working out any form of
+interior decoration. There are problems of design
+and construction suggested by the need of suitable
+chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks
+and couches for the balcony, awnings for the
+windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture,
+perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. The more
+decorative features are found in the rose arbours,
+the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent,
+the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+problems that easily come within the reach of
+enterprising and capable young craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Types.</i>&mdash;In the designing of out-door
+furniture there are two suggestions from nature
+that may appropriately find expression. On the
+one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks,
+suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. This
+idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts,
+iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some
+other kind of heavy construction. On the other
+hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy,
+and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery,
+and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called
+rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden
+screens.</p>
+
+<p><i>An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood.</i>&mdash;A
+settle designed for comparatively permanent use
+in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be
+made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well
+protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion
+is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial
+lines. Ordinary 4 &times; 4 spruce, planed, may be
+used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest
+of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the
+back pieces and arms, and <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch boards for the
+rails and seat. Mortise and tenon joints should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+used in the framing. The illustration shows also
+a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated
+in the two front posts. It is a decorative feature
+which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully,
+the general severity of the lines on which the settle
+is designed to be built.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="400" height="327" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden settle</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Concrete Furniture.</i>&mdash;Still more substantial out-door
+furniture may be made of concrete cement.
+This material has come into use for sidewalks and
+pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone
+masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in
+a great variety of heavy building construction. Concrete
+is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in
+the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture
+with water, and allowing it to harden. It is so
+commonly associated with heavy, crude work that
+it is not easy to believe that it may be also
+fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative
+character; and yet it is capable of a wide range
+of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals,
+fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of
+garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden
+seats, have been successfully moulded in this material.
+Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well
+suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a
+variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion
+requires it. In weight and durability it leaves
+nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Wire Form.</i>&mdash;Concrete cement cannot be
+modelled like clay. In its formative state it is too
+soft for such manipulation. It must be supported
+in some way while it is being worked into the desired
+shape and until it has hardened. In general
+there are two methods of giving the necessary
+support: <i>viz.</i>, by employing an interior framework
+or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently
+encased in the cement; or by using a
+plaster or wooden mould into which the material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which
+it is removed when hardened. The latter method
+has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial
+purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite
+number of marketable results from the same
+moulds. The simpler wooden moulds may be easily
+made by a clever boy; and after a little experience
+he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly
+and mould a form successfully. For single pieces
+of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be
+preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method
+is found in the following problem:</p>
+
+
+<h3>A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE</h3>
+
+<p>The dimensions called for in this design are a
+diameter of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches. The
+wire form must therefore be made to approximate
+quite closely to these dimensions. A good material
+for the form is galvanized wire lath of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+mesh. This problem will require a piece about
+8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex
+side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base.
+From the square piece a circle 10 inches in diameter
+should be cut out. A strong pair of tinners' shears
+will be needed for this purpose. In bending the
+long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to
+proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+surface&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, one free from angular bends. A
+good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece
+down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical
+wooden block. If
+nothing better is available
+a rolling pin will serve
+this purpose. When the
+bending is nearly complete,
+the two ends of the piece
+should be brought together,
+lapped over about an inch,
+and bound together with
+free ends of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers
+will be of great assistance. If this part of the process
+has been carefully done, there will result a
+cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular
+piece should now be attached to one end of
+this form by means of the free ends of the strands
+found there, bending the projecting wires over and
+clinching them at convenient points on the circumference
+of the circular piece where there are uncut
+meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for
+covering with the cement.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_228.jpg" width="250" height="278" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden vase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first step is the mixing of the cement for what
+is known as the scratch coat. This is made by
+mixing Portland cement with fine, clean sand in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+the proportion of one part cement to two of
+sand. These ingredients should be thoroughly
+mixed together in the dry state, and then there
+should be added a small quantity of goats' hair,
+well picked apart. For the problem at hand about
+five pounds of cement will be needed and as much
+goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole
+should be thoroughly wet down with just the right
+amount of water. It is important that the mixture
+should not be made too soft. A scratch coat
+should be given a consistency that will enable it
+to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the
+same time, to hang well together.</p>
+
+<p>When a sufficient amount of the right mixture
+has been obtained, it should be spread upon the
+wire form by means of a small mason's trowel
+or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom
+of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward,
+taking no pains to make this first coat smooth,
+since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention
+whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting
+to see that the cement is forced well through the
+meshes so that the whole mass will be held together
+firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth
+coat as a part of the later finishing process. When
+the convex surface has been well covered, the form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+should be turned bottom up and the cement spread
+upon the base of the cylinder in the same way.
+After the wire has been completely covered, the form,
+which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be
+corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder
+has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for
+about five hours until the cement has thoroughly
+hardened. It is then ready for the finishing coat.</p>
+
+<p>The next step in the process is to make the cement
+for the finishing coat. Considerable variety is
+possible here, depending upon the colour and other
+surface effects that are desired. In this design a
+light, sparkling surface when finished is required.
+To produce this effect a mixture of one part Portland
+cement and two parts marble dust will be
+needed. This should be mixed without hair to a
+consistency like that used for the scratch coat.</p>
+
+<p>Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces
+should be thoroughly moistened by means of a
+brush well filled with water. There are various
+methods of applying this coat. The simplest is
+carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing
+it with the moistened hand. When the surface
+has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible
+to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper
+or a coarse file. It is not possible to produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the
+method has the characteristic freedom of handwork
+in general, and yields very satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_231.jpg" width="250" height="295" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A vase with blocked rim</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Decoration.</i>&mdash;A great variety of decorative
+effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in
+other articles made of this material for out-door
+use. In pottery these decorations may take the
+form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or
+designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour.
+Whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting
+for it is best made when the cement has become well
+set but not very hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, from 6 to 10 hours
+after the finishing coat is applied. A stout, sharp,
+pointed knife blade is all the
+tool that will be required.
+A narrow chisel, however,
+may be found desirable for
+deepening the cuts. The
+knife should be guided by
+means of a ruler, which
+should be flexible if used on
+curved surfaces; and the
+depth of the cut will depend
+somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work
+similar to that described in the problem just
+given, a depth of <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> or <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch is sufficient.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+This cutting, of course can be made after the
+cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and
+chisel; but it will be much more difficult.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_232.jpg" width="150" height="187" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A square form</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Colours.</i>&mdash;Colour cement for inlaid designs
+is made by using the best quality of white Portland
+cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral
+pigments which are sold by dealers under the name
+of lime or cement-proof colours. Among the pigments
+suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron,
+which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives
+a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces
+yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good
+dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good
+brown. These come as dry powders
+and should be mixed with the dry
+cement and marble dust, making a
+mixture of uniform colour, before
+the water is applied. In order to
+determine the right colour it is
+well to experiment with a small
+quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory
+shade has been found. Then with this as a
+guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed,
+in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick
+paste, and applied to the design, which has been
+previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete,
+the cutting should be well moistened with
+a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs
+are shown in the accompanying drawings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rustic Furniture.</i>&mdash;The lighter out-door furniture
+can be easily made up in a great variety of
+designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs is
+determined largely by the material which is available.
+Very useful and ornamental effects are produced
+by using sticks cut from the tops or from
+branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily
+found in the second growth of some wood lots,
+afford a good supply of material. It is not necessary
+that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks
+and notches are often very useful in bracing the
+framework. Chairs, settles, tables, standards for
+flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may
+be made out of this rough and unfinished material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden screen</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Lattice Work.</i>&mdash;Trellises and garden screens have
+been made in an almost endless variety of forms.
+Among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice
+work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity
+and evident durability are points in its favour.
+Experience proves also that vines and other plants
+needing support are readily adjusted to this form
+of trellis. The size of the stock required in making<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+the right-angled lattice work depends upon the
+uses to be made of it. For a garden screen the
+uprights need to be of 2 &times; 2 inch stock and of
+any convenient length. End posts of 3 &times; 3 inch
+stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness;
+and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts
+of the same size should be placed at intervals of
+ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be
+strips of <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch stock, 2 inches wide, set their full
+thickness into the uprights. Spruce furring, which
+lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is suitable
+for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest
+of the construction. The top and bottom rails
+should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3
+inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete
+posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of 6
+feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are
+fastened by means of irons set into the cement when
+the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green
+paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate
+the lattice work to the trailing branches which it
+supports.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII">VIII</a><br /><br />
+<small>FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry&mdash;<i>Ebenezer Elliot</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In the</span> commercial production of furniture the
+cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing
+of his work. This essential part of furniture
+making is turned over to artisans who are finishers
+by trade. In a separate part of the factory they
+attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood
+and to whatever finish is applied to the work of
+the joiner. It is hardly necessary to add that
+the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as
+important as any other feature in its production;
+for, however good the lines of design may be and
+however thoroughly the design may be carried out
+in the construction of any piece of furniture or
+other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as
+a work of art in the finishing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVI" id="PLVI"></a><img src="images/i_237.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Finishing a Library Table</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his
+own finisher. He should familiarize himself with
+the various kinds of finish that may be applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+the different woods. He should know the object of
+filling wood and how it is done. He should understand
+the processes of fuming, staining, and varnishing
+so well that he can produce with certainty
+the results desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING</h3>
+
+<p><i>First Steps in Finishing.</i>&mdash;The first step in finishing
+woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the
+filler. Too great care cannot be taken in examining
+all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred
+in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been
+acquired in any part of the process of construction.
+Light planing, chiselling, or scraping, and perhaps
+a little sand-papering, always with the grain, may
+be needed to remove these faults and blemishes.
+The most serious of these generally result from gluing.
+All surplus glue should be carefully removed,
+even to the film that soaks into the surface of the
+wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will
+keep the filler out of the wood and show through
+any kind of finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Filling.</i>&mdash;As soon as the furniture
+is thoroughly cleaned, if it is to be finished in the
+natural color, the grain of the wood must be filled
+with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance,
+known as the filler, which, after standing from five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+to seven minutes, should be thoroughly rubbed off
+with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings.
+This process, as its name indicates, fills the pores
+of the wood and protects them against the absorption
+of moisture and the consequent swelling. But
+this is by no means its chief purpose. Strictly
+speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent
+finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be
+said to be the most important operation connected
+with wood finishing. If improperly done, no amount
+of good work with the varnish brush will remove the
+fault. In fact, good work is impossible after a bad
+beginning. Good varnishing or good finishing of any
+kind requires that, before the final finishing processes
+begin, the surface should be made perfectly
+level and smooth, free from all unevenness or roughness
+or minute openings of any kind that might
+allow the varnish or other finishing material to
+penetrate the wood. If the filling has not been so
+thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing
+material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough
+surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course,
+be rubbed down and re-finished, but never with
+that perfection of result which is assured by laying
+a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set
+down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+that the best result is obtained when the filling or
+surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the
+thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required
+to produce the desired result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid Fillers or Surfaces.</i>&mdash;There are many kinds
+of fillers in common use, but they may all be considered
+as belonging to one or the other of two
+classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste
+fillers. Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or
+fineness of their grain. The coarse or open-grained
+woods require a filler with body enough to close up
+the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even
+surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing.
+The close-grained woods, on the other hand, do not
+present the same filling problem. They could not
+absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much
+to say that the fine, close-grained woods, like maple,
+gum wood, and birch, do not need a filler at all;
+and there are some coarse-grained woods, like
+southern or hard pine and cypress, the pores of
+which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous
+substances and will not absorb an artificial filler.
+But all such woods <i>do</i> need to be given a finishing
+surface which will prevent the finishing coats
+from soaking into the fibre of the wood. This is
+the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+are very properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Make a Liquid Filler.</i>&mdash;A standard formula
+for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows:
+Mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with
+six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in
+about eight parts of japan, thinning the product
+with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of
+linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place
+of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat
+easier of application than the clay filler because
+it does not settle. It lacks in durability, however,
+especially if it is not well covered. The finest
+grained woods do not require the addition of any
+material to the filler to give body. A great variety
+of liquids may be easily obtained which, without
+being mixed with anything, will give the necessary
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades
+of varnish, thinned if necessary with benzine or
+turpentine, are often used for this purpose. But
+these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and
+never should be used on the best grades of woodwork.
+Shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard
+pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the
+wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+If oil is applied to hard pine without first applying
+this protecting coat of shellac, the wood blackens
+with age. Shellac is an excellent first coater for
+other woods also. It is commonly used in house
+finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But
+it dries rapidly, and generally with a rough surface.
+The first coating of shellac, therefore, requires careful
+sand-papering before the varnish is put on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry.</i>&mdash;It may be
+well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time
+required for the thorough drying of shellac. While
+it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first
+drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming
+a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying
+throughout, so that a shellac filling is not really
+dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after
+it has been applied, though it may appear to be.
+It is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours
+for thorough drying; and it may be well to add that
+all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for
+the best results more time than energetic workers
+sometimes allow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cost of Surfacing.</i>&mdash;A practical question that the
+amateur finisher will ask is, how can one know in
+advance how much filler is needed for given pieces
+of work, and what will be its cost? For a good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint
+will cover eight square yards with one coat. The
+cost varies greatly, depending upon the quality
+of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained
+of a dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer
+can be bought for $1.50 per gallon, making the cost
+per square yard of one-coat surfacing about 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot
+be done with the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac,
+which is, all in all, the best of surfacers, can be
+bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the cost
+of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Make a Paste Filler.</i>&mdash;A good paste filler,
+such as is required for the open-grained woods like
+oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or white wood, may
+be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base,
+thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine,
+and japan in equal parts, with enough silica added
+to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency
+somewhat thicker than paper-hangers'
+paste. If the mixture should prove to be a little too
+thick, it may easily be thinned with turpentine.
+The final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a
+hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is
+needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the
+paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+though commercial fillers are not generally
+quite so good as a one made on this formula.
+They often contain wax and whiting and other
+materials as a base which are not so satisfactory
+in the long run as the floated silica.</p>
+
+<p><i>How a Paste Filler is Applied.</i>&mdash;Paste fillers should
+be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally
+with a wide, stiff brush, allowed to stand from five
+to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece
+of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior.
+But it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of
+the grain. This is an easy mistake for an inexperienced
+worker to make. The thing to do is to
+rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces
+smooth. The surfaces should then be allowed to
+dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving
+the final finishing coats.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VARNISHING</h3>
+
+<p>The importance of a good foundation surface&mdash;even,
+smooth, and free from unsealed pores that
+would absorb and thus undermine the first coat
+of varnish&mdash;has been explained in the section on
+filling and surfacing. If this foundation has been
+well laid, the amateur finisher may enter upon the
+varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but
+he will soon learn that there is much call for skill<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+in order to produce the desired results in this part
+of the finishing process. The selection, preparation,
+and application of varnish is a special calling,
+and great skill comes only as the result of experience;
+but certain main facts and principles are easily
+learned.</p>
+
+<p><i>How a Good Varnish is Recognized.</i>&mdash;It is hardly
+necessary to say that a superior varnish must be
+clear, transparent, and brilliant. These qualities
+are always associated with this kind of finish. But
+durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will,
+with his eyes shut, recognize a high-grade varnish
+by its peculiar odour, which is to him an agreeable
+one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the
+rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in
+their manufacture. The range of quality and cost
+in varnishes is probably greater and more varied
+than in any other finishing material. For fine,
+artistic work only the best varnish is allowable;
+and this may be bought for $3.00 a gallon.</p>
+
+<p><i>"Sag" and How Corrected.</i>&mdash;A good varnish flows
+easily from the brush, spreads evenly, and dries
+slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its proper
+distribution over the surface. And time enough
+should be taken to apply an even coat which will
+not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+irregular contraction in the process of hardening.
+It is of the utmost importance that each coat be
+spread evenly over the surface when first applied.
+Great care should be taken not to brush long in one
+place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves
+brush marks which are objectionable. Unequal
+spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish
+to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be
+brushed out if attended to promptly. But, if it
+is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set,
+the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb
+the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly
+dried brush; and this must not be attempted three
+or four minutes after the varnish has been put on.
+By that time it will have become quite well set and
+a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time Required Between Varnish Coats.</i>&mdash;The best
+varnishes, as has been stated, dry quite slowly,
+and they seem to dry and harden not, as shellac
+does, on the top first, but from the under surface
+outward. This peculiarity emphasizes the need of
+allowing sufficient time between coats. And it
+should be added that mere drying is not all that
+is required. Each coat must harden; and during
+the process of hardening slight movements take
+place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+permanently set or hardened. The time
+required for this permanent setting or seasoning,
+as it may be called, varies with the character of
+the under coat, with the temperature of the room
+in which the finishing is done, and with the thickness
+of the varnish coat itself. Five days is usually
+thought to be a short seasoning period. As many
+weeks would not be too long for the best results.
+It is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing.
+In the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without
+yielding disastrous results. There is no other
+kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with
+the certainty that it does in varnishing. Great
+pains must be taken with each coat. Least of all
+should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and
+depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces
+depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and
+well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat
+is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted
+room, free from dust, and with a good supply
+of fresh air, kept at an even temperature, of about
+70 degrees&mdash;certainly not colder than this, since
+a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading
+evenly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Coats Needed.</i>&mdash;The number of coats
+of varnish required vary with the character of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+work. What is known as piano finish requires from
+three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing
+varnish, each well hardened and rubbed down to give
+under surfaces more even than the best brushing can
+give. In addition to these under coats a final finish
+coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Rub Down Varnish.</i>&mdash;Rubbing down
+varnish is a unique and important part in the process
+of finishing. The beginning of the operation consists
+of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized
+pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the
+work is such that water would have no chance to
+soak into the pores of the wood. Whichever liquid
+is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary.
+This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick,
+loose cloth like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first
+moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into
+a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice.
+With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously,
+giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing
+down the broad surfaces. As the smoothing progresses,
+less and less of the pumice powder is used.
+Near the end of the process enough will be found
+on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad.
+What remains on the surface is finally all wiped off
+carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+that the surface has been levelled down but that it
+is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of
+the pumice. These are removed by a second rubbing
+in rotten stone and oil or water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dull Finish and Flat Varnish.</i>&mdash;For many purposes
+good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed
+down and covered with a finish coat; and this finish
+coat is often not allowed to retain its natural
+lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be
+preferred. It is more durable, it harmonizes better
+with its surroundings, and it is more in keeping with
+the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working
+for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth
+and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is
+required, and therefore fewer coats are necessary.
+In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture without
+any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac,
+each well rubbed down, give a very satisfactory
+result. Wax finish, to be described later, gives
+beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as
+flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing.
+They are made by dissolving beeswax in
+turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the
+solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and
+mixing the wax solution while warm with four times
+the quantity of warm varnish. What is known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the
+proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is
+no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by
+several coats of high-grade varnish, each well rubbed
+down.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WAX FINISH</h3>
+
+<p><i>How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax.</i>&mdash;The
+simplest and at the same time one of the most
+attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing
+it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes
+which has of late years been revived by the
+arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly
+popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready
+for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow
+beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two
+parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this the
+wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings,
+placed in a dish, and covered with the liquid. The
+solution may be hastened by heating in a water
+bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the
+water, care should be exercised to extinguish the
+flame before bringing the turpentine near, on account
+of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor.
+This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a
+brush, may be applied either hot or cold by means
+of a piece of soft cloth. Soft cloths, like clean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The
+rubbing should be continued for a considerable time,
+but it is by no means so tedious a process as the
+rubbing down of the several coats of varnish. Less
+rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One
+of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that
+it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed
+down, after which the furniture is ready for use.
+Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It
+is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any
+time. In fact, it is desirable to re-finish new
+pieces of furniture in this way several times during
+the first few months of their use, and after that about
+once a year.</p>
+
+
+<h3>STAINING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Object of Staining.</i>&mdash;Up to this point the processes
+of finishing considered have assumed that the
+wood treated is to retain its natural colour, excepting
+that it may darken with age. But it is often
+desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+to dye or stain it. This is done for a variety
+of purposes&mdash;to reduce to one tone the different
+shades of the natural colour often found in the same
+kind of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of
+the grain and texture, to give an entirely new colour
+to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that
+will harmonize with various colour schemes. To
+accomplish this great variety of results, scores of
+different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put
+upon the market in almost countless shades and
+tints, but they are all easily classified under three
+heads. They are oil stains, water stains, or alcohol
+stains.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Perfect Stain.</i>&mdash;A perfect stain, if it could be
+obtained, would be a clear, limpid liquid, free from
+all solid particles or specks of colouring matter
+that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere
+with the absorption of the filler&mdash;so clear and
+transparent that it would in no way obscure the
+grain of the wood, which in many varieties is the
+chief element of beauty&mdash;so limpid that it would
+easily soak deep into the pores of the wood, carrying
+to a considerable depth below the surface an
+artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared.</i>&mdash;The
+water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these
+requirements better than the oil stains do. They
+are clear, and without body, and they have great
+penetration. But they are not free from faults.
+Many of the water stains are made from aniline
+dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+however, are generally permanent. Both the water
+stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the
+wood and are liable to show darker in corners and
+on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing.
+The oil stains, on the other hand, are free from these
+faults. They spread easily and evenly, they do
+not raise the grain, they do not double up or show
+laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have
+a few defects which overbalance these good qualities.
+They have considerable body which prevents
+them from penetrating equally all parts of the
+surface, so that they do not carry in the colouring
+as either the water or the alcohol stains do. Their
+oily nature causes them partly to close up the
+filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the
+subsequent process of filling. This is so bad a
+defect that oil stains are not to be recommended
+for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which
+depends so much on correct filling. They are more
+successful with the close-grained woods, which need
+only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary
+liquid filler.</p>
+
+<p><i>How Stain is Applied.</i>&mdash;If furniture or any kind
+of woodwork is to be artificially coloured, staining
+is the first of the finishing operations to be attended
+to. The stain should be spread upon well-cleaned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge,
+and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it
+may penetrate well into the wood. The surfaces
+should then be carefully wiped off with clean, soft
+cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may
+not have soaked into the wood, and thus prevent
+a streaked or painted effect. After the stained
+surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to match
+the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into
+the pores, as already explained in the section on
+natural finish. The beginner will need to be cautioned
+again and again not to rub the filler all off or
+draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much
+as possible. He will also need to be on his guard
+against the presence of moisture or grease, which
+will interfere with good results.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent prepared stains in great variety may
+be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies.
+They will not always produce the effects claimed
+for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible
+to find prepared stains that will give almost
+any desired result. They are somewhat expensive,
+however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to
+develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions
+along this line:</p>
+
+<p><i>Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain.</i>&mdash;A good chocolate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+brown stain may be produced on almost any
+light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by
+colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying
+with a brush. A considerable quantity of asphaltum
+should be used, but not enough to make a
+sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with
+shellac or finishing varnish. When applied to
+quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known
+as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood
+to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia
+pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone
+without obscuring the natural figure of the wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mahogany.</i>&mdash;A clever imitation of mahogany may
+be made by staining birch of the right grain with
+logwood stain. The stain is made by boiling together
+equal parts of logwood chips and water for
+about three hours. While the mixture is hot,
+chloride of tin is added gradually until the right
+shade of colour is produced. The stain should be
+allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several
+coats may be needed to secure the right depth of
+shade. The filler used should be coloured with
+burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a
+brilliant or a flat varnish, or wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baywood as Mahogany.</i>&mdash;Mahogany stain is also
+applied to baywood, resulting in what commonly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+passes for real mahogany. The genuine article,
+however, is an imported wood coming from South
+America, Mexico, and Africa in several varieties;
+and it is a much harder wood than the American
+baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood
+imitations of mahogany may be so well stained
+and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them
+from the imported varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flemish Oak.</i>&mdash;The various oak stains are worthy
+of special mention. Flemish oak finish is very dark,
+almost black. It is prepared by first applying a
+stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in
+water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate
+to a gallon of water. The solution should
+be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After
+drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat
+of thin black stain is applied, made by dissolving
+japan drop-black in turpentine. This is allowed
+to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when
+the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac
+is applied. After a thorough drying and hardening
+the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper
+and finished with wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mission Oak.</i>&mdash;The so-called mission oak finish
+may be in several colours, but as a rule it is of a dull
+gray with the flakes slightly reddish. The stain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a little
+rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine.
+The mixture should be strained through cheese
+cloth and applied with a staining brush. Wax
+finish is invariably used for mission oak.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest Green Oak.</i>&mdash;Forest green oak is among
+the best of the green effects in this wood. The stain
+is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with
+one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material.
+This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine
+and one of raw linseed oil, with a little white japan.
+The resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than
+linseed oil. After this has been applied to the oak
+surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat
+of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a
+very little green aniline. This should have a wax
+finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gray Oak.</i>&mdash;A gray stain may be given to oak by
+a solution of iron sulphate, made by dissolving a
+small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water,
+and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by
+adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most
+conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large
+enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained,
+as they must soak in the solution until they are
+thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+separate by stout cords tied around them, and they
+may be held under the solution by means of weights.
+When taken out they should be allowed to dry before
+they are rubbed down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weathered Oak.</i>&mdash;Weathered oak stain is made by
+taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity
+of dry tannin, dissolving them separately in about
+a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved
+mixing them together. When applied to oak it
+gives it the natural weathered tone with
+a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled,
+shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or
+wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fumed Oak and Chestnut.</i>&mdash;But the most satisfactory
+method of giving a brown tone to furniture
+or other woodwork, is without question, by fuming
+with ammonia, though this process is limited to
+two woods, viz., white oak and chestnut. All
+other woods, including red oak, are deficient in
+tannic acid, the essential element to combine with
+the ammonia gas in the production of the stain.
+This method requires a fuming box of sufficient
+dimensions to contain the article of furniture to
+be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with
+all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over
+them strips of paper and covering them with shellac.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+The top or one side of the box should be
+fastened with screws, so that it may be vapour proof
+when the box is in use and yet easily removed.
+The operation of fuming consists simply in placing
+the furniture in the box with one or more shallow
+pans filled with the strongest ammonia&mdash;not the
+household ammonia, which is too weak&mdash;screwing
+the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus
+to stand from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade
+desired. If the fuming box be provided with small
+glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good
+light will be thrown across the furniture so that
+the development of colour may be observed without
+opening the box. When the desired shade
+has been obtained and the furniture removed,
+it is best to give it a good wax finish which will
+develop a beautiful velvety texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peculiarities of Fumed Finish.</i>&mdash;It will be observed
+that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process
+develops the beauty of the grain far better than
+any other process of staining; and there should also
+be noted the still more remarkable fact that the
+contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by
+staining; <i>i. e.</i>, the parts that appear lighter in the
+one case are the darker parts in the other. This
+gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+furnishes a means of detecting that which is not
+genuine.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHITE ENAMEL</h3>
+
+<p>A vivid and very effective finish for furniture
+as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel.
+It is used on new work and also in re-finishing old
+furniture and other woodwork. In the latter case
+the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed
+and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But
+whether the wood be old or not, a satisfactory enamel
+finish cannot be produced by using the white
+varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is
+somewhat transparent. It is necessary, first, to
+coat the wood with flat white&mdash;a paint made of
+white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and
+thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used
+in any part of the process. Three coats of this paint
+will generally be needed to produce the right surface
+for the final finish. Each of these coats should be
+allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two
+or three days, better still a week, should be allowed
+for hardening between coats, since insufficient
+hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats
+and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface
+is ready for the enamel, only one coat of it
+should be applied, and that should be given not less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+than one week to harden before it is exposed to
+wear. Enamel is simply a good varnish coloured
+with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It may be
+thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is
+applied with a brush like any other varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p>Problems in filling and finishing were developed
+in the series of furniture making problems in <a href="#VII">Chapter
+VII</a>. It is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished
+work there described and apply to it the
+finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our
+problems are, therefore, the following:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Knock-down Bookcase.</i>&mdash;If made up in white
+wood it may, like its original, be stained in imitation
+of black walnut and waxed. It may, however,
+be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize
+with the furniture with which it is to be
+used.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hanging Book Rack.</i>&mdash;In the design for this
+rack it was suggested that it might be made of white
+wood and given a white enamel finish, or of baywood
+with a mahogany stain and varnish.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Umbrella Stand.</i>&mdash;Oak was advised for this
+piece of furniture. It needs to be treated with
+a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, well
+rubbed down.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Magazine Stand.</i>&mdash;Oak was suggested for
+this stand. The color will depend upon the surroundings.
+Filling and varnishing will be required
+if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be
+fumed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Light Library Table.</i>&mdash;Oak was mentioned as
+a very appropriate wood for this table, but some
+lighter wood like ash may be used. It will be
+remembered that all open-grained woods require
+treatment with a paste filler before they are finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Heavy Library Table.</i>&mdash;As this was designed
+in the mission style, oak was chosen as the most
+suitable wood. It may be given the so-called mission
+oak stain and a wax finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Round Centre Table.</i>&mdash;This may be made in
+any of the woods commonly used for furniture,
+but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden oak
+finish will be found very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bookcase with Glazed Doors.</i>&mdash;This may be
+made up in ash, in quartered oak, or in gum wood.
+The finish will depend upon the kind of wood used
+and the furniture with which it is to be associated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Library Desk and the Morris Chair.</i>&mdash;The
+originals were made in quartered oak, fumed, and
+waxed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hall Clock.</i>&mdash;This may be made in quartered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax
+finish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p>There is nothing that affords more satisfaction
+to one looking for pleasing effects in household
+fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old
+furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the
+rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit.
+This is proved by the high prices which they often
+command. These designs originated in the days
+of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention
+of machine-made, cheap furniture. The work of
+the older designers was characterized by a certain
+individuality which gave it artistic value; and the
+craftsmen who worked out these designs did their
+work with such care and thoroughness that what
+they produced has had a lasting quality. It is
+for these reasons that we find it still in existence
+and so much desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caution as to Repairs.</i>&mdash;In the work of renovating
+old furniture, problems are met which are very
+different from those which have to be considered
+in the production of new work. All questions of
+design are settled. There is generally enough of
+the original article to show what the design was.
+The problem is one of restoration; we must supply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first
+thing to do, therefore, with any piece of genuine
+antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the
+point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its defects,
+supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the
+breaks. It will be found that the wood is generally
+exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age,
+and that it will therefore need to be handled more
+carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it
+will often be found desirable to make use of parts
+of other old pieces rather than to add new wood
+to the old. This is especially true of veneering,
+which cannot be well matched in any other way.
+Old bits of veneer, on the other hand, may be so
+deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed
+that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent
+finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scraping.</i>&mdash;After the necessary repairs have been
+made, the next thing to be done is to remove the
+old finish. If the varnish is dry and brittle and
+somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means
+of a well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken,
+however, not to injure the wood surface, especially
+at the corners and edges. If the scraper does not
+take off the varnish well at certain points, fine sand-papering
+may be resorted to. It is generally wise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+also, to give the entire surface a light sand-papering
+before it is cleaned up for finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Varnish Remover.</i>&mdash;It often happens, however,
+that the scraper will not accomplish the desired
+result. In that case the liquid varnish remover
+is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores.
+The best formulas for producing these varnish and
+paint removers are known only to the manufacturers.
+It is therefore not wise for the young finisher to
+attempt to make his own remover. He should provide
+himself with a can of it and a bristle brush
+with which to apply it to the furniture. After
+putting on a good coat he should let it remain a
+few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened
+finish with a putty knife. If it doesn't come off
+readily, it should stand a little longer. The amount
+of time required depends entirely upon the hardness
+of the old finish. But in due time it will become
+soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed.
+A putty knife, however, will not remove it all.
+After scraping off as much as possible from the
+plain surfaces and from the corners, a careful washing
+with turpentine or benzine will clean off what
+remains. It is of the greatest importance that none
+of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover
+should be permitted to remain. Either of them will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces
+and collect in the corners when the new finish
+is put on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Re-finishing.</i>&mdash;The re-finishing process is much
+like that described for new work, the chief exception
+being that there is generally no need of filling unless
+it has been found necessary to add new wood in
+making the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing
+begins with the surfacing, which may be
+done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain
+of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly
+before receiving the one or more coats of finishing
+varnish necessary to produce the desired effect.
+Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down
+wax finish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY
+TABLE</h3>
+
+<p>The table with which this problem deals was
+found in an old furniture shop among a large number
+of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor
+design; for all old furniture was not conceived on
+beautiful lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as
+some of the modern furniture. This table, however,
+when separated from the rubbish which almost
+concealed it, was found to have good proportions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+with simple but graceful elements designed to make
+it useful as well as attractive. It was a drop-leaf
+table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve
+at each of the four corners. The legs were of turned
+stock and fluted, terminating in brass thimbles
+with casters. One leg was broken off, one of the
+leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges
+and the other was partly broken, the table top had
+received some hard knocks, and the entire surface
+was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with
+difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of
+which the table was made. It took some imagination
+to conceive the possibilities which lay in this
+much abused and dilapidated old relic.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and
+dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge. The
+part of the top that remained on the frame was then
+removed so that the repairs could be easily made.
+The broken leg was replaced by boring each of the
+broken parts and setting them together with a
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and casters
+were removed and set aside to be burnished. The
+missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces
+of baywood, fitted in, glued, and stained to match
+the original wood. After the necessary repairs
+had been made the entire table was treated with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with
+a putty knife. This part of the process was completed
+by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with
+turpentine, carefully picking out with a pointed
+knife from corners, cracks, and openings of any
+kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish
+remover. After carefully wiping off the results
+of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the
+broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine
+sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well
+filled, so that all it now needed was a final finishing
+with wax. The transformation from the begrimed
+old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful
+article of antique furniture was complete.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX">IX</a><br /><br />
+<small>HAND WEAVING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And Aphrodite came to comfort them<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Her&eacute; gave them beauty of face and soul<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Beyond all women; purest Artemis<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Endowed them with her stature and white grace;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Pallas taught their hands to flash along<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her famous looms.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX). Translation
+by Mrs. Browning.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Among</span> the home industries which the arts and
+crafts societies have lately revived, perhaps
+none invite more interest or deserve greater
+honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving
+is an ancient art. If we were to seek its origin we
+should have to go back to the time when men adopted
+homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made
+from the skins of animals. That was a great change,
+for it meant the beginning not only of the textile
+industries but of civilization itself. It is no wonder
+that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured
+in ancient mythologies. Not less honour is due the
+spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+which played an important part in the early beginnings
+of our own history. The New England
+colonists spoke with pride of communities which
+showed progress in the weaving of cloth; and this
+was then largely a home industry in the hands of
+honourable women. It was a work of necessity, but
+not without love and devotion. Many evidences
+remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels
+of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths&mdash;examples
+of unfailing patience, great ingenuity,
+and marvellous skill&mdash;handed down from
+generation to generation to their present fortunate
+and proud possessors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVII" id="PLVII"></a><img src="images/i_271.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Weaving a Rug</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>The Primitive Loom.</i>&mdash;In the Orient, where our
+choicest rugs are made, two trees growing near
+each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo,
+and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires.
+This is a primitive loom. The modern
+hand loom is the same in principle; and the looms
+of our factories do not differ from it essentially.
+While it is true that their productive power has been
+enormously multiplied, this great improvement,
+which was actually one of the chief causes of a great
+industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive
+genius of two men who harnessed the motive
+powers of nature to the English hand looms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_274.jpg" width="400" height="130" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Shuttle and bobbin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Warp and Woof.</i>&mdash;The fundamental process in
+all weaving is essentially the same; and it is exceedingly
+simple. It consists in passing one set of threads
+between two other sets of threads which cross each
+other alternately and are moved first up and then
+down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its
+bobbin and thread. The set of threads which cross
+each other and which, by being moved up and
+down, interlock the thread which is passed between
+them, is known as the <i>warp</i>. The thread which
+the shuttle carries across and between the warp
+threads is called the <i>woof</i>. By careful selection
+of materials, by skilful design in the dyeing and
+arrangement of these materials, and by proper management
+of the warp and woof to express the design,
+the most beautiful Oriental rugs are fashioned;
+and, though we may not be able to reproduce these
+in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things
+may be made upon the hand loom by those who have
+the necessary enthusiasm and patience.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_275.jpg" width="600" height="512" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The hand loom</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_276.jpg" width="500" height="74" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The reed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>What the Hand Loom is.</i>&mdash;The hand loom consists
+of four uprights or posts, joined on two sides at the
+top and bottom by cross pieces. Attached to the
+lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each
+side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give
+free play back and forth. This is the beater.
+These cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges,
+and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a
+frame divided into sections by short, stiff wires,
+making from 10 to 25 or more sections to the inch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+It is called a reed because it was formerly made
+from reeds. The sections of the reed are called
+dents, and through each one is to be threaded a single
+strand of the warp. From the upper cross pieces
+extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a
+height of about two feet above the general framework.
+They are united at the top by a round piece
+called the roll, over which, near each end, are
+passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn
+carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes
+to inch-wide sticks extending across the width
+of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry
+cords or wires of uniform length through the centre
+of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by
+means of an eye in each wire, as through the dent
+of the reed. This is called the harness. There
+must be at least two of them, and there may be more.
+Two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a
+plain surface, and more than two if the work is to
+be more complex, as is required for scarfs with
+fancy borders, cushions, or any figured products
+of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads
+are attached when the loom is set up for weaving.
+These rollers are called beams. Over one of them
+the woven product passes as the loom is operated,
+while the other holds the unwoven warp. At the
+back of the loom is still another cross piece, underneath
+which pedals are fastened. These pedals
+connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner
+that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords
+attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing the
+harness and the warp threads which it carries below
+the level of the other set or sets of warp threads.
+An ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom
+holds the work taut and enables the worker to let
+out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE PROCESS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Preparing the Warp.</i>&mdash;When the essential parts
+of the hand loom and their uses are understood,
+the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the
+warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or
+warp is taken from spools or cones, four threads at one
+time, which constitute what is called a bout. After
+determining how many threads will be required,
+allowing so many threads to form one inch of the
+woven cloth, the operator must decide how wide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+her warp is to be and how long. With the width,
+the length, and the number of threads to the inch
+in mind, she proceeds to wind upon her warping
+bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it
+all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars
+or frames she should be very careful to cross each
+bout&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, each four threads&mdash;so that one bout
+shall go above and one below, in order to allow the
+introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks
+or leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order
+of the threads so that they may be drawn into the
+harness in the same order in which they are wound
+on the beam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Warping the Loom.</i>&mdash;To warp the loom the operator
+loosens one end of the skein and, passing it
+from the warping bars to the loom, attaches it to
+the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after
+carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed.
+At this point an attachment called a
+rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and
+a certain number of threads placed in each division.
+By the aid of the lease-sticks, which are inserted,
+and with the assistance of a second person to hold
+the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the
+beam. The rake is now removed and the worker
+proceeds to set up the piece.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_279.jpg" width="300" height="38" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Warping hook</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Drawing in the Warp.</i>&mdash;As has already been
+explained, two harnesses only will need to be
+used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout of
+four threads, the weaver draws the first thread
+through the centre of the first loop in the first harness,
+or the one to which the right-hand pedal is
+attached. The next thread is put through the
+centre of the first loop of the second harness, or
+the one attached to the left-hand pedal. The
+third is drawn through the second loop of the harness
+connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth,
+in turn, through the second loop of the harness
+attached to the left-hand pedal. Great care must
+be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a
+single misplaced thread means that the work of
+drawing in must be all done over again. A special
+kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the
+warp. When the drawing in is completed properly,
+the operator begins at the right-hand side of the
+loom and, measuring the reed, allows one half the
+width of web from the centre of the reed and draws
+each thread through each dent in regular order.
+When this is done it is only necessary to connect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by
+means of heavier threads which hold the warp
+out in the loom, test the work, and proceed joyously
+with the weaving.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beating Up the Woof.</i>&mdash;The weaver presses the
+right-hand pedal, and every alternate thread separates
+from the other, leaving a space between the
+two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown
+from right to left, carrying the woof threads through.
+The operator then draws this thread up at the
+side to make a good selvedge and brings home the
+beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A
+sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater, while
+firm cloth requires more force. Releasing the right
+pedal, the operator presses the left, which causes the
+warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof
+threads just thrown. The shuttle now passes from
+left to right, carrying through another woof thread
+which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So the work
+goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating
+from right to left and from left to right,
+interspersed with the strokes of the beater.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVIII" id="PLVIII"></a><img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand-Made Towels</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VIII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem, like all others in
+house decoration, involves in its initial stages
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+questions of design. Before planning the rug it
+is necessary to know what use the rug is to have&mdash;whether
+it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room,
+or a chamber, and whether it is to be used
+upon hard wood floors or with a carpet. This is
+a question of colours, and of materials; for the
+designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour,
+not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the
+other colours with which it should harmonize,
+and the materials used must not display glaring
+inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has
+special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt
+the introduction of too many colours in one piece
+of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better to use
+light or medium woof. If several shades are used
+in the body of the rug, better results are obtained
+by using for the border or end decoration one or
+more plain colours which match or readily blend
+with the principal colours of the body of the rug.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;">
+<a name="PLIX" id="PLIX"></a><img src="images/i_283.jpg" width="599" height="597" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand-Made Rugs</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate IX]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Materials: Denim.</i>&mdash;There are many materials
+suitable for rug making. Denim in moss or forest
+green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should
+be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet
+size. In preparing the woof it will be necessary to
+cut the denim on a true bias into strips from <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> to
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch wide. The latter width is better.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+In cutting, the best method is to fold back one
+corner of a square cut end along the selvedge, forming
+a fold across the cloth at an angle of 45 degrees.
+Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut
+along the fold. With a yardstick or a straight
+edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of
+chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for
+the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain
+a true bias. When a sufficient amount has been
+cut, the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each
+edge by drawing them quickly through a button
+hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is
+soon acquired. The fringed strips should then be
+fastened together at the ends by means of overhand
+stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting
+corners. The moss-like effect when woven is improved
+if the woof, as soon as it is prepared, is not
+rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for
+filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without
+a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof
+cloth for rug weaving. Its simple construction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound
+endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the
+shuttle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_286.jpg" width="400" height="95" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Shuttle for woof cloth</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another good material for rug making is found
+in various kinds of woollen cloth. Warm, durable,
+and handsome effects may be obtained by using a
+gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade
+of red as the end decoration, with set figures for the
+body of the rug. Geometric designs, arrows, swastika,
+the pine tree, and many other forms are
+possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined
+in rugs for chamber use. Materials for these
+may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, discarded
+silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully
+with one or two plain colours reserved for use in
+the borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Combination of Blue and White.</i>&mdash;Blue and white
+is always a happy combination; and exceedingly
+dainty creations may be woven, to be placed perhaps
+in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old
+blue with a white warp, combined with white
+borders and a white knotted fringe. A vine-like
+effect may be obtained in the border by twisting
+blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving
+in a plain thread of white or blue between the
+two. Another happy combination of blue and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof
+of white outing flannel, cut and fringed as described
+for the moss rug of denim, with a border of old blue
+and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or
+for a bath room in white such a rug as this will
+leave nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Weaving Design.</i>&mdash;It has just been said that
+design in rug making is a question of colours and of
+materials. It is already apparent that it is more
+than that. It is largely a question of procedure in
+the process of weaving. That this is so may be
+shown in the following account of the making of a
+blue and white rug. The thought was to produce
+a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise,
+with white figures at regular intervals through the
+middle of the rug. To accomplish this result two
+threads of white warp were removed from the reed
+and harness every two inches for a space of ten
+inches on each side, thus making what may be
+called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will
+be easily seen, had to appear to the number of
+five on each side when the rug was woven. The white
+figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth
+or woof through the warp by the usual throw of
+the shuttle and, before beating it up, threading into
+the warp white cloth in the desired pattern, after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+which the woof and pattern were beaten up together.
+For the pattern five threads or pieces of
+white cloth were used, two of which were 6 inches
+in length and three 2 inches, the two longer ones
+being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated.
+A space of 7 inches was left between the white
+figures, the location of which was carefully determined
+by counting the threads, both of warp and of
+woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear
+at the right place. The result of this weaving design
+was a very beautiful rug.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="500" height="155" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">White figure in blue rug</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Another Example of Weaving Design.</i>&mdash;This feature
+of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion.
+Perhaps one more example may be given.
+The object was to produce a rug of medium dark
+centre with an 8-inch border all around of a darker
+colour. This effect was produced by first weaving
+8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed
+goods showing several dark colours contrasting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+happily. Having reached the place where the
+medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this
+medium colour and of the right length was joined
+each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour
+so that, as the weaving progressed along the length
+of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared
+in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each
+side. When the proper length of the centre had
+been woven, the rug was finished by weaving another
+8 inches of the border colour. The result was a
+rug of individuality and charm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Great Variety of Material.</i>&mdash;Endless combinations
+will occur to any one who becomes interested in
+this captivating art. The field for colour design
+is almost without limit. No material is so old and
+useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker.
+Old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut
+on the bias makes a very desirable combination
+when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border.
+A charming mottled effect in one instance was
+produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old
+raw silk porti&egrave;re of a mahogany shade and wound
+into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls
+being rewound several times. This was used as
+the woof for the centre of the rug. The border
+was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give
+thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth. Discarded
+clothing in which the prevailing colours
+are red, when made up into woof threads and woven
+on a white warp, gives a charming effect which may
+be strengthened or toned down by a border combination
+as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used
+if the colours of the weaving threads made up from
+old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited
+to the design that is to be worked out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weaving the Rug.</i>&mdash;When the design for the rug
+has been thoroughly worked out, determining the
+colours, materials to be used, and the method of
+procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be
+prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as
+already explained in the discussion of the general
+process of weaving. Further details of procedure
+are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave
+a rug as designed. The next thing to do is to
+design and weave another rug, and then another and
+so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience
+is the great teacher&mdash;a teacher who demands
+faithful work, who finds lessons of value in every
+failure and abundant satisfaction in every success.
+Some of these successes were found in the rugs
+illustrated opposite <a href="#Page_252">page 252</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all
+weaving and therefore a good problem with which
+to begin. After serving a satisfactory apprenticeship
+in this field the amateur will have acquired
+sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill
+in the art to pass to more difficult problems. This
+will take her out into a large field of opportunity.
+Porti&egrave;res, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads,
+and covers for pillows and cushions in endless
+variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious
+worker. In all these, as has been seen in the case
+of rug making, design is all important. The management
+of the loom is much the same in all plain
+weaving. What differences there are will be found,
+for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the
+following problems are described some of the special
+features involved in the other forms of weaving.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: PORTI&Egrave;RES AND COUCH COVERS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Suggestions for the Design.</i>&mdash;If the loom is wide
+enough these may be woven in one piece; but usually
+it is necessary to weave them in sections or
+breadths. In this case, of course, they must be
+afterward neatly joined. The possibilities in colour
+design are naturally varied. They may be woven
+with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with
+striped ends. Harmony of colour effects is always
+to be sought. Depth and richness may sometimes
+be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a
+generous use of black. Materials may be yarns,
+bits of silk or velvet, or pieces of fine, soft woollen
+goods. The warp may be silk or linen or mercerized
+cotton. Beautiful porti&egrave;res have been woven
+by leaving out two threads of warp at regular
+intervals, giving a loose and fluffy effect. Silk and
+wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating
+with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired
+shade; and, if of the same colour as the warp
+used, they will impart a very decided tone to the
+whole product. In porti&egrave;res, the general appearance
+is much improved if the woof is not beaten up
+hard into the warp. The soft beating gives a resulting
+texture that is more pliable and more suitable
+for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in
+porti&egrave;res. Couch covers, however, which will have
+to resist more wear and tear, should be beaten up
+harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the
+cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by
+carefully lapping the ends, and, by cutting away
+a part of the cloth, making the joint uniform in
+size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The
+length of the pieces used may vary greatly, though
+they may be somewhat different in colour. They
+may vary all the way from a few inches to a length
+long enough to weave an inch in the porti&egrave;re or cover.
+This makes it very easy to secure a source of supply
+for the material in saving old garments and short
+pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making
+up the woof threads for these products of the loom.
+Almost any household will be able to save enough
+in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful
+pair of porti&egrave;res or a couch cover which will be durable
+in quality, easy to clean, attractive in colour,
+and satisfactory from every point of view.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;Curtains of one colour or of several
+are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses.
+They may be of the soft cream tint, the material
+for which is easily obtained and the effect of which,
+in softening the light passing through them, leaves
+little to be desired. But if a little colour be required,
+the weaving design may be easily changed
+to secure this result. One may, for example, weave
+at first 7 inches of the plain cream. This will
+give woven material enough for a 2-inch hem at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the
+beginning of a coloured border. The border may
+consist of two threads of colour alternating with
+two threads of the cream, thus making a stripe of
+about 7 inches in width. Following this may come
+8 to 10 inches of the plain cream, followed in turn
+by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border,
+3 inches wide, in turn followed by another 10 inches
+of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and
+so on, alternately, until the required length of the
+curtain has been woven. If desired, a top border
+may be woven in, though it is well to make it somewhat
+narrower than the one at the bottom&mdash;say
+about 5 inches&mdash;and it must be added so that it
+will show below the hem. In any case the top of the
+curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming,
+and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted
+for hanging the curtain. Vertical stripes are often
+desirable in curtains, especially if the room is so
+low studded as to invite the employment of every
+possible means for making it seem higher. Such
+stripes may be made by using two colours for the
+warp&mdash;as, for example, blue and white or green
+and white&mdash;with one of these colours as woof.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="ALCOVE" id="ALCOVE"></a><img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="500" height="767" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window
+Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Importance of Selecting Good Warp.</i>&mdash;The successful
+working out of this problem depends very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+largely upon the proper selection of materials.
+While many things may be used for warp with a
+certain degree of success, there are fine points to
+be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts,
+and the real beauty of the result depends upon
+giving due attention to these points. It is always
+well to remember that in all weaving the warp
+plays a most important part. Mercerized cotton
+warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof
+or with a combination of both, and retains its beauty
+after being laundered many times. In the soft cream
+shade it has almost the appearance of silk, at a much
+less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low
+price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a
+silk mill. Bargains in small lots of unsalable colours
+may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders;
+and if the colours are not good the silk may be
+dyed at small expense. Our grandmothers saved
+their tea grounds for a week or more, boiled them,
+and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp.
+They were, in fact, very particular about their warping
+threads. Not everything would suit them. They
+learned from experience that the wearing quality
+of goods is improved by having the warp stronger
+and harder twisted than the filling. It was common
+for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+Exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen
+warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk
+for filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way,
+is the very coarse linen warp.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variety in Woof Threads.</i>&mdash;A very pleasing effect
+in sash curtains or in full length window draperies
+is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately
+with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, one
+holding the heavy thread and the other the fine
+one. Two or more threads may be alternated in
+this way as the fancy of the designer prompts;
+and this style of weaving may be confined to borders,
+leaving the body of the fabric plain, or the borders
+may be woven of the solid, heavy threads and the
+body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the
+alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains
+are very beautiful in cream white; but colour may
+be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains
+may be successfully laundered.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PATTERN WEAVING</h3>
+
+<p>Before undertaking more difficult problems in
+weaving it will be necessary to explain in general
+two important processes. The first one is the
+process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing.
+Among the heirlooms treasured by many families<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or
+bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and
+towels. No one with strong domestic tastes who
+has been fortunate enough to see these products
+of home industry can have failed to be charmed with
+the wonderfully wrought designs and with the
+quaint names by which they were once well known;
+for our grandmothers designated these designs by
+such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden,
+the Path of the Roses, Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies'
+Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by many more
+names which have been lost. This work in pattern
+design is wrought by the use not of two pedals
+and harnesses, right and left, as used in the first
+three problems, but by the use of several additional
+harnesses.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Be Learned by Experimenting.</i>&mdash;If the beginner
+in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom
+with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge
+and skill to the successful operation of a pattern
+weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical
+and too varied to be described in detail as directions
+for a practical problem for amateurs. It is
+far better to experiment with a loom of this kind
+under the guidance of some person competent to
+point out the way step by step. Nor will it be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+possible, in a brief description of this somewhat
+intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving
+designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take
+up pattern weaving. Copies of the traditional
+designs may be obtained as material for study and
+practice. After a little it will be possible to make
+variations and so lead to the delight of originating
+simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLX" id="PLX"></a><img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe and Pillow Covers</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate X]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_304.jpg" width="500" height="738" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from it</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>How Patterns Are Written.</i>&mdash;Complete working
+directions for pattern weaving will therefore not
+be attempted in this chapter; but it may be possible
+to point out a few leading facts and principles which
+will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures
+to take up by herself this interesting application
+of the art of weaving. Patterns for this work
+are plainly written out from right to left on cross section
+paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying
+illustration, each horizontal section of which
+corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and
+the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness
+loom, as would be required for working the pattern
+and weaving the figures illustrated, the right-hand
+pedal and the harness connected with it, which is
+the one farthest from the operator, are designated
+by the number 1, and correspond to that harness
+number in the pattern. Following in order, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+next three pedals and connected harnesses are
+numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same
+numbers in the pattern. Turning now to the vertical
+sections of the pattern, we shall find that each
+one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that
+when the pattern is "drawn in"&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, when the
+warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the
+loom&mdash;we shall find the thread of the warp which
+is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated
+by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding
+to that warp thread and to the number of the
+harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according
+to the pattern shown in the illustration,
+the first thread is to be drawn into the 3d harness,
+the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread
+into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we
+reach the 8th thread, which is drawn into the 2d
+harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th threads are
+drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses, and
+the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately
+into the 1st and 2d harnesses. This process
+is now continued, as will be clearly understood
+by reference to the pattern, up to and including
+the 42d thread, when one drawing in of the pattern
+will have been completed. A further study of the
+pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4 form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+a continuously alternating series; and similarly
+that those on 2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also
+a continuously alternating series. But these numbers,
+however paired, correspond to the harnesses
+into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers
+1 to 42, are drawn. It thus appears that after
+we have drawn in as many warp threads as the
+pattern calls for once around in the order indicated
+in the pattern, we have prepared the loom for
+weaving one of these patterns. We must therefore
+draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same
+order as those already drawn in, thus repeating
+the drawing in of the pattern as many times as
+required for the width of the piece to be woven.
+The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.</p>
+
+<p><i>Operation of the Harnesses.</i>&mdash;Having explained
+the method of drawing in the pattern, we may now
+study the movement of the harnesses necessary to
+guide the warp properly for the weaving of the
+pattern. It has been noted that, with the pattern
+under consideration, harnesses 1 and 3 hold a continuous
+line of alternating warp threads, leaving
+harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening
+warp threads. If then the operator should throw
+down pedals 1 and 3 together, and alternately 2<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+and 4 also together, the warp threads would be
+crossed exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out
+a pattern in weaving must, of course, require a
+variation of the pedal movement from that used
+in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration
+it will also be noted that in writing the pattern,
+or in drawing it in, no two threads have ever
+come together on the same harness. If the 1st
+thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and
+the 2d thread into the 4th harness, as shown in the
+pattern illustrated, the operator begins the weaving
+of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th
+pedals together and throwing the shuttle which
+carries the pattern thread. This operation is what
+weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern
+thread is represented in the diagram (<a href="#Page_268">page 268</a>) by
+a broken black line running across the pattern.
+Thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates
+that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately
+over and back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread,
+for each corresponding section of this design. But
+between every two picks of the pattern thread
+there must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring,
+as has already been explained, the pressing down of
+either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals together when
+the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+the 2d and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is
+evident, then, that there must be two shuttles prepared
+for carrying the woof threads. One of these
+is to be used for the plain weave and the other for
+the pattern weave. The shuttle used for the
+plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread
+of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation
+according to the design of the weaver. The
+pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser
+thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or mercerized
+cotton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variations in Pattern.</i>&mdash;From the fact that a
+carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing
+a four-harness loom for pattern weaving, one would
+naturally infer that the pattern must be closely
+followed in the weaving process. And so it must
+if the pattern be woven as written; but, after the
+drawing in, it is by no means necessary to follow
+the written pattern. As the weaving progresses
+it is easy to see many variations in pattern which
+may be woven upon one drawing in&mdash;patterns
+so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to
+each other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving
+with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying
+simple patterns, elaborating them into new weaving
+designs, producing unique and sometimes very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+interesting original figures. We have only to remember
+that patterns are made by the order and
+number of the overshots&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the throws of the
+shuttle carrying the pattern threads&mdash;and that
+the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines
+are produced by the same pair. In the pattern illustrated
+the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and 2,
+by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2
+and 4, which are the pairs for plain weaves. We
+should also remember that the last end in one overshot
+is usually the first one in the next. Examples of
+two variations in design that may be woven from the
+original written pattern, to which we have already
+referred, are illustrated in the diagram and probably
+at least a dozen more variations are possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF</h3>
+
+<p>This problem will require the use of the four-harness
+loom. The first thing to do is to procure
+the written pattern for the border and draw it in.
+When the drawing in is completed and the weaving
+is begun, the first step in the process is to weave a
+few inches of the plain cloth. In doing this, however,
+we shall, of course, find that the pressing
+of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple
+weaving will not accomplish the desired result;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+for it has already been explained that the pedals of
+a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs
+to produce a plain weave. It will be remembered
+that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in
+as required by the pattern illustrated on <a href="#Page_268">page 268</a>,
+it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together
+alternately with 2 and 4&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, both pedals of each
+pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the
+same effect as that produced by the alternate movements
+of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.</p>
+
+<p>When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been
+woven, the written pattern for the weaving of
+the border design must be faithfully consulted
+and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper
+order for the weaving of the pattern. The second
+or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin, which is
+filled with the colour required in the pattern. Any
+changes of colour required by the design are easily
+produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the
+desired colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;A great variety of design is possible
+in table scarfs. It is common to weave in a narrow
+beading of whatever colour may have been chosen,
+following this by a few threads of white, and this
+in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border
+with some slight suggestion of the pattern, then more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+of the plain white and finally the full pattern of
+the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply
+a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in
+some solid colour, while the other end of the scarf
+must be woven with the same border and bands
+as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variations in Design.</i>&mdash;One pleasing style of
+decoration is found in repeating the border several
+times with inch-wide spaces between. Another
+variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow
+ones at short intervals throughout the length.
+Shadow borders, so-called, are also common, and
+may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute
+the entire decoration. Shadow borders are
+heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour
+of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade.
+In order to make them stand out well it is necessary
+to use a coarser thread than is required for the
+colour borders. A gray linen plain weave is often
+embellished in white with delicate effect. There
+is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf
+borders. It is obtainable in dainty colours, and
+the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns
+in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours
+are also employed, but these should be woven
+double in order to obtain the best effect. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+are found in the market in short lengths and in such
+attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink,
+and catawba. The last two colours, used with linen
+in the natural shade, make a happy combination.</p>
+
+<p>Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide
+and about 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> yards long, unless some special use
+requires that they should be of different length.
+Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but
+they are useful as tray cloths, and from them
+charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be
+fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with
+ribbons, and arranging pockets to hold the work.
+One scarf will make two aprons. Fancy bags are
+also woven on the same general lines as scarfs,
+but the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These
+may be woven of the pattern throughout, or they may
+be striped with bands or borders. Lined with silk
+and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very
+much admired for embroidery and other fancy
+work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING</h3>
+
+<p>In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving,
+frequent reference has been made to the use of
+coloured materials. While it is possible to obtain
+many good colours in the market, it is much more
+satisfactory to make these colours at home by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+use of the dye pot. In former times, when hand
+weaving was general, there was no other way; and,
+in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered
+now, as they were then, sister arts. When the wool
+was washed, carded into rolls, spun into yarn, and
+again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking,
+still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent
+dye before weaving it into cloth. One notable
+exception was found in the natural gray homespun,
+which was of yarn spun from the wool of both
+the black and the white sheep carded together.
+The modern worker with the hand loom will find
+almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did
+for a knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will
+she find at hand just the shade or colour required
+by the design of the piece to be woven. Much of
+the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs,
+for example, will be found to be so faded or spotted
+that it would poorly repay one for the labour of
+weaving it up in that condition. And even the new
+material, which it is often necessary to procure
+for plain weaving, for pattern weaving, and for use
+in borders, will often need a bath in the dye pot in
+order to furnish the tone of colour needed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Some Good Points in Dyeing.</i>&mdash;Good results in
+dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+the markets, mixing together more than one colour
+often, after some experimenting, in order to produce
+the desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one
+may, if she chooses, dye first in one colour and top
+off with another. A fine permanent green is obtained
+by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping
+with a blue bath. Green and blue dye used
+together give neither green nor blue but a blending
+of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing.
+In all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak,
+leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long
+time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a
+stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater
+permanency of colour but also greater certainty in
+the result; for one can watch the process of dyeing
+more easily and guard against the colours becoming
+too dark. The material which remains in the dye
+bath until it takes practically all the colour from it
+may generally be depended upon neither to fade
+nor crock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Some Common Dyes.</i>&mdash;The dull, soft colours, made
+generations ago from barks and teas with alum as
+a mordant, had artistic qualities and were generally
+permanent. It is well worth while to experiment
+in this direction. Straw colour may be made from
+the old-fashioned herb saffron; orange comes from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+madder and fustic; yellow is obtained from powdered
+dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit
+of copperas give a good black dye, useful also in
+freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull
+or faded colour. White maple bark boiled in water
+makes a fine medium brown which may be made
+fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed
+in it with a solution of alum. A permanent and fine
+nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with
+a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in
+it. In fact, nearly everything which possesses colour
+may be considered a dye. Vegetable substances
+are generally in themselves more permanent, but
+most dyes need to be fixed or "set" by the use of
+some mordant. All this will mean much experimenting,
+of course, unless one is fortunate enough
+to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions
+to mordants, kettles of brass, and vessels
+of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes, which
+may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is
+generally satisfactory and of course somewhat
+easier; and yet the interest which inspires one to
+cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire
+to master all of the arts intimately associated with
+this ancient and fascinating home industry.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="X" id="X">X</a><br /><br />
+<small>POTTERY</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+To watch a potter thumping his wet clay&mdash;<i>Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam</i>
+</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in
+the sun, and the Indian who, ages ago, coiled
+clay in a basket which he burned away, are
+but two widely separated links in a continuous chain;
+for men of all time have found a fascination in the wet
+clay that is so easily moulded and fashioned into all
+manner of things of beauty and of use. And, beside
+the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has
+also been the spur of a common need to inspire men
+of different races, independently of each other, to
+develop the primitive household arts, like pottery
+and rug making, by the use of methods no less
+remarkable for their similarity than for their
+cleverness. The impressions that the primitive
+man received from his natural surroundings were
+easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably
+not long before he discovered that fire made
+them permanent and practically indestructible.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+Improvement was bound to come in due time.
+By washing the grosser impurities from the clay
+mud through a process in which the heavier particles
+settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to be poured
+off, some artist of a very early time found a material
+that became one of his most valuable helps in adding
+to the furnishings of his tribal household. First
+it was simply burned clay; but in due time enamel
+or glazed work found its use in tiles for building
+purposes, in grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds
+of table ware; for the uses of ancient terra cotta
+and porcelain were numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXI" id="PLXI"></a><img src="images/i_317.jpg" width="500" height="723" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Girls at Work on Pottery</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The primitive arts, however, were not confined
+to objects of necessary use. We find, buried with
+the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences of the
+potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating
+the home, for personal adornment, and for religious
+use, like the rings and scarabs of Egypt.
+And in modern decorative art, as applied in the
+household, the one final touch which gives that
+indescribable charm, which it is the aim of all art
+to give, is perhaps to be found in a few&mdash;a very
+few&mdash;choice bits of pottery.</p>
+
+<p>All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric
+times to the finest product of modern skill,
+is based on a plain scientific fact, <i>viz.</i>, that a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+quantity of water in the clay, not removable by
+any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out
+by intense heat so as to cause a permanent change
+in the character of the clay. This water is called
+the water of combination. If the clay is not heated
+more than enough to dry it, a later mixing with water
+restores it to its former plastic state; but clay once
+burned has lost its water of combination and never
+can return to its original condition.</p>
+
+<p>Most beginners in clay modelling will expect,
+perhaps in the early stages of their work, to be made
+acquainted with the potter's wheel; for who has not
+heard of this interesting device? It is of interest
+chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture
+of pottery; and yet no one can forget the
+potter's song with which Longfellow begins his
+beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a
+sermon on the philosophy of life:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Without a pause, without a sound;<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">So spins the flying world away!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This clay, well mixed with marl and sand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Follows the motion of my hand;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For some must follow, and some command,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Though all are made of clay!"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>Potter's Wheel Unnecessary.</i>&mdash;The potter's wheel
+was used in comparatively early times and has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+been intimately associated with the art ever
+since. But it requires much physical strength and
+considerable skill to use it effectively; and its use
+has been by no means universal. We find the
+Indians of our own time and people of other races,
+expert in building pottery by hand, using the
+method of coiling. It seems best, therefore, to
+advise beginners to adopt the simpler method and
+to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative
+inexpensiveness of the hand method of
+building is another point in its favour. The tools
+required are few and simple. Inexpensive and
+easy methods are favourable to the experimental
+stage; and it is well for the amateur to have every
+encouragement to experiment freely both with
+methods for building and with designs for his
+ware, keeping in mind always that the beautiful is
+generally the simple and strong, not the fantastic
+and complicated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Method of Coiling.</i>&mdash;It will be understood,
+therefore, that in general the process to be followed
+consists in building up the bowl or jar or whatever
+the design may be by using coils of clay of the right
+consistency, welding and shaping them together,
+and scraping them down, if necessary, until they
+are ready to receive the first firing. After this they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again.
+At first the beginner will find his chief interest simply
+in experimenting with the building up process.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MATERIALS AND TOOLS</h3>
+
+<p>The materials and tools needed are as follows:
+Clay; oil-cloth, 18 inches square; cotton cloth or
+flannelette, 18 inches square; a few simple modelling
+tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6
+ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clays.</i>&mdash;It will be necessary to add a word of
+explanation in order that these materials and tools
+may be well selected. There is a great variety in
+clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for
+flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain.
+The latter is called kaolin and is very pure. A good
+modelling clay may be obtained from dealers in school
+supplies or from potteries. In some localities,
+especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or
+other clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be
+easily found. But, however obtained, some experimenting
+will be necessary to test its suitability.
+The modelling clay is probably the least liable to
+yield disappointing results.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened
+and used to wrap up the clay in order to keep it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+from drying too rapidly during the intervals when
+it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the
+early part of the process, for then it is desirable for
+the clay to stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural
+means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_323.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Simple tools used in pottery</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled
+from hard wood. They are not expensive, however,
+and the beginner will perhaps find it well to obtain
+most of them from a dealer in artists' materials.
+The accompanying illustration shows some of these,
+among them a very useful tool (F) with brass wire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+loops which are in turn wound with finer wire.
+F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too
+soft to be easily managed with smooth edges. The
+thumb-like tool A is perhaps the most generally
+useful of those shown here.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact
+that <i>the greatest of all tools is the human thumb</i>.
+Cultivate its use. Most modelling and building can
+be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bat and How Made.</i>&mdash;A plaster of paris bat
+will be found exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin,
+unsized paper serves well, however, for a surface
+on which to build; but the dry plaster of the bat
+absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and
+hastens the stiffening process. This bat can be
+easily made. Take a small quantity of water (a
+half pint or more according to the size of the bat
+required), sift into this from the hand an equal
+amount of plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little
+dry plaster appears at the surface. After a little
+more vigorous stirring let it rest a few minutes and
+then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches
+in diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be
+previously coated on the inside with a thick soap
+solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water to
+the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+harden in 10 or 15 minutes and may be easily
+removed from the pan, ready for use.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>This problem naturally divides itself into six
+important steps, as follows: The design or profile;
+building and shaping; decoration, if any; firing
+(bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_325.jpg" width="400" height="238" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Variety in dimensions</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design or Profile.</i>&mdash;As in all problems of
+decoration the first step is found in design. For
+present purposes we may consider a bowl as having
+a diameter as great as or greater than the height.
+The bowl will be more interesting from the standpoint
+of variety if there is a difference between its
+height and its greatest diameter, and also between
+its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The
+accompanying drawing shows such differences.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="500" height="340" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestive profiles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another example of the value of variety is to be
+found in the curve of the profile. A line that is
+simple but constantly changing in its degree of
+curvature&mdash;as, for example, an elliptical curve&mdash;is
+more pleasing than an arc of a circle, which
+is sometimes called the curve of limitation. It
+should be noted that a curved form, in order to be
+forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination
+with others which are subordinate. The
+profiles illustrated in the following drawings have
+this dominant element and are in no case composed
+of arcs of circles. These varied, interesting, yet
+simple lines&mdash;live lines as they are sometimes called&mdash;consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+in each case of only two or three elements,
+are given here merely as suggestive material.
+A little experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities
+in strong, forceful curves, and the young
+student is advised to make many experiments in
+the effort to discover such possibilities. An example
+of profiles to be avoided is given in Problem II,
+on <a href="#Page_309">page 309</a>. That these are vase forms and not
+bowl contours is immaterial. <i>A</i> is commonplace
+because the two parts of the curve are too much
+alike. <i>B</i> is unrestful in its three curves of nearly
+equal size. If the suggestive profiles illustrated in
+the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it
+will be noted that very few of them seem as pleasing
+as before. It will be found also that a different
+ratio of height to diameter will give very different
+effects with the same profile. A bowl having top
+and bottom alike may, so far as design is concerned,
+be classed with the pill box. We don't know which
+is the top until we have spilled the pills. If attractive
+pieces of pottery are found with the top and
+bottom of equal diameter and with curves in themselves
+objectionable, it will invariably be found that
+the attractiveness consists in some beauty of glaze,
+colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to
+conceal the defects of form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Forms.</i>&mdash;It may be well to add a word here
+in regard to the imitation of natural forms in designing
+the general shape of any piece of pottery; and
+that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature
+is a great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery
+her suggestions are to be used as decorative
+elements rather than for fundamental shapes. A
+fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate;
+but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not
+take the form of a fish, might reasonably have a fish
+as an element of its decoration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing Profiles.</i>&mdash;A good way to study the effect
+of the profile of both sides of the bowl is to fold
+the paper on which the profile is drawn vertically
+through the centre and transfer the line reversed by
+rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other
+half of the drawing in exact symmetry. When
+the general shape of the profile has been tested in
+this way one side should be redrawn carefully;
+then, with the paper folded along the centre line,
+so that the pencil line falls outside, the whole form
+may be cut out; and then it may be unfolded.
+The next step is to begin to build up the design in
+clay.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Building.</i>&mdash;Roll out a coil of clay a little
+thicker than the bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> or <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch will serve, since the bottom is to
+be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll should
+be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible,
+in order that it may not become too dry.
+Upon the piece of paper or the plaster bat start to
+coil the roll from the centre until the desired size
+is reached, then smear the rolls together, working
+toward the centre. Turn the coil over and work
+the other side together, truing up the circle and
+making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid
+the use of water in smoothing the coils together.
+It may seem to make the work easier, but it softens
+the clay and invites careless work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_329.jpg" width="400" height="222" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Manipulating the coil</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With another coil begin to build up the sides,
+making a complete circle, and, having pinched off
+the ends where they meet, join them carefully.
+Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+coil firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them
+together as in the base. The process is illustrated
+in the drawing. If the clay is very soft, the work
+may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning
+is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two
+or three pieces in the process of construction at
+the same time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing the Work.</i>&mdash;A template or gauge will be
+needed to test the work as it progresses from the
+first rough stages
+to the finish. This
+is made of card-board
+by cutting
+out an exact copy
+of the profile, leaving
+at the bottom
+sufficient width to
+insure rigidity
+when the template
+is held upright on
+the table or bat.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_330.jpg" width="300" height="283" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A template</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the work goes on, if the design requires that
+the form should be "brought in" toward the top,
+the coil must be laid a little inside of the profile
+desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the
+diameter slightly. In all the building, allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+should be made for this enlargement. When the
+coil is high enough and of the shape desired, it
+should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough
+to handle. With the various modelling tools the
+surface should then be scraped wherever it is
+necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to
+give a symmetrical shape to the desired profile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="400" height="192" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Scraping a square form</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of
+scraping. The surface should be left smooth and
+even; and this may be accomplished without water
+or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may
+be used to polish the clay as soon as it becomes
+leather hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, hard and stiff, but before it
+begins to whiten and dry.</p>
+
+<p>The lip or top of the bowl will require special
+attention. It will probably need to be thinned
+down and have all sharp edges removed. Then the
+bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+hollowed out to a depth of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> to <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch,
+leaving a "foot" or rim around the outside of the
+circle to give it steadiness.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Decoration.</i>&mdash;After the bowl is complete as
+to its general form, the problem of its decoration,
+if there is to be any, must be solved. This may be
+studied during the intervals when it is necessary
+to set the bowl aside to harden. If the form and
+colour are good, the bowl may possess a charm that
+will not be improved by decoration. On the whole,
+less decoration, rather than more, should be the
+aim. The three vases illustrated at the top of
+a following page are examples of pottery without
+decoration. (See <a href="#Page_308">page 308</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXII" id="PLXII"></a><img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="500" height="635" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bowls</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are
+building may be decorated by one of three methods:
+By sinking lines or channels in its surface by means
+of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, <a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>);
+by modelling or carving the surface; or by painting
+the surface with coloured "slip" or with coloured
+glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a
+mixture of clay and water of the consistency of
+cream; it may be coloured or uncoloured. A combination
+of two or more of these methods is, of
+course, possible. Examples of the first two methods
+are shown in the illustrations of bowls, vases, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+tiles. A combination of the first and third methods
+was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row
+shown in <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV opposite page 316</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_335.jpg" width="500" height="198" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Spacing in decoration</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Classes of Decoration.</i>&mdash;The <i>form</i> of the decoration
+is simply a matter of space division, as illustrated
+by two examples shown below. It is evident,
+too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned,
+divides itself naturally into three general classes:
+(a) The horizontal band; (b) the vertical division;
+(c) a combination of these two. The last will
+prove to be the most common of the three. It
+should be noted that an all-over pattern, which has
+been left out of consideration as tending to monotony,
+would commonly be a combination of both
+horizontal and vertical methods of division. It
+should be noted also that the presence of other than
+vertical and horizontal lines in pottery decoration
+does not affect the main classification. Typical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+examples of these divisions are illustrated in both
+bowls and vases, as well as in the cuts A and B. It
+will be seen in each case that one scheme or the
+other predominates and that there are possibilities
+for great variation in treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations,
+we find that the band or horizontal scheme
+offers a succession of large and small spaces, giving
+variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns
+showing the combination type there is a concentration
+or "knotting" of the line at regular intervals,
+frequently at the intersection of both horizontal
+and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by
+the left-hand bowl of the middle row shown in this
+plate opposite <a href="#Page_294">page 294</a>. When the method of painted
+decoration is employed the concentration point is
+composed of mass instead of line. All this serves
+to give emphasis and rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>For subject matter in decoration natural forms
+may be used as shown in the vase at the left of
+the top row illustrated in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII, opposite page
+312</a>. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be
+employed, as shown in its nearest neighbour,
+which may or may not have had its origin in a
+very much conventionalized natural motif. The
+essential thing to remember is that the divisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+of spaces must be varied and rhythmic and the decoration
+suited to the method of application.</p>
+
+<p><i>How the Design is Applied to the Clay.</i>&mdash;After the
+design has been studied as much as possible on
+paper it should be planned out on the bowl with a
+soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised
+line or channel to be made. The clay should be
+leather-hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, stiff but not dry. The spacing
+around the circumference should be made exact,
+deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing
+of the paper drawing. A good way to manage
+this important step in the process is to measure the
+circumference at the point of greatest width with
+a narrow strip of paper and then to divide this
+circumference by folding the paper evenly into
+the number of units desired. By wrapping the
+paper around the bowl again the points of division
+may be transferred to the clay and then projected
+upward or downward vertically to the belt that it
+is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure
+that the vertical lines are true "meridians" and do
+not swerve to the right or the left. In order to test
+the horizontal lines, measurements may be made
+from top or bottom. All of this work is best done
+free-hand; for, aside from the value of the eye training
+derived, hand-built pottery is seldom exact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+enough to permit of a more mechanical method of
+planning its decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing on the clay having been completed,
+the next point is to choose the tool best fitted for
+the work and carefully make the cuts, deepening
+them from time to time as the work progresses.
+If the design is to be worked out in line, a chisel,
+like that illustrated in D (<a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>), may be
+whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly upright
+and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow
+channel. Reserve should be exercised in cutting,
+because, generally speaking, there is danger of
+making the design too insistent. Some of the best
+designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should
+be taken, however, to allow for a slight filling in of
+the hollow by the glaze when it is applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modelling a Decoration.</i>&mdash;If the decoration is to
+be modelled it would seem wise to do it, in whole
+or in part, as the work is built up; but in this case
+great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the
+relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy
+to over-model the work.</p>
+
+<p><i>How Under-glaze is Applied.</i>&mdash;For decoration with
+under glaze the colours given under the head of
+glazing (<a href="#Page_304">page 304</a>) are mixed in different proportions
+with dry powdered clay and water to form a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+colour paste. This is painted on the "green"
+or moist clay, forming a smooth and even surface.
+Experience will teach the proportions of colour to
+be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary
+greatly with different colours. A very strong colour
+like cobalt will give a deep blue if mixed in the ratio
+of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts of clay.
+Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of
+medium strength, and antimony is quite weak.</p>
+
+<p>Before the work is left to dry it would be well
+to make sure that all corners and rough edges are
+smoothed off as they will show light and rough
+through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however,
+is not advised, though it may occasionally be used
+in the emergency of an accidental roughness remaining
+after the piece is dry. The aim should
+be to have all clay work show something of the
+plastic nature of the material out of which it is
+made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;Pottery must be "bone" dry before it
+is fired. A very satisfactory portable kiln for firing
+may be purchased for from $34 to $175, according
+to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated
+in the next drawing, will be ample for the needs
+of one or two persons. If, however, the amateur
+does not care to go to the expense of purchasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery
+factory in the vicinity that will undertake the firing
+and perhaps the glazing.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_340.jpg" width="300" height="404" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A portable kiln</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Temperature Required.</i>&mdash;Pottery is fired at a
+temperature varying,
+according to the
+clay and the glaze
+used, from approximately
+1800 to 2000
+degrees Fahrenheit.
+Modelling clay fires
+at 1958 degrees Fahrenheit,
+or what is
+called "cone 04."
+This term comes
+from the fact that
+the heat is gauged
+by pyrometric cones,
+which can be seen
+through a spy hole attached to the kiln. These
+cones are graded compositions of various materials
+and possess different degrees of resistance
+to heat. They are usually set up in clay
+in groups of three or more. When one of them
+melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing, which shows cone 05&mdash;the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+fusible one&mdash;completely "down," and 04 at a
+point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat
+from the kiln. This must be done gradually
+and the kiln must be allowed to cool completely
+before it is opened.
+This is especially
+necessary when firing the
+glazes described in the
+following section, which
+require the same temperature
+as modelling
+clay. Further details
+about firing and caring
+for the kiln may, of
+course, be learned from
+descriptions accompanying the apparatus. Pottery
+comes out of the first firing in the kiln a dull
+porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or
+red, according to the amount of iron in the clay.
+In this state it is called "bisque" or "biscuit."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_341.jpg" width="250" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pyrometric cones</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Glazing.</i>&mdash;It is necessary to bring the pottery up
+to the condition of bisque before it can be glazed;
+or, to speak more accurately, before it can be over-glazed;
+for it has already been shown how the so-called
+under-glaze is put on before the first firing.
+The subject is somewhat technical, and it will not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+be possible in a single chapter to take up the details
+extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used
+for this class of work are the lead glazes&mdash;combinations
+of "white lead" or carbonate of lead as a
+flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and other
+ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form
+and are ground together in water by means of a mill
+or a large mortar and pestle; a mortar 8 inches in
+diameter will serve.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grinding the Glaze.</i>&mdash;The grinding should continue
+about an hour. It should be said, however, that
+there is such a thing as grinding too fine. After
+the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity
+of gum tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be
+added as a binder to prevent flaking and rubbing
+off in handling. It is also a good plan, though
+not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon
+as it is ground, through fine muslin. The tools and
+materials needed for this work may be itemized as
+follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar,
+Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc,
+and various other oxides and colours noted in the
+text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12 inches in diameter,
+for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably
+aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes.</i>&mdash;Two
+mixes are given below calculated to fuse at cone
+04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety surface,
+and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface.
+The matt will be found more desirable for general
+work because it harmonizes better with flowers
+and foliage. The figures given below refer to units
+of weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient
+to use, but any units will serve so long as
+the same one is used throughout. The matt glaze
+should be of the consistency of thick cream, the
+bright glaze somewhat thinner.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="GLAZE BASES">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><div class="smcap">MATT BASE</div></td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl"><div class="smcap">BRIGHT BASE</div></td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Lead carbonate</td><td class="tpl">154</td><td class="tpl">Lead carbonate</td><td class="tpl">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Whiting</td><td class="tpl">25</td><td class="tpl">Whiting</td><td class="tpl">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Canadian feldspar</td><td class="tpl">83</td><td class="tpl">Canadian feldspar</td><td class="tpl">84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Florida kaolin</td><td class="tpl">51</td><td class="tpl">Florida kaolin</td><td class="tpl">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">White oxide of zinc</td><td class="tpl">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">French flint</td><td class="tpl">44</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The bases itemized above are colourless and there
+must be added to them from 3 to 6 per cent. of
+colouring material that will stand heat. A list of
+materials with their colours when fired is given on
+<a href="#Page_304">page 304</a>, together with a few typical combinations of
+colours in quantity suitable to be added to the glaze
+bases given above. The following lists are by no
+means complete, and it is expected that the young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+decorator will make use of these colour mixtures
+simply as an introduction to quite extensive experimenting:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="COLOUR MATERIALS">
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><div class="smcap">COLOUR MATERIALS</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of cobalt</td><td class="tpl">Blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of copper</td><td class="tpl">Blue green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Green oxide of chromium</td><td class="tpl">Yellow green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">White oxide of antimony</td><td class="tpl">Lemon yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Red oxide of iron</td><td class="tpl">Yellowish brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Green oxide of nickel</td><td class="tpl">Dirty gray (for neutralizing)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">White oxide of tin</td><td class="tpl">Makes glaze opaque</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of manganese</td><td class="tpl">Purplish brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">Yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Burnt umber</td><td class="tpl">Brown</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="COLOUR COMBINATIONS">
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="4"><div class="smcap">COLOUR COMBINATIONS</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olive green</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Blue-green</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Iron oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">.5</td><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Dark brown</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Dark gray-blue</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Iron oxide</td><td class="tpl">3</td><td class="tpl">Nickel oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Nickel oxide</td><td class="tpl">2</td><td class="tpl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Manganese oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Light gray-blue</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Tin oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">.5</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">1.7</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Applying the Glaze.</i>&mdash;Before applying the glaze
+to the piece of pottery or bisque, the latter should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+be soaked in clear water for about five minutes or
+until the air is expelled from the pores. When
+this has been accomplished it should be removed
+from the water and all moisture should be wiped
+from its surface. The piece is then ready to be dipped
+into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it,
+if the size and shape of the piece make it more convenient
+to apply the glaze in this way. It is usually
+best to glaze the inside first, shaking out all the
+superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the
+outside. During this process the piece must
+be held firmly but by as few points of contact
+as possible. These points of contact will generally
+need to be touched up before it is ready for
+firing.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces
+with a brush, putting on several coats in order to
+cover the surface with an even thickness. The matt
+glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright
+glaze in order to develop its characteristic velvety
+texture. The greater thickness may be easily
+secured, because it flows more slowly than the
+thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from
+the sides of the piece to which it is being applied;
+but, on the other hand, it is at a disadvantage in
+that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct inequalities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+of thickness so readily as the more mobile
+bright glaze does. A certain thickness, however,
+is essential; and if, after firing, it is found that the
+glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be
+applied and the article again fired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing the Glaze.</i>&mdash;Before the glazed piece is fired
+the glaze should be dried and what runs down and
+collects about the bottom or foot should be scraped
+off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of
+pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the
+"stilt," which prevents the glaze from sticking to
+the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed ware
+should be placed in the kiln with at least <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> an
+inch of space between the pieces to prevent them
+from sticking together during the fusing state of
+the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil."</p>
+
+<p>The firing of glaze is a process very similar to
+that employed in the production of bisque, already
+described. Greater care, however, must be taken
+in controlling the increase in temperature so that it
+shall be even and steady&mdash;free from all sudden
+flashes of heat. The cooling also should be very
+gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should be
+allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this
+second firing the pottery is finished unless it should
+happen that a second coat of glaze is found to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+necessary. If only a few spots need attention,
+this second coat is best applied with a brush.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>The tools required for making this vase are the
+same as those used for the bowl, and the process of
+building is much the same. The chief difference
+is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile
+in building because the added height and the
+greater weight tend to bulge the lower part. To
+meet this difficulty it will be necessary to set the
+work aside quite often in order to let the lower part
+harden sufficiently to support the upper part.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Profile.</i>&mdash;In preparing the profile the same
+rules hold as were applied in working up the problem
+of the bowl. It will be well to remember, however,
+that the curves of a vase must be treated with
+greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was
+necessary in the case of the bowl&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the curve
+of a vase should be enclosed within a rectangle
+narrower in comparison with its height than is the
+case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this,
+of course, is found in the greater height of a vase
+in comparison with its diameter. The following figure
+shows three typical vase forms. If these curves
+be compared with those shown on <a href="#Page_288">page 288</a>, illustrating
+bowl contours, it will be observed how the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>
+height of the vase is emphasised in the greater
+restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next
+illustration we have two "horrible" examples to
+which attention has already been called in the
+suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted
+lines in the illustration show how these curves may
+be improved if, in either A or B, one element of the
+compound curve be made dominant at the expense
+of the other. If at the same time the diameter be
+made smaller in comparison with its height the
+attractiveness of the contours will be still more improved.
+Indeed, it will be a transformation from a
+profile that is positively bad to one that is very good.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Typical vase forms</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_349.jpg" width="499" height="289" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Profile to be avoided</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;The problem of decoration is not
+very different from that of the bowl. Here again,
+however, the added height seems to call for greater
+accent by means of vertical or panel divisions.
+Unless this be understood there is some danger that
+the larger vertical spaces will seem to offer simply
+more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a
+barber pole effect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handles.</i>&mdash;If handles or buttresses are desired,
+care should be taken that they are designed as an
+integral part of the vase&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, that they continue
+or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment
+of the problem of handles are given in the
+accompanying drawing. It will be noted how
+sympathetically these handles conform to the lines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+of the vases to which they are attached. Handles
+that give the impression of being made for another
+vase should be avoided.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_350.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestions for handles</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH</h3>
+
+<p>The process of building the fern dish is not essentially
+different from that employed in making the
+bowl described in the first problem. If the fern
+dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used;
+but if the dish is to be square or rectangular it is
+not necessary to use this method. In place of it the
+process of "piecing on" may be employed&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+one piece of soft clay may be added to another and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+the different pieces welded together as the work
+proceeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 495px;">
+<img src="images/i_351.jpg" width="495" height="342" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Development of the fern dish</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Lining.</i>&mdash;The fern dish requires a separate
+inner dish or lining with a hole in the bottom of it
+like that in the ordinary flower pot. This feature
+forms the unique part of the problem. Generally
+speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call
+for a little closer approach to the vertical in the
+sides of the outer bowl; and yet some latitude is
+allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated
+in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII</a> following, which is somewhat
+similar in profile to that illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing. This drawing shows the development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>
+of the problem as applied to a round fern dish.
+Much freedom, however, may be used in the plan
+as either the round or the rectangular fern dish
+seems to give satisfaction. The half section in the
+drawing shows a very narrow space between the
+inner and outer bowls at the top edges. This adds
+greatly to the good appearance of the completed
+fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made
+vertical, since it is necessary for it to be easily
+removed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;The problem of decoration differs
+very little from that discussed under the problem
+of the bowl. Either the fern itself or its woodland
+neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes
+there is occasion for designing similar dishes
+not for ferns but for other plants. Thus the smaller
+square dish, illustrated in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII</a> opposite, was
+designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and the
+subject matter for its design was found in that
+flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glazing.</i>&mdash;The rules already given for glazing
+apply in this case, but it will be necessary to glaze
+the outside fern dish only. It is well, however,
+to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the
+inner dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed.
+It hardly needs to be added that in firing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
+it is necessary to keep the inner and outer dishes
+separate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;">
+<a name="PLXIII" id="PLXIII"></a><img src="images/i_353.jpg" width="496" height="641" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Vases and Fern Dishes</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XIII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem introduces several
+points in design that need to be especially emphasized.
+The candlestick should be of such size that it
+will easily support the average candle without putting
+the user to great inconvenience in fitting it by
+paring it off or melting it down. It is necessary
+to provide a lip to catch the stray drops of wax that
+will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be
+a convenience to have this supplemented by a slight
+dishing of the base if the candlestick is to be carried
+about. If a handle is to be added it should seem
+to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as
+was explained in the discussion of handles for vases;
+and it should, at the same time, offer a place for
+a firm and comfortable grasp. The accompanying
+drawing shows how handles may be designed really
+to form a part of the candlestick and at the same
+time, by means of a sharp bend or elbow at the top, to
+provide a natural place for the thumb to assist in
+grasping the handle.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the candlestick is to be high or low
+depends entirely upon the use intended for it or
+upon the preference of the user. Generally speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a
+high one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on
+shelf or table. It is well for some definite idea of
+utility to manifest itself in the form chosen. Merely
+planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without
+carefully relating these three different elements
+according to the requirements of use, can hardly
+be called designing a candlestick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_356.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestive designs for candlesticks</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The building of the candlestick is started, like
+the bowl in the first problem, by coiling from the
+centre, and the rim may be added in the same way.
+Care should be taken, however, to attach the central
+tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled
+from a single lump of clay. If there is to be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
+handle it is well to build it at the time the central
+tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm
+attachment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: TILES</h3>
+
+<p>The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it
+difficult to limit the scope of this problem. Tiles
+are used for paving,
+wall facings, ceilings,
+coverings for
+stoves, linings and
+facings for fireplaces,
+rests for
+flower pots and teapots,
+and for various
+other purposes. Tiles
+figure very prominently
+in the history
+of art. They
+are objects of interest
+and study in many public buildings and
+museums throughout the civilized world. But this
+problem will confine itself to two of the many
+varieties of tiles, <i>viz.</i>, tiles designed for bowls or
+teapots and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_357.jpg" width="300" height="354" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A tile frame</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Tile Frame.</i>&mdash;In building tiles a frame is used
+measuring about 6 inches square by <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+thick. The strips forming the frame may be 1 inch
+wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that,
+if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart
+while the clay is moist. This frame is placed on a
+plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced
+firmly into its corners and sides, working toward
+the centre, until the frame is completely filled.
+It is then turned over in order to make sure that the
+under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together.
+Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring
+both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame,
+scraping off the surplus clay with a straight
+edge. While the clay is moist, one side is
+chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to
+prevent warping. The hollowing may take the
+form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of
+<a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a>, or it may be in the shape of channels
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch or more in width, separated by ridges
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch wide running across the back of the
+tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should
+be about <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch and not over <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch.
+Even when the utmost precaution is taken, the tile
+is very liable to warp. It should therefore be dried
+slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of
+exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is
+found in the use of the so-called "grog." This is made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once
+and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it
+with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of
+one part grog to three of the clay. It may be added
+here that grog will be found of great assistance not
+only in making tiles but in making other ware. It
+will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the
+express purpose of making grog. The occasional
+failures which develop at the first firing of every
+batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXIV" id="PLXIV"></a><img src="images/i_359.jpg" width="500" height="642" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Tiles</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XIV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class= "tb" />
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;When the tile is dried and shrunk
+a little it may be easily taken from the frame, but
+it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration
+is applied. While the hardening process
+is going on the decoration may be studied. The
+three general methods of decoration considered
+under the flower bowl&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, the sunken line, the
+modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze
+or over-glaze&mdash;are all available for use with the
+tile. If it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface
+must be treated with considerable caution, otherwise
+there may result an uneven surface for the teapot
+to rest upon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;In giving the tile its first firing it is
+safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln, but not on
+the floor of the kiln, as the intense heat of the floor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+would be liable to shrink that side more than the
+others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may
+be placed on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing
+the tile should be placed flat on the stilt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tea Tiles.</i>&mdash;The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom
+of <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a> were designed and made to serve
+as rests for a teapot, a bowl, or a vase. It will be
+noticed that the centre is left free with one exception,
+which is given as an interesting variation from the
+general rule. The free space is an advantage in
+giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even
+surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. In
+the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general
+principles as to variety of measure or shape in space
+divisions hold true. Emphasis should be concentrated
+at the corners in order to strengthen the
+design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fireplace Tiles.</i>&mdash;Some of the tiles illustrated in
+<a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a> would be entirely appropriate for facing
+a border around the opening of a fireplace. This is
+especially true of the middle design shown at the
+top of the plate, on account of the lines which project
+through the corner design nearly to the edges
+of the tile. This makes it especially adapted to
+repetition in a facing or border.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLXV" id="PLXV"></a><img src="images/i_363.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Decoration of Tiles.</i>&mdash;It is in the field of painted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities
+in fireplace tile designs are found. The
+framed tile illustrated in <a href="#PLXV">Plate XV</a> opposite&mdash;an example
+of over-glaze painting&mdash;is intended for use as
+a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in
+matt glaze between raised outlines. Three similar
+tiles are illustrated in the middle row in <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a>.
+The right-hand one, like the framed tile of <a href="#PLXV">Plate XV</a>,
+is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead of being
+raised was slightly depressed. The other two are
+examples of under-glaze painting. They were painted
+on moist clay, as described in the problem of the
+bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze.
+In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding
+richness to the colour scheme. The repetition
+in a tile facing of landscapes, designed to be complete
+or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better
+so to design the entire facing that it will be made up
+of a series of very simple landscape motifs, each
+fairly complete in itself, but all so related to each
+other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat
+conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this
+kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes.</p>
+
+<p>The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design,
+not only in itself, but as related to the decorative
+scheme of the room in which it is placed. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the
+focal centre of the room. This fact, together with
+its comparatively small size, makes it possible to
+give it a strong and rich note of colour, accenting
+the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles,
+properly designed and applied, offer a rich and
+varied field for charming effects in colour and
+texture.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI">XI</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER
+MATERIALS</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of
+choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for a man's heart must be in his
+skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship&mdash;<i>Hamilton Wright Mabie</i></p></div>
+
+
+<h3>LEATHER WORK</h3>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Leather work</span>, like weaving and pottery, is of
+very ancient origin. The New Testament
+text concerning "new wine in old bottles"
+referred to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read
+of leather as having been used in still earlier times
+for shields, saddles, harnesses, parts of chariots,
+and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle
+ages the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined
+to the shoemakers' useful productions but included
+much ornamental work. There were wall coverings
+of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or
+stamped with hot tools; seats were upholstered and
+books were covered with tooled leather. Some of
+this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt
+figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Why Leather is Suited to Decoration.</i>&mdash;Leather
+seems, therefore, to have won the right to a high
+place among the materials suited to decoration.
+Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its
+natural colour, the ease with which it takes dyes,
+and the readiness with which under proper treatment,
+it receives and retains the marks of the modelling
+tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense
+no less than its durability enables it to serve the
+more common uses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limited Decoration Desirable.</i>&mdash;The tooling of
+leather is based upon the fact that, when wet, the
+fibre yields readily to compression and receives
+impressions that are retained after the leather is
+dry. But the beauty of design depends upon the
+colour and texture of the surface quite as much
+as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore
+a good point in design not to cover the surface
+so completely that the peculiar beauty of the
+material itself be lost. The decorations should
+be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined
+to a small part of the surface. Calf skin and cowhide
+are well suited to tooling. They are supplied
+in two general forms, <i>viz.</i>, the smooth,
+generally as Russia calf, and the rough or split
+cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be stained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
+a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since
+the natural colour of leather is brown, brownish
+tones are more satisfactory than the blues, greens,
+violets, grays, etc., because they seem more
+sincere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_369.jpg" width="500" height="199" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Leather-working tools</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Tools.</i>&mdash;The simple tools required for tooling
+leather may be purchased at small cost, or
+they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing
+these to shape, polishing them, and buffing
+them. The illustrations show two different
+tools, each double pointed. A and B are
+different views of the first tool; C is the second
+tool. The narrow pointed end of the first
+tool is for outlining and working into corners.
+The broad, flat end is for smoothing down
+and for general use; the broad tool should be
+used whenever possible. The round point on
+the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+the design to leather. The right hand end
+of C is known as the background tool. It is cupped
+out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise
+section just above and by the end view at the
+extreme right; in fact, a nail set may be used for
+the same purpose. The background tool, however,
+is to be used sparingly. If used to excess, especially
+on large surfaces, the result is likely to have
+a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEMS<br /><br />
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT</h3>
+
+<p>The sizes given in the illustration on <a href="#Page_325">page 325</a> are
+typical, but it is expected that in this and other problems,
+dimensions will be varied to suit conditions.
+When the size has been determined the leather
+should be cut a little longer and wider than the
+final dimensions are to be, to allow for attaching
+the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather should
+be thoroughly soaked in <i>cold water</i> and then rolled
+in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for
+tooling. It is essential that there should be absolute
+uniformity of moisture. If on applying the
+tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still
+too wet. If it should get too dry to retain the
+mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+There is danger of water stains, however, if the
+entire back is not wet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_371.jpg" width="500" height="221" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two belt designs</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The illustration shows two treatments.
+An interlaced pattern is shown in A which
+concentrates the interest at the ends and in the
+middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled
+solid and the background is left untooled. If the
+pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these
+outlines out into the background in order to give
+relief to the interlaced bands.</p>
+
+<p>Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In
+this the background is tooled down, but is heaviest
+at the ends or in the spaces against the raised
+forms. This gives the background a richer appearance
+than it has when tooled absolutely flat.
+Both patterns here shown are straight with parallel
+sides. Other shapes are possible&mdash;for example,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+those wider in the middle and tapering toward
+the ends.</p>
+
+<p>When a satisfactory design has been worked
+out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper.
+The greatest care should be taken not to have any
+pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they
+leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is
+difficult to remove. It may be added here that
+whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any
+purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;As soon as the leather has dried
+just enough to retain the marks, the pattern should
+be placed upon it, pencilled side up, allowance
+being made for trimming to the desired width.
+The paper may be held in position by thumb tacks,
+which must not, however, pass through the leather
+inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern
+may now be traced through the paper, over the
+lines of the drawing, with the round pointed tool.
+Care will have to be exercised to make sure that
+the pattern is completely transferred to the leather.
+When this is accomplished the pattern should be removed
+and the lines, which will be found somewhat
+dimly traced on the leather, should be immediately
+deepened by going over them with the
+same tool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_373.jpg" width="250" height="202" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of using the broad tool</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next step is to tool down the design; and
+in doing this the work should be turned under
+the tool rather than the tool itself on the work,
+in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied
+at the edge of the pattern farthest from the
+hand. This not only insures a correct and convenient
+position of the tool, but allows a perfect
+view of the work. In this part of the process the
+broad tool should be used, moved sidewise, as shown
+by the direction of the arrow
+in the accompanying
+cut. In working up into
+corners the narrow tool
+may be used if necessary.
+The movement may be
+described as "ironing the
+leather down." The surface
+should not be roughed up or cut up into
+"shoulders." It is a process requiring time.
+One should not try to get the full depth with the
+first pressure of the tool. One should coax the
+surface and add pressure with each succeeding
+stroke, taking care that the tool does not scrape.
+It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners
+will perhaps need to be cautioned not
+to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the
+work. As the leather dries it will be seen that the
+tooling has given it a dark, glossy surface. When
+the process is completed the belt may be trimmed
+down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a
+straight edge wherever straight lines are desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_374.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Supported and unsupported circles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design and the Process.</i>&mdash;The purpose for
+which a mat is used requires as one condition of
+design that there should be a plain surface in the
+middle. If the general form be square the design
+at the corners should be strengthened. If circular,
+the design should be so arranged that it will lend
+support to the perfect curves of the circle rather
+than weaken them. In the three outlines given
+below, C shows a form supporting the circle; D
+and E show forms tending to weaken the circle.
+Conditions determining size are more variable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+in this problem than in others, because of the
+great variety of uses which a mat may serve. In
+a design like that shown in A of the accompanying
+illustration, the portions left untooled&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the leaves and fruit&mdash;may be raised still more
+by pressing out the leather from the back by means
+of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed
+face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling
+wax, which has been covered with a piece of chamois
+or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing the leather
+down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt
+end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure
+may be obtained. After this is done it will probably
+be necessary to turn the mat over and correct
+the modelling. In order to preserve the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting,
+soaked in paste, and finally to cover the entire
+back with a lining of silk or leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_375.jpg" width="500" height="278" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two mat designs</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER</h3>
+
+<p>A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this
+case must be made of leather suitable for tooling,
+and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or
+chamois, which should match the cover in colour.
+The process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ
+essentially from that already employed in the foregoing
+problems. It should, of course, be carried
+through to completion before the book is made up.
+These parts are to be tied together with knots of
+sheepskin thongs of the same colour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_376.jpg" width="500" height="130" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Steps in tying a knot</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The series of cuts given below show the progressive
+steps in forming the knot, which should finally
+take the shape of Figure 5. After it has been
+formed the thongs are passed through holes punched
+in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper, and
+secured by a second knot formed on the back, resembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will
+leave them securely tied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_377.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two designs for pen wipers</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another illustration gives two suggestions for
+the design: A, a rectangular pen wiper tied with
+two knots at the end; B, a circular pen wiper tied
+with one knot in the middle. In these designs,
+and indeed in all others, decoration should recognize
+(not antagonize!) the outer form of the article
+to which it is applied. This point is made in the
+illustration.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_378.jpg" width="500" height="664" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for slip cover</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Planning the Cover.</i>&mdash;The object in this problem
+is to make a permanent protection for fillers. It
+is well known that the fillers themselves may be
+purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided
+with a backing of stiff paper which is designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>
+to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather
+cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book. It
+is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine
+the size of the cover; but, in planning the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>
+cover, care should be exercised to allow sufficient
+play for width, length, and thickness after all the
+cutting and sewing are done. This means that
+the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a
+little larger than called for in the final size. The
+design illustrated shows both the outside (A) and
+the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the
+cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing
+colour; but this may be left out if desired, though
+it, of course, gives a much better finish to put
+it in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assembling the Parts.</i>&mdash;The first step after cutting
+out the leather for the cover is to prepare the
+leather and tool it, if it is to have any decoration.
+A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and
+the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and
+the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed
+on the cover. A line is then to be ruled with a
+leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to
+serve as a guide for stitching. A machine stitch
+may be employed or it may be done by hand. If
+by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce
+the leather at equal distances along the tooled
+line. Hand stitches may safely be a little longer
+than the machine stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_380.jpg" width="500" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Stitching with two needles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Stitching.</i>&mdash;A good way to secure equally spaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow
+springs or spacing dividers set to the required
+distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the
+same thing is possible by making use of a tracing
+wheel, if one is available of suitable size and of the
+right spacing between the teeth. The hand stitching
+may be done either with one needle or with
+two. If with one it is best to sew a running stitch
+once around the seam and then return, covering
+the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is
+better, however, to use two needles, one on each
+end of one thread, selected long enough to finish
+the sewing without piecing it, and to proceed as
+illustrated in A and B, <i>i. e.</i>, to draw one needle
+with its thread through to the middle of the thread,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+as shown in A, and then the other through the next
+hole, and so on alternately from opposite directions,
+producing a stitch like that illustrated in
+B. It will, of course, be understood that, in the
+illustration, the length of the stitch is exaggerated
+in order to show the process plainly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trimming and Finishing.</i>&mdash;When the sewing is
+finished the thread is fastened by doubling over
+one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends
+inside between the cover and lining. Then a line
+should be tooled on the cover about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch
+outside of the stitching, and on this line the cover,
+lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw
+edges may be treated with water colour to give them
+a finish. Finally the cover is moistened a little and
+folded back with firm pressure in order to establish
+an even and permanent bend in the leather.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The problem of design in this case is,
+first of all, to determine the dimensions of the pad,
+which depend, of course, upon the use to be made of
+it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn
+in outline, including the spacing for the corners
+as illustrated in the drawing (A). The only detail
+that will need elaboration is the corner. The shape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully
+laid out on thin paper, from which in due time
+it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in
+other problems.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_382.jpg" width="500" height="259" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of the leather corner(left) Outline of desk pad(right)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Material and the Process.</i>&mdash;For making the pad
+it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders'
+board&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, heavy pulp or straw board&mdash;of the
+required size. The medium weight is the best,
+and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's.
+If this cannot be obtained, two sheets
+of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The
+size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet
+of commercial blotting paper. The edges of the
+paper board should be bound with passe-partout
+binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather
+that is to be used; the strips of binding should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+be long enough to extend under the leather corners
+but they need not reach up to the corners
+of the board. After the binding has been put on,
+the top of the board should be covered with paper
+also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and
+the paper should be cut of such size as to lap
+over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable
+width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers"
+will be found satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Making the Corners.</i>&mdash;The next step in the process
+is to lay out and cut the leather corners
+according to the original design. The form in
+which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions
+are shown in the illustration B. The little
+flap at <i>x</i> should be noted. It is designed to
+tuck under and close the corner. The edges of
+leather at <i>x</i> should be "skived" or thinned down
+so as to add to the neat appearance of the work.
+Further improvement will result from skiving
+down the edges S R S and T V T of the large
+flaps, which are to be folded over underneath
+and pasted down to the back of the board. The
+ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for
+this work. When the leather corners are placed
+in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses
+of blotting paper should be used at each corner,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+in order to secure the necessary space for the reception
+of the blotters when the board is in use.
+After the corners are pasted on, the back of the
+board should be covered with paper in the same
+way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion
+of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a
+number of blotters of full size should be inserted
+in position under the corners to keep them in shape
+and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;In the illustration (A), showing
+a card-case unfolded, the dimensions give the finished
+size. The same card-case is illustrated in
+B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps
+turned in. The design on A is a rectangle broken
+at the corners. In this case, as it may be with all
+similar forms, the design is treated as a sort of
+binding, extending across the middle fold. C
+shows an alternative design which is treated as a
+panel and may be placed on one or on both sides
+of the card-case. The question of which is the top
+and bottom in such a design as that in C can
+be determined only by the owner's habit of holding
+a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one
+of the inner flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of
+the outer surfaces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_385.jpg" width="500" height="397" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a card-case</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;In cutting the leather for a card-case
+it is necessary to provide a piece a little
+larger than the finished dimensions in order to
+allow for trimming. The design should be transferred,
+the line of stitching determined, and the
+tooling done, according to the description already
+given for the other problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lining.</i>&mdash;A card-case may be lined either
+with silk or with sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize
+with the outside. If lined with silk it
+must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+great care being exercised to have the sides
+parallel and the corners true and square. Then the
+silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted
+along the edges to a width of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch, care
+being taken, however, not to paste those portions of
+the edges that will be visible when the flaps of
+the cover are turned in, <i>i. e.</i>, the middle of
+the fold B. This precaution should be taken
+because the paste may strike through and
+spot the lining. The flaps should then be
+moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure;
+but before stitching they should be fastened
+down with a little paste to form pockets. This
+takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching
+as described in the problem of the note-book.
+If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side showing,
+the cover need not be trimmed down until after
+the stitching; then both may be trimmed at once.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The details of design and construction
+are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In A
+the outer flap is shown tooled. It will be noticed
+that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the
+central point in design. The tooling is done as
+directed in the other examples of this class of work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_387.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a purse</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The purse is lined throughout with leather.
+It has bellows ends, as shown in the perspective
+at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of
+the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in
+the middle, bringing both ends of the leather together
+and thus giving an end of double thickness.
+With thin leather, such as is used in the present
+instance, this pattern is practicable. If thicker
+leather be used the bellows must be made of single
+thickness. In this case the pattern would simply
+be like that shown in the lower half of D.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;After the lining is pasted to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+cover a snap fastener should be attached. Proper
+care, of course, should be taken to see that the fastener
+comes in the right place so that the purse will
+fold properly. The cover and lining should then be
+trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching.
+It is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is
+moist from pasting. Finally a little paste is applied
+along the edges of the bellows ends and they are
+placed in position.</p>
+
+<p>Stitching is started at the point E shown in the
+perspective. Hand stitching is the most practicable.
+The direction is down one side, up the other,
+and around the outside flap to the other bellows
+end, stopping at the point F. When the stitching
+is completed the inside flap should be folded down.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The first step is to choose the book
+to be bound. For the sake of simplicity, as perhaps
+the first piece of bookbinding undertaken,
+it should be a folio or "section." And it should
+be <i>worth binding in leather</i>. The subject, the
+paper, and the typography should be worthy of
+the distinction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="500" height="707" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers of books. Details
+of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other problems.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;If the book selected is already
+bound or "cased" it is necessary first to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+the binding or casing. Then at least three fly
+leaves should be added, made up to match the
+other leaves of the folio. A piece of bookbinders'
+linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open
+folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the
+fly leaves and the folio itself, stitched through
+the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with
+the leather.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to prepare the leather cover.
+To do this, first place the leather in position
+on the closed folio and, allowing <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+at the top and bottom and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch at the
+fore edge, mark and cut out the stock for the
+cover. The decoration, if there is to be any, may
+now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in
+relief to need a backing, it may be at once filled
+with cotton batting, pasted in as directed in the
+problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.</p>
+
+<p>Stock for the end papers is now selected. They
+may be of cover paper, or of silk, and they should
+harmonize in colour with the leather. They are
+formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen,
+by folding it over to fit into the part between the
+linen and the first fly leaf. If of paper they are
+to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the
+width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+after the linen is pasted in. If the end leaves
+are to be of silk, an allowance of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom
+and the fore edge.</p>
+
+<p>We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather.
+Strong paste, with perhaps a little thin glue added,
+is needed for this part of the process. Now paste
+the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside
+of the cover; and, if silk has been used for these
+leaves, paste the other two to the outer fly leaves.
+Finally, the book should be placed under very
+gentle pressure and kept in this condition until
+dry. Care should be exercised to adjust this pressure
+to the character of the tooling, if there is any,
+so as not to crush it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>COPPER WORK</h3>
+
+<p>There is a limited field for metal work in home
+decoration; but there are some things of metal
+that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable
+degree and, in their making, introduce us to most
+interesting operations. Beginning with the gate,
+which may be of wrought iron, or with the door
+knocker, which may be of antique brass, we may
+find in every home problems of design involving
+work in metals. Ornamental hinges, key<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, andirons,
+and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card
+trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other
+useful things that may be made in attractive forms
+readily suggest themselves. How some of these
+may be made is suggested in the following simple
+problems:</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LETTER RACK</h3>
+
+<p>This is an easy problem. Only four constructive
+operations are required, <i>viz.</i>, cutting out the stock,
+sawing the design,
+bending, and finishing.
+The illustration shows
+the form and the dimensions
+and suggests a
+simple design. The
+material required is 18-gauge
+soft copper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_392.jpg" width="300" height="319" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a letter rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first step in the
+process is to cut out a
+strip of copper 8 inches
+long and 4 inches wide.
+If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and
+then the round corners should be cut. The design is
+traced on strong, thin paper and securely pasted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+on the copper in the proper position by using cold
+liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit
+of the design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers'
+saw inserted, and the design cut. Time and patience
+will be required for this operation. Saws
+are easily broken, and new ones must be attached
+to the saw frame and again applied to the work.
+After sawing the design it is necessary to give
+the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a
+file. The surface which is to form the inside of
+the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished
+with water and pumice.</p>
+
+<p>The copper is now ready to be bent to the required
+shape. To do this prepare a block of hard
+wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it in a
+bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely
+across the block in such a position that the sides may
+be bent over the edges of the block. When this has
+been done it only remains to clean the outside surface
+and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a
+fine polish is desired, the buffing should be preceded
+by careful grinding with a Scotch water stone and
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER</h3>
+
+<p>This requires the same kind of material as the
+letter rack and the same operations, with the addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+of riveting. After the stock is cut out, trimmed and
+trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is
+pasted on, as in the previous problem, and the design
+cut out. The top is then bent over and riveted with a
+copper tack, having shaped the head of the tack in
+the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being
+riveted the finished head should be protected by
+placing it on a lead block. Finally the edge should
+be filed to the shape shown in the cross section, and
+the whole cleaned and polished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_394.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a letter opener</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A HAT PIN</h3>
+
+<p>For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed.
+The operations required are cutting out, sawing, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span>
+soft soldering. After the necessary stock has been cut
+to the required shape and the edges filed, the design is
+outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It
+is desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water
+to a good polish. The head will then be ready to be
+attached to the pin.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_395.jpg" width="350" height="288" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The hat pin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the
+surface where
+the pin is to be attached
+(shown in
+the drawing), select
+a steel pin of
+desired length,
+scrape the surface
+of the little
+disk attached to
+one end of it, apply
+to this disk
+a little soldering paste by means of a small stick, and
+then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit
+of soft solder, which should cover the whole disk.
+Now place the copper, outside face down, on an
+asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste to the
+central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder
+on this portion of the copper, and fuse as before.</p>
+
+<p>When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+which will have formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric
+acid, and polish on the buffing wheel.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A BELT PIN</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_396.jpg" width="350" height="301" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The belt pin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem.
+The operations are like those for the hat pin except
+that hard soldering is necessary. The slight bending
+of the copper, required in this case, is done by means
+of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering,
+the surface must be scraped as before and covered
+with a little borax ground in water and applied
+with a small brush. The belt plate should then
+be placed on the asbestos pad, with its convex
+face down, and blocked up so that the end where
+the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
+should then be placed in position with a small
+piece of silver solder at the base. The solder should
+be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe
+and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on
+in the same way, and finally the pin is cleaned and
+polished for use.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS</h3>
+
+<p>This problem is much like the first one described
+under metal work. Sixteen-gauge copper is required.
+It may be bent by placing it between two hard wood
+blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide
+mallet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_397.jpg" width="300" height="256" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for book ends</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_398.jpg" width="500" height="637" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a teapot stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_399.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of a corner</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem.
+The operations are similar to those already described;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+but the cutting and bending are much more difficult.
+After determining the design it will be necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as
+illustrated in the detail of the corner. The four
+corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown
+in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut
+to the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case,
+to be used as a form on which to bend down the
+sides and turn the
+flanges. If the corners
+are correctly cut the
+parts will fall naturally
+into place, to be bored
+and riveted, as the
+drawing plainly shows.
+In order to protect the
+tablecloth, the under
+side of the rivet holes
+should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets
+may be finished smooth and flush with the under
+surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat
+may be glued on the bottom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A WATCH FOB</h3>
+
+<p>This problem introduces engraving and enamelling,
+two interesting but somewhat difficult operations.
+The process to be carried out is as follows: Using 12-gauge
+copper, saw the outline, and apply the design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching
+it with a pencil or transferring it by means of
+carbon paper. Then strengthen the pencil or carbon
+lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl.
+Imbed this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl
+or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece
+of board clamped to the
+bench or table. Using
+an engraving tool, remove
+the copper from the spot
+to be enamelled to the
+depth of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>32</sub> of an inch.
+It is well to have the bottom
+of the spot reasonably
+level but not necessarily
+smooth and the sides
+slightly undercut. Before applying the flux, clean,
+by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric
+acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off
+under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a
+closed jar under water after grinding, and taken
+out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper
+previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should
+be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be
+enamelled; but the depth of the spot must not
+be filled up.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_400.jpg" width="250" height="258" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a watch fob</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on
+an iron tripod, and apply the flame of the blowpipe
+to the under side. Heat very slowly until all the
+water is driven off, then force the heat until the
+flux is fused. Allow it to cool slowly, then remove
+any flux that may have adhered to the surface
+of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone.
+Clean with acid as before, fill the spot with enamel
+in the same manner as the flux was applied, and
+fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be
+stoned again to remove inequalities and again
+fused, cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver
+the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied
+directly, but the silver should be cleaned with
+sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great
+care should be used in heating as the fusing point
+of silver is but little above that of enamel. The
+depth of the engraving on the silver need not be
+as great as on the copper.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A CARD TRAY</h3>
+
+<p>Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem,
+and two new operations, <i>viz.</i>, raising and chasing,
+are introduced. After cutting out a circular piece of
+copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it
+to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling
+by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath. A
+circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly
+scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the
+end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch,
+and placed in a vise. Now holding the copper
+on the block, it is raised to shape with the round
+end of the roughing hammer. It is well to anneal
+frequently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_402.jpg" width="400" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a card tray</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After shaping, the design may be applied
+by means of transfer paper and the lines lightly
+scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray
+in pitch and outline the design by following the
+lines with a narrow chasing tool. Reverse the tray
+on the pitch and, with a chasing tool of suitable
+shape, raise the body of the design to the height
+desired. Reverse on the pitch again and with a
+flat tool true the outlines and smooth the background.
+Remove from the pitch, trim the edge
+of the tray if it is forced out of line, clean with
+pumice stone and buff.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;">
+<img src="images/i_403.jpg" width="247" height="246" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of shaping with the hammer</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured
+by painting them with, or immersing them
+in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of sulphur. If
+soft solder has not been used, another pleasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+finish may be secured by applying a thin coat of
+lubricating oil and heating gently until the oil is
+volatilized. An antique green or verdigris finish
+may be obtained by painting with a mixture of
+acetic acid and copper carbonate. Several coats
+may be necessary; and it is desirable to lacquer
+the surface to ensure permanency.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Work in Other Materials</span><br /><br />
+A CANDLE SHADE</h3>
+
+<p>The materials and tools for this problem are
+six ply card-board in dull shades of gray, brown
+or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper
+of average thickness; passe-partout binding a
+little darker than the card-board and of harmonizing
+colour; paste; a penknife with a thin blade;
+and a water colour outfit.</p>
+
+<p>Of the drawings included in the group on the
+opposite page one shows a development of the
+surface of the candle shade which is the subject
+of this problem. Referring to the elevation it will
+be seen that if the edges AE and DH be continued
+until they meet at O, OE and OH are really equal
+to the radii of the outer arc of the development
+shown in the upper part of the group, and OA and
+OD, to the radii of the inner arc. This upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+developed surface really forms the pattern of the
+candle shade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_405.jpg" width="500" height="741" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details of candle shade</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The decoration consists of openings cut through
+the card-board segments. These are covered with
+Japanese paper, thus allowing light to pass through,
+but adding the effect of colour. A margin of
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch is allowed along the openings, the
+remaining spaces being divided by partitions of
+card-board, as shown in the different typical designs
+at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that
+the group of openings forming the decoration of
+one side conforms in the main to the shape of that
+side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety
+of size and shape in the openings, but that they
+all show a certain unity and harmony of space
+division.</p>
+
+<p>The openings are cut with a penknife, care
+being taken to make as clean a cut as possible.
+Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or some
+suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings.
+The process of pasting is one that requires some
+care. It is well to paste only a portion of the pasteboard
+at a time taking care not to use more
+paste than necessary and not to let any get over the
+edges of the openings. The paper should be pressed
+on while the paste is still moist, and the paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It
+should be placed with colour side next to the
+openings.</p>
+
+<p>When the paste is dry the card-board should be
+lightly scored on the lines AE, BF, etc., and bent
+on these lines, bringing the sectors together into
+the form of the shade and fastening them at the
+top and bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout
+binding. If the binding is of the ordinary
+width (<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise
+into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting
+the edges. No attempt should be made to
+run the binding along more than one edge. The
+separated strips should then be cut the exact length
+for each top and bottom edge and applied one at
+a time. Then the side edges are bound, with the
+apex of the angle at the middle of the binding.
+When the binding is firmly fastened it is carefully
+trimmed off at the top and bottom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_408.jpg" width="300" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A seven-light fixture</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in
+the accompanying drawings. They were derived
+from suggestions in the <i>Craftsman</i>, and were
+successfully worked out in remodelling a house.
+The seven-light fixture consists of a circular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+pendant-board about 30 inches in diameter, made
+from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree
+segments and, with splined joints, glued up to
+form a circular piece which was turned up on
+a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter
+was left in the larger circle, which was
+covered by a cup-shaped cap turned from plain
+oak stock and attached
+to the larger circle by
+screws. The considerable
+opening covered
+by this cap contained
+the cut out and the
+wiring necessary for
+connecting with each
+of the seven lights.
+Seven medium-sized
+hooks of composition metal were procured which
+had large, coarse threaded screws. A <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub>-inch hole
+was drilled lengthwise through the shanks of these
+hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of the
+arc of each segment in the board circle to receive
+these hooks. When the fixture was assembled the
+wires for each light were carried from the cut out
+across a channel made for that purpose on the
+upper surface of the board, passed down through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+the hole in the shank of the hook, woven into the
+links of the chain pendant and connected with the corresponding
+bulb socket after passing through another
+hook, like those described above, which linked
+the socket to the chain. As a finish around the
+hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned
+over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and
+oxidized to a tone somewhat
+darker than the brown of the
+oak board. Copper cups in a
+conventional petal design were
+made to place over each of the
+bulbs. The chains were also
+oxidized to conform with the
+other metal work. The entire
+combination was satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 618px;">
+<img src="images/i_409.jpg" width="618" height="716" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A five-light fixture</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another design for the dining-room of the same
+house and much easier to construct is also illustrated.
+It will be observed that the square form
+instead of the circle is carried out consistently in
+the woodwork and metal caps. These caps and
+the chains are in natural brass of a dull finish.
+The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a
+flower design in heavy black lines. The central
+light has a larger shade than the others, wholly
+enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+bulb for use whenever such decorative effect is
+desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DECORATIVE FORGINGS</h3>
+
+<p>In the story of the designing and building of the
+model house reference was made to contributions
+from the forge shop. Among these were the andirons,
+door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles
+shown in the accompanying illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>It should be understood that all wrought iron work
+that has any reality in it requires an equipment
+especially adapted to its production. There must
+be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools,
+all in the hands of a workman of some experience
+and skill. Successful forge work can hardly be
+considered among the handicrafts easily adapted
+to the needs of the amateur working without instruction
+and with poor equipment. But with
+good tools, proper equipment, and a little experience
+any clever boy will be able to design and fashion
+many useful articles for the home which have real
+artistic merit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXVI" id="PLXVI"></a><img src="images/i_411.jpg" width="500" height="701" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Decorative Forgings</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XVI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there
+may be made the shovel, poker, and tongs, and
+possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot hooks.
+Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+lantern brackets for the wall or for lantern posts,
+standards for the newel post, the hall lantern or
+the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker for
+the door, and, if the architectural design permits,
+hinges, plates, and bolts for the door. This list
+by no means exhausts the uses of wrought iron in
+house decoration. It may be extended to include
+draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles
+and hinges of great variety, nails with ornamental
+heads for use with heavy construction, and many
+small articles such as trivets for steam kettles,
+toasting forks, candle holders, and many other
+useful articles which have also decorative value.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII">XII</a><br /><br />
+<small>CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS</small></h2>
+
+<h3>COUNTRY HOMES</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the
+world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul alive.&mdash;<i>Robert Louis Stevenson</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Keen</span> observers of American customs, who
+have studied the development of our taste
+in house designing and furnishing, tell us
+that the best expression of our art in architecture and
+home decoration is to be found in our country homes.
+They do not overlook, of course, a beautiful public
+building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether,
+or an occasional private residence on Millionaire
+Avenue, which are monuments to the genius of
+the men who created them and of which any country
+may be proud. What they mean is that as a people
+we seek and secure the right combination of utility
+and beauty in our homes more frequently in the
+country than in the city.</p>
+
+<p>At first thought such a criticism may seem to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+be an exaggeration. Is it reasonable, we ask,
+that people of good sense, such as most Americans
+are, really succeed better in planning, building, and
+decorating the houses which they are to occupy
+but a few weeks in the summer than they do in
+developing their city homes? We are told that
+it is true and that there are good reasons for it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simplicity of Country Life.</i>&mdash;It is the life in the
+country and at the seashore that is the simple life,
+the natural life, the life that sets us free from the
+accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come
+to forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the
+few. Here we are to feel the joy of living. Nature
+is all about us, and she gives of her bounty freely.
+Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied
+with the free gifts. What wants we have keep
+step with our needs here as they do nowhere else.
+We care less for what others have; we are
+more individual, more rational. Here we generally
+demand what we really need and we more frequently
+obtain it. And this is true whether it be
+something that appeals to the &aelig;sthetic side of
+our natures or whether it be that which ministers
+to our material needs. In seeking the beautiful
+for the simple home in the country we do not so
+often forget the useful; for here, away from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
+world of museums and studios and collections, we
+learn that art is possible without paintings and
+statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of
+the shingled cottage, set like a gem on the hillside
+or by the sea, in the harmonious arrangement of
+its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen
+only for use and comfort and placed where needed,
+and with decorations, cheerful but restrained and
+subordinate, suggestive of more glorious colours
+and more interesting things in the world without&mdash;in
+such surroundings we have beauty and utility
+combined. Here we have the time and the opportunity
+to realize the truth that all art is one
+and that it may find in the problems of decoration
+in the country home, if not its highest mission,
+its most open field for giving to appreciative people
+the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opportunities for Constructive Art.</i>&mdash;If it be true
+that there is a more universal recognition of the
+true principles of art in the better class of our
+country homes than in our city homes, it is proof,
+if proof be needed, that the elements of art expression
+are found in the simple, natural materials
+of every-day life. It may be that in the development
+of art amid simple surroundings "necessity
+is the mother of invention," and that, more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+naturally, simplicity is thrust upon us. The general
+habit of our time is to extend the vacation period
+in the country or at the seashore to the point of
+making a home there for every summer season.
+But only a few can carry wealth and elegance with
+them. A great majority must be satisfied with
+simple and inexpensive homes. At first we accept
+them as the only thing possible, and then we discover
+that in their very simplicity they offer the
+best of opportunities for true &aelig;sthetic expression.
+And this opportunity is largely for the younger
+members of the family&mdash;for the boys and girls
+whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest
+in the summer home is perhaps the more
+vital and whose imagination is the more susceptible
+to the art suggestions of nature. We have
+seen that it is possible for boys and girls to build
+and furnish a house under the exacting requirements
+of city life. How much easier it must be
+to build a cottage for the summer season, decorating
+and furnishing it in harmony with the simple
+needs of a vacation home.</p>
+
+<p>If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those
+who undertake the work will find much practical
+help in the problems outlined in the foregoing
+chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
+directions there given will always be exactly followed.
+In the furniture problems, for example,
+soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted
+for the harder woods specified. Very attractive as
+well as very useful simple furniture has been made
+in this way at a merely nominal expense. Staining
+and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with
+colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of
+new pine and spruce is in itself by no means unattractive.
+The smooth, exposed beams of the ceilings
+and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be
+stained a beautiful gray green or a soft brown.
+A good colour suggestion may be found in the
+weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old
+buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a
+dado may be easily obtained by stretching burlap
+or denim over the studding or over a backing of
+inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very
+durable and inexpensive, and they may be found
+in a great variety of beautiful shades. They make
+excellent porti&egrave;res. A lighter, thinner material
+like scrim is better for window draperies. All
+these fabrics afford good surfaces for decoration
+by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood floors,
+covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty
+hand woven rugs like those described in the chapter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
+on weaving, with simple, useful furniture, a picture
+or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery, complete
+the equipment for a charming living room. If
+it all be the product of home industry, the cash
+outlay for the material need not be over forty
+dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount
+for better materials would not in the least interfere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
+with such a room being decorated and furnished
+by the unaided labours of the amateur artists
+and craftsmen of the family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_419.jpg" width="500" height="514" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A fireplace in field rock</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief expense would naturally be for the
+living room, dining-room, and kitchen. The dining-room,
+however, may well be simply a corner
+or alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement
+greatly increases the value of a single fireplace,
+which will be required to give the summer
+home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be
+of rough field rock and should be large enough to
+take one-cut fireplace wood. The chamber furnishings
+may be very simple indeed. Furniture
+dealers make a point of supplying beds, bureaus,
+chairs, and cabinets of simple design, unfinished,
+so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize
+with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture,
+or good substitutes for it, can be made very
+inexpensively. For example, the stock for a good
+bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases
+provided with shelves and curtains in place of
+drawers, made at a cash outlay possibly of one
+dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials
+for building an eight-room cottage in every way
+satisfactory need not exceed five hundred dollars;
+and such a cottage could be beautifully furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials
+of one hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred
+dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_421.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An inexpensive bed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the exterior finishing of summer cottages
+nature generally needs very little assistance. No
+colours harmonize so well with the gray rocks,
+sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees
+by the seashore, as the weathered grays of the
+shingled cottage. The window frames, door frames
+and facings, painted to preserve them, may be of
+the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly
+marking the outlines of the house but without
+unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof in slate gray<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
+or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning
+and outside chimneys in the field rock of
+the locality are eminently fitting. The house
+among the hills will stand more colour because the
+colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn
+season. But wherever the house may be,
+it should repeat in its larger surfaces the prevailing
+colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem
+to fit into its surroundings as if it belonged there
+and would always remain there, a part of the simple,
+natural beauty all around it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_422.jpg" width="500" height="242" alt="A Summer Cottage" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+
+<hr class="h50" />
+<p class="center">THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_b_endpaper_a.jpg" width="300" height="476" alt="endpaper a" />
+<div class="caption">Endpaper a</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_b_endpaper_b.jpg" width="300" height="475" alt="endpaper b" />
+<div class="caption">Endpaper b</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+<p>Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour)</p>
+<p>Corrected obvious typos:
+tell -&gt; tells<br />
+arrrangement -&gt; arrangement<br />
+CROHETED -&gt; CROCHETED<br />
+STENCILING -&gt; STENCILLING<br />
+on account -&gt; on account of<br />
+will be be -&gt; will be<br />
+retain -&gt; and retains<br />
+expecially -&gt; especially<br /></p>
+<p>Porti&egrave;res/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts (left as in text in each case)</p>
+<p>Hyphenation made consistent: <br />
+    wood-work -&gt; woodwork<br />
+    outdoor -&gt; out-door<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44750 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:56:39 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:56:39 -0700
commit	f2ae1ecf7440ba6729289b86883de1702d241ae4 (patch)
tree	a5f4dc2879b7b7731e74b684537216b9e450e738 /44750-h