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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Story of the Bible Animals, by J. G. Wood
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Story of the Bible Animals
+ A Description of the Habits and Uses of every living
+ Creature mentioned in the Scriptures, with Explanation of
+ Passages in the Old and New Testament in which Reference
+ is made to them
+
+Author: J. G. Wood
+
+Release Date: January 17, 2014 [EBook #44685]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Julia Neufeld and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+Text enclosed in equal signs is in bold (=350=).
+
+Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+[Illustration: THE ANIMALS ENTER THE ARK.
+
+FRONTISPIECE--"STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS."]
+
+
+
+
+ STORY
+ OF THE
+ BIBLE ANIMALS
+
+ A Description of the
+ Habits and Uses of every living
+ Creature mentioned in the Scriptures,
+
+ WITH
+
+ EXPLANATION OF PASSAGES IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT IN
+ WHICH REFERENCE IS MADE TO THEM.
+
+ BY
+ J. G. WOOD,
+ AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,"
+ "THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY," ETC.
+
+ 300 ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF
+ _CHARLES FOSTER'S PUBLICATIONS_,
+ No. 118 South Seventh Street,
+ PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+
+[Illustration: WAR-HORSES AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHARIOT.
+
+See page 307.]
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY W. A. FOSTER.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Owing to the different conditions of time, language, country, and
+race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were
+written, it is impossible that they should be rightly understood at
+the present day without some study of the customs and manners of
+Eastern peoples, as well as of the countries in which they lived.
+
+The Oriental character of the scriptural writings causes them to
+abound with metaphors and symbols taken from the common life of the
+time.
+
+They contain allusions to the trees, flowers, and herbage, the
+creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts
+and forests.
+
+Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood
+them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall
+misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them.
+
+The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one
+department of Natural History--namely, Zoology--can be treated in
+this work, although it is illustrated by many references to other
+branches of Natural History, to the physical geography of Palestine,
+Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and
+historical parallels.
+
+The importance of understanding the nature, habits, and uses of
+the animals which are constantly mentioned in the Bible, cannot be
+overrated as a means of elucidating the Scriptures, and without this
+knowledge we shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages
+of the Old and New Testaments, but the words of our Lord Himself
+will often be totally misinterpreted, or at least lose part of their
+significance.
+
+The object of the present work is therefore, to take in its proper
+succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures,
+and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to
+understand all the passages in which it is mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: SHEPHERD LEADING SHEEP AND GOATS TO THEIR FOLD IN THE
+ROCK.
+
+See page 191.]
+
+
+
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+The Rev. J. G. Wood is a native of London, England. He was educated
+at Oxford University, and has long been known, both in England
+and America, as not only a learned and accurate writer on Natural
+History, but a popular one as well, having the happy faculty of
+making the results of scientific study and painstaking observation,
+interesting and instructive to all classes of readers.
+
+He has published a number of works on the most familiar departments
+of the history of animals, designed to awaken popular interest
+in the study. Their titles are "Sketches and Anecdotes of Animal
+Life;" "Common Objects of the Seashore and Country;" "My Feathered
+Friends;" "Homes Without Hands"--being a description of the
+habitations of animals,--and the "Illustrated Natural History," a
+book which is widely known both in England and America as a standard
+work of great value. It has given the author celebrity, and has
+caused him to be considered an eminent authority on the subject
+which it treats.
+
+It is evident, from these facts, that it would be difficult to find
+a man better qualified than Mr. Wood, to write a book describing the
+animals mentioned in the Bible.
+
+Profoundly impressed with the ignorance which prevails towards so
+important a feature of the Scriptural Narrative, he has devoted his
+ripe powers and special knowledge to the work of dissipating it, and
+in this volume, not only fully describes the nature and habits of
+all the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, but tells the story of
+their relations to mankind.
+
+Mr. Wood is a clergyman of the Church of England, and was for a
+time connected with Christ Church, Oxford. He has devoted himself
+mainly, however, to authorship in the field which he has chosen,
+and in which he has become so well known. In his works he usually
+employs a popular style of writing, and does not make scientific
+terms prominent. This is especially true of the "Story of the Bible
+Animals," which from its easy and interesting character is adapted
+to the comprehension of young and old.
+
+[Illutration: animals]
+
+Many of the pictures in this book are taken from the living animals,
+or from photographs and sketches by Eastern travellers.
+
+Others represent imaginary scenes, or ancient historical events, and
+have been designed by skilful artists after careful study of the
+subjects.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+[A complete Index of Subjects will be found at the end of this
+Volume.]
+
+
+ NO. PAGE
+
+ 1. THE ANIMALS ENTER THE ARK 2
+
+ 2. WAR-HORSES AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHARIOT 4
+
+ 3. SHEPHERD LEADING SHEEP AND GOATS TO THEIR FOLD IN THE ROCK 6
+
+ 4. A DESERT-SCENE 8
+
+ 5. THE GARDEN OF EDEN 19
+
+ 6. LION DRINKING AT A POOL 21
+
+ 7. A LION KILLS THE PROPHET FROM JUDAH 22
+
+ 8. LION AND TIGER 23
+
+ 9. THE LION REPLIES TO THE THUNDER 25
+
+ 10. LIONESS AND YOUNG 27
+
+ 11. LION CARRYING HOME SUPPLIES 31
+
+ 12. AFRICAN LIONS 32
+
+ 13. THE LION ATTACKS THE HERD 34
+
+ 14. THE LAIR OF THE LION 35
+
+ 15. THE LION LISTENS TO THE APPROACH OF THE HUNTER 39
+
+ 16. THE LEOPARD 43
+
+ 17. LEOPARD ATTACKING A HERD OF DEER 45
+
+ 18. THE LEOPARD LEAPS UPON HIS PREY 47
+
+ 19. WAITING 49
+
+ 20. LEOPARD 51
+
+ 21. CAT AND KITTENS 52
+
+ 22. CAT 54
+
+ 23. DOGS IN AN EASTERN CITY AT NIGHT 57
+
+ 24. SHIMEI EXULTING OVER KING DAVID 59
+
+ 25. LAZARUS LYING AT THE RICH MAN'S DOOR 62
+
+ 26. THE DEATH OF JEZEBEL 63
+
+ 27. SYRIAN DOG 64
+
+ 28. EASTERN WATER-SELLER 68
+
+ 29. WOLVES ATTACKING A FLOCK OF SHEEP 70
+
+ 30. WOLVES CHASING DEER 72
+
+ 31. THE WOLF 73
+
+ 32. WOLVES ATTACKING WILD GOATS 75
+
+ 33. THE JACKAL 76
+
+ 34. FOXES OR JACKALS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A GOAT 77
+
+ 35. A FEAST IN PROSPECT 79
+
+ 36. A FEAST SECURED 81
+
+ 37. A TRESPASSER 83
+
+ 38. LEOPARD ROBBED OF ITS PREY BY HYÆNAS 87
+
+ 39. HYÆNAS DEVOURING BONES 89
+
+ 40. WEASELS 93
+
+ 41. THE BITER BIT 95
+
+ 42. BADGERS 99
+
+ 43. SUPPOSED FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABERNACLE 101
+
+ 44. BEARS DESCENDING THE MOUNTAINS 105
+
+ 45. ON THE WATCH 107
+
+ 46. SEEKING AN OUTLOOK 109
+
+ 47. A FAMILY PARTY 111
+
+ 48. BEAR 112
+
+ 49. PORCUPINE 113
+
+ 50. THE MOLE-RAT 115
+
+ 51. THE MOUSE 119
+
+ 52. DAGON FALLEN DOWN BEFORE THE ARK 120
+
+ 53. MOUSE AND NEST 121
+
+ 54. JERBOA OR LEAPING-MOUSE 122
+
+ 55. THE FIELD-MOUSE 123
+
+ 56. THE SYRIAN HARE 127
+
+ 57. A TIMID GROUP 129
+
+ 58. ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING 133
+
+ 59. THE PRODIGAL SON RETURNS 134
+
+ 60. ABRAHAM OFFERS FOOD TO THE THREE STRANGERS 135
+
+ 61. OXEN TREADING OUT GRAIN 139
+
+ 62. EASTERN OX-CART 140
+
+ 63. THE ARK OF THE COVENANT BEING DRAWN BY COWS 141
+
+ 64. PLOUGHING WITH OXEN 143
+
+ 65. MUMMY OF A SACRED BULL TAKEN FROM AN EGYPTIAN TOMB 146
+
+ 66. ANIMALS BEING SOLD FOR SACRIFICE IN THE PORCH OF THE TEMPLE 147
+
+ 67. JEROBOAM SETS UP A GOLDEN CALF AT BETHEL 148
+
+ 68. THE BUFFALO 149
+
+ 69. THE BHAINSA, OR DOMESTIC BUFFALO, AND CAMEL DRAWING
+ THE PLOUGH 151
+
+ 70. WILD BULL OR ORYX 155
+
+ 71. THE ORYX 157
+
+ 72. THE UNICORN 158
+
+ 73. THE BISON 160
+
+ 74. BISON KILLING WOLF 161
+
+ 75. THE GAZELLE OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE 163
+
+ 76. GAZELLES 164
+
+ 77. THE FALCON USED IN OUR HUNT 168
+
+ 78. THE ARAB IS DELIGHTED AT THE SUCCESS OF THE HUNT 169
+
+ 79. THE GAZELLE 170
+
+ 80. THE ADDAX 172
+
+ 81. THE BUBALE OR FALLOW DEER OF SCRIPTURE 175
+
+ 82. SHEEP 176
+
+ 83. ARABS JOURNEYING TO FRESH PASTURES 178
+
+ 84. VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS 179
+
+ 85. JACOB MEETS RACHEL AT THE WELL 182
+
+ 86. EASTERN SHEPHERD WATCHING HIS FLOCK 183
+
+ 87. DAVID GATHERS STONES FROM THE BROOK TO CAST AT
+ GOLIATH 185
+
+ 88. AN EASTERN SHEPHERD 186
+
+ 89. SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD 187
+
+ 90. ANCIENT SHEEP-PEN 190
+
+ 91. THE POOR MAN'S LAMB 193
+
+ 92. THE RICH MAN'S FEAST 193
+
+ 93. FLOCKS OF SHEEP BEING TAKEN INTO JERUSALEM 195
+
+ 94. SOUNDING THE TRUMPETS IN THE YEAR OF JUBILEE 202
+
+ 95. RAM'S HORN TRUMPET 203
+
+ 96. A LAMB UPON THE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING 204
+
+ 97. THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE 206
+
+ 98. THE CHAMOIS 211
+
+ 99. CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG 213
+
+ 100. CHASING THE AOUDAD 214
+
+ 101. THE MOUFLON 216
+
+ 102. JACOB DECEIVES HIS FATHER AND TAKES ESAU'S BLESSING 218
+
+ 103. THE ANGEL APPEARS TO GIDEON 219
+
+ 104. EASTERN WATER-CARRIERS WITH BOTTLES MADE OF GOAT-SKIN 224
+
+ 105. GOATS ON THE MARCH 228
+
+ 106. HERD OF GOATS ATTACKED BY A LION 231
+
+ 107. ARABIAN IBEX, THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE 236
+
+ 108. THE DEER 238
+
+ 109. RED DEER 239
+
+ 110. FALLOW DEER OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE 240
+
+ 111. A QUIET SPOT 241
+
+ 112. RED DEER AND FAWN 243
+
+ 113. THE LEADER OF THE HERD 245
+
+ 114. THE WATCHFUL DOE 247
+
+ 115. A KNEELING CAMEL 248
+
+ 116. JACOB LEAVES LABAN AND RETURNS TO CANAAN 249
+
+ 117. A CAMP IN THE DESERT 250
+
+ 118. A GRATEFUL SHADE 253
+
+ 119. CAMELS LADEN WITH BOUGHS 257
+
+ 120. MORNING IN THE DESERT: STARTING OF THE CARAVAN 258
+
+ 121. THE CAMEL POST 261
+
+ 122. A RUNAWAY 263
+
+ 123. AN ARAB SHEIK MOUNTED UPON HIS CAMEL 264
+
+ 124. AARON'S ROD BEARS ALMONDS 266
+
+ 125. CAMEL RIDING 267
+
+ 126. THE DELOUL, OR SWIFT CAMEL 268
+
+ 127. ANOTHER MODE OF RIDING THE CAMEL 270
+
+ 128. PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN CITY 277
+
+ 129. MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH 278
+
+ 130. AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT 279
+
+ 131. ON THE MARCH 281
+
+ 132. HAIR OF THE CAMEL 283
+
+ 133. CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE" 285
+
+ 134. A REST IN THE DESERT 287
+
+ 135. BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART 289
+
+ 136. TRIAL OF ARAB HORSES 292
+
+ 137. AN ARAB HORSE OF THE KOCHLANI BREED 293
+
+ 138. THE WAR-HORSE 295
+
+ 139. ARAB HORSES 297
+
+ 140. BUYING AN ARAB HORSE 299
+
+ 141. THE ARAB'S FAVORITE STEEDS 301
+
+ 142. PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND
+ HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS THEM 302
+
+ 143. ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP 304
+
+ 144. THE ISRAELITES, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO 308
+
+ 145. ANCIENT BATTLEFIELD 309
+
+ 146. CHARIOT OF STATE 311
+
+ 147. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE REPRESENTING A VICTORIOUS
+ KING IN HIS CHARIOT SLAYING HIS ENEMIES 313
+
+ 148. MUMMY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING OVER THREE THOUSAND
+ YEARS OLD 314
+
+ 149. ASS AND DRIVER 315
+
+ 150. ENTERING JERUSALEM 317
+
+ 151. SYRIAN ASSES 319
+
+ 152. A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT 322
+
+ 153. BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO 324
+
+ 154. NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO 325
+
+ 155. HUNTING WILD ASSES 331
+
+ 156. MULES OF THE EAST 334
+
+ 157. ABSALOM IS CAUGHT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TREE 335
+
+ 158. DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT THE KING'S MEAT 337
+
+ 159. THE PRODIGAL SON 340
+
+ 160. ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH 341
+
+ 161. A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING
+ TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH 342
+
+ 162. THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OR SWINE 343
+
+ 163. WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER 344
+
+ 164. WILD BOARS 345
+
+ 165. WILD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD 347
+
+ 166. INDIAN ELEPHANT 349
+
+ 167. KING SOLOMON, SEATED UPON HIS THRONE, RECEIVES THE
+ QUEEN OF SHEBA 350
+
+ 168. INDIAN ELEPHANTS 351
+
+ 169. THE WAR-ELEPHANT 355
+
+ 170. AFRICAN ELEPHANTS 359
+
+ 171. ELEPHANTS' WATERING-PLACE 361
+
+ 172. TIGER 363
+
+ 173. TIGER IN THE REEDS 364
+
+ 174. HEAD OF TIGER 365
+
+ 175. THE HYRAX 367
+
+ 176. HIPPOPOTAMUS 372
+
+ 177. HIPPOPOTAMUS POOL 375
+
+ 178. THE GREAT JAWS OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS 376
+
+ 179. HIPPOPOTAMUS EMERGING FROM THE RIVER 377
+
+ 180. HIPPOPOTAMUS EATING GRASS 379
+
+ 181. A HIPPOPOTAMUS-HUNT IN EGYPT 381
+
+ 182. HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP 384
+
+ 183. THE BABOON 387
+
+ 184. THE RHESUS MONKEY 389
+
+ 185. FEEDING THE MONKEYS IN INDIA 390
+
+ 186. TROUBLESOME NEIGHBORS 391
+
+ 187. MONKEYS ENTERING A PLANTATION 392
+
+ 188. SLOTHFUL MONKEYS 393
+
+ 189. A PRIVILEGED RACE 394
+
+ 190. THE WANDEROO 396
+
+ 191. THE ENEMY DISCOVERED 397
+
+ 192. BONNET MONKEYS 399
+
+ 193. THE BAT 401
+
+ 194. BATS' RESTING-PLACE 403
+
+ 195. GREAT FOX-HEADED BAT, OR FLYING FOX 405
+
+ 196. CAVE NEAR THE SITE OF ANCIENT JERICHO 406
+
+ 197. NIGHT IN THE TROPICS 407
+
+ 198. LEOPARDS 408
+
+ 199. THE HOME OF THE VULTURE 411
+
+ 200. The LÄMMERGEIER 412
+
+ 201. A SUCCESSFUL DEFENCE 415
+
+ 202. STRUCK FROM A DIZZY HEIGHT 417
+
+ 203. THE VULTURE'S NEST 418
+
+ 204. THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER EAGLE 420
+
+ 205. VULTURES 425
+
+ 206. THE EAGLE AND THE HARE 430
+
+ 207. EAGLES 432
+
+ 208. EAGLE RETURNING TO THE NEST WITH HER PREY 435
+
+ 209. THE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FISH 437
+
+ 210. SNATCHED FROM THE DEEP: THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS
+ PREY 439
+
+ 211. THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE 441
+
+ 212. THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE 444
+
+ 213. THE LANNER FALCON 446
+
+ 214. THE HAWK 447
+
+ 215. KESTREL HOVERING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF PREY 449
+
+ 216. THE WIND-HOVER, OR KESTREL 450
+
+ 217. THE BARN OWL 454
+
+ 218. THE LITTLE OWL 456
+
+ 219. CAUGHT NAPPING 457
+
+ 220. RAVEN.--BARN OWL.--EAGLE OWL 459
+
+ 221. A FAMILY COUNCIL 460
+
+ 222. THE NIGHT HAWK ON THE WING 462
+
+ 223. THE NIGHT HAWK 463
+
+ 224. THE SWALLOW 466
+
+ 225. LOST FROM THE FLOCK 469
+
+ 226. THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT 471
+
+ 227. VIEW OF THE SEA OF GALILEE 472
+
+ 228. THE SWALLOW'S FAVORITE HAUNT 473
+
+ 229. SWALLOWS AT HOME 475
+
+ 230. THE HOOPOE 478
+
+ 231. EASTERN HOUSETOPS 479
+
+ 232. READING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE AFTER THE RETURN
+ FROM CAPTIVITY 482
+
+ 233. THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE 483
+
+ 234. THE TREE SPARROW 485
+
+ 235. SPARROWS 486
+
+ 236. A FOREST SCENE 487
+
+ 237. THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO 488
+
+ 238. NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE 489
+
+ 239. JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEYCHANGERS
+ AND THOSE WHO SOLD DOVES 493
+
+ 240. THE ROCK DOVE 494
+
+ 241. BLUE ROCK PIGEONS 495
+
+ 242. THE TURTLE DOVE 497
+
+ 243. THE HEN AND HER BROOD 498
+
+ 244. THE DOMESTIC FOWL 499
+
+ 245. POULTRY 500
+
+ 246. THE PEACOCK 501
+
+ 247. PEAFOWL 503
+
+ 248. FEATHERS OF THE PEACOCK 504
+
+ 249. PARTRIDGES 505
+
+ 250. THE GREEK PARTRIDGE 507
+
+ 251. PARTRIDGE AND THEIR YOUNG 508
+
+ 252. EASTERN QUAIL 509
+
+ 253. THE QUAIL 510
+
+ 254. FLIGHT OF QUAIL 515
+
+ 255. THE RAVEN 517
+
+ 256. ELIJAH FED BY RAVENS 518
+
+ 257. RAVENS' ROOSTING-PLACE 521
+
+ 258. RAVENS' NEST 522
+
+ 259. OSTRICH AND NEST 527
+
+ 260. ARABS HUNTING THE OSTRICH 533
+
+ 261. THE BITTERN 537
+
+ 262. BITTERN AND CORMORANT 539
+
+ 263. THE HOME OF THE BITTERN 541
+
+ 264. THE HERON 543
+
+ 265. THE HOME OF THE HERON 545
+
+ 266. THE PAPYRUS PLANT 548
+
+ 267. THE HOME OF THE CRANE 549
+
+ 268. THE CRANE 550
+
+ 269. THE STORK 553
+
+ 270. STORKS AND THEIR NESTS 555
+
+ 271. A NEST OF THE WHITE STORK 559
+
+ 272. IBIS AND GALLINULE 561
+
+ 273. THE PELICAN 568
+
+ 274. LIZARDS 575
+
+ 275. TORTOISES 577
+
+ 276. THE DHUBB AND THE TORTOISE 578
+
+ 277. WATER TORTOISE 579
+
+ 278. CROCODILE ATTACKING HORSES 587
+
+ 279. A CROCODILE POOL OF ANCIENT EGYPT 590
+
+ 280. CROCODILES OF THE UPPER NILE 591
+
+ 281. ICHNEUMON DEVOURING THE EGGS OF THE CROCODILE 597
+
+ 282. A CROCODILE TRAP 599
+
+ 283. A FIGHT FOR LIFE 601
+
+ 284. THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD 602
+
+ 285. THE CHAMELEON 605
+
+ 286. GECKO AND CHAMELEON 606
+
+ 287. THE GECKO 609
+
+ 288. SERPENTS 611
+
+ 289. BOA CONSTRICTOR AND TIGER 613
+
+ 290. COBRA AND CERASTES 615
+
+ 291. THE ISRAELITES ARE BITTEN BY SERPENTS IN THE WILDERNESS,
+ AND MOSES LIFTS UP THE SERPENT OF BRASS 616
+
+ 292. THE SERPENT-CHARMER 619
+
+ 293. THE VIPER 621
+
+ 294. TEACHING COBRAS TO DANCE 623
+
+ 295. HORNED VIPER 625
+
+ 296. THE VIPER, OR EPHEH 627
+
+ 297. THE TOXICOA 628
+
+ 298. THE FROG 630
+
+ 299. FISHES 633
+
+ 300. A RIVER SCENE 635
+
+ 301. PETER CATCHES THE FISH 636
+
+ 302. MURÆNA, LONG-HEADED BARBEL, AND SHEAT FISH 638
+
+ 303. SUCKING FISH, TUNNY, AND CORYPHENE 640
+
+ 304. FISHING SCENE ON THE SEA OF GALILEE 642
+
+ 305. MODE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE NET 645
+
+ 306. NILE PERCH, SURMULLET, AND STAR-GAZER 647
+
+ 307. THE PEARL OYSTER 653
+
+ 308. INSECTS 655
+
+ 309. A SWARM OF LOCUSTS 659
+
+ 310. THE LOCUST 663
+
+ 311. THE BEE 665
+
+ 312. THE HORNET AND ITS NEST 669
+
+ 313. ANTS ON THE MARCH 671
+
+ 314. ANT OF PALESTINE 675
+
+ 315. THE CRIMSON WORM 677
+
+ 316. MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPON THE KING'S
+ HORSE 679
+
+ 317. BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE 682
+
+ 318. NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE 685
+
+ 319. THE SCORPION 690
+
+ 320. CORAL 694
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: more animals]
+
+
+
+
+STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+THE LION.
+
+ Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--The Lion
+ employed as an emblem in the Bible--Similarity of the African
+ and Asiatic species--The chief characteristics of the Lion--its
+ strength, activity, and mode of seizing its prey--The Lion hunt.
+
+
+Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned so
+frequently as the LION. This may appear the more remarkable, because
+for many years the Lion has been extinct in Palestine. The leopard,
+the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, still retain their place in
+the land, although their numbers are comparatively few; but the
+Lion has vanished completely out of the land. The reason for this
+disappearance is twofold, first, the thicker population; and second,
+the introduction of firearms.
+
+No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In
+the first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule,
+whenever it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There are,
+of course, exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a Lion becomes
+so old and stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance so
+slight, that he is unable to chase his usual prey, and is obliged
+to seek for other means of subsistence. In an unpopulated district,
+he would simply be starved to death, but when his lot is cast in
+the neighbourhood of human beings, he is perforce obliged to become
+a "man-eater." Even in that case, a Lion will seldom attack a man,
+unless he should be able to do so unseen, but will hang about the
+villages, pouncing on the women as they come to the wells for water,
+or upon the little children as they stray from their parents, and
+continually shifting his quarters lest he should be assailed during
+his sleep. The Lion requires a very large tract of country for his
+maintenance, and the consequence is, that in proportion as the land
+is populated does the number of Lions decrease.
+
+Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. In the first place, the
+Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of the
+gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpassing
+even his roar in resonance; and lastly, there is the unseen bullet,
+which seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to furious
+anger by the pain of his wound, yet which he does not dread nearly
+so much as the harmless flash and report. There is another cause of
+the Lion's banishment from the Holy Land. It is well known that to
+attract any wild beast or bird to some definite spot, all that is
+required is to provide them with a suitable and undisturbed home,
+and a certainty of food. Consequently, the surest method of driving
+them away is to deprive them of both these essentials. Then the Lion
+used to live in forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts
+of ground, but which have long since been cut down, thus depriving
+the Lion of its home, while the thick population and the general use
+of firearms have deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has
+been driven out of Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated
+from England.
+
+But, in the olden times, Lions must have been very plentiful.
+There is scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or New
+Testaments, whether historical or prophetical, that does not contain
+some mention of this terrible animal; sometimes describing the
+actions of individual Lions, but mostly using the word as an
+emblem of strength and force, whether used for a good purpose or
+abused for a bad one.
+
+[Illustration: LION DRINKING AT A POOL.]
+
+[Illustration: A LION KILLS THE PROPHET FROM JUDAH.]
+
+There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to two,
+namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost certain,
+however, that these animals really are one and the same species,
+and that the trifling differences which exist between an African
+and an Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in
+considering them to be distinct species. The habits of both are
+identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the difference of
+locality; but then, such variations in habit are continually seen in
+animals confessedly of the same species, which happen to be placed
+in different conditions of climate and locality.
+
+That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, from
+a very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is every where
+mentioned as a well-known animal, equally familiar and dreaded. When
+the disobedient prophet was killed by the Lion near Bethel, the fact
+seemed not to have caused any surprise in the neighbourhood. When
+the people came out to rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered
+much because the Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not
+torn him, and had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have
+killed a man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently
+rare to be surprising.
+
+We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion which bear
+especial reference to the Scriptures.
+
+In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest
+of beasts.
+
+[Illustration: LION AND TIGER.]
+
+Moreover, the strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the
+body and limbs, giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which
+is rare except with such a structure. A full-grown Lion cannot only
+knock down and kill, but can carry away in its mouth, an ordinary
+ox; and one of these terrible animals has been known to pick up a
+heifer in its mouth, and to leap over a wide ditch still carrying
+its burden. Another Lion carried a two-year old heifer, and was
+chased for five hours by mounted farmers, so that it must have
+traversed a very considerable distance. Yet, in the whole of this
+long journey, the legs of the heifer had only two or three times
+touched the ground.
+
+It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deer and
+antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw; and often needs to
+give no second blow to cause the death of its victim. The sharp
+talons are not needed to cause death, for the weight of the blow is
+sufficient for that purpose.
+
+When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion,
+there is often a great slaughter among them, especially among those
+that are inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by their
+instinctive antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot where the
+Lion awaits them, and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance,
+while the young and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the
+sham attack into a real one. Their valour meets with a poor reward,
+for a few blows from the Lion's terrible paws send his assailants
+flying in all directions, their bodies streaming with blood, and in
+most cases a fatal damage inflicted, while more than one unfortunate
+dog lies fairly crushed by the weight of a paw laid with apparent
+carelessness upon its body. There is before me a Lion's skin, a
+spoil of one of these animals shot by the celebrated sportsman,
+Gordon Cumming. Although the skin lies flat upon the floor, and the
+paws are nothing but the skin and talons, the weight of each paw is
+very considerable, and always surprises those who hear it fall on
+the floor.
+
+There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion, but
+that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from
+an Arabic word signifying strength; and therefore the Lion is
+called the Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night-flier.
+No epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a
+very incarnation of strength, and, even when dead, gives as vivid
+an idea of concentrated power as when it was living. And, when the
+skin is stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development
+never fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs,
+themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a
+dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon
+each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons
+seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife.
+Not until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the
+enormously powerful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to
+lift the weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place
+of security.
+
+[Illustration: THE LION REPLIES TO THE THUNDER.]
+
+Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one of the
+most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to fight, and
+if its anger is excited, it cares little for the number of its foes,
+or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the dreaded firearms
+lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a Lioness, who fears
+for the safety of her young, is simply the most terrible animal
+in existence. We know how even a hen will fight for her chickens,
+and how she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the
+reckless fury of her attack. It may be easily imagined, therefore,
+that a Lioness actuated by equal courage, and possessed of the
+terrible weapons given to her by her Creator, would be an animal
+almost too formidable for the conception of those who have not
+actually witnessed the scene of a Lioness defending her little ones.
+
+The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which it
+is celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that could
+for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The Lion has a
+habit of stooping his head towards the ground when he roars, so
+that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and reverberates
+in many an echo in the far distance. Owing to this curious habit,
+the roar can be heard at a very great distance, but its locality
+is rendered uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite sure
+whether the Lion is to the right or the left of the hearer.
+
+There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's roar.
+Even at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows that he is in
+perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a small cage faced
+with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible roar always has
+a curious effect upon the nerves. It is not exactly fear, because
+the hearer knows that he is safe; but it is somewhat akin to the
+feeling of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the
+crashing thunder after the lightning has sped its course. If such be
+the case when the Lion is safely housed in a cage, and is moreover
+so tame that even if he did escape, he would be led back by the
+keeper without doing any harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be
+terrific when the Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country,
+and when the shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a
+short distance.
+
+[Illustration: LIONESS AND YOUNG.]
+
+In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost
+every hunter has told a similar story--of the Lion's approach at
+night, of the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew near,
+and of the utter inability to see him, though he was so close that
+they could hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he has crept near
+an encampment, or close to a cattle inclosure, he does not proceed
+any farther lest he should venture within the radius illumined by
+the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely to the ground, and,
+in the semi-darkness, looks so like a large stone, or a little
+hillock, that any one might pass close to it without perceiving its
+real nature. This gives the opportunity for which the Lion has been
+watching, and in a moment he strikes down the careless straggler,
+and carries off his prey to the den. Sometimes, when very much
+excited, he accompanies the charge with a roar, but, as a general
+fact, he secures his prey in silence.
+
+The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere outburst of
+sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No description of the
+Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as that of Gordon
+Cumming: "One of the most striking things connected with the Lion
+is his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking.
+It consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six
+times, ending in faintly audible sighs. At other times he startles
+the forest with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six
+times in quick succession, each increasing in loudness to the third
+or fourth, when his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled
+sounds, very much resembling distant thunder. As a general rule,
+Lions roar during the night, their sighing moans commencing as the
+shades of evening envelop the forest, and continuing at intervals
+throughout the night. In distant and secluded regions, however, I
+have constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten
+o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather they
+are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is subdued."
+
+Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This animal
+always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, through
+which it threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty. No fox
+knows every hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert better than the
+Lion knows the whole country around his den. Each Lion seems to
+have his peculiar district, in which only himself and his family
+will be found. These animals seem to parcel out the neighbourhood
+among themselves by a tacit law like that which the dogs of eastern
+countries have imposed upon themselves, and which forbids them to
+go out of the district in which they were born. During the night he
+traverses his dominions; and, as a rule, he retires to his den as
+soon as the sun is fairly above the horizon. Sometimes he will be
+in wait for prey in the broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits
+are nocturnal, and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his secret
+dwelling-place.
+
+We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the Lion is
+mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which treat of its
+various characteristics.
+
+The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated
+reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by
+Jacob on his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah
+is predicted under the metaphor of a Lion--the beginning of its
+power as a Lion's whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult
+Lion, and its matured establishment in power as the old Lion that
+couches himself and none dares to disturb him. Then Solomon, in the
+Proverbs, speaks of the Lion as the "strongest among beasts, and
+that turneth not away for any."
+
+Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Prov.
+xxviii. 1, in the well-known passage, "The wicked fleeth when no
+man pursueth: but the righteous are bold as a lion." And, in 2
+Sam. xxiii. 20, the courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty three of
+David's army, is specially honoured, because he fought and killed a
+Lion single-handed, and because he conquered "two lion-like men of
+Moab." David, their leader, had also distinguished himself, when a
+mere keeper of cattle, by pursuing and killing a Lion that had come
+to plunder his herd. In the same book of Samuel which has just been
+quoted (xvii. 10), the valiant men are metaphorically described as
+having the hearts of Lions.
+
+The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned,
+and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and anger of
+enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion.
+
+Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable that
+the Hebrew language contains several words by which the different
+kind of roar is described. One word, for example, represents the
+low, deep, thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey, and which
+has already been mentioned. This is the word which is used in Amos
+iii. 4, "Will a lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey?" and
+in this passage the word which is translated as Lion signifies the
+animal when full grown and in the prime of life. Another word is
+used to signify the sudden exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps
+upon its victim. A third is used for the angry growl with which a
+Lion resents any endeavour to deprive it of its prey, a sound with
+which we are all familiar, on a miniature scale, when we hear a cat
+growling over a mouse which she has just caught. The fourth term
+signifies the peculiar roar uttered by the young Lion after it has
+ceased to be a cub and before it has attained maturity. This last
+term is employed in Jer. li. 38, "They shall _roar_ together like
+lions; they shall _yell_ as lions' whelps," in which passage two
+distinct words are used, one signifying the roar of the Lion when
+searching after prey, and the other the cry of the young Lions.
+
+The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar
+with the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his cattle, makes
+frequent mention of the Lion, and does so with a force and vigour
+that betoken practical experience. How powerful is this imagery,
+"The lion hath roared; who will not fear? The Lord God hath spoken;
+who can but prophesy?" Here we have the picture of the man himself,
+the herdsman and prophet, who had trembled many a night, as the
+Lions drew nearer and nearer; and who heard the voice of the Lord,
+and his lips poured out prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than
+the parallel which he has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of
+piety, and may bear comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah
+for its simple grandeur.
+
+It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit
+of the world around them, and how closely they observed the minutest
+details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There is a powerful
+passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old lion perisheth for lack
+of prey," in which the writer betrays his thorough knowledge of the
+habits of the animal, and is aware that the usual mode of a Lion's
+death is through hunger, in consequence of his increasing inability
+to catch prey.
+
+The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in wait
+for prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former habit is
+spoken of in that familiar and beautiful passage in the Psalms (civ.
+20), "Thou makest darkness, and it is night; wherein all the beasts
+of the forest do creep forth. The young Lions roar after their
+prey; and seek their meat from God. The sun ariseth, they gather
+themselves together, and lay them down in their dens."
+
+[Illustration: LION CARRYING HOME SUPPLIES.]
+
+An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be
+allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as we have
+already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so successful,
+that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in Palestine.
+The usual method of capturing or killing the Lion was by pitfalls or
+nets, to both of which there are many references in the Scriptures.
+
+The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with that which
+is practised in India at the present time. The precise locality of
+the Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered, a circular wall
+of net is arranged round it, or if only a few nets can be obtained,
+they are set in a curved form, the concave side being towards the
+Lion. They then send dogs into the thicket, hurl stones and sticks
+at the den, shoot arrows into it, fling burning torches at it, and
+so irritate and alarm the animal that it rushes against the net,
+which is so made that it falls down and envelopes the animal in its
+folds. If the nets be few, the drivers go to the opposite side of
+the den, and induce the Lion to escape in the direction where he
+sees no foes, but where he is sure to run against the treacherous
+net. Other large and dangerous animals were also captured by the
+same means.
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN LIONS.]
+
+Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper method was,
+by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a slight covering
+of sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon the treacherous
+covering. It is an easier method than the net, because after the pit
+is once dug, the only trouble lies in throwing the covering over
+its mouth. But, it is not so well adapted for taking beasts alive,
+as they are likely to be damaged, either by the fall into the pit,
+or by the means used in getting them out again. Animals, therefore,
+that are caught in pits are generally, though not always, killed
+before they are taken out. The net, however, envelops the animal so
+perfectly, and renders it so helpless, that it can be easily bound
+and taken away. The hunting net is very expensive, and requires a
+large staff of men to work it, so that none but a rich man could use
+it in hunting.
+
+The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall in
+hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be sufficient
+to mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the Psalmist
+laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net in a pit, and
+that the proud have digged pits for him.
+
+Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive in dens,
+either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal vengeance.
+Such seems to have been the object of the Lions which were kept by
+Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown, by royal command, and
+which afterwards killed his accusers when thrown into the same den.
+It is plain that the Lions kept by Darius must have been exceedingly
+numerous, because they killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who
+were many in number, together with their wives and children, who,
+in accordance with the cruel custom of that age and country, were
+partakers of the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole
+of the first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking
+Lions alive and keeping them in durance afterwards.
+
+Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amusement
+seems to have been restricted to the great men, on account of its
+expensive nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically depicted in
+the famous Nineveh sculptures, which represent the hunters pursuing
+their mighty game in chariots, and destroying them with arrows.
+Rude, and even conventional as are these sculptures, they have a
+spirit, a force, and a truthfulness, that prove them to have been
+designed by artists to whom the scene was a familiar one.
+
+[Illustration: THE LION ATTACKS THE HERD.]
+
+Upon the African Continent the Lion reigns supreme, monarch of the
+feline race.
+
+Whatever may be said of the distinction between the Asiatic and
+African Lion, there seems to be scarcely sufficient grounds for
+considering the very slight differences a sufficient warrant for
+constituting separate species. From all accounts, it seems that
+the habits of all Lions are very similar, and that a Lion acts
+like a Lion whether found in Africa or Asia.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAIR OF THE LION.]
+
+An old Boer, as the Dutch settlers of Southern Africa are called,
+gave me a most interesting account of an adventure with a Lion.
+
+The man was a well-known hunter, and lived principally by the sale
+of ivory and skins. He was accustomed each year to make a trip into
+the game country, and traded with the Kaffirs, or native blacks,
+under very favorable auspices. His stock in trade consisted of guns
+and ammunition, several spans of fine oxen, some horses, and about a
+dozen dogs.
+
+A Lion which appeared to have been roaming about the country
+happened to pass near this hunter's camp, and scenting the horses
+and oxen, evidently thought that the location would suit him for
+a short period. A dense wood situated about a mile from the camp
+afforded shelter, and this spot the Lion selected as a favorable
+position for his headquarters.
+
+The hunter had not to wait for more than a day, before the
+suspicions which had been aroused by some broad footmarks, which he
+saw imprinted in the soil, were confirmed into a certainty that a
+large Lion was concealed near his residence.
+
+It now became a question of policy whether the Boer should attack
+the Lion, or wait for the Lion to attack him. He thought it possible
+that the savage beast, having been warned off by the dogs, whose
+barking had been continued and furious during the night on which the
+Lion was supposed to have passed, might think discretion the better
+part of valor, and consequently would move farther on, in search of
+a less carefully guarded locality upon which to quarter himself. He
+determined, therefore, to wait, but to use every precaution against
+a night-surprise.
+
+The Lion, however, was more than a match for the man; for during the
+second night a strong ox from his best span was quietly carried off,
+and, although there was some commotion among the dogs and cattle, it
+was then thought that the alarm had scared the Lion away.
+
+The morning light, however, showed that the beast had leaped the
+fence which surrounded the camp, and, having killed the ox, had
+evidently endeavored to scramble over it again with the ox in his
+possession. The weight of the Lion and the ox had caused the stakes
+to give way, and the Lion had easily carried off his prey through
+the aperture.
+
+The track of the Lion was immediately followed by the Boer, who took
+with him a negro and half a dozen of his best dogs. The tracks were
+easily seen, and the hunter had no difficulty in deciding that the
+Lion was in the wood previously mentioned. But this in itself was no
+great advance, for the place was overgrown with a dense thicket of
+thorn-bushes, creepers, and long grass, forming a jungle so thick
+and impenetrable that for a man to enter seemed almost impossible.
+
+It was therefore agreed that the Boer should station himself on one
+side, while the negro went to the other side of the jungle, the dogs
+meanwhile being sent into the thicket.
+
+This arrangement, it was hoped, would enable either the hunter or
+the negro to obtain a shot; for they concluded that the dogs, which
+were very courageous animals, would drive the Lion out of the bushes.
+
+The excited barking of the dogs soon indicated that they had
+discovered the Lion, but they appeared to be unable to drive him
+from his stronghold; for, although they would scamper away every now
+and then, as though the enraged monster was chasing them, still they
+returned to bark at the same spot.
+
+Both of the hunters fired several shots, with the hope that a stray
+bullet might find its way through the underwood to the heart of the
+savage beast, but a great quantity of ammunition was expended and no
+result achieved.
+
+At length, as the dogs had almost ceased to bark, it was considered
+advisable to call them off. But all the whistling and shouting
+failed to recall more than two out of the six, and one of these was
+fearfully wounded. The others, it was afterwards found, had been
+killed by the Lion: a blow from his paw had sufficed to break the
+back or smash the skull of all which had come within his reach.
+
+Thus the first attempt on the Lion was a total failure, and the
+hunter returned home lamenting the loss of his dogs, and during the
+night watched beside his enclosure; but the Lion did not pay him a
+second visit.
+
+Early on the following evening, accompanied by the negro, he started
+afresh for the wood; and, having marked the spot from which the Lion
+had on the former occasion quitted the dense thorny jungle, the two
+hunters ascended a tree and watched during the whole night in the
+hope of obtaining a shot at the hated marauder. But while they
+were paying the residence of the Lion a visit _he_ favored the camp
+with a call, and this time, by way of variety, carried away a very
+valuable horse, which he conveyed to the wood, being wise enough
+to walk out and to return by a different path from that he had
+previously used, consequently avoiding the ambush prepared for him.
+
+When the hunter returned to his camp, he was furious at this new
+loss, and determined upon a plan which, though dangerous, still
+appeared the most likely to insure the destruction of the ravenous
+monster.
+
+This plan was to enter the wood alone, without attendant or dogs,
+and with noiseless, stealthy movements creep near enough to the Lion
+to obtain a shot.
+
+Now, when we consider the difficulty of moving through thick bushes
+without making a noise, and remember the watchful habits of every
+member of the cat tribe, we may be certain that to surprise the Lion
+was a matter of extreme difficulty, and that the probability was
+that the hunter would meet with disaster.
+
+At about ten o'clock on the morning after the horse-slaughter,
+the hunter started for the wood armed with a double-barrelled
+smooth-bore gun, and prepared to put forth his utmost skill in
+stalking his dangerous enemy.
+
+Now, it is the nature of the Lion, when gorged, to sleep during the
+day; and if the animal has carried off any prey, it usually conceals
+itself near the remnants of its feast, to watch them until ready for
+another meal.
+
+The hunter was aware of this, and laid his plans very judiciously.
+He approached the wood slowly and silently, found the track of the
+Lion, and began tracing it to find the spot where the remains of the
+horse could be seen.
+
+He moved forward very slowly and with great caution, being soon
+surrounded by the thick bushes, the brightness of the plain also
+being succeeded by the deep gloom of the wood. Being an experienced
+hand at bush-craft, he was able to walk or crawl without causing
+either a dried stick to crack or a leaf to rustle, and he was aware
+that his progress was without noise; for the small birds, usually so
+watchful and alert, flew away only when he approached close to them,
+thus showing that their eyes, and not their ears, had made them
+conscious of the presence of man.
+
+Birds and monkeys are the great obstacles in the bush to the
+success of a surprise, for the birds fly from tree to tree and
+whistle or twitter, whilst the monkeys chatter and grimace,
+expressing by all sorts of actions that a strange creature is
+approaching. When, therefore, the bushranger finds that birds and
+monkeys are unconscious of his presence until they see him, he may
+be satisfied that he has traversed the bush with tolerable silence,
+and has vanquished such dangerous betrayers of his presence as dried
+sticks and dead leaves.
+
+[Illustration: THE LION LISTENS TO THE APPROACH OF THE HUNTER.]
+
+The hunter had not proceeded thus more than fifty yards into the
+jungle, before he found indications that he was close upon the lair
+of the Lion: a strong leonine scent was noticeable, and part of
+the carcase of his horse was visible between the bushes. Instead,
+therefore, of advancing farther, as an incautious or inexperienced
+bushranger would have done, he crouched down behind a bush and
+remained motionless.
+
+All animals are aware of the advantages of a surprise, and the
+cat tribe especially practise the ambuscading system. The hunter,
+therefore, determined, if possible, to turn the tables on the Lion,
+and to surprise, rather than to be surprised.
+
+He concluded that the Lion, even when gorged with horseflesh, would
+not be so neglectful of his safety as to sleep with more than one
+eye closed, and that, although he had crept with great care through
+the bush, he had probably, from some slight sound, caused the Lion
+to be on the alert; if, therefore, he should approach the carcase of
+the horse, he might be pounced upon at once.
+
+After remaining silent and watchful for several minutes, the hunter
+at length saw that an indistinctly-outlined object was moving behind
+some large broad-leafed plants at about twenty paces from him.
+
+This object was the Lion. It was crouched behind some shrubs,
+attentively watching the bushes where the hunter was concealed. Its
+head only was clearly visible, the body being hidden by the foliage.
+
+It was evident that the Lion was suspicious of something, but was
+not certain that anything had approached.
+
+The hunter, knowing that this was a critical period for him,
+remained perfectly quiet. He did not like to risk a shot at the
+forehead of the Lion, for it would require a very sure aim to insure
+a death-wound, and the number of twigs and branches would be almost
+certain to deflect the bullet.
+
+The Lion, after a careful inspection, appeared to be satisfied, and
+laid down behind the shrubs. The hunter then cocked both barrels
+of his heavy gun and turned the muzzle slowly around, so that he
+covered the spot on which the Lion lay, and shifted his position so
+as to be well placed for a shot.
+
+The slight noise he made in moving, attracted the attention of the
+Lion, who immediately rose to his feet. A broadside shot, which was
+the most sure, could not be obtained, so the hunter fired at the
+head of the animal, aiming for a spot between the eyes. The ball
+struck high, as is usually the case when the distance is short, and
+the charge of powder heavy, but the Lion fell over on its back,
+rising, however, almost immediately and uttering a terrific roar.
+
+In regaining its feet it turned its side to the hunter, giving him
+the opportunity he had so anxiously waited for. Aiming at a spot
+behind the shoulder, he fired again, and had the satisfaction of
+seeing the savage beast, maddened by the pain of a mortal wound,
+tearing up the ground in its fury within a very few paces of his
+hiding-place.
+
+By degrees its fierce roars subsided into angry growls, and the
+growls into heavy moans, until the terrible voice was hushed and
+silence reigned throughout the wood.
+
+The hunter immediately started off home, and brought his negroes and
+dogs to the spot, where they found stretched dead upon the ground a
+Lion of the largest size.
+
+Before sunset that evening its skin was pegged down at the hunter's
+camp, and all were filled with delight, knowing that they would be
+no more disturbed by the fierce marauder.
+
+
+
+
+THE LEOPARD.
+
+ The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--its
+ attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals
+ were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its
+ prey--Craft of the Leopard--its ravages among the flocks--The
+ empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at Bay--Localities
+ wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various
+ passages of Scripture explained.
+
+
+Of the LEOPARD but little is said in the Holy Scriptures.
+
+In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once, and
+then in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the Old
+Testament it is casually mentioned seven times, and only in two
+places is the word Leopard used in the strictly literal sense.
+Yet, in those brief passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes
+of the animal are delineated with such fidelity, that no one could
+doubt that the Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine. Its
+colour, its swiftness, its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of
+its dwelling-place, are all touched upon in a few short sentences
+scattered throughout the Old Testament, and even its peculiar habits
+are alluded to in a manner that proves it to have been well known at
+the time when the words were written.
+
+It is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account of
+the Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the qualities
+to which allusion is made, and then to explain the passages in which
+the name of the animal occurs.
+
+In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard are
+comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were thought to
+be one species until the time of Cuvier. These three animals are the
+LEOPARD proper (_Leopardus varius_), the OUNCE (_Leopardus uncia_),
+and the CHETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD (_Gueparda jubata_). All these
+three species belong to the same family of animals; all are spotted
+and similar in colour, all are nearly alike in shape, and all are
+inhabitants of Asia, while two of them, the Leopard and the Chetah,
+are also found in Africa.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to mention that the Leopard is a beast
+of prey belonging to the cat tribe, that its colour is tawny,
+variegated with rich black spots, and that it is a fierce and
+voracious animal, almost equally dreaded by man and beast. It
+inhabits many parts of Africa and Asia, and in those portions of
+the country which are untenanted by mankind, it derives all its
+sustenance from the herb-eating animals of the same tracts.
+
+[Illustration: THE LEOPARD.]
+
+To deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy, and in spite of their
+active limbs, seldom fails in obtaining its prey. Swift as is the
+Leopard, for a short distance, and wonderful as its spring, it has
+not the enduring speed of the deer or antelope, animals which are
+specially formed for running, and which, if a limb is shattered,
+can run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs as they
+can when all four limbs are uninjured. Instinctively knowing its
+inferiority in the race, the Leopard supplies by cunning the want of
+enduring speed.
+
+It conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around without
+being seen, and thence surveys the country. A tree is the usual
+spot selected for this purpose, and the Leopard, after climbing the
+trunk by means of its curved talons, settles itself in the fork of
+the branches, so that its body is hidden by the boughs, and only
+its head is shown between them. With such scrupulous care does it
+conceal itself, that none but a practised hunter can discover it,
+while any one who is unaccustomed to the woods cannot see the animal
+even when the tree is pointed out to him.
+
+As soon as the Leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance, he
+slips down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction.
+He has many difficulties to overcome, because the deer are among
+the most watchful of animals, and if the Leopard were to approach
+to the windward, they would scent him while he was yet a mile away
+from them. If he were to show himself but for one moment in the
+open ground he would be seen, and if he were but to shake a branch
+or snap a dry twig he would be heard. So, he is obliged to approach
+them against the wind, to keep himself under cover, and yet to
+glide so carefully along that the heavy foliage of the underwood
+shall not be shaken, and the dry sticks and leaves which strew the
+ground shall not be broken. He has also to escape the observation of
+certain birds and beasts which inhabit the woods, and which would
+certainly set up their alarm-cry as soon as they saw him, and so
+give warning to the wary deer, which can perfectly understand a cry
+of alarm, from whatever animal it may happen to proceed.
+
+Still, he proceeds steadily on his course, gliding from one covert
+to another, and often expending several hours before he can proceed
+for a mile. By degrees he contrives to come tolerably close to them,
+and generally manages to conceal himself in some spot towards which
+the deer are gradually feeding their way. As soon as they are near
+enough, he collects himself for a spring, just as a cat does when
+she leaps on a bird, and dashes towards the deer in a series of
+mighty bounds. For a moment or two they are startled and paralysed
+with fear at the sudden appearance of their enemy, and thus give
+him time to get among them. Singling out some particular animal, he
+leaps upon it, strikes it down with one blow of his paw, and then,
+couching on the fallen animal, he tears open its throat, and laps
+the flowing blood.
+
+[Illustration: LEOPARD ATTACKING A HERD OF DEER.]
+
+In this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives in the desert,
+but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of human habitations,
+it acts in a different manner. Whenever man settles himself in any
+place, his presence is a signal for the beasts of the desert and
+forest to fly. The more timid, such as the deer and antelope, are
+afraid of him, and betake themselves as far away as possible. The
+more savage inhabitants of the land, such as the lion, leopard, and
+other animals, wage an unequal war against him for a time, but are
+continually driven farther and farther away, until at last they
+are completely expelled from the country. The predaceous beasts
+are, however, loth to retire, and do so by very slow degrees. They
+can no longer support themselves on the deer and antelopes, but
+find a simple substitute for them in the flocks and herds which
+man introduces, and in the seizing of which there is as much craft
+required as in the catching of the fleeter and wilder animals. Sheep
+and goats cannot run away like the antelopes, but they are penned so
+carefully within inclosures, and guarded so watchfully by herdsmen
+and dogs, that the Leopard is obliged to exert no small amount of
+cunning before it can obtain a meal.
+
+Sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold, and escapes the notice of
+the dogs, seizes upon a sheep, and makes off with it before the
+alarm is given. Sometimes it hides by the wayside, and as the flock
+pass by it dashes into the midst of them, snatches up a sheep, and
+disappears among the underwood on the opposite side of the road.
+Sometimes it is crafty enough to deprive the fold of its watchful
+guardian. Dogs which are used to Leopard-hunting never attack the
+animal, though they are rendered furious by the sound of its voice.
+They dash at it as if they meant to devour it, but take very good
+care to keep out of reach of its terrible paws. By continually
+keeping the animal at bay, they give time for their master to come
+up, and generally contrive to drive it into a tree, where it can be
+shot.
+
+But instances have been known where the Leopard has taken advantage
+of the dogs, and carried them off in a very cunning manner. It
+hides itself tolerably near the fold, and then begins to growl in a
+low voice. The dogs think that they hear a Leopard at a distance,
+and dash towards the sound with furious barks and yells. In so
+doing, they are sure to pass by the hiding-place of the Leopard,
+which springs upon them unawares, knocks one of them over, and
+bounds away to its den in the woods. It does not content itself
+with taking sheep or goats from the fold, but is also a terrible
+despoiler of the hen-roosts, destroying great numbers in a single
+night when once it contrives to find its way into the house.
+
+[Illustration: THE LEOPARD LEAPS UPON HIS PREY.]
+
+As an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the Leopard, I
+may mention that whenever it takes up its abode near a village, it
+does not meddle with the flocks and herds of its neighbours, but
+prefers to go to some other village at a distance for food, thus
+remaining unsuspected almost at the very doors of the houses.
+
+In general, it does not willingly attack mankind, and at all events
+seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man. But, when
+wounded or irritated, all sense of fear is lost in an overpowering
+rush of fury, and it then becomes as terrible a foe as the lion
+himself. It is not so large nor so strong, but it is more agile
+and quicker in its movements; and when it is seized with one of
+these paroxysms of anger, the eye can scarcely follow it as it
+darts here and there, striking with lightning rapidity, and dashing
+at any foe within reach. Its whole shape seems to be transformed,
+and absolutely to swell with anger; its eyes flash with fiery
+lustre, its ears are thrown back on the head, and it continually
+utters alternate snarls and yells of rage. It is hardly possible
+to recognise the graceful, lithe glossy creature, whose walk is
+so noiseless, and whose every movement is so easy, in the furious
+passion-swollen animal that flies at every foe with blind fury, and
+pours out sounds so fierce and menacing that few men, however well
+armed, will care to face it.
+
+As is the case with most of the cat tribe, the Leopard is an
+excellent climber, and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs
+without the least difficulty. It is so fond of trees, that it is
+seldom to be seen except in a well-wooded district. Its favourite
+residence is a forest where there is plenty of underwood, at least
+six or seven feet in height, among which trees are sparingly
+interspersed. When crouched in this cover it is practically
+invisible, even though its body may be within arm's length of
+a passenger. The spotted body harmonizes so perfectly with the
+broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage that even a practised
+hunter will not enter a covert in search of a Leopard unless he
+is accompanied by dogs. The instinct which teaches the Leopard to
+choose such localities is truly wonderful, and may be compared with
+that of the tiger, which cares little for underwood, but haunts the
+grass jungles, where the long, narrow blades harmonize with the
+stripes which decorate its body.
+
+[Illustration: WAITING.]
+
+The skin of the Leopard has always been highly valued on account
+of its beauty, and in Africa, at the present day, a robe made of
+its spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is the ermine
+the emblem of judicial dignity in England. In more ancient times, a
+leopard skin was the official costume of a priest, the skin being
+sometimes shaped into a garment, and sometimes thrown over the
+shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast.
+
+Such is a general history of the Leopard. We will now proceed to
+the various passages in which it is mentioned, beginning with its
+outward aspect.
+
+In the first place, the Hebrew word Namer signifies "spotted," and
+is given to the animal in allusion to its colours. The reader will
+now see how forcible is the lament of Jeremiah, "Can the Ethiopian
+change his skin, or the Leopard his spots?" Literally, "Can the
+Ethiopian change his skin, or the spotted one his spots?"
+
+The agility and swiftness of the Leopard are alluded to in the
+prediction by the prophet Habakkuk of the vengeance that would
+come upon Israel through the Chaldeans. In chap. i. 5, we read: "I
+will work a work in your days, which ye will not believe though it
+be told you. For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and
+hasty nation, which shall march through the breadth of the land, to
+possess the dwelling-places that are not theirs. They are terrible
+and dreadful; their judgment and their dignity shall proceed of
+themselves. Their horses also are swifter than the Leopards, and are
+more fierce than the evening wolves."
+
+The craftiness of the Leopard, and the manner in which it lies in
+wait for its prey, are alluded to in more than one passage of Holy
+Writ. Hosea the prophet alludes to the Leopard in a few simple
+words which display an intimate acquaintance with the habits of this
+formidable animal, and in this part of his prophecies he displays
+that peculiar local tone which distinguishes his writings. Speaking
+of the Israelites under the metaphor of a flock, or a herd, he
+proceeds to say: "According to their pasture so were they filled;
+they were filled, and their heart was exalted; therefore have they
+forgotten me. Therefore I will be unto them as a lion, as a Leopard
+by the way will I observe them." The reader will note the peculiar
+force of this sentence, whereby God signifies that He will destroy
+them openly, as a lion rushes on its prey, and that he will chastise
+them unexpectedly, as if it were a Leopard crouching by the wayside,
+and watching for the flock to pass, that it may spring on its prey
+unexpectedly. The same habit of the Leopard is also alluded to by
+Jeremiah, who employs precisely the same imagery as is used by
+Habakkuk. See Jer. v. 5, 6, "These have altogether broken the yoke,
+and burst the bonds. Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay
+them, and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them, a leopard shall
+watch over their cities." It is evident from the employment of this
+image by two prophets, the one being nearly a hundred years before
+the other, that the crafty, insidious habits of the Leopard were
+well known in Palestine, and that the metaphor would tell with full
+force among those to whom it was addressed.
+
+[Illustration: leopard]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: cats]
+
+
+
+
+THE CAT.
+
+ The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures,
+ and only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the
+ Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities
+ of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her
+ master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the
+ Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch.
+
+
+It is a very remarkable circumstance that the word CAT is not once
+mentioned in the whole of the canonical Scriptures, and only once in
+the Apocrypha.
+
+The Egyptians, as is well known, kept Cats domesticated in their
+houses, a fact which is mentioned by Herodotus, in his second book,
+and the 66th and 67th chapters. After describing the various animals
+which were kept and fed by this nation, he proceeds to narrate the
+habits of the Cat, and writes as follows: "When a fire takes place,
+a supernatural impulse seizes the cats. For the Egyptians, standing
+at a distance, take care of the cats and neglect to quench the fire;
+but the cats make their escape, and leaping over the men, cast
+themselves into the fire, and when this occurs, great lamentations
+are made among the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat dies of
+a natural death, all the family shave their eyebrows. All cats
+that die are carried to certain sacred houses, where, after being
+embalmed, they are buried in the city of Bubastis."
+
+Now, as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in good
+preservation, the species has been identified with the Egyptian
+Cat of the present day, which is scientifically termed _Felis
+maniculatus_. Not only did the Egyptians keep Cats at their houses,
+but, as is shown by certain sculptures, took the animals with them
+when they went bird-catching, and employed them in securing their
+prey. Some persons have doubted this statement, saying, that in the
+first place, the Cat is not possessed of sufficient intelligence
+for the purpose; and that in the second place, as the hunter is
+represented as catching wild fowl, the Cat would not be able to
+assist him, because it would not enter the water. Neither objection
+is valid, nor would have been made by a naturalist.
+
+There are no grounds whatever for assuming that the Cat has not
+sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting. On the
+contrary, there are many familiar instances where the animal has
+been trained, even in this country, to catch birds and other game,
+and bring its prey home. By nature the Cat is an accomplished
+hunter, and, like other animals of the same disposition, can be
+taught to use its powers for mankind. We all know that the chetah,
+a member of the same tribe, is in constant use at the present day,
+and we learn from ancient sculptures that the lion was employed for
+the same purpose. Passing from land to water, mankind has succeeded
+in teaching the seal and the otter to plunge into the water, catch
+their finny prey, and deliver it to their owners. Among predaceous
+birds, we have trained the eagle, the falcon, and various hawks,
+to assist us in hunting the finned and feathered tribes, while we
+have succeeded in teaching the cormorant to catch fish for its
+master, and not for itself. Why, then, should the Cat be excepted
+from a rule so general? The fact is, the Cat has been, although
+domesticated for so many centuries, a comparatively neglected
+animal; and it is the fashion to heap upon it the contumacious
+epithets of sullen, treacherous, selfish, spiteful, and intractable,
+just as we take as our emblems of stupidity the ass and the goose,
+which are really among the most cunning of the lower animals. We
+have never tried to teach the Cat the art of hunting for her owners,
+but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could not be
+taught.
+
+As to entering the water, every one who is familiar with the habits
+of the Cat knows perfectly well that the Cat will voluntarily enter
+water in chase of prey. A Cat does not like to wet her feet, and
+will not enter the water without a very powerful reason, but when
+that motive is supplied, she has no hesitation about it. A curious
+and valuable confirmation of this fact appeared some time ago in
+"The Field" newspaper, in which was recorded the history of an
+old fisherman, whose Cat invariably went to sea with him, and as
+invariably used to leap overboard, seize fish in her mouth, and
+bring them to the side of the boat, where her kindly owner could
+lift her out, together with the captured fish.
+
+The Cat, then, having been the favoured companion of the Egyptians,
+among whom the Israelites lived while they multiplied from a family
+into a nation, it does seem very remarkable that the sacred writers
+should not even mention it. There is no prohibition of the animal,
+even indirectly, in the Mosaic law; but it may be the case that the
+Israelites repudiated the Cat simply because it was so favoured by
+their former masters.
+
+[Illustration: cat]
+
+
+
+
+THE DOG.
+
+ Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and
+ manifested throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European
+ and Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The
+ City Dogs and their singular organization--The herdsman's
+ Dog--Various passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--their
+ numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility
+ of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of
+ Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and
+ Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of
+ the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local Instinct of the Oriental
+ Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The
+ Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word.
+
+
+Scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries, the Oriental of the
+present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished
+him throughout the long series of years during which the books
+of sacred Scripture were given to the world. In many of these
+characteristics he differs essentially from Europeans of the present
+day, and exhibits a tone of mind which seems to be not merely owing
+to education, but to be innate and inherent in the race.
+
+One of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing
+with which he regards the Dog. In all other parts of the world, the
+Dog is one of the most cherished and valued of animals, but among
+those people whom we popularly class under the name of Orientals,
+the Dog is detested and despised. As the sacred books were given
+to the world through the mediumship of Orientals, we find that
+this feeling towards the Dog is manifested whenever the animal is
+mentioned; and whether we turn to the books of the Law, the splendid
+poetry of the Psalms and the book of Job, the prophetical or the
+historical portions of the Old Testament, we find the name of the
+Dog repeatedly mentioned; and in every case in connexion with some
+repulsive idea. If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we
+find the same idea manifested, whether in the Gospels, the Epistles,
+or the Revelation.
+
+To the mind of the true Oriental the very name of the Dog carries
+with it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his nature,
+and he does not particularly like even the thought of the animal
+coming across his mind. And this is the more extraordinary, because
+at the commencement and termination of their history the Dog was
+esteemed by their masters. The Egyptians, under whose rule they
+grew to be a nation, knew the value of the Dog, and showed their
+appreciation in the many works of art which have survived to our
+time. Then the Romans, under whose iron grasp the last vestiges of
+nationality crumbled away, honoured and respected the Dog, made it
+their companion, and introduced its portrait into their houses. But,
+true to their early traditions, the Jews of the East have ever held
+the Dog in the same abhorrence as is manifested by their present
+masters, the followers of Mahommed.
+
+Owing to the prevalence of this feeling, the Dogs of Oriental
+towns are so unlike their more fortunate European relatives, that
+they can hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species.
+In those lands the traveller finds that there is none of the
+wonderful variety which so distinguishes the Dog of Europe. There
+he will never see the bluff, sturdy, surly, faithful mastiff, the
+slight gazelle-like greyhound, the sharp, intelligent terrier, the
+silent, courageous bulldog, the deep-voiced, tawny bloodhound, the
+noble Newfoundland, the clever, vivacious poodle, or the gentle,
+silken-haired spaniel.
+
+As he traverses the streets, he finds that all the dogs are alike,
+and that all are gaunt, hungry, half starved, savage, and cowardly,
+more like wolves than dogs, and quite as ready as wolves to attack
+when they fancy they can do so with safety. They prowl about the
+streets in great numbers, living, as they best can, on any scraps of
+food that they may happen to find. They have no particular masters,
+and no particular homes. Charitable persons will sometimes feed
+them, but will never make companions of them, feeling that the very
+contact of a dog would be a pollution. They are certainly useful
+animals, because they act as scavengers, and will eat almost any
+animal substance that comes in their way.
+
+The strangest part of their character is the organization which
+prevails among them. By some extraordinary means they divide the
+town into districts, and not one dog ever ventures out of that
+particular district to which it is attached. The boundaries,
+although invisible, are as effectual as the loftiest walls, and not
+even the daintiest morsel will tempt a dog to pass the mysterious
+line which forms the boundary of his district. Generally, these
+bands of dogs are so savage that any one who is obliged to walk in a
+district where the dogs do not know him is forced to carry a stout
+stick for his protection. Like their European relatives, they have
+great dislike towards persons who are dressed after a fashion to
+which they are unaccustomed, and therefore are sure to harass any
+one who comes from Europe and wears the costume of his own country.
+As is customary among animals which unite themselves in troops, each
+band is under the command of a single leader, whose position is
+recognised and his authority acknowledged by all the members.
+
+[Illustration: DOGS IN AN EASTERN CITY AT NIGHT.]
+
+These peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the
+dogs which run wild about the towns, because there is abundant
+evidence in the Scriptures that the animal was used in a partially
+domesticated state, certainly for the protection of their herds,
+and possibly for the guardianship of their houses. That the Dog was
+employed for the first of these purposes is shown in Job xxx. i:
+"But now they that are younger than I have me in derision, whose
+fathers I would have disdained to have set with the dogs of my
+flock." And that the animal was used for the protection of houses is
+thought by some commentators to be shown by the well-known passage
+in Is. lvi. 10: "His watchmen are blind: they are all ignorant, they
+are all dumb dogs, they cannot bark; sleeping, lying down, loving
+to slumber." Still, it is very probable that in this passage the
+reference is not made to houses, but to the flocks and herds which
+these watchmen ought to have guarded.
+
+The rooted dislike and contempt felt by the Israelites towards
+the Dog is seen in numerous passages. Even in that sentence from
+Job which has just been quoted, wherein the writer passionately
+deplores the low condition into which he has fallen, and contrasts
+it with his former high estate, he complains that he is despised by
+those whose fathers he held even in less esteem than the dogs which
+guarded his herds. There are several references to the Dog in the
+books of Samuel, in all of which the name of the animal is mentioned
+contemptuously. For example, when David accepted the challenge of
+Goliath, and went to meet his gigantic enemy without the ordinary
+protection of mail, and armed only with a sling and his shepherd's
+staff Goliath said to him, "Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with
+staves?" (1 Sam. xvii. 43.) And in the same book, chapter xxiv. 14,
+David remonstrates with Saul for pursuing so insignificant a person
+as himself, and said, "After whom is the King of Israel come out?
+after a dead dog, after a flea."
+
+[Illustration: SHIMEI EXULTING OVER KING DAVID.]
+
+The same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the same writer.
+Once it was employed by Mephibosheth, the lame son of Jonathan, when
+extolling the generosity of David, then King of Israel in the place
+of his grandfather Saul: "And he bowed himself, and said, 'What
+is thy servant, that thou shouldest look upon such a dead dog as
+I am?'" (2 Sam. ix. 8.) In the same book, chapter xvi. 9, Abishai
+applies this contemptuous epithet to Shimei, who was exulting over
+the troubled monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature,
+"Why should this dead dog curse my lord the king?" Abner also makes
+use of a similar expression, "Am I a dog's head?" And we may also
+refer to the familiar passage in 2 Kings viii. 13, Elisha had
+prophesied to Hazael that he would become king on the death of
+Ben-hadad, and that he would work terrible mischief in the land.
+Horrified at these predictions, or at all events pretending to be
+so, he replied, "But what, is thy servant a dog, that he should do
+this great thing?"
+
+If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find the same
+contemptuous feeling displayed towards the Dog. It is mentioned as
+an intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endured by Lazarus the
+beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate, that the dogs came and
+licked his sores. In several passages, the word Dog is employed as
+a metaphor for scoffers, or unclean persons, or sometimes for those
+who did not belong to the Church, whether Jewish or Christian. In
+the Sermon on the Mount our Lord himself uses this image, "Give not
+that which is holy unto dogs" (Matt. vii. 6.) In the same book,
+chapter xv. 26, Jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to
+the Canaanitish woman who had come to ask him to heal her daughter:
+"It is not meet to take the children's bread and cast it to dogs."
+And that she understood the meaning of the words is evident from
+her answer, in which faith and humility are so admirably blended.
+Both St. Paul and St. John employ the word Dog in the same sense.
+In his epistle to the Philippians, chapter iii. 2, St. Paul writes,
+"Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers." And in the Revelation,
+chapter xxii. 14, these words occur: "Blessed are they that do his
+commandments, that they may have right to the tree of life, and may
+enter in through the gates to the city; for without are dogs, and
+sorcerers, ... and murderers, and idolaters, and whomsoever loveth
+and maketh a lie."
+
+That the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands just as
+they do at present is evident from many passages of Scripture, among
+which may be mentioned those sentences from the Psalms, wherein
+David is comparing the assaults of his enemies to the attacks of the
+dogs which infested the city. "Thou hast brought me into the dust
+of death; for dogs have compassed me, the assembly of the wicked
+have enclosed me." This passage will be better appreciated when
+the reader has perused the following extract from a recent work
+by Signor Pierotti. After giving a general account of the Dogs of
+Palestine and their customs, he proceeds as follows:--
+
+"In Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs have an organization
+of their own. They are divided into families and districts,
+especially in the night time, and no one of them ventures to quit
+his proper quarter; for if he does, he is immediately attacked by
+all the denizens of that into which he intrudes, and is driven
+back, with several bites as a reminder. Therefore, when an European
+is walking through Jerusalem by night, he is always followed by a
+number of canine attendants, and greeted at every step with growls
+and howls. These tokens of dislike, however, are not intended for
+him, but for his followers, who are availing themselves of his
+escort to pass unmolested from one quarter to another.
+
+"During a very hard winter, I fed many of the dogs who frequented
+the road which I traversed almost every evening, and afterwards,
+each time that I passed, I received the homage not only of the
+individuals, but of the whole band to which they belonged, for they
+accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdictions and
+were ready to follow me to my own house, if I did but give them a
+sign of encouragement, coming at my beck from any distance. They
+even recollected the signal two years afterwards, though it was but
+little that I had given them."
+
+The account which this experienced writer gives of the animal
+presents a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits,
+the latter being attributable to the true nature of the Dog, and
+the former to the utter neglect with which it is treated. He
+remarks that the dogs which run wild in the cities of Palestine
+are ill-favoured, ill-scented, and ill-conditioned beasts, more
+like jackals or wolves than dogs, and covered with scars, which
+betoken their quarrelsome nature. Yet, the same animals lose their
+wild, savage disposition, as soon as any human being endeavours
+to establish that relationship which was evidently intended to
+exist between man and the dog. How readily even these despised and
+neglected animals respond to the slightest advance, has been already
+shown by Sig. Pierotti's experience, and there is no doubt that
+these tawny, short-haired, wolf-like animals, could be trained as
+perfectly as their more favoured brethren of the western world.
+
+As in the olden times, so at the present day, the dogs lie about
+in the streets, dependent for their livelihood upon the offal that
+is flung into the roads, or upon the chance morsels that may be
+thrown to them. An allusion to this custom is made in the well-known
+passage in Matt. xv. The reader will remember the circumstance
+that a woman of Canaan, and therefore not an Israelite, came to
+Jesus, and begged him to heal her daughter, who was vexed with a
+devil. Then, to try her faith, He said, "It is not meet to take the
+children's bread, and to cast it to dogs." And she said, "Truth,
+Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their master's
+table." Now, the "crumbs" which are here mentioned are the broken
+pieces of bread which were used at table, much as bread is sometimes
+used in eating fish. The form of the "loaves" being flat, and much
+like that of the oat-cake of this country, adapted them well to the
+purpose. The same use of broken bread is alluded to in the parable
+of Lazarus, who desired to be fed with the crumbs that fell from the
+rich man's table, _i. e._ to partake of the same food as the dogs
+which swarmed round him and licked his sores.
+
+[Illustration: LAZARUS LYING AT THE RICH MAN'S DOOR.]
+
+[Illustration: THE DEATH OF JEZEBEL.]
+
+The "crumbs," however liberally distributed, would not nearly
+suffice for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief
+support consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully
+flung into the streets. If the body of any animal, not excluding
+their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will
+assemble round it, and tear it to pieces, and they have no scruples
+even in devouring a human body. Of course, owing to the peculiar
+feeling entertained by the Orientals towards the Dog, no fate can
+be imagined more repulsive to the feelings of humanity than to be
+eaten by dogs; and therein lies the terror of the fate which was
+prophesied of Ahab and Jezebel. Moreover, the blood, even of the
+lower animals, was held in great sanctity, and it was in those days
+hardly possible to invoke a more dreadful fate upon any one than
+that his blood should be lapped by dogs.
+
+We lose much of the real force of the Scriptures, if we do not
+possess some notion of the manners and customs of Palestine and the
+neighbouring countries, as well as of the tone of mind prevalent
+among the inhabitants. In our own country, that any one should be
+eaten by dogs would be a fate so contrary to usage, that we can
+hardly conceive its possibility, and such a fate would be out of
+the ordinary course of events. But, if such a fate should happen to
+befall any one, we should have no stronger feeling of pity than the
+natural regret that the dead person was not buried with Christian
+rites.
+
+But, with the inhabitants of Palestine, such an event was by no
+means unlikely. It was, and is still, the custom to bury the corpse
+almost as soon as life has departed, and such would ordinarily have
+been the case with the dead body of Jezebel. But, through fear of
+the merciless Jehu, by whose command she had been flung from the
+window of her own palace, no one dared to remove her mangled body.
+The dogs, therefore, seized upon their prey; and, even before Jehu
+had risen from the banquet with which he celebrated his deed,
+nothing was left of the body but the skull, the feet, and the hands.
+
+[Illustration: SYRIAN DOG.]
+
+In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true dog
+nature, though concealed behind an uninviting form: "Our watch-dog,
+Beirût, attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, though his canine
+instinct soon taught him to recognise every one of our party of
+fourteen, and to cling to the tents, whether in motion or at rest,
+as his home. Poor Beirût! though the veriest pariah in appearance,
+thy plebeian form encased as noble a dog-heart as ever beat at the
+sound of a stealthy step."
+
+The same author records a very remarkable example of the sagacity of
+the native Dog, and the fidelity with which it will keep guard over
+the property of its master. "The guard-house provided us, unasked,
+with an invaluable and vigilant sentry, who was never relieved, nor
+ever quitted the post of duty. The poor Turkish conscript, like
+every other soldier in the world, is fond of pets, and in front of
+the grim turret that served for a guard-house was a collection of
+old orange-boxes and crates, thickly peopled with a garrison of
+dogs of low degree, whose attachment to the spot was certainly not
+purchased by the loaves and fishes which fell to their lot.
+
+"One of the family must indeed have had hard times, for she had a
+family of no less than five dependent on her exertions, and on the
+superfluities of the sentries' mess. With a sagacity almost more
+than canine, the poor gaunt creature had scarcely seen our tents
+pitched before she came over with all her litter and deposited
+them in front of our tent. At once she scanned the features of
+every member of the encampment, and introduced herself to our
+notice. During the week of our stay, she never quitted her post,
+or attempted any depredation on our kitchen-tent, which might have
+led to her banishment. Night and day she proved a faithful and
+vigilant sentry, permitting no stranger, human or canine, European
+or Oriental, to approach the tents without permission, but keeping
+on the most familiar terms with ourselves and our servants.
+
+"On the morning of our departure, no sooner had she seen our camp
+struck, than she conveyed her puppies back to their old quarters
+in the orange-box, and no entreaties or bribes could induce her to
+accompany us. On three subsequent visits to Jerusalem, the same
+dog acted in a similar way, though no longer embarrassed by family
+cares, and would on no account permit any strange dog, nor even her
+companions at the guard-house, to approach within the tent ropes."
+
+After perusing this account of the Dog of Palestine, two points
+strike the reader. The first is the manner in which the Dog, in
+spite of all the social disadvantages under which it labours,
+displays one of the chief characteristics of canine nature, namely,
+the yearning after human society. The animal in question had already
+attached herself to the guard-house, where she could meet with some
+sort of human converse, though the inborn prejudices of the Moslem
+would prevent the soldiers from inviting her to associate with them,
+as would certainly have been done by European soldiers. She nestled
+undisturbed in the orange-box, and, safe under the protection of the
+guard, brought up her young family in their immediate neighbourhood.
+But, as soon as Europeans arrived, her instinct told her that they
+would be closer associates than the Turkish soldiers who were
+quartered in the guard-house, and accordingly she removed herself
+and her family to the shelter of their tents.
+
+Herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature. A
+dog _must_ have a master, or at all events a mistress, and just in
+proportion as he is free from human control, does he become less
+dog-like and more wolf-like. In fact, familiar intercourse with
+mankind is an essential part of a dog's true character, and the
+animal seems to be so well aware of this fact, that he will always
+contrive to find a master of some sort, and will endure a life of
+cruel treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather than have no
+master at all.
+
+The second point in this account is the singular local instinct
+which characterises the Dogs of Palestine and other eastern
+countries, and which is as much inbred in them as the faculty of
+marking game in the pointer, the combative nature in the bulldog,
+the exquisite scent in the bloodhound, and the love of water in
+the Newfoundland dog. In this country, we fancy that the love of
+locality belongs especially to the cat, and that the Dog cares
+little for place, and much for man. But, in this case, we find that
+the local instinct overpowered the yearning for human society. Fond
+as was this dog of her newly-found friends, and faithful as she was
+in her self-imposed service, she would not follow them away from the
+spot where she had been born, and where she had produced her own
+young.
+
+This curious love for locality has evidently been derived from the
+traditional custom of successive generations, which has passed from
+the realm of reason into that of instinct. The reader will remember
+that Sig. Pierotti mentions an instance where the dogs which he had
+been accustomed to feed would follow him as far as the limits of
+their particular district, but would go no farther. The late Albert
+Smith, in his "Month at Constantinople," gives a similar example of
+this characteristic. He first describes the general habits of the
+dogs.
+
+On the first night of his arrival, he could not sleep, and went
+to the window to look out in the night. "The noise I heard then I
+shall never forget. To say that if all the sheep-dogs, in going to
+Smithfield on a market-day, had been kept on the constant bark,
+and pitted against the yelping curs upon all the carts in London,
+they could have given any idea of the canine uproar that now first
+astonished me, would be to make the feeblest of images. The whole
+city rang with one vast riot. Down below me, at Tophané--over-about
+Stamboul--far away at Scutari--the whole sixty thousand dogs that
+are said to overrun Constantinople appeared engaged in the most
+active extermination of each other, without a moment's cessation.
+The yelping, howling, barking, growling, and snarling, were all
+merged into one uniform and continuous even sound, as the noise of
+frogs becomes when heard at a distance. For hours there was no lull.
+I went to sleep, and woke again, and still, with my windows open,
+I heard the same tumult going on; nor was it until daybreak that
+anything like tranquillity was restored.
+
+"Going out in the daytime, it is not difficult to find traces of the
+fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs. There
+is not one, among their vast number, in the possession of a perfect
+skin. Some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off; others have
+their eyes taken out; from the backs and haunches of others perfect
+steaks of flesh had been torn away; and all bear the scars of
+desperate combats.
+
+"Wild and desperate as is their nature, these poor animals are
+susceptible of kindness. If a scrap of bread is thrown to one of
+them now and then, he does not forget it; for they have, at times,
+a hard matter to live--not the dogs amongst the shops of Galata or
+Stamboul, but those whose 'parish' lies in the large burying-grounds
+and desert places without the city; for each keeps, or rather is
+kept, to his district, and if he chanced to venture into a strange
+one, the odds against his return would be very large. One battered
+old animal, to whom I used occasionally to toss a scrap of food,
+always followed me from the hotel to the cross street in Pera,
+where the two soldiers stood on guard, but would never come beyond
+this point. He knew the fate that awaited him had he done so; and
+therefore, when I left him, he would lie down in the road, and go to
+sleep until I came back.
+
+"When a horse or camel dies, and is left about the roads near the
+city, the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs, and they
+will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances. I was told that
+they will eat their dead fellows--a curious fact, I believe, in
+canine economy. They are always troublesome, not to say dangerous,
+at night; and are especially irritated by Europeans, whom they will
+single out amongst a crowd of Levantines."
+
+In the same work there is a short description of a solitary dervish,
+who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane-tree, in front
+of which he sat, surrounded by a small fence of stakes only a foot
+or so in height. Around him, but not venturing within the fence,
+were a number of gaunt, half-starved dogs, who prowled about him
+in hopes of having an occasional morsel of food thrown to them.
+Solitary as he was, and scanty as must have been the nourishment
+which he could afford to them, the innate trustfulness of the
+dog-nature induced them to attach themselves to human society of
+some sort, though their master was one, and they were many--he was
+poor, and they were hungry.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN WATER-SELLER.]
+
+
+
+
+THE WOLF.
+
+ Identity of the animal indisputable--its numbers, past and
+ present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--its general
+ habits--References in Scripture--its mingled ferocity and
+ cowardice--its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it
+ takes its prey--its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this
+ habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and
+ the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba.
+
+
+There is no doubt that the Hebrew word _Zeëb_, which occurs in a
+few passages of the Old Testament, is rightly translated as WOLF,
+and signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned in the New
+Testament.
+
+This fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful in
+Palestine, but is now much less common, owing to the same causes
+which have extirpated the lion from the country. It is a rather
+remarkable fact, that in no passage of Holy Writ is the Wolf
+directly mentioned. Its name is used as a symbol of a fierce and
+treacherous enemy, but neither in the Old nor New Testament does
+any sacred writer mention any act as performed by the Wolf. We have
+already heard of the lion which attacked Samson and was killed by
+him, of the lion which slew the disobedient prophet, and of the
+lions which spared Daniel when thrown into their den. We also read
+of the dogs which licked Ahab's blood, and ate the body of Jezebel,
+also of the bears which tore the mocking children.
+
+But in no case is the Wolf mentioned, except in a metaphorical
+sense; and this fact is the more remarkable, because the animals
+were so numerous that they were very likely to have exercised some
+influence on a history extending over such a lengthened range of
+years, and limited to so small a portion of the earth. Yet we never
+hear of the Wolf attacking any of the personages mentioned in
+Scripture; and although we are told of the exploit of David, who
+pursued a lion and a bear that had taken a lamb out of his fold, we
+are never told of any similar deed in connexion with the Wolf.
+
+[Illustration: WOLVES ATTACKING A FLOCK OF SHEEP.]
+
+This animal was then what it is now. Seldom seen by day, it lies
+hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts, and steals out in
+search of prey in the evening. This custom of the Wolf is mentioned
+in several passages of Holy Scripture, such as that in Jer. v. 5,
+6: "These have altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds.
+Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of
+the evenings shall spoil them." In this passage the reader will
+see that the rebellious Israelites are compared to restive draught
+cattle which have broken away from their harness and run loose,
+so that they are deprived of the protection of their owners, and
+exposed to the fury of wild beasts. A similar reference is made in
+Hab. i. 8: "Their horses also are swifter than the leopards, and are
+more fierce than the evening wolves." The same habit of the Wolf is
+alluded to in Zeph. iii. 3: "Her princes within her are roaring
+lions; her judges are evening wolves."
+
+Individually, the Wolf is rather a timid animal. It will avoid a man
+rather than meet him. It prefers to steal upon its prey and take
+it unawares, rather than to seize it openly and boldly. It is ever
+suspicious of treachery, and is always imagining that a trap is laid
+for it. Even the shallow device of a few yards of rope trailing
+from any object, or a strip of cloth fluttering in the breeze, is
+quite sufficient to keep the Wolf at bay for a considerable time.
+This fact is well known to hunters, who are accustomed to secure the
+body of a slain deer by simply tying a strip of cloth to its horn.
+If taken in a trap of any kind, or even if it fancies itself in an
+enclosure from which it can find no egress, it loses all courage,
+and will submit to be killed without offering the least resistance.
+It will occasionally endeavour to effect its escape by feigning
+death, and has more than once been known to succeed in this device.
+
+But, collectively, the Wolf is one of the most dangerous animals
+that can be found. Herding together in droves when pressed by
+hunger, the wolves will openly hunt prey, performing this task as
+perfectly as a pack of trained hounds. Full of wiles themselves,
+they are craftily wise in anticipating the wiles of the animals
+which they pursue; and even in full chase, while the body of the
+pack is following on the footsteps of the flying animal, one or two
+are detached on the flanks, so as to cut it off if it should attempt
+to escape by doubling on its pursuers.
+
+There is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack, and very
+few which they will not ultimately secure. Strength avails nothing
+against the numbers of these savage foes, which give no moment of
+rest, but incessantly assail their antagonist, dashing by instinct
+at those parts of the body which can be least protected, and
+lacerating with their peculiar short, snapping bite. Should several
+of their number be killed or disabled, it makes no difference to
+the wolves, except that a minute or two are wasted in devouring
+their slain or wounded brethren, and they only return to the attack
+the more excited by the taste of blood. Swiftness of foot avails
+nothing against the tireless perseverance of the wolves, who press
+on in their peculiar, long, slinging gallop, and in the end are sure
+to tire out the swifter footed but less enduring animal that flees
+before them. The stately buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless
+assaults of the wolves; the bear has been forced to succumb to them,
+and the fleet-footed stag finds his swift limbs powerless to escape
+the pursuing band, and his branching horns unable to resist their
+furious onset when once they overtake him.
+
+[Illustration: WOLVES CHASING DEER.]
+
+That the Wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown in
+many parts of the Scriptures, both in the Old and New Testaments,
+especially in the latter. In John x. 1-16, Jesus compares himself
+to a good shepherd, who watches over the fold, and, if the wolves
+should come to take the sheep, would rather give up His life than
+they should succeed. But the false teachers are compared to bad
+shepherds, hired for money, but having no interest in the sheep, and
+who therefore will not expose themselves to danger in defence of
+their charge.
+
+This metaphor was far more effective in Palestine, and at that time,
+than it is in this country and at the present day. In this land,
+the shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild beasts, but
+in Palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch at night lest
+the wolves should attack the fold, and to drive them away himself in
+case they should do so. Therefore the shepherd's life was one which
+involved no small danger as well as anxiety, and the metaphor used
+by our Lord gains additional force from the knowledge of this fact.
+
+[Illustration: THE WOLF.]
+
+A similar metaphor is used when Jesus wished to express in
+forcible terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would oft
+be subjected, and the impossibility that they should be able to
+overcome the many perils with which they would be surrounded. "Go
+your ways: behold, I send you forth as lambs among wolves" (Luke x.
+3).
+
+Mr. Tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged in his
+travels, and mostly saw solitary specimens. One such encounter
+took place in the wilderness of Judah: "On my way back, I met a
+fine solitary wolf, who watched me very coolly, at the distance of
+sixty yards, while I drew my charge and dropped a bullet down the
+barrel. Though I sent the ball into a rock between his legs as he
+stood looking at me in the wady, he was not sufficiently alarmed to
+do more than move on a little more quickly, ever and anon turning
+to look at me, while gradually increasing his distance. Darkness
+compelled me to desist from the chase, when he quietly turned and
+followed me at a respectful distance. He was a magnificent animal,
+larger than any European wolf, and of a much lighter colour."
+
+Those who are acquainted with the character of the animal will
+appreciate the truthfulness of this description. The cautious
+prowl at a distance, the slow trot away when he fancied he might
+be attacked, the reverted look, and the final turning back and
+following at a respectful distance, are all characteristic traits of
+the Wolf, no matter to what species it may belong, nor what country
+it may inhabit.
+
+On another occasion, while riding in the open plain of Gennesaret,
+the horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch, barely three feet
+in depth. After the horse had passed, and not until then, a Wolf
+started out of the ditch, literally from under the horses hoofs,
+and ran off. The animal had been crouching under the little bank,
+evidently watching for some cows and calves which were grazing at
+a short distance, under the charge of a Bedouin boy. The same
+author mentions that one of the monks belonging to the monastery at
+Marsaba had contrived to render a Wolf almost tame. Every evening at
+six o'clock the Wolf came regularly across the ravine, ate a piece
+of bread, and then went back again. With the peculiar jealousy of
+all tamed animals, the Wolf would not suffer any of his companions
+to partake of his good fortune. Several of them would sometimes
+accompany him, but as soon as they came under the wall of the
+monastery he always drove them away.
+
+[Illustration: WOLVES ATTACKING WILD GOATS.]
+
+The inhabitants of Palestine say that the Wolves of that country
+hunt singly, or at most in little packs of few in number. Still they
+dread the animal exceedingly on account of the damage it inflicts
+upon their flocks of sheep and goats.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE JACKAL.]
+
+
+
+
+THE FOX OR JACKAL.
+
+ The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--its
+ numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the
+ Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the
+ three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The
+ required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon
+ the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on
+ fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of
+ the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among grapes
+
+
+There are several passages in the Old Testament in which the word
+Fox occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word _Shuâl_,
+which is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather loosely,
+and refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others to the Fox.
+We will first take those passages in which the former rendering of
+the word is evidently the right one, and will begin by examining
+those characteristics of the animal which afford grounds for such an
+assertion.
+
+[Illustration: FOXES OR JACKALS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A GOAT.]
+
+Even at the present time, the Jackal is extremely plentiful in
+Palestine; and as the numbers of wild beasts have much decreased
+in modern days, the animals must have been even more numerous than
+they are at present. It is an essentially nocturnal and gregarious
+animal. During the whole of the day the Jackals lie concealed in
+their holes or hiding-places, which are usually cavities in the
+rocks, in tombs, or among ruins. At nightfall they issue from their
+dens, and form themselves into packs, often consisting of several
+hundred individuals, and prowl about in search of food. Carrion of
+various kinds forms their chief subsistence, and they perform in
+the country much the same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the
+cities.
+
+If any animal should be killed, or even severely wounded, the
+Jackals are sure to find it out and to devour it before the
+daybreak. They will scent out the track of the hunter, and feed
+upon the offal of the beasts which he has slain. If the body of
+a human being were to be left on the ground, the Jackals would
+certainly leave but little traces of it; and in the olden times of
+warfare, they must have held high revelry in the battle-field after
+the armies had retired. It is to this propensity of the Jackal
+that David refers--himself a man of war, who had fought on many a
+battle-field, and must have seen the carcases of the slain mangled
+by these nocturnal prowlers: "Those that seek my soul, to destroy
+it, shall go into the lower parts of the earth. They shall fall
+by the sword; they shall be a portion for foxes" (Ps. lxiii. 9,
+10). Being wild beasts, afraid of man, and too cowardly to attack
+him even when rendered furious by hunger, and powerful by force of
+numbers, they keep aloof from towns and cities, and live in the
+uninhabited parts of the country. Therefore the prophet Jeremiah, in
+his Book of Lamentations, makes use of the following forcible image,
+when deploring the pitiful state into which Judæa had fallen: "For
+this our heart is faint; for these things our eyes are dim: because
+of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes walk upon it"
+(Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar image: "O Israel,
+thy prophets are like foxes in the desert."
+
+But, by far the most important passage in which the Fox is
+mentioned, is that wherein is recorded the grotesque vengeance of
+Samson upon the Philistines: "And Samson went and caught three
+hundred foxes, and took firebrands, and turned tail to tail, and
+put a firebrand in the midst between two tails. And when he had set
+the brands on fire, he let them go into the standing com of the
+Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks and also the standing
+corn, with the vineyards and olives" (Judges xv. 4, 5). Now, as this
+is one of the passages of Holy Writ to which great objections have
+been taken, it will be as well to examine these objections, and see
+whether they have any real force. The first of these objections is,
+that the number of foxes is far too great to have been caught at
+one time, and to this objection two answers have been given. The
+first answer is, that they need not have been caught at once, but
+by degrees, and kept until wanted. But the general tenor of the
+narrative is undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this act
+of Samson was unpremeditated, and that it was carried into operation
+at once, before his anger had cooled. The second answer is, that
+the requisite number of Foxes might have been miraculously sent to
+Samson for this special purpose. This theory is really so foolish
+and utterly untenable, that I only mention it because it has been
+put forward. It fails on two grounds: the first being that a miracle
+would hardly have been wrought to enable Samson to revenge himself
+in so cruel and unjustifiable a manner; and the second, that there
+was not the least necessity for any miracle at all.
+
+[Illustration: A FEAST IN PROSPECT.]
+
+If we put out of our minds the idea of the English Fox, an animal
+comparatively scarce in this country, and solitary in its habits,
+and substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious Jackal,
+wandering in troops by night, and easily decoyed by hunger into a
+trap, we shall see that double the number might have been taken,
+if needful. Moreover, it is not to be imagined that Samson caught
+them all with his own hand. He was at the head of his people, and
+had many subordinates at his command, so that a large number of
+hunters might have been employed simultaneously in the capture. In
+corroboration of this point, I insert an extremely valuable extract
+from Signor Pierotti's work, in which he makes reference to this
+very portion of the sacred history:--
+
+"It is still very abundant near Gaza, Askalon, Ashdod, Ekron, and
+Ramleh. I have frequently met with it during my wanderings by night,
+and on one occasion had an excellent opportunity of appreciating
+their number and their noise.
+
+"One evening in the month of January, while it was raining a perfect
+deluge, I was obliged, owing to the dangerous illness of a friend,
+to return from Jerusalem to Jaffa. The depth of snow on the road
+over a great part of the mountain, the clayey mud in the plain, and
+the darkness of the night, prevented my advancing quickly; so that
+about half-past three in the morning I arrived on the bank of a
+small torrent, about half an hour's journey to the east of Ramleh. I
+wished to cross: my horse at first refused, but, on my spurring it,
+advanced and at once sank up to the breast, followed of course by
+my legs, thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an Arab horse
+for the future.
+
+[Illustration: A FEAST SECURED.]
+
+"There I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and consoled my
+horse and myself with some provisions that I had in my saddle-bags,
+shouting and singing at intervals, in the hope of obtaining succour,
+and of preventing accidents, as I knew that the year before a mule
+in the same position had been mistaken for a wild beast, and killed.
+The darkness was profound, and the wind very high; but, happily,
+it was not cold; for the only things attracted by my calls were
+numbers of jackals, who remained at a certain distance from me, and
+responded to my cries, especially when I tried to imitate them, as
+though they took me for their music-master.
+
+"About five o'clock, one of the guards of the English consulate at
+Jerusalem came from Ramleh and discovered my state. He charitably
+returned thither, and brought some men, who extricated me and my
+horse from our unpleasant bath, which, as may be supposed, was not
+beneficial to our legs.
+
+"During this most uncomfortable night, I had good opportunity of
+ascertaining that, if another Samson had wished to burn again the
+crops in the country of the Philistines, he would have had no
+difficulty in finding more than three hundred jackals, and catching
+as many as he wanted in springs, traps, or pitfalls. (See Ps. cxl.
+5.)"
+
+The reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty in
+procuring the requisite number of animals, and that consequently the
+first objection to the truth of the story is disposed of.
+
+We will now proceed to the second objection, which is, that if
+the animals were tied tail to tail, they would remain on or near
+the same spot, because they would pull in different directions,
+and that, rather than run about, they would turn round and fight
+each other. Now, in the first place, we are nowhere told that the
+tails of the foxes, or jackals, were placed in contact with each
+other, and it is probable that some little space was left between
+them. That animals so tied would not run in a straight line is
+evident enough, and this was exactly the effect which Samson
+wished to produce. Had they been at liberty, and the fiery brand
+fastened to their tails, they would have run straight to their
+dens, and produced but little effect. But their captor, with
+cruel ingenuity, had foreseen this contingency, and, by the method
+of securing them which he adopted, forced them to pursue a devious
+course, each animal trying to escape from the dreaded firebrand, and
+struggling in vain endeavours to drag its companion towards its own
+particular den.
+
+[Illustration: A TRESPASSER.]
+
+All wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire; and there is
+none, not even the fierce and courageous lion, that dares enter
+within the glare of the bivouac fire. A lion has even been struck
+in the face with a burning brand, and has not ventured to attack
+the man that wielded so dreadful a weapon. Consequently it may be
+imagined that the unfortunate animals that were used by Samson for
+his vindictive purpose, must have been filled with terror at the
+burning brands which they dragged after them, and the blaze of
+the fire which was kindled wherever they went. They would have no
+leisure to fight, and would only think of escaping from the dread
+and unintelligible enemy which pursued them.
+
+When a prairie takes fire, all the wild inhabitants flee in terror,
+and never think of attacking each other, so that the bear, the wolf,
+the cougar, the deer, and the wild swine, may all be seen huddled
+together, their natural antagonism quelled in the presence of a
+common foe. So it must have been with the miserable animals which
+were made the unconscious instruments of destruction. That they
+would stand still when a burning brand was between them, and when
+flames sprang up around them, is absurd. That they would pull in
+exactly opposite directions with precisely balanced force is equally
+improbable, and it is therefore evident that they would pursue a
+devious path, the stronger of the two dragging the weaker, but being
+jerked out of a straight course and impeded by the resistance which
+it would offer. That they would stand on the same spot and fight has
+been shown to be contrary to the custom of animals under similar
+circumstances.
+
+Thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the
+ground, but carries its own refutation, thus vindicating this
+episode in sacred history, and showing, that not only were the
+circumstances possible, but that they were highly probable. Of
+course every one of the wretched animals must have been ultimately
+burned to death, after suffering a prolonged torture from the
+firebrand that was attached to it. Such a consideration would,
+however, have had no effect for deterring Samson from employing
+them. The Orientals are never sparing of pain, even when inflicted
+upon human beings, and in too many cases they seem utterly unable
+even to comprehend the cruelty of which they are guilty. And Samson
+was by no means a favourable specimen of his countrymen. He was the
+very incarnation of strength, but was as morally weak as he was
+corporeally powerful; and to that weakness he owed his fall. Neither
+does he seem to possess the least trace of forbearance any more than
+of self-control, but he yields to his own undisciplined nature,
+places himself, and through him the whole Israelitish nation, in
+jeopardy, and then, with a grim humour, scatters destruction on
+every side in revenge for the troubles which he has brought upon
+himself by his own acts.
+
+
+
+
+THE HYÆNA.
+
+ The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded
+ to--Signification of the word Zabua--Translated in the
+ Septuagint as Hyæna--A scene described by the prophet
+ Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present
+ day--its well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of
+ the Hyæna and the services which it renders--The particular
+ species of Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the
+ Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties
+ of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends
+ of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the
+ Hyæna--The valley of Zeboim.
+
+
+Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not mentioned
+by that name, there are two passages in the Old Testament which
+evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it is described in
+these pages. If the reader will refer to the prophet Jeremiah, xii.
+7-9, he will find these words: "I have forsaken mine house, I have
+left mine heritage; I have given the dearly beloved of my soul into
+the hand of her enemies. Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in
+the forest; it crieth out against me: therefore have I hated it.
+Mine heritage is unto me as a speckled bird; the birds round about
+are against her: come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field,
+come to devour." Now, the word _zabua_ signifies something that
+is streaked, and in the Authorized Version it is rendered as a
+speckled bird. But in the Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna, and
+this translation is thought by many critical writers to be the true
+one. It is certain that the word _zabua_ is one of the four names by
+which the Talmudical writers mention the Hyæna, when treating of its
+character; and it is equally certain that such a rendering makes the
+passage more forcible, and is in perfect accordance with the habits
+of predacious animals.
+
+The whole scene which the Prophet thus describes was evidently
+familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted country,
+allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have the lion,
+which has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation, and
+defying any adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion having
+eaten his fill and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures, and
+other carrion-eating creatures, assembling around the carcase, and
+hastening to devour it. This is a scene which has been witnessed
+by many hunters who have pursued their sport in lands where lions,
+hyænas, and vultures are found; and all these creatures were
+inhabitants of Palestine at the time when Jeremiah wrote.
+
+At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine,
+though in the course of the last few years its numbers have sensibly
+diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by night from one
+town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna, but need suffer no
+fear, as it will not attack a human being, and prefers to slink out
+of his way. But dead, and dying, or wounded animals are the objects
+for which it searches; and when it finds them, it devours the whole
+of its prey. The lion will strike down an antelope, an ox, or a
+goat--will tear off its flesh with its long fangs, and lick the
+bones with its rough tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves
+and jackals will follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the
+dead animal, while the vultures will fight with them for the coveted
+morsels. But the Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger than lion,
+wolf, jackal, or vulture; for it will eat the very bones themselves,
+its tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth enabling it to
+crush even the leg-bone of an ox, and its unparalleled digestive
+powers enabling it to assimilate the sharp and hard fragments which
+would kill any creature not constituted like itself.
+
+In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna is,
+therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a crippled
+or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep; but, even in that
+case, no very great harm is done, for it does not meddle with any
+animal that can resist. But these few delinquencies are more than
+compensated by the great services which it renders as scavenger,
+consuming those substances which even the lion cannot eat, and thus
+acting as a scavenger in removing objects which would be offensive
+to sight and injurious to health.
+
+[Illustration: LEOPARD ROBBED OF ITS PREY BY HYÆNAS.]
+
+The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped
+Hyæna (_Hyæna striata_); but the habits of all the species are
+almost exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain towns
+in different parts of Africa which would be unendurable but for the
+Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which prevails throughout
+all savage portions of that country, the rulers of these towns order
+executions almost daily, the bodies of the victims being allowed
+to lie where they happened to fall. No one chooses to touch them,
+lest they should also be added to the list of victims, and the
+decomposing bodies would soon cause a pestilence but for the Hyænas,
+who assemble at night round the bodies, and by the next morning have
+left scarcely a trace of the murdered men.
+
+Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will endeavour
+to rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse. The bodies
+of the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances are closed
+with heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move; but those of the
+poor, which are buried in the ground, must be defended by stones
+heaped over them. Even when this precaution is taken, the Hyæna will
+sometimes find out a weak spot, drag out the body, and devour it.
+
+In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an utter
+detestation of the animal. They catch it whenever they can, in
+pitfalls or snares, using precisely the same means as were employed
+two thousand years ago; or they hunt it to its den, and then kill
+it, stripping off the hide, and carrying it about still wet,
+receiving a small sum of money from those to whom they show it.
+Afterwards the skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime and salt,
+and steeping it in the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then made into
+sandals and leggings, which are thought to be powerful charms, and
+to defend the wearer from the Hyæna's bite.
+
+They always observe certain superstitious precautions in flaying the
+dead animal. Believing that the scent of the flesh would corrupt the
+air, they invariably take the carcase to the leeward of the tents
+before they strip off the skin. Even in the animal which has been
+kept for years in a cage, and has eaten nothing but fresh meat,
+the odour is too powerful to be agreeable, as I can testify from
+practical experience when dissecting a Hyæna that had died in the
+Zoological Gardens; and it is evident that the scent of an animal
+that has lived all its life on carrion must be almost unbearable.
+The skin being removed, the carcase is burnt, because the hunters
+think that by this process the other Hyænas are prevented from
+finding the body of their comrade, and either avenging its death or
+taking warning by its fate.
+
+[Illustration: HYÆNAS DEVOURING BONES.]
+
+Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the Hyæna.
+In Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna meets a
+solitary man at night, it can enchant him in such a manner as to
+make him follow it through thickets and over rocks, until he is
+quite exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey; but that over two
+persons he has no such influence, and therefore a solitary traveller
+is gravely advised to call for help as soon as he sees a Hyæna,
+because the fascination of the beast would be neutralized by the
+presence of a second person. So firmly is this idea rooted in the
+minds of the inhabitants, that they will never travel by night,
+unless they can find at least one companion in their journey.
+
+In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions connected
+with this animal, one of the most curious of which is founded on
+its well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that any weapon which
+has killed a Hyæna, whether it be gun, sword, spear, or dagger, is
+thenceforth unfit to be used in warfare. "Throw away that sword,"
+said an Arab to a French officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has
+slain the Hyæna, and it will be treacherous to you."
+
+At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in Palestine
+as they used to be, and are decreasing annually. The cause of
+this diminution lies, according to Signor Pierotti, more in the
+destruction of forests than in the increase of population and the
+use of fire-arms, though the two latter causes have undoubtedly
+considerable influence.
+
+There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the haunt of
+these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries of Es Sumrah,
+between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a wonderful mass of
+hyænine relics. The quarries in which were lying the half-hewn
+blocks, scored with the marks of wedges, had evidently formed the
+resort of Hyænas for a long series of years. "Vast heaps of bones
+of camels, oxen, and sheep had been collected by these animals, in
+some places to the depth of two or three feet, and on one spot I
+counted the skulls of seven camels. There were no traces whatever of
+any human remains. We had here a beautiful recent illustration of
+the mode of foundation of the old bone caverns, so valuable to the
+geologist. These bones must all have been brought in by the Hyænas,
+as no camel or sheep could possibly have entered the caverns alive,
+nor could any floods have washed them in. Near the entrance where
+the water percolates, they were already forming a soft breccia."
+
+The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18,
+"Another company turned to the way of the border that looketh to the
+Valley of Zeboim towards the wilderness," _i.e._ to the Valley of
+Hyænas.
+
+The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age. When
+young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well as mammals,
+the stripes from which it derives its name are much more strongly
+marked than in the adult specimen. The general hue of the fur is
+a pale grey-brown, over which are drawn a number of dark stripes,
+extending along the ribs and across the limbs.
+
+In the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark and twice
+as wide as in the adult, and they likewise appear on the face and
+on other parts of the body, whence they afterwards vanish. The fur
+is always rough; and along the spine, and especially over the neck
+and shoulders, it is developed into a kind of mane, which gives a
+very fierce aspect to the animal. The illustration shows a group of
+Hyænas coming to feed on the relics of a dead animal. The jackals
+and vultures have eaten as much of the flesh as they can manage,
+and the vultures are sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The
+Hyænas are now coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have
+already begun to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws.
+
+
+
+
+THE WEASEL.
+
+ Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of
+ Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon.
+
+
+The word Weasel occurs once in the Holy Scriptures, and therefore it
+is necessary that the animal should be mentioned. There is a great
+controversy respecting the identification of the animal, inasmuch as
+there is nothing in the context which gives the slightest indication
+of its appearance or habits.
+
+The passage in question is that which prohibits the Weasel and the
+mouse as unclean animals (see Lev. xi. 29). Now the word which is
+here translated Weasel is _Choled_, or _Chol'd_; and, I believe,
+never occurs again in the whole of the Old Testament. Mr. W.
+Houghton conjectures that the Hebrew word Choled is identical with
+the Arabic _Chuld_ and the Syriac _Chuldo_, both words signifying a
+mole; and therefore infers that the unclean animal in question is
+not a Weasel, but a kind of mole.
+
+The Weasel does exist in Palestine, and seems to be as plentiful
+there as in our own country. Indeed, the whole tribe of Weasels
+is well represented, and the polecat is seen there as well as the
+Weasel.
+
+There is hardly any animal which, for its size, is so much dreaded
+by the creatures on which it preys as the common Weasel.
+
+Although its small proportions render a single Weasel an
+insignificant opponent to man or dog, yet it can wage a sharp battle
+even with such powerful foes, and refuses to yield except at the
+last necessity.
+
+The proportions of the Weasel are extremely small, a full-grown male
+not exceeding ten inches in length. The color of its fur is bright
+reddish-brown on the upper parts of the body, and the under-portions
+are pure white. The audacity and courage of this little animal are
+really remarkable. It seems to hold every being except itself in the
+most sovereign contempt, and, to all appearances, is as ready to
+match itself against a man as against a mouse.
+
+It is a terrible foe to many of the smaller animals, such as rats
+and mice, and performs a really good service to the farmer in
+destroying many of these farmyard pests. The Weasel is specially
+dreaded by rats and mice, because there is no hole through which
+they can pass that will not also admit the passage of their enemy;
+and, as the Weasel is most persevering and determined in pursuit, it
+seldom happens that rats or mice escape when their little foe has
+set itself fairly on their track.
+
+[Illustration: WEASELS.]
+
+Not only does the Weasel pursue its prey through the windings of
+the burrows, but it will even cross water in the chase. When it
+has at last reached its victim, it leaps upon the devoted creature
+and endeavours to fix its teeth in the back of the neck, where it
+retains its deadly hold in spite of every struggle on the part of
+the wounded animal. If the attack be rightly made and the animal a
+small one, the Weasel can drive its teeth into the brain and cause
+instantaneous death.
+
+The Weasel is very fond of eggs, and young birds of all kinds. It
+is said that an egg that has been broken by a Weasel, can always be
+recognized, by the peculiar mode which the little creature employs
+for the purpose.
+
+Instead of breaking the egg to pieces or biting a large hole in the
+shell, the Weasel contents itself with making quite a small aperture
+at one end, through which it abstracts the liquid contents.
+
+A curious example of the courage of the Weasel, is related by a
+gentleman who while crossing a field at dusk, saw an owl pounce upon
+some object on the ground, and carry it in the air.
+
+In a short time the bird showed signs of distress, trying to free
+itself from some annoying object by means of its talons, and
+flapping about in a very bewildered manner.
+
+Soon afterwards the owl fell dead to the earth; and when the
+spectator of the aërial combat approached, a weasel ran away from
+the dead body of the bird, itself being apparently uninjured. On
+examination of the owl's body, it was found that the Weasel, which
+had been marked out for the owl's repast, had in its turn become the
+assailant, and had attacked the unprotected parts which lie beneath
+the wings. A considerable wound had been made in that spot, and the
+large blood-vessels torn through.
+
+[Illustration: THE BITER BIT.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: scene]
+
+
+
+
+THE BADGER.
+
+ Difficulty in identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References
+ to "Badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the
+ Badger--The Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for
+ the Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in
+ Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological
+ terms.
+
+
+Until very lately, there was much difficulty in ascertaining whether
+the word _Tachash_ has been rightly translated as Badger. It occurs
+in several parts of the Scriptures, and almost invariably is used
+in relation to a skin or fur of some sort. We will first examine
+the passages in which the Badger is mentioned, and then proceed to
+identify the animal.
+
+Nearly all the references to the Badger occur in the book of Exodus,
+and form part of the directions for constructing the Tabernacle and
+its contents. The first notice of the word occurs in Exodus xxv. 5,
+where the people of Israel are ordered to bring their offerings for
+the sanctuary, among which offerings are gold, silver, and brass,
+blue, purple, and scarlet, fine linen, goats' hair, rams' skins dyed
+red, badgers' skins, and shittim wood--all these to be used in the
+construction of the Tabernacle. Then a little farther on, in chapter
+xxvi. 14, we find one of the special uses to which the badgers'
+skins were to be put, namely, to make the outer covering or roof of
+the tabernacle. Another use for the badgers' skins was to form an
+outer covering for the ark, table of shewbread, and other furniture
+of the Tabernacle, when the people were on the march.
+
+In all these cases the badger-skin is used as a covering to defend a
+building or costly furniture, but there is one example where it is
+employed for a different purpose. This passage occurs in the book
+of Ezekiel, chapter xvi. 10. The prophet is speaking of Jerusalem
+under the image of a woman, and uses these words, "I anointed thee
+with oil; I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee
+with badger's skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I
+covered thee with silk. I decked thee also with ornaments, and I put
+bracelets upon thy hands, and a chain upon thy neck, and I put a
+jewel on thy forehead, and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful
+crown upon thine head."
+
+So we have here the fact, that the same material which was used for
+the covering of the Tabernacle, and of the sacred furniture, could
+also be used for the manufacture of shoes. This passage is the more
+valuable because of an inference which may be drawn from it. The
+reader will see that the badger-skin, whatever it may have been,
+must have been something of considerable value, and therefore, in
+all probability, something of much rarity.
+
+In the present instance, it is classed with the most luxurious
+robes that were known in those days, and it is worthy of special
+mention among the bracelet, earrings, necklace, and coronal with
+which the symbolized city was adorned. If the reader will now refer
+to the passage in which the children of Israel were commanded to
+bring their offerings, he will see that in those cases also the
+badger-skins were ranked with the costliest articles of apparel
+that could be found, and had evidently been brought from Egypt, the
+peculiar home of all the arts; together with the vast quantity of
+gold and jewels which were used for the same sacred purpose.
+
+Now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess three
+qualities: they must be costly, they must be capable of forming a
+defence against the weather, and they must be strong enough to be
+employed in the manufacture of shoes. If we accept the word Tachash
+as signifying a Badger, we shall find that these conditions have
+been fulfilled.
+
+But many commentators have thought that badger-skins could not
+have been procured in sufficient numbers for the purpose, and have
+therefore conjectured that some other animal must be signified by
+the word Tachash.
+
+A species of dugong (_Halicore hemprichii_) is the animal that has
+been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of the
+marine mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it can find
+the various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious animal,
+and, as it frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it may be
+captured in sufficient numbers to make both its flesh and skin
+useful. Moreover, it is of considerable size, fourteen or fifteen
+feet in length being its usual dimensions, so that a comparatively
+small number of the skins would be required for the covering of the
+Tabernacle.
+
+That shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at the
+present day shoes, or rather sandals, are made from its hide, and
+are commonly used by the Bedouins. But the very qualities and
+peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a
+half-naked Bedouin Arab, who has to walk continually over hard, hot,
+sandy, and rough ground, would surely make it unsuitable for the
+delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her time in the
+house, and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen and silk,
+embroidered with gold and jewels. In our own country, the hobnailed
+shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a lady are made of
+very different materials, and it is reasonable to conjecture that
+such was the case when the passage in question was written.
+
+Then Dr. Robinson, who admits that the hide of the dugong could
+hardly have been used as the material for a lady's shoe, thinks that
+it would have answered very well for the roof of the Tabernacle,
+because it was large, clumsy, and coarse. It seems strange that he
+did not also perceive that the two latter qualities would completely
+disqualify such skins for that service. Everything clumsy and
+coarse was studiously prohibited, and nothing but the very best
+was considered fit for the Tabernacle of the Lord. By special
+revelation, Moses was instructed to procure, not merely the ordinary
+timber of the country for the framework--not only the fabrics which
+would keep out rain and wind--not simply the metals in common use,
+from which to make the lamps and other furniture--not the ordinary
+oils for supplying the lamps; but, on the contrary, the finest
+linen, the most elaborate embroidery, the rarest woods, the purest
+gold, the costliest gems, were demanded, and nothing common or
+inferior was accepted. The commonest material that was permitted
+was the long, soft fleece of rams' wool; but, even in that case,
+the wool had to be dyed of the regal scarlet--a dye so rare and so
+costly that none but the wealthiest rulers could use it. Even the
+very oil that burned in the lamps must be the purest olive-oil,
+prepared expressly for that purpose.
+
+[Illustration: BADGERS.]
+
+The very fact, therefore, that any article was plentiful and could
+easily be obtained, would be a proof that such article was not
+used for so sacred a purpose; while it is impossible that anything
+coarse and clumsy could have been accepted for the construction
+of that Tabernacle within which the Shekinah ever burned over the
+Mercy-seat--over which the cloud rested by day, and the fire shone
+by night, visible external proofs of the Divine glory within.
+
+We therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accepting
+any material for it which was not exceptionably valuable, and which
+would be employed in the uses of ordinary life. The great object of
+the minutely-elaborate directions which were given through Moses to
+the Israelites was evidently to keep continually before their eyes
+the great truth that they owed all to God, and that their costliest
+offerings were but acknowledgments of their dependence.
+
+We will now presume that the Tachash of the Pentateuch and Ezekiel
+is really the animal which we know by the name of Badger. It exists
+throughout the whole of the district traversed by the Israelites,
+though it is not very plentiful, nor is it easily taken. Had such
+been the case, its fur would not have been employed in the service
+of the sanctuary.
+
+It is nocturnal in its habits, and very seldom is seen during the
+hours of daylight, so that it cannot be captured by chase. It is
+not gregarious, so that it cannot be taken in great numbers, as is
+the case with certain wild animals which have been thought to be
+the Tachash of Scripture. It is not a careless animal, so that it
+cannot be captured or killed without the exercise of considerable
+ingenuity, and the expenditure of much time and trouble. It is one
+of the burrowing animals, digging for itself a deep subterranean
+home, and always ready whenever it is alarmed to escape into
+the dark recesses of its dwelling, from which it can scarcely be
+dislodged. It is not a large animal, so that a considerable number
+of skins would be required in order to make a covering which should
+overlap a structure forty-five feet in length and fifteen in
+breadth. Were it a solitary animal, there might be a difficulty in
+procuring a sufficient number of skins. But it is partly gregarious
+in its habits, living together in small families, seven or eight
+being sometimes found to inhabit a single dwelling-place. It
+is, therefore, sufficiently rare to make its skin valuable, and
+sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite number of skins.
+All these facts tend to show that the cost of such a covering
+must have been very great, even though it was the outermost, and,
+consequently, the least valuable of the four. It has been suggested
+that these skins were only used to lay over the lines where the
+different sets of coverings overlapped each other, and that, in
+consequence, they need not have been very numerous.
+
+[Illustration: SUPPOSED FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABERNACLE,
+CAMP, ETC.]
+
+But we find that these same skins, which were evidently those
+which formed the external roof, were used, when the Tabernacle was
+taken down, for the purpose of forming distinct coverings for the
+ark of the testimony, the table of shewbread, the seven-branched
+candlestick, the golden altar, the various vessels used in the
+ministrations, and lastly, the altar of sacrifice itself. Thus, when
+we recollect the dimensions of the ark, the table, the candlestick,
+and the two altars, we shall see that, in order to make separate
+covers for them, a quantity of material would be used which would be
+amply sufficient to cover the whole roof of the Tabernacle, even if
+it had, as was most probably the case, a ridged, and not a flat roof.
+
+We now come to our next point, namely, the aptitude of the Badger's
+skin to resist weather. Any one who has handled the skin of the
+Badger will acknowledge that a better material could hardly be
+found. The fur is long, thick, and, though light, is moderately
+stiff, the hairs falling over each other in such a manner as to
+throw off rain or snow as off a penthouse. And, as to the third
+point, namely, its possible use as a material for the manufacture
+of shoes, we may call to mind that the skin of the Badger is
+proverbially tough, and that this very quality has caused the animal
+to be subjected to most cruel treatment by a class of sporting men
+which is now almost extinct.
+
+The Septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise
+nature of the Tachash, and rather seems to consider the word as
+expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of
+the animal from which it was taken. Still, it must be remembered
+that not only are zoological terms used very loosely in the
+Scriptures, but that in Hebrew, as in all other languages, the same
+combination of letters often expresses two different ideas, so
+that the word Tachash may equally signify a colour and an animal.
+Moreover, it has been well pointed out that the repeated use of the
+word in the plural number shows that it cannot refer to colour;
+while its almost invariable combination with the Hebrew word that
+signifies a skin implies that it does not refer to colour, but to an
+animal.
+
+What that animal may be, is, as I have already mentioned,
+conjectural. But, as the authorized translation renders the word as
+Badger, and as this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to its
+identification, and as no other reading does fulfil them, we cannot
+be very far wrong if we accept that translation as the correct one,
+and assume the Tachash of the Scriptures to be the animal which we
+call by the name of Badger.
+
+
+
+
+THE BEAR.
+
+ The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its
+ colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in
+ Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their
+ diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite
+ haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among
+ the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of
+ her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various
+ references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St.
+ John.
+
+
+Whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of various
+animals mentioned in the Scriptures, there is none whatever as to
+the creature which is frequently alluded to under the name of Bear.
+
+The Hebrew word is _Dôb_, and it is a remarkable fact that the name
+of this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical with the
+Hebrew term, namely, _Dubh_. The peculiar species of Bear which
+inhabits Palestine is the Syrian Bear (_Ursus Isabellinus_), and,
+though it has been variously described by different eye-witnesses,
+there is no doubt that the same species was seen by them all. As is
+the case with many animals, the Syrian Bear changes its colour as
+it grows older. When a cub, it is of a darkish brown, which becomes
+a light brown as it approaches maturity. But, when it has attained
+its full growth, it becomes cream-coloured, and each succeeding year
+seems to lighten its coat, so that a very old Bear is nearly as
+white as its relative of the Arctic regions. Travellers, therefore,
+who have met the younger specimens, have described them as brown in
+hue, while those who have seen more aged individuals have stated
+that the colour of the Syrian Bear is white.
+
+Owing to the destruction of forests, the Bear, which is essentially
+a lover of the woods, has decreased considerably in number. Yet,
+even at the present time, specimens may be seen by the watchful
+traveller, mostly about the range of Lebanon, but sometimes at a
+considerable distance from that locality. Mr. Tristram, for example,
+saw it close to the Lake of Gennesaret. "We never met with so many
+wild animals as on one of those days. First of all, a wild boar got
+out of some scrub close to us, as we were ascending the valley. Then
+a deer was started below, ran up the cliff, and wound along the
+ledge, passing close to us. Then a large ichneumon almost crossed my
+feet and ran into a cleft; and, while endeavouring to trace him, I
+was amazed to see a brown Syrian Bear clumsily but rapidly clamber
+down the rocks and cross the ravine. He was, however, far too
+cautious to get within hailing distance of any of the riflemen."
+
+The same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds of this
+Bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm through
+which the river Leontes flows. This river runs into the sea a few
+miles northward of Tyre, and assists in carrying off the melted
+snows from the Lebanon range of mountains. His description is so
+picturesque, that it must be given in his own words. "The channel,
+though a thousand feet deep, was so narrow that the opposite ridge
+was within gunshot. Looking down the giddy abyss, we could see the
+cliff on our side partially covered with myrtle, bay, and caper
+hanging from the fissures, while the opposite side was perforated
+with many shallow caves, the inaccessible eyries of vultures,
+eagles, and lanner falcons, which were sailing in multitudes around.
+The lower part had many ledges clad with shrubs, the strongholds
+of the Syrian Bear, though inaccessible even to goats. Far beneath
+dashed the milk-white river, a silver line in a ruby setting of
+oleanders, roaring doubtless fiercely, but too distant to be heard
+at the height on which we stood. This _cleft_ of the Leontes was the
+only true Alpine scenery we had met with in Palestine, and in any
+country, and amidst any mountains, it would attract admiration."
+
+[Illustration: BEARS DESCENDING THE MOUNTAINS.]
+
+On those elevated spots the Bear loves to dwell, and throughout the
+summer-time generally remains in such localities. For the Bear is
+one of the omnivorous animals, and is able to feed on vegetable as
+well as animal substances, preferring the former when they can be
+found. There is nothing that a Bear likes better than strawberries
+and similar fruits, among which it will revel throughout the whole
+fruit season, daintily picking the ripest berries, and becoming
+wonderfully fat by the constant banquet. Sometimes, when the fruits
+fail, it makes incursions among the cultivated grounds, and is noted
+for the ravages which it makes among a sort of vetch which is much
+grown in the Holy Land.
+
+But during the colder months of the year the Bear changes its diet,
+and becomes carnivorous. Sometimes it contents itself with the
+various wild animals which it can secure, but sometimes it descends
+to the lower plains, and seizes upon the goats and sheep in their
+pastures. This habit is referred to by David, in his well-known
+speech to Saul, when the king was trying to dissuade him from
+matching himself against the gigantic Philistine. "And Saul said
+to David, Thou art not able to go against this Philistine to fight
+with him: for thou art but a youth, and he a man of war from his
+youth.... Thy servant kept his father's sheep, and there came a
+lion and a bear, and took a lamb out of the flock: and I went out
+after him, and smote him, and delivered it out of his hand; and
+when he arose against me, I caught him by the beard, and smote him,
+and slew him. Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear: and this
+uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath
+defied the armies of the living God."--1 Sam. xvii. 33-36.
+
+[Illustration: ON THE WATCH.]
+
+Though not generally apt to attack mankind, it will do so if first
+attacked, and then becomes a most dangerous enemy. See, for example,
+that most graphic passage in the book of the prophet Amos, whose
+business as a herdsman must have made him conversant with the
+habits, not only of the flocks and herds which he kept, but of the
+wild beasts which might devour them:--"Woe unto you that desire the
+day of the Lord! to what end is it for you? the day of the Lord is
+darkness, and not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a
+bear met him; or went into a house, and leaned his hand on the wall,
+and a serpent bit him." (v. 19.)
+
+Another reference to the dangerous character of the Bear is made in
+2 Kings ii. 23, 24, in which is recorded that two she-bears came out
+of the wood near Bethel, and killed forty-two of the children that
+mocked at Elisha.
+
+As the Bear is not swift of foot, but rather clumsy in its
+movements, it cannot hope to take the nimbler animals in open chase.
+It prefers to lie in wait for them in the bushes, and to strike them
+down with a sudden blow of its paw, a terrible weapon, which it can
+wield as effectively as the lion uses its claws. An allusion to this
+habit is made in the Lamentations of Jeremiah (iii. 10), "He was
+unto me as a bear lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places."
+
+Harmless to man as it generally is, there are occasions on which
+it becomes a terrible and relentless foe, not seeking to avoid his
+presence, but even searching for him, and attacking him as soon
+as seen. In the proper season of the year, hunters, or those who
+are travelling through those parts of the country infested by the
+Bear, will sometimes find the cubs, generally two in number, their
+mother having left them in the den while she has gone to search for
+food. Although they would not venture to take the initiative in an
+attack upon either of the parents, they are glad of an opportunity
+which enables them to destroy one or two Bears without danger to
+themselves. The young Bears are easily killed or carried off,
+because at a very early age they are as confident as they are weak,
+and do not try to escape when they see the hunters approaching.
+
+The only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may be
+discovered by the mother before they can escape from the locality,
+and, if she should happen to return while the robbers are still in
+the neighbourhood, a severe conflict is sure to follow. At any time
+an angry Bear is a terrible antagonist, especially if it be wounded
+with sufficient severity to cause pain, and not severely enough to
+cripple its movements. But, when to this easily-roused ferocity is
+added the fury of maternal feelings, it may be imagined that the
+hunters have good reason to fear its attack.
+
+[Illustration: SEEKING AN OUTLOOK.]
+
+To all animals that rear their young is given a sublime and almost
+supernatural courage in defending their offspring, and from the
+lioness, that charges a host of armed men when her cubs are in
+danger, to the hen, which defies the soaring kite or prowling fox,
+or to the spider, that will give up her life rather than abandon
+her yet unhatched brood, the same self-sacrificing spirit actuates
+them all. Most terrible therefore is the wrath of a creature which
+possesses, as is the case of the Bear, the strongest maternal
+affections, added to great size, tremendous weapons, and gigantic
+strength. That the sight of a Bear bereaved of her young was well
+known to both writers and contemporary readers of the Old Testament,
+is evident from the fact that it is mentioned by several writers,
+and always as a familiar illustration of furious anger. See for
+example 2 Sam. xvii. 8, when Hushai is dissuading Absalom from
+following the cautious counsel of Ahithophel, "For thou knowest thy
+father and his men, that they be mighty men of war, and they be
+chafed in their minds as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field."
+Solomon also, in the Proverbs (xvii. 12), uses the same image, "Let
+a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man, rather than a fool in his
+folly."
+
+When the Bear fights, it delivers rapid strokes with its armed paw,
+tearing and rending away everything that it strikes. A blow from a
+bear's paw has been several times known to strip the entire skin,
+together with the hair, from a man's head, and, when fighting with
+dogs, to tear its enemies open as if each claw were a chisel.
+
+Bears are capable of erecting themselves on their hinder limbs, and
+of supporting themselves in an upright position with the greatest
+ease. When attacked in close combat, they have a habit of rearing
+themselves upon their hinder feet--a position which enables them to
+deliver with the greatest effect the terrific blows with their fore
+paws, upon which they chiefly rely in defending themselves.
+
+With fearful ingenuity, the Bear, when engaged with a human foe,
+directs its attack upon the head of its antagonist, and, as
+previously stated, has been known to strike off the entire scalp
+with a single blow.
+
+[Illustration: A FAMILY-PARTY.]
+
+A hunter who had the misfortune to be struck down by a Bear--and
+the singular good fortune to afterwards escape from it--says, that
+when he was lying on the ground at the mercy of the angry beast,
+the animal, after biting him upon the arms and legs, deliberately
+settled itself upon his head and began to scarify it in the fiercest
+manner, leaving wounds eight and nine inches in length.
+
+Bears are the more terrible antagonists from their extreme tenacity
+of life, and the fearful energy which they compress into the last
+moment of existence, when they are suffering from a mortal wound.
+Unless struck in the heart or brain, the mortally-wounded Bear is
+more to be feared than if it had received no injury whatever, and
+contrives to wreak more harm in the few minutes that immediately
+precede its death, than it had achieved while still uninjured.
+
+Many a hunter has received mortal hurts by incautiously approaching
+a Bear, which lay apparently dead, but was in reality only stunned.
+
+[Illustration: bear]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: porcupine]
+
+
+
+
+THE PORCUPINE.
+
+ Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--Habits
+ of the Porcupine--the common Porcupine found plentifully in
+ Palestine.
+
+
+Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned by name
+in the Scriptures, many commentators think that the word Kippôd
+signifies both the hedgehog and Porcupine.
+
+That the two animals should be thought to be merely two varieties
+of one species is not astonishing, when we remember the character
+of the people among whom the Porcupine lives. Not having the least
+idea of scientific geology, they look only to the most conspicuous
+characteristics, and because the Porcupine and hedgehog are both
+covered with an armature of quills, and the quills are far more
+conspicuous than the teeth, the inhabitants of Palestine naturally
+class the two animals together. In reality, they belong to two very
+different orders, the hedgehog being classed with the shrew-mice and
+moles, while the Porcupine is a rodent animal, and is classed with
+the rats, rabbits, beavers, marmots, and other rodents.
+
+It is quite as common in Palestine as the hedgehog, a fact which
+increases the probability that the two animals may have been
+mentioned under a common title. Being a nocturnal animal, it retires
+during the day-time to some crevice in a rock or burrow in the
+ground, and there lies sleeping until the sunset awakens it and
+calls it to action. And as the hedgehog is also a nocturnal animal,
+the similarity of habit serves to strengthen the mutual resemblance.
+
+The Porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and unwatered
+spots, as, like many other animals, of which our common rabbit is a
+familiar example, it can exist without water, obtaining the needful
+moisture from the succulent roots on which it feeds.
+
+The sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are solid,
+and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal ribs, that
+run longitudinally through them, exactly like those of the hollow
+iron masts, which are now coming so much into use. As they are,
+in fact, greatly developed hairs, they are continually shed and
+replaced, and when they are about to fall are so loosely attached
+that they fall off if pulled slightly, or even if the animal shakes
+itself. Consequently the shed quills that lie about the localities
+inhabited by the Porcupine indicate its whereabouts, and so
+plentiful are these quills in some places, that quite a bundle can
+be collected in a short time.
+
+There are many species of Porcupines which inhabit different parts
+of the world, but that which has been mentioned is the common
+Porcupine of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+THE MOLE.
+
+ The two Hebrew words which are translated as Mole--Obscurity of
+ the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The second
+ name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated together--The
+ real Mole of Scripture, its different names, and its place
+ in zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its general
+ habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species by Mr.
+ Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds its
+ food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal.
+
+
+There are two words which are translated as Mole in our authorized
+version of the Bible. One of them is so obscure that there seems no
+possibility of deciding the creature that is represented by it. We
+cannot even tell to what class of the animal kingdom it refers,
+because in more than one place it is mentioned as one of the unclean
+birds that might not be eaten (translated as _swan_ in our version),
+whereas, in another place, it is enumerated among the unclean
+creeping things.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOLE-RAT.]
+
+We may conjecture that the same word might be used to designate two
+distinct animals, though we have no clue to their identification. It
+is rather a strange coincidence, in corroboration of this theory,
+that our word Mole signifies three distinct objects--firstly, an
+animal; secondly, a cutaneous growth; and thirdly, a bank of earth.
+Now, supposing English to be a dead language, like the Hebrew, it
+may well be imagined that a translator of an English book would feel
+extremely perplexed when he saw the word Mole used in such widely
+different senses.
+
+The best Hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture founded
+on the structure of the word _Tinshemeth_, which is thought by some
+to be the chameleon. Some think that it is the Mole, some the ibis,
+some the salamander, while others consider it to be the centipede;
+and in neither case have any decisive arguments been adduced.
+
+We will therefore leave the former of these two names, and proceed
+to the second, _Chephor-peroth_.
+
+This word occurs in that passage of Isaiah which has already been
+quoted when treating of the bat. "In that day a man shall cast his
+idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made each one to
+himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; to go into the
+clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks, for fear
+of the Lord and for the glory of his majesty, when he ariseth to
+shake terribly the earth."
+
+It is highly probable that the animal in question is the Mole of
+Palestine, which is not the same as our European species, but is
+much larger in size, and belongs to a different order of mammalia.
+The true Mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous animals,
+and is allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs; whereas the Mole of
+Palestine (_Spalax typhlus_) is one of the rodents, and allied to
+the rabbits, mice, marmots, and jerboas. A better term for it is the
+Mole-rat, by which name it is familiar to zoologists. It is also
+known by the names of Slepez and Nenni.
+
+In length it is about eight inches, and its colour is a pale slate.
+As is the case with the true Moles, the eyes are of very minute
+dimensions, and are not visible through the thick soft fur with
+which the whole head and body are covered. Neither are there any
+visible external ears, although the ear is really very large, and
+extremely sensitive to sound. This apparent privation of both
+ears and eyes gives to the animal a most singular and featureless
+appearance, its head being hardly recognisable as such but for
+the mouth, and the enormous projecting teeth, which not only look
+formidable, but really are so. There is a curious superstition in
+the Ukraine, that if a man will dare to grasp a Mole-rat in his bare
+hand, allow it to bite him, and then squeeze it to death, the hand
+that did the deed will ever afterwards possess the virtue of healing
+goitre or scrofula.
+
+This animal is spread over a very large tract of country, and is
+very common in Palestine. Mr. Tristram gives an interesting account
+of its discovery. "We had long tried in vain to capture the Mole
+of Palestine. Its mines and its mounds we had seen everywhere, and
+reproached ourselves with having omitted the mole-trap among the
+items of our outfit. From the size of the mounds and the shallowness
+of the subterranean passages, we felt satisfied it could not be the
+European species, and our hopes of solving the question were raised
+when we found that one of them had taken up its quarters close to
+our camp. After several vain attempts to trap it, an Arab one night
+brought a live Mole in a jar to the tent. It was no Mole properly so
+called, but the Mole-rat, which takes its place throughout Western
+Asia. The man, having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen,
+refused to part with it for less than a hundred piastres, and
+scornfully rejected the twenty piastres I offered. Ultimately, Dr.
+Chaplin purchased it for five piastres after our departure, and I
+kept it alive for some time in a box, feeding it on sliced onions."
+
+The same gentleman afterwards caught many of the Mole-rats, and
+kept them in earthen vessels, as they soon gnawed their way through
+wood. They fed chiefly on bulbs, but also ate sopped bread. Like
+many other animals, they reposed during the day, and were active
+throughout the night.
+
+The author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appropriate
+character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast to the
+Moles and the bats. Had the European Mole been the animal to
+which reference was made, there would have been comparatively
+little significance in the connexion of the two names, because,
+although both animals are lovers of darkness, they do not inhabit
+similar localities. But the Mole-rat is fond of frequenting
+deserted ruins and burial-places, so that the Moles and the bats
+are really companions, and as such are associated together in the
+sacred narrative. Here, as in many other instances, we find that
+closer study of the Scriptures united to more extended knowledge
+are by no means the enemies of religion, as some well-meaning,
+but narrow-minded persons think. On the contrary, the Scriptures
+were never so well understood, and their truth and force so well
+recognised, as at the present day; and science has proved to be,
+not the destroyer of the Bible, but its interpreter. We shall soon
+cease to hear of "Science _versus_ the Bible," and shall substitute
+"Science and the Bible _versus_ Ignorance and Prejudice."
+
+The Mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true Moles,
+because its food does not lie so deep. The Moles live chiefly upon
+earthworms, and are obliged to procure them in the varying depths
+to which they burrow. But the Mole-rat lives mostly upon roots,
+preferring those of a bulbous nature. Now bulbous roots are, as
+a rule, situated near the surface of the ground, and, therefore,
+any animal which feeds upon them must be careful not to burrow too
+deeply, lest it should pass beneath them. The shallowness of the
+burrows is thus accounted for. Gardens are often damaged by this
+animal, the root-crops, such as carrots and onions, affording plenty
+of food without needing much exertion.
+
+The Mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as
+does our common Mole, but occasionally will come out of the burrow
+and lie on the ground, enjoying the warm sunshine. Still it is not
+easily to be approached; for though its eyes are almost useless, the
+ears are so sharp, and the animal is so wary, that at the sound of a
+footstep it instantly seeks the protection of its burrow, where it
+may bid defiance to its foes.
+
+How it obtains its food is a mystery. There seems to be absolutely
+no method of guiding itself to the precise spot where a bulb may
+be growing. It is not difficult to conjecture the method by which
+the Mole discovers its prey. Its sensitive ears may direct it to
+the spot where a worm is driving its way through the earth, and
+should it come upon its prey, the very touch of the worm, writhing
+in terror at the approach of its enemy, would be sufficient to act
+as a guide. I have kept several Moles, and always noticed that,
+though they would pass close to a worm without seeming to detect
+its presence, either by sight or scent, at the slightest touch they
+would spring round, dart on the worm, and in a moment seize it
+between their jaws. But with the Mole-rat the case is different. The
+root can utter no sound, and can make no movement, nor is it likely
+that the odour of the bulb should penetrate through the earth to a
+very great distance.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: mice]
+
+
+
+
+THE MOUSE.
+
+ The Mice which marred the land--The Field-mouse--Its destructive
+ habits and prolific nature--The Hamster, and its habits--The
+ Jerboa, its activity and destructiveness--Various species of
+ Dormice and Sand-rats.
+
+
+That the Mouse mentioned in the Old Testament was some species
+of rodent animal is tolerably clear, though it is impossible to
+state any particular species as being signified by the Hebrew word
+_Akbar_. The probable derivation of this name is from two words
+which signify "destruction of corn," and it is therefore evident
+that allusion is made to some animal which devours the produce of
+the fields, and which exists in sufficient numbers to make its
+voracity formidable.
+
+Some commentators on the Old Testament translate the word Akbar
+as jerboa. Now, although the jerboa is common in Syria, it is not
+nearly so plentiful as other rodent animals, and would scarcely
+be selected as the means by which a terrible disaster is made to
+befall a whole country. The student of Scripture is well aware
+that, in those exceptional occurrences which are called miracles, a
+needless development of the wonder-working power is never employed.
+We are not to suppose, for example, that the clouds of locusts that
+devoured the harvests of the Egyptians were created for this express
+purpose, but that their already existing hosts were concentrated
+upon a limited area, instead of being spread over a large surface.
+Nor need we fancy that the frogs which rendered their habitations
+unclean, and contaminated their food, were brought into existence
+simply to inflict a severe punishment on the fastidious and
+superstitious Egyptians.
+
+Of course, had such an exercise of creative power been needed, it
+would have been used, but we can all see that a needless miracle
+is never worked. He who would not suffer even a crumb of the
+miraculously multiplied bread to be wasted, is not likely to waste
+that power by which the miracle was wrought.
+
+[Illustration: DAGON FALLEN DOWN BEFORE THE ARK.]
+
+If we refer to the early history of the Israelitish nation, as
+told in 1 Sam. iv.-vi., we shall find that the Israelites made an
+unwarrantable use of the ark, by taking it into battle, and that it
+was captured and carried off into the country of the Philistines.
+Then various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark
+back to its rightful possessors. Dagon, their great god, was
+prostrated before it, painful diseases attacked them, so that many
+died, and scarcely any seem to have escaped, while their harvests
+were ravaged by numbers of "mice that marred the land."
+
+[Illustration: MOUSE AND NEST.]
+
+The question is now simple enough. If the ordinary translation is
+accepted, and the word Akbar rendered as Mouse, would the necessary
+conditions be fulfilled, _i.e._ would the creature be destructive,
+and would it exist in very great numbers? Now we shall find that
+both these conditions are fulfilled by the common Field-mouse.
+
+This little creature is, in proportion to its size, one of the most
+destructive animals in the world. Let its numbers be increased from
+any cause whatever, and it will most effectually "mar the land." It
+will devour every cereal that is sown, and kill almost any sapling
+that is planted. It does not even wait for the corn to spring up,
+but will burrow beneath the surface, and dig out the seed before it
+has had time to sprout. In the early part of the year, it will eat
+the green blade as soon as it springs out of the ground, and is an
+adept at climbing the stalks of corn, and plundering the ripe ears
+in the autumn.
+
+[Illustration: JERBOA, OR LEAPING MOUSE.]
+
+When stacked or laid up in barns, the harvest is by no means safe,
+for the Mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn, and find their
+way into any carelessly-built stack, from which they can scarcely be
+ejected. The rat itself is not so dire a foe to the farmer, as the
+less obtrusive, but equally mischievous Field-mouse. The ferret will
+drive the rats out of their holes, and if they have taken possession
+of a wheat-stack they can be ejected by depriving them of access to
+water. But the burrows of the Field-mouse are so small that a ferret
+cannot make its way through them, and the nightly dew that falls on
+the stack affords an ample supply of water.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIELD-MOUSE.]
+
+When the Field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves best,
+it finds a subsistence among the trees. Whenever mice can discover
+a newly-planted sapling, they hold great revel upon it, eating away
+the tender young bark as high as they can reach, and consequently
+destroying the tree as effectually as if it were cut down. Even
+when the young trees fail them, and no tender bark is to be had,
+the Field-mice can still exert their destructive powers. They will
+then betake themselves to the earth, burrow beneath its surface,
+and devour the young rootlets of the forest trees. All botanists
+know that a healthy tree is continually pushing forward fresh roots
+below the ground, in order to gain sufficient nourishment to supply
+the increasing growth above. If, therefore, these young roots are
+destroyed, the least harm that can happen to the tree is that its
+further growth is arrested; while, in many cases, the tree, which
+cannot repair the injuries it has received, droops gradually, and
+finally dies. Even in this country, the Field-mouse has proved
+itself a terrible enemy to the agriculturist, and has devastated
+considerable tracts of land.
+
+So much for the destructive powers of the Field-mouse, and the next
+point to be considered is its abundance.
+
+Nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals,
+producing a considerable number at a brood, and having several
+broods in a season. The Field-mouse is by no means an exception to
+the general rule, but produces as many young in a season as any of
+the Mice.
+
+Not only is it formidable from its numbers, but from the insidious
+nature of its attacks. Any one can see a rabbit, a hare, or even
+a rat; but to see a Field-mouse is not easy, even when the little
+creatures are present in thousands. A Field-mouse never shows itself
+except from necessity, its instinct teaching it to escape the
+observation of its many furred and feathered enemies. Short-legged
+and soft-furred, it threads its noiseless way among the herbage
+with such gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass-blade is stirred,
+while, if it should be forced to pass over a spot of bare ground,
+the red-brown hue of its fur prevents it from being detected by an
+inexperienced eye. Generally the Field-mouse is safe from human
+foes, and has only to dread the piercing eye and swift wings of the
+hawk, or the silent flight and sharp talons of the owl.
+
+Although there can be no doubt that the Field-mouse is one of the
+animals to which the name of Akbar is given, it is probable that
+many species were grouped under this one name. Small rodents of
+various kinds are very plentiful in Palestine, and there are several
+species closely allied to the Field-mouse itself.
+
+Among them is the Hamster (_Cricetus frumentarius_), so widely
+known for the ravages which it makes among the crops. This terribly
+destructive animal not only steals the crops for immediate
+subsistence, but lays up a large stock of provisions for the winter,
+seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly passion for collecting
+and storing away. There seems to be no bounds to the quantity of
+food which a Hamster will carry into its subterranean store-house,
+from seventy to one hundred pounds' weight being sometimes taken
+out of the burrow of a single animal. The fact of the existence
+of these large stores shows that the animal must need them, and
+accordingly we find that the Hamster is only a partial hibernator,
+as it is awake during a considerable portion of the winter months,
+and is consequently obliged to live on the stores which it has
+collected.
+
+It is an exceedingly prolific animal, each pair producing on an
+average twenty-five young in the course of a year. The families
+are unsociable, and, as soon as they are strong enough to feed
+themselves, the young Hamsters leave their home, and make separate
+burrows for themselves. Thus we see that the Hamster, as well as the
+Field-mouse, fulfils the conditions which are needed in order to
+class it under the general title of Akbar.
+
+I have already stated that some translators of the Bible use the
+word Jerboa as a rendering of the Hebrew Akbar. As the Jerboa
+certainly is found in Palestine, there is some foundation for this
+idea, and we may safely conjecture that it also is one of the
+smaller rodents which are grouped together under the appellation of
+Mouse.
+
+The Common Jerboa (_Dipus Ægyptiacus_) is plentiful in Palestine,
+and several other species inhabit the same country, known at once
+by their long and slender legs, which give them so curious a
+resemblance to the kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas pass over the
+ground with astonishing rapidity. Instead of creeping stealthily
+among the grass-blades, like the short-limbed field-mouse, the
+Jerboa flies along with a succession of wonderful leaps, darting
+here and there with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow
+its wayward movements. When quiet and undisturbed, it hops along
+gently enough, but as soon as it takes alarm, it darts off in its
+peculiar manner, which is to the ordinary walk of quadrupeds what
+the devious course of a frightened snipe is to the steady flight of
+birds in general.
+
+It prefers hot and dry situations, its feet being defended by a
+thick coating of stiff hairs, which serve the double purpose of
+protecting it from the heat, and giving it a firm hold on the
+ground. It is rather a destructive animal, its sharp and powerful
+teeth enabling it to bite its way through obstacles which would
+effectually stop an ordinary Mouse. That the Jerboa may be one of
+the Akbarim is rendered likely by the prohibition in Lev. xi. 29,
+forbidding the Mouse to be eaten. It would be scarcely probable
+that such a command need have been issued against eating the common
+Mouse, whereas the Jerboa, a much larger and palatable animal, is
+always eaten by the Arabs. The Hamster is at the present day eaten
+in Northern Syria.
+
+Beside these creatures there are the Dormice, several species of
+which animal inhabit Palestine at the present day. There are also
+the Sand-rats, one species of which is larger than our ordinary
+rats. The Sand-rats live more in the deserts than the cultivated
+lands, making their burrows at the foot of hills, and among the
+roots of bushes.
+
+
+
+
+THE HARE.
+
+ The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the
+ cud, and division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of
+ Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not
+ a ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent
+ tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares
+ of Palestine and their habits.
+
+
+Among the many provisions of the Mosaic law are several which refer
+to the diet of the Israelites, and which prohibit certain kinds of
+food. Special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals, and the list
+of those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly restricted one,
+all being excluded except those which "divide the hoof and chew
+the cud." And, lest there should be any mistake about the matter,
+examples are given both of those animals which may and those which
+may not be eaten.
+
+The ox, sheep, goat, and antelopes generally are permitted as
+lawful food, because they fulfil both conditions; whereas there is
+a special prohibition of the swine, because it divides the hoof but
+does not chew the cud, and of the camel, coney, and hare because
+they chew the cud, but do not divide the hoof. Our business at
+present is with the last of these animals.
+
+Considerable discussion has been raised concerning this animal,
+because, as is well known to naturalists, the Hare is not one of
+the ruminant animals, but belongs to the same order as the rat,
+rabbit, beaver, and other rodents. Neither its teeth nor its stomach
+are constructed for the purpose of enabling it to ruminate, _i.e._
+to return into the mouth the partially-digested food, and then to
+masticate it afresh; and therefore it has been thought that either
+there is some mistake in the sacred narrative or that the Hebrew
+word has been mistranslated.
+
+[Illustration: THE SYRIAN HARE.]
+
+Taking the latter point first, as being the simplest of the two, we
+find that the Hebrew word which is rendered as Hare is Arnebeth, and
+that it is rendered in the Septuagint as Dasypus, or the Hare,--a
+rendering which the Jewish Bible adopts. That the Arnebeth is really
+the Hare may also be conjectured from the fact that the Arabic name
+for that animal is Arneb. In consequence of the rather wide sense
+to which the Greek word Dasypus (_i.e._ hairy-foot) is used, some
+commentators have suggested that the rabbit may have been included
+in the same title. This, however, is not at all likely, inasmuch as
+the Hare is very plentiful in Palestine, and the rabbit is believed
+not to be indigenous to that part of the world. And, even if the two
+animals had been classed under the same title, the physiological
+difficulty would not be removed.
+
+Before proceeding further, it will be as well to give a brief
+description of the curious act called rumination, or "chewing the
+cud."
+
+There are certain animals, such as the oxen, antelopes, deer,
+sheep, goats, camels, &c. which have teeth unfitted for the rapid
+mastication of food, and which therefore are supplied with a
+remarkable apparatus by which the food can be returned into the
+mouth when the animal has leisure, and be re-masticated before it
+passes into the true digestive organs.
+
+For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, which are
+arranged in the following order. First comes the paunch or "rumen"
+(whence the word "ruminating"), into which passes the food in a
+very rough state, just as it is torn, rather than bitten, from the
+herbage, and which is analogous to the crop in birds. It thence
+passes into the second stomach, or "honeycomb," the walls of which
+are covered with small angular cells. Into those cells the food is
+received from the first stomach, and compressed into little balls,
+which can be voluntarily returned into the mouth for mastication.
+
+After the second mastication has been completed, the food passes at
+once into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth, which is
+the true digesting cavity. By a peculiar structure of these organs,
+the animal is able to convey its food either into the first or third
+stomach, at will, _i.e._ into the first when the grass is eaten, and
+into the third after rumination. Thus it will be seen that an animal
+which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain character, and be
+possessed of the fourfold stomach which has just been described.
+
+Two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irreconcilable with
+each other. The first is that the Mosaic law distinctly states that
+the Hare chews the cud; the second is that in point of fact the
+Hare is not, and cannot be, a ruminating animal, possessing neither
+the teeth nor the digestive organs which are indispensable for that
+process. Yet, totally opposed as these statements appear to be, they
+are in fact, not so irreconcilable as they seem.
+
+[Illustration: A TIMID GROUP.]
+
+Why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited, we do not at the
+present time know. That the flesh of swine should be forbidden food
+is likely enough, considering the effects which the habitual eating
+of swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries. But it does
+seem very strange that the Israelites should have been forbidden
+to eat the flesh of the camel, the coney (or hyrax), and the Hare,
+and that these animals should have been specified is a proof that
+the eating or refraining from their flesh was not a mere sanitary
+regulation, but was a matter of importance. The flesh of all these
+three animals is quite as good and nutritious as that of the oxen,
+or goats, which are eaten in Palestine, and that of the Hare is far
+superior to them. Therefore, the people of Israel, who were always
+apt to take liberties with the restrictive laws, and were crafty
+enough to evade them on so many occasions, would have been likely
+to pronounce that the flesh of the Hare was lawful meat, because
+the animal chewed the cud, or appeared to do so, and they would
+discreetly have omitted the passage which alluded to the division of
+the hoof.
+
+To a non-scientific observer the Hare really does appear to chew
+the cud. When it is reposing at its ease, it continually moves its
+jaws about as if eating something, an action which may readily
+be mistaken for true rumination. Even Cowper, the poet, who kept
+some hares for several years, and had them always before his eyes,
+was deceived by this mumbling movement of the jaws. Speaking of
+his favourite hare, "Puss," he proceeds as follows: "Finding him
+exceedingly tractable, I made it my custom to carry him always after
+breakfast into the garden, where he hid himself generally under the
+leaves of a cucumber vine, sleeping, _or chewing the cud_, till
+evening."
+
+The real object of this continual grinding or mumbling movement is
+simple enough. The chisel-like incisor teeth of the rodent animals
+need to be rubbed against each other, in order to preserve their
+edge and shape, and if perchance such friction should be wanting to
+a tooth, as, for example, by the breaking of the opposite tooth,
+it becomes greatly elongated, and sometimes grows to such a length
+as to prevent the animal from eating. Instinctively, therefore,
+the Hare, as well as the rabbit and other rodents, always likes to
+be nibbling at something, as any one knows who has kept rabbits in
+wooden hutches, the object of this nibbling not being to eat the
+wood, but to keep the teeth in order.
+
+But we may naturally ask ourselves, why the Mosaic law, an emanation
+from heaven, should mention an animal as being a ruminant, when its
+very structure shows that such an act was utterly impossible? The
+answer is clear enough. The law was suited to the capacity of those
+for whom it was intended, and was never meant to be a handbook of
+science, as well as a code of religious duties and maxims. The Jews,
+like other Orientals, were indifferent to that branch of knowledge
+which we designate by the name of physical science, and it was
+necessary that the language in which the law was conveyed to them
+should be accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it.
+
+It would have been worse than useless to have interrupted the solemn
+revelation of Divine will with a lesson in comparative anatomy; the
+object of the passage in question being, not to teach the Jews the
+distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a ruminant, but to guard
+against their mistaking the Hare for one of the ruminants which
+were permitted as food. That they would in all probability have
+fallen into that mistake is evident from the fact that the Arabs are
+exceedingly fond of the flesh of the Hare, and accept it, as well as
+the camel, as lawful food, because it chews the cud, the division of
+the hoof not being considered by them as an essential.
+
+Hares are very plentiful in Palestine, and at least two species are
+found in that country. One of them, which inhabits the more northern
+and hilly portion of Palestine, closely resembles our own species,
+but has not ears quite so long in proportion, while the head is
+broader. The second species, which lives in the south, and in the
+valley of the Jordan, is very small, is of a light dun colour, and
+has very long ears. In their general habits, these Hares resemble
+the Hare of England.
+
+
+
+
+CATTLE.
+
+ The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present
+ day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of
+ the stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in
+ agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the
+ goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading
+ out the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a
+ beast of burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of
+ Bashan--Curiosity of the ox-tribe--A season of drought--Branding
+ the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an
+ honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The
+ bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the
+ bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The
+ Indian buffalo.
+
+
+Under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of
+Scripture, whether mentioned as Bull, Cow, Ox, Calf, Heifer, &c.
+
+Two distinct species of cattle are found in Palestine, namely, the
+ordinary domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which lives in the
+low-lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. Of this species we shall
+treat presently.
+
+The domesticated cattle are very much like our own, but there is not
+among them that diversity of breed for which this country is famous;
+nor is there even any distinction of long and short horned cattle.
+There are some places where the animals are larger than in others,
+but this difference is occasioned simply by the better quality and
+greater quantity of the food.
+
+As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization
+has made any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are,
+plentiful in Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are in
+common use, though it is evident, from many passages of Holy Writ,
+that in the days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far more numerous
+than they are now, and were treated in a better fashion.
+
+To take their most sacred use first, a constant supply of cattle
+was needed for the sacrifices, and, as it was necessary that every
+animal which was brought to the altar should be absolutely perfect,
+it is evident that great care was required in order that the breed
+should not deteriorate, a skill which has long been rendered useless
+by the abandonment of the sacrifices.
+
+[Illustration: ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING.]
+
+Another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is that
+in those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the table, just
+as is done with ourselves. At the present day, the flesh of the
+cattle is practically unused as food, that of the sheep or goat
+being always employed, even when a man gives a feast to his friends.
+But, in the old times, stalled oxen, _i.e._ oxen kept asunder from
+those which were used for agricultural purposes, and expressly
+fatted for the table, were in constant use. See for example the
+well-known passage in the Prov. xv. 17, "Better is a dinner of herbs
+where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." Again,
+the Prophet Jeremiah makes use of a curious simile, "Egypt is
+like a very fair heifer, but destruction cometh; it cometh out of
+the north. Also her hired men are in the midst of her like fatted
+bullocks [or, bullocks of the stall], for they also are turned
+back, and are fled away together." (Jer. xlvi. 20.) And in 1 Kings
+iv. 22, 23, when describing the glories of Solomon's household,
+the sacred writer draws a distinction between the oxen which were
+especially fattened for the table of the king and the superior
+officers, and those which were consumed by the lower orders of his
+household: "And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures
+of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and
+twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside harts,
+and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl."
+
+[Illustration: THE PRODIGAL SON RETURNS, AND THE FATTED CALF IS
+KILLED.]
+
+Calves--mostly, if not always, bull-calves--were largely used
+for food in Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy were
+fatted for the table. See, for example, the familiar parable of
+the prodigal son, in which the rejoicing father is mentioned as
+preparing a great feast in honour of his son's return, and ordering
+the fatted calf to be killed--the calf in question being evidently
+one of the animals that were kept in good condition against any
+festive occasion. And, even in the earliest history of the Bible,
+the custom of keeping a fatted calf evidently prevailed, as is shown
+by the conduct of Abraham, who, when he was visited by the three
+heavenly guests, "ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf, tender
+and good," and had it killed and dressed at once, after the still
+existing fashion of the East.
+
+[Illustration: ABRAHAM OFFERS FOOD TO THE THREE STRANGERS.]
+
+But, even in the times of Israel's greatest prosperity, the chief
+use of the ox was as an agricultural labourer, thus reversing the
+custom of this country, where the horse has taken the place of the
+ox as a beast of draught, and where cattle are principally fed for
+food. Ploughing was, and is, always performed by oxen, and allusions
+to this office are scattered plentifully through the Old and New
+Testaments.
+
+When understood in this sense, oxen are almost always spoken of in
+connexion with the word "yoke," and as each yoke comprised two oxen,
+it is evident that the word is used as we employ the term "brace,"
+or pair. The yoke, which is the chief part of the harness, is a very
+simple affair. A tolerably stout beam of wood is cut of a sufficient
+length to rest upon the necks of the oxen standing side by side,
+and a couple of hollows are scooped out to receive the crest of the
+neck. In order to hold it in its place, two flexible sticks are bent
+under their necks, and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In
+the middle of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart,
+and this is all the harness that is used, not even traces being
+required.
+
+It will be seen that so rude an implement as this would be very
+likely to gall the necks of the animals, unless the hollows were
+carefully smoothed, and the heavy beam adapted to the necks of
+the animals. This galling nature of the yoke, so familiar to the
+Israelites, is used repeatedly as a metaphor in many passages of
+the Old and New Testaments. These passages are too numerous to be
+quoted, but I will give one or two of the most conspicuous among
+them. The earliest mention of the yoke in the Scriptures is a
+metaphor.
+
+After Jacob had deceived his father, in procuring for himself the
+blessing which was intended for his elder brother, Isaac comforts
+Esau by the prophecy that, although he must serve his brother, yet
+"it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the dominion, that thou
+shalt break his yoke from off thy neck." Again, in the next passage
+where the yoke is mentioned, namely, Lev. xxvi. 13, the word is
+employed in the metaphorical sense: "I am the Lord your God, which
+brought you forth out of the land of Egypt, that ye should not be
+their bondmen, and I have broken the bands of your yoke, and made
+you go upright."
+
+The plough was equally simple, and consisted essentially of a bent
+branch, one end of which was armed with an iron point by way of a
+share, while the other formed the pole or beam, and was fastened
+to the middle of the yoke. It was guided by a handle, which was
+usually a smaller branch that grew from the principal one. A nearly
+similar instrument is used in Asia Minor to the present day, and
+is a curious relic of the most ancient times of history, for we
+find on the Egyptian monuments figures of the various agricultural
+processes, in which the plough is made after this simple manner.
+
+Of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one, and can but
+scratch, rather than plough the ground, the warmth of the climate
+and fertility of the land rendering needless the deep ploughing of
+our own country, where the object is to turn up the earth to the
+greatest possible depth. One yoke of oxen was generally sufficient
+to draw a plough, but occasionally a much greater number were
+required. We read, for example, of Elisha, who, when he received his
+call from Elijah, was ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen, _i. e._
+twenty-four. It has been suggested, that the twelve yoke of oxen
+were not all attached to the same plough, but that there were twelve
+ploughs, each with its single yoke of oxen. This was most probably
+the case.
+
+The instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a whip, but
+a goad. This goad was a long and stout stick, armed with a spike
+at one end, and having a kind of spud at the other, with which the
+earth could be scraped off the share when it became clogged. Such
+an instrument might readily be used as a weapon, and, in the hands
+of a powerful man, might be made even more formidable than a spear.
+As a weapon, it often was used, as we see from many passages of the
+Scriptures. For example, it is said in Judges iii. 31, "that Shamgar
+the son of Anath killed six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad."
+
+Afterwards, in the beginning of Saul's reign, when the Israelites
+fairly measured themselves against the Philistines, it was found
+that only Saul and Jonathan were even tolerably armed. Fearful
+of the numbers and spirit of the Israelites, the Philistines had
+disarmed them, and were so cautious that they did not even allow
+them to possess forges wherewith to make or sharpen the various
+agricultural instruments which they possessed, lest they should
+surreptitiously provide themselves with weapons. The only smith's
+tool which they were allowed to retain was a file with which each
+man might trim the edges of the ploughshares, mattocks, axes, and
+sharpen the points of the goad. The only weapons which they could
+muster were made of their agricultural implements, and among the
+most formidable of them was the goad.
+
+How the goad came into use in Palestine may easily be seen. The
+Egyptians, from among whom the people of Israel passed into the
+Promised Land, did not use the goad in ploughing, but the whip,
+which, from the representations on the Egyptian monuments, was
+identical with the koorbash, or "cow-hide" whip, which is now in
+use in the same country. But this terrible whip, which is capable,
+when wielded by a skilful hand, of cutting deep grooves through the
+tough hide of the ox, could not be obtained by the Jews, because the
+hippopotamus, of whose hide it was made, did not live in or near
+Palestine. They therefore were forced to use some other instrument
+wherewith to urge on the oxen, and the goad was clearly the simplest
+and most effective implement for this purpose.
+
+After the land was ploughed and sown, and the harvest was ripened,
+the labours of the oxen were again called into requisition, first
+for threshing out the corn, and next for carrying or drawing the
+grain to the storehouses.
+
+In the earlier days, the process of threshing was very simple. A
+circular piece of ground was levelled, and beaten very hard and
+flat, its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet. On this
+ground the corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were driven here
+and there on it, so that the constant trampling of their feet shook
+the ripe grain out of the ears. The corn was gathered together in
+the middle of the floor, and as fast as it was scattered by the feet
+of the oxen, it was thrown back towards the centre.
+
+Afterwards, an improvement was introduced in the form of a rough
+sledge, called "moreg," to which the oxen were harnessed by a
+yoke, and on which the driver stood as he guided his team round
+the threshing-floor. This instrument is mentioned in Isa. xli. 15:
+"Behold, I will make thee a new and sharp threshing instrument
+having teeth [or mouths]: thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat
+them small, and shalt make the hills as chaff." Mention is also
+made of the same implement in 2 Sam. xxiv. 22, where it is related
+that Araunah the Jebusite offered to give David the oxen for a
+burnt-sacrifice, and the moregs and other implements as wood with
+which they could be burned.
+
+The work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one for the
+oxen, and it was probably on this account that the kindly edict was
+made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not be muzzled.
+As a rule, the cattle were not fed nearly as carefully as is done
+with us, and so the labours of the threshing-floor would find a
+compensation in the temporary abundance of which the animals might
+take their fill.
+
+[Illustration: OXEN TREADING OUT GRAIN.]
+
+After the corn was threshed, or rather trodden out, the oxen had
+to draw it home in carts. These were but slight improvements on
+the threshing-sledge, and were simply trays or shallow boxes on a
+pair of wheels. As the wheels were merely slices cut from the trunk
+of a tree, and were not furnished with iron tires, they were not
+remarkable for roundness, and indeed, after a little time, were worn
+into rather irregular ovals, so that the task of dragging a cart
+over the rough roads was by no means an easy one. And, as the axle
+was simply a stout pole fastened to the bottom of the cart, and
+having its rounded ends thrust through holes in the middle of the
+wheels, the friction was enormous. As, moreover, oil and grease were
+far too precious luxuries to be wasted in lubricating the axles, the
+creaking and groaning of the wheels was a singularly disagreeable
+and ear-piercing sound.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN OX-CART.]
+
+The common hackery of India is a good example of the carts
+mentioned in the Scriptures. As with the plough, the cart was
+drawn by a couple of oxen, connected by the yoke. The two kinds of
+cart, namely, the tray and the box, are clearly indicated in the
+Scriptures. The new cart on which the Ark was placed when it was
+sent back by the Philistines (see 1 Sam. vi. 7) was evidently one
+of the former kind, and so was that which was made twenty years
+afterwards, for the purpose of conveying the Ark to Jerusalem.
+
+Although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden times
+than at present, those animals which were used for agriculture
+seem to have passed rather a rough life, especially in the winter
+time. It is rather curious that the Jews should have had no idea of
+preserving the grass by making it into hay, as is done in Europe.
+Consequently the chief food of the cattle was the straw and chaff
+which remained on the threshing-floor after the grain had been
+separated.
+
+[Illustration: THE ARK OF THE COVENANT BEING DRAWN BY COWS.]
+
+This, indeed, was the only use to which the straw could be put,
+for it was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen and the
+threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless.
+
+The want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are so
+irregularly disposed over Palestine, many parts of that country
+being entirely without them, and only those districts containing
+them in which fresh forage may be found throughout the year.
+
+Except a few yoke of oxen, which are kept in order to draw carts,
+and act as beasts of burden, the cattle are turned loose for a
+considerable portion of the year, and run about in herds from one
+pasturage to another. Thus they regain many of the characteristics
+of wild animals, and it is to this habit of theirs that many of the
+Scriptural allusions can be traced.
+
+For example, see Ps. xxii. 12, "Many bulls have compassed me,
+strong bulls of Bashan have beset me round. They gaped on me with
+their mouths [or, their mouths opened against me] as a ravening and
+a roaring lion." This passage alludes to the curiosity inherent
+in cattle, which have a habit of following objects which they do
+not understand or dislike, and surrounding it with looks of grave
+wonderment. Even in their domesticated state this habit prevails.
+When I was a boy, I sometimes amused myself with going into a field
+where a number of cows and oxen were grazing, and lying down in the
+middle of it. The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their heads
+about, and gradually draw near on every side, until at last they
+would be pressed together closely in a circle, with their heads just
+above the object of their astonishment. Their curious, earnest looks
+have always been present to my mind when reading the above quoted
+passage.
+
+The Psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in question
+were dangerous animals. On the contrary, the bulls of Palestine are
+gentle in comparison with our own animals, which are too often made
+savage by confinement and the harsh treatment to which they are
+subjected by rough and ignorant labourers. In Palestine a pair of
+bulls may constantly be seen attached to the same yoke, a thing that
+never would be seen in this country.
+
+The custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find pasture for
+themselves is alluded to in Joel i. 18, "How do the beasts groan!
+the herds of cattle are perplexed because they have no pasture."
+We can easily imagine to ourselves the terrible time to which the
+prophet refers, "when the rivers of waters are dried up, and the
+fire hath devoured the pastures of the wilderness," as it is wont to
+do when a spark falls upon grass dried up and withered, by reason
+of the sun's heat and the lack of water. Over such a country, first
+withered by drought, and then desolated by fire, would the cattle
+wander, vainly searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the
+tender young blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture as
+soon as the first rains fall. Moaning and bellowing with thirst
+and disappointment, they would vainly seek for food or water in
+places where the seed lies still under the clods where it was sown
+(v. 17), where the vines are dried up, and the fig, the pomegranate
+and the palm (v. 12) are all withered for want of moisture.
+
+[Illustration: PLOUGHING WITH OXEN.]
+
+Such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the
+world. Southern Africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for them, an
+exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh grass after
+the old pastures have been burned (the ordinary mode of cultivating
+pasture land). Then the vast herds of cattle, whose milk forms the
+staff of life to the inhabitants, wander to and fro, gathering in
+masses round any spot where a spring still yields a little water,
+and bellowing and moaning with thirst as they press their way
+towards the spot where their owners are doling out to each a small
+measure of the priceless fluid.
+
+The cattle are branded with the mark of their owners, so that in
+these large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguishing
+them when they were re-captured for the plough and the cart. On one
+of the Egyptian monuments there is a very interesting group, which
+has furnished the idea for the plate which illustrates this article.
+It occurs in the tombs of the kings at Thebes, and represents a
+ploughing scene. The simple two-handled plough is being dragged by
+a pair of cows, who have the yoke fastened across the horns instead
+of lying on the neck, and a sower is following behind, scattering
+the grain out of a basket into the newly-made furrows. In front of
+the cows is a young calf, which has run to meet its mother, and is
+leaping for joy before her as she steadily plods along her course.
+
+The action of both animals is admirably represented; the steady and
+firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light, gambolling step
+and arched tail of her offspring.
+
+In the olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was
+considered as an honourable occupation, in which men of the highest
+rank might engage without any derogation to their dignity. We find,
+for instance, that Saul himself, even after he had been appointed
+king, was acting as herdsman when the people saw the mistake they
+had made in rejecting him as their monarch, and came to fetch their
+divinely-appointed leader from his retirement. (See 1 Sam. xi.
+5.) Doeg, too, the faithful companion of Saul, was made the chief
+herdsman of his master's cattle, so that for Saul to confer such an
+office, and Doeg to accept it, shows that the post was one of much
+honour. And afterwards, when David was in the zenith of his power,
+he completed the organization of his kingdom, portioning out not
+only his army into battalions, and assigning a commanding officer
+to each battalion, but also appointing a ruler to each tribe, and
+setting officers over his treasury, over the vineyards, over the
+olive-trees, over the storehouses, and over the cattle. And these
+offices were so important that the names of their holders are
+given at length in 1 Chron. xxvii. those of the various herdsmen
+being thought as worthy of mention as those of the treasurers, the
+military commanders, or the headmen of the tribes.
+
+Before concluding this necessarily short account of the domesticated
+oxen of Palestine, it will be needful to give a few lines to the
+animal viewed in a religious aspect. Here we have, in bold contrast
+to each other, the divine appointment of certain cattle to be
+slain as sacrifices, and the reprobation of worship paid to those
+very cattle as living emblems of divinity. This false worship was
+learned by the Israelites during their long residence in Egypt, and
+so deeply had the customs of the Egyptian religion sunk into their
+hearts, that they were not eradicated after the lapse of centuries.
+It may easily be imagined that such a superstition, surrounded as
+it was with every external circumstance which could make it more
+imposing, would take a powerful hold of the Jewish mind.
+
+Chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god Apis,
+represented by a bull. Many other animals, specially the cat and the
+ibis, were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyptians, as we learn
+from their own monuments and from the works of the old historians.
+All these creatures were symbols as well as idols, symbols to the
+educated and idols to the ignorant.
+
+None of them was held in such universal honour as the bull Apis. The
+particular animal which represented the deity, and which was lodged
+with great state and honour in his temple at Memphis, was thought
+to be divinely selected for the purpose, and to be impressed with
+certain marks. His colour must be black, except a square spot on the
+forehead, a crescent-shaped white spot on the right side, and the
+figure of an eagle on his back. Under the tongue must be a knob
+shaped like the sacred scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be
+double.
+
+[Illustration: MUMMY OF A SACRED BULL TAKEN FROM AN EGYPTIAN TOMB.]
+
+This representative animal was only allowed to live for a certain
+time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he was taken in
+solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in its sacred waters. His
+body was then embalmed, and placed with great state in the tombs at
+Memphis.
+
+After his death, whether natural or not, the whole nation went into
+mourning, and exhibited all the conventional signs of sorrow, until
+the priests found another bull which possessed the distinctive
+marks. The people then threw off their mourning robes, and appeared
+in their best attire, and the sacred bull was exhibited in state for
+forty days before he was taken to his temple at Memphis. The reader
+will here remember the analogous case of the Indian cattle, some of
+which are held to be little less than incarnations of divinity.
+
+Even at the very beginning of the exodus, when their minds must have
+been filled with the many miracles that had been wrought in their
+behalf, and with the cloud and fire of Sinai actually before their
+eyes, Aaron himself made an image of a calf in gold, and set it up
+as a symbol of the Lord. That the idol in question was intended
+as a symbol by Aaron is evident from the words which he used when
+summoning the people to worship, "To-morrow is a feast of the Lord"
+(Gen. xxxii. 5). The people, however, clearly lacked the power of
+discriminating between the symbol and that which it represented,
+and worshipped the image just as any other idol might be worshipped.
+And, in spite of the terrible and swift punishment that followed,
+and which showed the profanity of the act, the idea of ox-worship
+still remained among the people.
+
+[Illustration: ANIMALS BEING SOLD FOR SACRIFICE IN THE PORCH OF THE
+TEMPLE.]
+
+[Illustration: JEROBOAM SETS UP A GOLDEN CALF AT BETHEL.]
+
+Five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of it in
+the conduct of Jeroboam, "who made Israel to sin," the peculiar
+crime being the open resuscitation of ox-worship. "The king made
+two calves of gold and said unto them, It is too much for you to
+go up to Jerusalem: behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee
+up out of the land of Egypt. And he set the one in Bethel, and the
+other put he in Dan.... And he made an house of high places, and
+made priests of the lowest of the people, which were not of the
+tribe of Levi. And Jeroboam ordained a feast ... like unto the
+feast in Judah, and he offered upon the altar. So did he in Bethel,
+sacrificing unto the calves that he had made."
+
+Here we have a singular instance of a king of Israel repeating,
+after a lapse of five hundred years, the very acts which had drawn
+down on the people so severe a punishment, and which were so
+contrary to the law that they had incited Moses to fling down and
+break the sacred tables on which the commandments had been divinely
+inscribed.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUFFALO.]
+
+Another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits Palestine though
+commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively late
+importation. This is the true BUFFALO (_Bubalus buffelus_, Gray),
+which is spread over a very large portion of the earth, and is very
+plentiful in India. In that country there are two distinct breeds
+of the Buffalo, namely, the Arnee, a wild variety, and the Bhainsa,
+a tamed variety. The former animal is much larger than the latter,
+being sometimes more than ten feet in length from the nose to the
+root of the tail, and measuring between six and seven feet in height
+at the shoulder. Its horns are of enormous length, the tail is very
+short, and tufts of hair grow on the forehead and horns. The tamed
+variety is at least one-third smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never
+seems to get into high condition. It is an ugly, ungainly kind of
+beast, and is rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald
+patches which are mostly found upon its hide.
+
+Being a water-loving animal, the Buffalo always inhabits the
+low-lying districts, and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes
+in which it remains for hours, submerged all but its head, and
+tranquilly chewing the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. While thus
+engaged the animal depresses its horns so that they are scarcely
+visible, barely allowing more than its eyes, ears, and nostrils
+to remain above the surface, so that the motionless heads are
+scarcely distinguishable from the grass and reed tufts which stud
+the marshes. Nothing is more startling to an inexperienced traveller
+than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool where the muddy surface
+is unbroken except by a number of black lumps and rushy tufts, and
+then to see these tufts suddenly transformed into twenty or thirty
+huge beasts rising out of the still water as if by magic. Generally,
+the disturber of their peace had better make the best of his way out
+of their reach, as the Buffalo, whether wild or tame, is of a tetchy
+and irritable nature, and resents being startled out of its state of
+dreamy repose.
+
+In the Jordan valley the Buffalo is found, and is used for
+agriculture, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated variety. Being
+much larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, it is useful in
+drawing the plough, but its temper is too uncertain to render it a
+pleasant animal to manage. As is the case with all half-wild cattle,
+its milk is very scanty, but compensates by the richness of the
+quality for the lack of quantity.
+
+In the picture which appears on a following page, one of these
+domesticated Buffaloes is represented, harnessed with a camel, to a
+rude form of plough used in the East.
+
+[Illustration: THE BHAINSA, OR DOMESTIC BUFFALO, AND CAMEL, DRAWING
+THE PLOUGH.]
+
+
+
+
+THE WILD BULL.
+
+ The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is
+ mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the
+ East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description
+ of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in
+ which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot
+ is taken, as distinguished from the net.
+
+
+In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned,
+respecting which the translators and commentators have been somewhat
+perplexed, in one passage being translated as the "Wild Ox," and in
+the other as the "Wild Bull." In the Jewish Bible the same rendering
+is preserved, but the sign of doubt is added to the word in both
+cases, showing that the translation is an uncertain one.
+
+The first of these passages occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, where it is
+classed together with the ox, sheep, goats, and other ruminants,
+as one of the beasts which were lawful for food. Now, although we
+cannot identify it by this passage, we can at all events ascertain
+two important points--the first, that it was a true ruminant, and
+the second, that it was not the ox, the sheep, or the goat. It was,
+therefore, some wild ruminant, and we now have to ask how we are to
+find out the species.
+
+If we turn to Isa. li. 20, we shall find a passage which will help
+us considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses these words,
+"By whom shall I comfort thee? Thy sons have fainted, they lie at
+the head of all the streets, as a wild bull in a net; they are full
+of the fury of the Lord, the rebuke of thy God." We now see that
+the Tô or Teô must be an animal which is captured by means of nets,
+and therefore must inhabit spots wherein the toils can be used.
+Moreover, it is evidently a powerful animal, or the force of the
+simile would be lost. The prophet evidently refers to some large
+and strong beast which has been entangled in the hunter's nets, and
+which lies helplessly struggling in them. We are, therefore, almost
+perforce driven to recognise it as some large antelope.
+
+The expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that it
+needs a short explanation. In this country, and at the present
+day, the use of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing
+and bird-catching; but in the East nets are still employed in the
+capture of very large game.
+
+A brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page 31, but, as the
+passage in Isaiah li. requires a more detailed account of this mode
+of catching large animals, it will be as well to describe the sport
+as at present practised in the East.
+
+When a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game without
+taking much trouble himself, he gives orders to his men to prepare
+their nets, which vary in size or strength according to the
+particular animal for which they are intended. If, for example, only
+the wild boar and similar animals are to be hunted, the nets need
+not be of very great width; but for agile creatures, such as the
+antelope, they must be exceedingly wide, or the intended prey will
+leap over them. As the net is much used in India for the purpose of
+catching game, Captain Williamson's description of it will explain
+many of the passages of Scripture wherein it is mentioned.
+
+The material of the net is hemp, twisted loosely into a kind of
+rope, and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar. The
+meshes are not knotted together, but only twisted round each other,
+much after the fashion of the South American hammocks, so as to
+obtain considerable elasticity, and to prevent a powerful animal
+from snapping the cord in its struggles. Some of these nets are
+thirteen feet or more in width, and even such a net as this has been
+overleaped by a herd of antelopes. Their length is variable, but, as
+they can be joined in any number when set end to end, the length is
+not so important as the width.
+
+The mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious. When a
+suitable spot has been selected, the first care of the hunters is
+to stretch a rope as tightly as possible along the ground. For this
+purpose stout wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk crosswise in
+the earth, and between these the rope is carefully strained. The
+favourite locality of the net is a ravine, through which the animals
+can be driven so as to run against the net in their efforts to
+escape, and across the ravine a whole row of these stakes is sunk.
+The net is now brought to the spot, and its lower edge fastened
+strongly to the ground rope.
+
+The strength of this mode of fastening is astonishing, and, although
+the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface, they cannot
+be torn up by any force which can be applied to them; and, however
+strong the rope may be, it would be broken before the stakes could
+be dragged out of the ground.
+
+A smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the net, which
+is raised upon a series of slight poles. It is not stretched quite
+tightly, but droops between each pair of poles, so that a net which
+is some thirteen feet in width will only give nine or ten feet of
+clear height when the upper edge is supported on the poles. These
+latter are not fixed in the ground, but merely held in their places
+by the weight of the net resting upon them.
+
+When the nets have been properly set, the beaters make a wide
+circuit through the country, gradually advancing towards the fatal
+spot, and driving before them all the wild animals that inhabit
+the neighbourhood. As soon as any large beast, such, for example,
+as an antelope, strikes against the net, the supporting pole
+falls, and the net collapses upon the unfortunate animal, whose
+struggles--especially if he be one of the horned animals--only
+entangle him more and more in the toils.
+
+As soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall, they run to
+the spot, kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the
+elastic meshes, drag away the body, and set up the net again in
+readiness for the next comer. Sometimes the line of nets will extend
+for half a mile or more, and give employment to a large staff of
+hunters, in killing the entangled animals, and raising afresh those
+portions of the net which had fallen.
+
+Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes that
+inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neighbourhood, we
+may safely conjecture that it may signify the beautiful animal known
+as the ORYX (_Oryx leucoryx_), an animal which has a tolerably wide
+range, and is even now found on the borders of the Holy Land. It is
+a large and powerful antelope, and is remarkable for its beautiful
+horns, which sometimes exceed a yard in length, and sweep in a most
+graceful curve over the back.
+
+Sharp as they are, and evidently formidable weapons, the manner
+in which they are set on the head renders them apparently
+unserviceable for combat. When, however, the Oryx is brought to bay,
+or wishes to fight, it stoops its head until the nose is close to
+the ground, the points of the horns being thus brought to the front.
+As the head is swung from side to side, the curved horns sweep
+through a considerable space, and are so formidable that even the
+lion is chary of attacking their owner. Indeed, instances are known
+where the lion has been transfixed and killed by the horns of the
+Oryx. Sometimes the animal is not content with merely standing to
+repel the attacks of its adversaries, but suddenly charges forward
+with astonishing rapidity, and strikes upwards with its horns as it
+makes the leap.
+
+[Illustration: WILD BULL, OR ORYX.]
+
+But these horns, which can be used with such terrible effect in
+battle, are worse than useless when the animal is hampered in the
+net. In vain does the Oryx attempt its usual defence: the curved
+horns get more and more entangled in the elastic meshes, and become
+a source of weakness rather than strength. We see now how singularly
+appropriate is the passage, "Thy sons lie at the heads of all the
+streets, as a wild bull (or Oryx) in a net," and how completely the
+force of the metaphor is lost without a knowledge of the precise
+mode of fixing the nets, of driving the animals into them, and of
+the manner in which they render even the large and powerful animals
+helpless.
+
+The height of the Oryx at the shoulder is between three and four
+feet, and its colour is greyish white, mottled profusely with black
+and brown in bold patches. It is plentiful in Northern Africa, and,
+like many other antelopes, lives in herds, so that it is peculiarly
+suited to that mode of hunting which consists in surrounding a
+number of animals, and driving them into a trap of some kind,
+whether a fenced enclosure, a pitfall, or a net.
+
+There is, by the way, the term "snare," which is specially used
+with especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished from
+the net which enveloped the whole body. For example, in Job xviii.
+8, "He is cast into a net, he walketh on a snare," where a bold
+distinction is drawn between the two and their mode of action. And
+in ver. 10, "The snare is laid for him in the ground." Though I
+would not state definitely that such is the case, I believe that the
+snare which is here mentioned is one which is still used in several
+parts of the world.
+
+It is simply a hoop, to the inner edge of which are fastened a
+number of elastic spikes, the points being directed towards the
+centre. This is merely laid in the path which the animal will
+take, and is tied by a short cord to a log of wood. As the deer
+or antelope treads on the snare, the foot passes easily through
+the elastic spikes, but, when the foot is raised, the spikes run
+into the joint and hold the hoop upon the limb. Terrified by the
+check and the sudden pang, the animal tries to run away, but, by
+the united influence of sharp spikes and the heavy log, it is soon
+forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey to its pursuers.
+
+[Illustration: THE ORYX.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: unicorn]
+
+
+
+
+THE UNICORN.
+
+ The Unicorn apparently known to the Jews--Its evident connection
+ with the Ox tribe--Its presumed identity with the now extinct
+ Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of the Urus.
+
+
+There are many animals mentioned in the Scriptures which are
+identified with difficulty, partly because their names occur only
+once or twice in the sacred writings, and partly because, when they
+are mentioned, the context affords no clue to their identity by
+giving any hint as to their appearance or habits. In such cases,
+although the translators would have done better if they had simply
+given the Hebrew word without endeavouring to identify it with any
+known animal, they may be excused for committing errors in their
+nomenclature. There is one animal, however, for which no such excuse
+can be found, and this is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as
+Unicorn in the authorized version.
+
+Even in late years the Unicorn has been erroneously supposed to be
+identical with the Rhinoceros of India. It is, however, now certain
+that the Unicorn was not the Rhinoceros, and that it can be almost
+certainly identified with an animal which, at the time when the
+passages in question were written, was plentiful in Palestine,
+although, like the Lion, it is now extinct.
+
+On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm is
+translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering is
+nearly the correct one. At the present day naturalists are nearly
+all agreed that the Unicorn of the Old Testament must have been of
+the Ox tribe. Probably the Urus, a species now extinct, was the
+animal alluded to. A smaller animal, the Bonassus or Bison, also
+existed in Palestine, and even to the present day continues to
+maintain itself in one or two spots, though it will probably be as
+soon completely erased from the surface of the earth as its gigantic
+congener.
+
+That the Unicorn was one of the two animals is certain, and that it
+was the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for deciding upon
+the Urus is, that its horns were of great size and strength, and
+therefore agree with the description of the Unicorn; whereas those
+of the Bonassus, although powerful, are short, and not conspicuous
+enough to deserve the notice which is taken of them by the sacred
+writers.
+
+Of the extinct variety we know but little. We do know, however, that
+it was a huge and most formidable beast, as is evident from the
+skulls and other bones which have been discovered. Their character
+also indicates that the creature was nothing more than a very large
+Ox, probably measuring twelve feet in length, and six feet in
+height. Such a wild animal, armed, as it was, with enormous horns,
+would prove a most formidable antagonist.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: bison]
+
+
+
+
+THE BISON.
+
+ The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former
+ existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its
+ name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its
+ dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the
+ wolf--Its untameable disposition.
+
+
+A few words are now needful respecting the second animal which has
+been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely, the Bison, or
+Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from ordinary cattle by the
+thick and heavy mane which covers the neck and shoulders, and which
+is more conspicuous in the male than in the female. The general
+coating of the body is also rather different, being thick and woolly
+instead of lying closely to the skin like that of the other oxen.
+The Bison certainly inhabited Palestine, as its bones have been
+found in that country. It has, however, been extinct in the Holy
+Land for many years, and, not being an animal that is capable of
+withstanding the encroachments of man, it has gradually died out
+from the greater part of Europe and Asia, and is now to be found
+only in a very limited locality, chiefly in a Lithuanian forest,
+where it is strictly preserved, and in some parts of the Caucasus.
+There it still preserves the habits which made its ancient and
+gigantic relative so dangerous an animal. Unlike the buffalo, which
+loves the low-lying and marshy lands, the Bison prefers the high
+wooded localities, where it lives in small troops.
+
+[Illustration: BISON KILLING WOLF.]
+
+Its name of Bison is a modification of the word Bisam, or musk,
+which was given to it on account of the strong musky odour of its
+flesh, which is especially powerful about the head and neck. This
+odour is not so unpleasant as might be supposed, and those who
+have had personal experience of the animal say that it bears some
+resemblance to the perfume of violets. It is developed most strongly
+in the adult bulls, the cows and young male calves only possessing
+it in a slight degree.
+
+It is a tolerably large animal, being about six feet high at the
+shoulder--a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary
+Asiatic elephant; and, in spite of its great bulk, is a fleet and
+active animal, as indeed is generally the case with those oxen
+which inhabit elevated localities. Still, though it can run with
+considerable speed, it is not able to keep up the pace for any great
+distance, and at the end of a mile or two can be brought to bay.
+
+Like most animals, however large and powerful they may be, it fears
+the presence of man, and, if it sees or scents a human being, will
+try to slip quietly away; but when it is baffled in this attempt,
+and forced to fight, it becomes a fierce and dangerous antagonist,
+charging with wonderful quickness, and using its short and powerful
+horns with great effect. A wounded Bison, when fairly brought to
+bay, is perhaps as awkward an opponent as can be found, and to kill
+it without the aid of firearms is no easy matter.
+
+Although the countries in which it lives are infested with wolves,
+it seems to have no fear of them when in health; and, even when
+pressed by their winter's hunger, the wolves do not venture to
+attack even a single Bison, much less a herd of them. Like other
+wild cattle, it likes to dabble in muddy pools, and is fond of
+harbouring in thickets near such localities; and those who have to
+travel through the forest keep clear of such spots, unless they
+desire to drive out the animal for the purpose of killing it.
+
+Like the extinct Aurochs, the Bison has never been domesticated,
+and, although the calves have been captured while very young, and
+attempts have been made to train them to harness, their innate
+wildness of disposition has always baffled such efforts.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: gazelle]
+
+
+
+
+THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+ Its swiftness, its beauty, and the quality of its
+ flesh--Different varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle
+ defends itself against wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle.
+
+
+We now leave the Ox tribe, and come to the Antelopes, several
+species of which are mentioned in the Scriptures. Four kinds of
+antelope are found in or near the Holy Land, and there is little
+doubt that all of them are mentioned in the sacred volume.
+
+The first that will be described is the GAZELLE, which is
+acknowledged to be the animal that is represented by the word
+_Tsebi_, or _Tsebiyah_. The Jewish Bible accepts the same
+rendering. This word occurs many times, sometimes as a metaphor,
+and sometimes representing some animal which was lawful food, and
+which therefore belonged to the true ruminants. Moreover, its flesh
+was not only legally capable of being eaten, but was held in such
+estimation that it was provided for the table of Solomon himself,
+together with other animals which will be described in their turn.
+
+[Illustration: THE GAZELLE.]
+
+It is even now considered a great dainty, although it is not at
+all agreeable to European taste, being hard, dry, and without
+flavour. Still, as has been well remarked, tastes differ as well
+as localities, and an article of food which is a costly luxury in
+one land is utterly disdained in another, and will hardly be eaten
+except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation.
+
+The Gazelle is very common in Palestine in the present day, and, in
+the ancient times, must have been even more plentiful. There are
+several varieties of it, which were once thought to be distinct
+species, but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties, all of
+which are referable to the single species _Gazella Dorcas_. There
+is, for example, the Corinna, or Corine Antelope, which is a rather
+boldly-spotted female; the Kevella Antelope, in which the horns are
+slightly flattened; the small variety called the Ariel, or Cora; the
+grey Kevel, which is a rather large variety; and the Long-horned
+Gazelle, which owes its name to a rather large development of the
+horns.
+
+Whatever variety may inhabit any given spot, they all have the
+same habits. They are gregarious animals, associating together in
+herds often of considerable size, and deriving from their numbers
+an element of strength which would otherwise be wanting. Against
+mankind, numbers are of no avail; but when the agile though feeble
+Gazelle has to defend itself against the predatory animals of
+its own land, it can only defend itself by the concerted action
+of the whole herd. Should, for example, the wolves prowl round
+a herd of Gazelles, after their treacherous wont, the Gazelles
+instantly assume a posture of self-defence. They form themselves
+into a compact phalanx, all the males coming to the front, and the
+strongest and boldest taking on themselves the honourable duty of
+facing the foe. The does and the young are kept within their ranks,
+and so formidable is the array of sharp, menacing horns, that beasts
+as voracious as the wolf, and far more powerful, have been known to
+retire without attempting to charge.
+
+As a rule, however, the Gazelle does not desire to resist, and
+prefers its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety. So fleet
+is the animal, that it seems to fly over the ground as if propelled
+by volition alone, and its light, agile frame is so enduring, that a
+fair chase has hardly any prospect of success. Hunters, therefore,
+prefer a trap of some kind, if they chase the animal merely for
+food or for the sake of its skin, and contrive to kill considerable
+numbers at once. Sometimes they dig pitfalls, and drive the Gazelles
+into them by beating a large tract of country, and gradually
+narrowing the circle. Sometimes they use nets, such as have already
+been described, and sometimes they line the sides of a ravine with
+archers and spearmen, and drive the herd of Gazelles through the
+treacherous defile.
+
+These modes of slaughter are, however, condemned by the true hunter,
+who looks upon those who use them much in the same light as an
+English sportsman looks on a man who shoots foxes. The greyhound
+and the falcon are both employed in the legitimate capture of the
+Gazelle, and in some cases both are trained to work together.
+Hunting the Gazelle with the greyhound very much resembles coursing
+in our own country, and chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the
+system of falconry that was once so popular an English sport, and
+which even now shows signs of revival.
+
+It is, however, when the dog and the bird are trained to work
+together that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting to
+an English spectator.
+
+As soon as the Gazelles are fairly in view, the hunter unhoods his
+hawk, and holds it up so that it may see the animals. The bird fixes
+its eye on one Gazelle, and by that glance the animal's doom is
+settled. The falcon darts after the Gazelles, followed by the dog,
+who keeps his eye on the hawk, and holds himself in readiness to
+attack the animal that his feathered ally may select. Suddenly the
+falcon, which has been for some few seconds hovering over the herd
+of Gazelles, makes a stoop upon the selected victim, fastening its
+talons in its forehead, and, as it tries to shake off its strange
+foe, flaps its wings into the Gazelle's eyes so as to blind it.
+Consequently, the rapid course of the antelope is arrested, so
+that the dog is able to come up and secure the animal while it is
+struggling to escape from its feathered enemy. Sometimes, though
+rarely, a young and inexperienced hawk swoops down with such
+reckless force that it misses the forehead of the Gazelle, and
+impales itself upon the sharp horns, just as in England the falcon
+is apt to be spitted on the bill of the heron.
+
+The most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the Gazelle is to use the
+falcon alone; but for this sport a bird must possess exceptional
+strength, swiftness, and intelligence. A very spirited account of
+such a chase is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud, in his "Druses of the
+Lebanon:"--
+
+"Whilst reposing here, our old friend with the falcon informs us
+that at a short distance from this spot is a khan called Nebbi
+Youni, from a supposition that the prophet Jonah was here landed by
+the whale; but the old man is very indignant when we identify the
+place with a fable, and declare to him that similar sights are to
+be seen at Gaza and Scanderoon. But his good humour is speedily
+recovered by reverting to the subject of the exploits and cleverness
+of his falcon. This reminds him that we have not much time to waste
+in idle talk, as the greater heats will drive the gazelles from the
+plains to the mountain retreats, and lose us the opportunity of
+enjoying the most sportsmanlike amusement in Syria. Accordingly,
+bestriding our animals again, we ford the river at that point where
+a bridge once stood.
+
+"We have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen eye of the
+falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing in the
+distance. Immediately he reins in his horse, and enjoining silence,
+instead of riding at them, as we might have felt inclined to do, he
+skirts along the banks of the river, so as to cut off, if possible,
+the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are narrowest,
+though very deep, but which would be cleared at a single leap by
+the gazelles. Having successfully accomplished this manœuvre,
+he again removes the hood from the hawk, and indicates to us that
+precaution is no longer necessary. Accordingly, first adding a few
+slugs to the charges in our barrels, we balance our guns in an easy
+posture, and, giving the horses their reins, set off at full gallop,
+and with a loud hurrah, right towards the already startled gazelles.
+
+"The timid animals, at first paralysed by our appearance, stand and
+gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach; but their pause
+is only momentary; they perceive in an instant that the retreat to
+their favourite haunts has been secured, and so they dash wildly
+forward with all the fleetness of despair, coursing over the plain
+with no fixed refuge in view, and nothing but their fleetness to aid
+in their delivery. A stern chase is a long chase, and so, doubtless,
+on the present occasion it would prove with ourselves, for there is
+many and many a mile of level country before us, and our horses,
+though swift of foot, stand no chance in this respect with the
+gazelles.
+
+"Now, however, the old man has watched for a good opportunity to
+display the prowess and skill of his falcon: he has followed us
+only at a hand-gallop; but the hawk, long inured to such pastime,
+stretches forth its neck eagerly in the direction of the flying
+prey, and being loosened from its pinions, sweeps up into the air
+like a shot, and passes overhead with incredible velocity. Five
+minutes more, and the bird has outstripped even the speed of the
+light-footed gazelle; we see him through the dust and haze that
+our own speed throws around us, hovering but an instant over the
+terrified herd; he has singled out his prey, and, diving with
+unerring aim, fixes his iron talons into the head of the terrified
+animal.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALCON USED IN OUR HUNT.]
+
+"This is the signal for the others to break up their orderly
+retreat, and to speed over the plain in every direction. Some,
+despite the danger that hovers on their track, make straight for
+their old and familiar haunts, and passing within twenty yards of
+where we ride, afford us an opportunity of displaying our skill as
+amateur huntsmen on horseback; nor does it require but little nerve
+and dexterity to fix our aim whilst our horses are tearing over
+the ground. However, the moment presents itself, the loud report
+of barrel after barrel startles the unaccustomed inmates of that
+unfrequented waste; one gazelle leaps twice its own height into the
+air, and then rolls over, shot through the heart; another bounds on
+yet a dozen paces, but, wounded mortally, staggering, halts, and
+then falls to the ground.
+
+"This is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount of
+damage done, for the falcon, heedless of all surrounding incidents,
+clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim, flapping its
+strong wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified eyes, half
+blinding it and rendering its head dizzy; till, after tearing round
+and round with incredible speed, the poor creature stops, panting
+for breath, and, overcome with excessive terror, drops down fainting
+upon the earth. Now the air resounds with the acclamations and
+hootings of the ruthless victors.
+
+[Illustration: THE ARAB IS DELIGHTED AT THE SUCCESS OF THE HUNT.]
+
+"The Arab is wild in his transports of delight. More certain of
+the prowess of his bird than ourselves, he had stopped awhile to
+gather together the fruits of our booty, and now galloped furiously
+up, waving his long gun, and shouting lustily the while the praises
+of his infallible hawk; then getting down, and hoodwinking the bird
+again, he first of all takes the precaution of fastening together
+the legs of the fallen gazelle, and then he humanely blows up into
+its nostrils. Gradually the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed
+eyes of the gazelle, then it struggles valiantly, but vainly, to
+disentangle itself from its fetters.
+
+"Pitying its efforts, the falconer throws a handkerchief over its
+head, and, securing this prize, claims it as his own, declaring that
+he will bear it home to his house in the mountains, where, after a
+few weeks' kind treatment and care, it will become as domesticated
+and affectionate as a spaniel. Meanwhile, Abou Shein gathers
+together the fallen booty, and, tying them securely with cords,
+fastens them behind his own saddle, declaring, with a triumphant
+laugh, that we shall return that evening to the city of Beyrout with
+such game as few sportsmen can boast of having carried thither in
+one day."
+
+The gentle nature of the Gazelle is as proverbial as its grace
+and swiftness, and is well expressed in the large, soft, liquid
+eye, which has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison of
+Oriental poets when describing the eyes of beauty.
+
+[Illustration: THE GAZELLE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX.
+
+ The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word
+ Pygarg--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it
+ must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the
+ Addax--Description of the Addax.
+
+
+There is a species of animal mentioned once in the Scriptures under
+the name of Dishon which the Jewish Bible leaves untranslated, and
+merely gives as Dyshon, and which is rendered in the Septuagint by
+Pugargos, or PYGARG, as one version gives it. Now, the meaning of
+the word Pygarg is white-crouped, and for that reason the Pygarg
+of the Scriptures is usually held to be one of the white-crouped
+antelopes, of which several species are known. Perhaps it may be one
+of them--it may possibly be neither, and it may probably refer to
+all of them.
+
+But that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word Dishon is
+evident enough, and it is also evident that the Dishon must have
+been one of the antelopes which could be obtained by the Jews. Now
+as the species of antelope which could have furnished food for that
+nation are very few in number, it is clear that, even if we do not
+hit upon the exact species, we may be sure of selecting an animal
+that was closely allied to it. Moreover, as the nomenclature is
+exceedingly loose, it is probable that more than one species might
+have been included in the word Dishon.
+
+Modern commentators have agreed that there is every probability that
+the Dishon of the Pentateuch was the antelope known by the name of
+Addax.
+
+This handsome antelope is a native of Northern Africa. It has a
+very wide range, and, even at the present day, is found in the
+vicinity of Palestine, so that it evidently was one of the antelopes
+which could be killed by Jewish hunters. From its large size, and
+long twisted horns, it bears a strong resemblance to the Koodoo of
+Southern Africa. The horns, however, are not so long, nor so boldly
+twisted, the curve being comparatively slight, and not possessing
+the bold spiral shape which distinguishes those of the koodoo.
+
+[Illustration: THE ADDAX.]
+
+The ordinary height of the Addax is three feet seven or eight
+inches, and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes.
+Their length, from the head to the tips, is rather more than two
+feet. Its colour is mostly white, but a thick mane of dark black
+hair falls from the throat, a patch of similar hair grows on the
+forehead, and the back and shoulders are greyish brown. There is no
+mane on the back of the neck, as is the case with the koodoo.
+
+The Addax is a sand-loving animal, as is shown by the wide and
+spreading hoofs, which afford it a firm footing on the yielding
+soil. In all probability, this is one of the animals which would be
+taken, like the wild bull, in a net, being surrounded and driven
+into the toils by a number of hunters. It is not, however, one of
+the gregarious species, and is not found in those vast herds in
+which some of the antelopes love to assemble.
+
+[Illustration: decoration]
+
+
+
+
+THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE.
+
+ The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of
+ antelope--Resemblance of the animal to the ox tribe--Its
+ ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of
+ domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its
+ representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of
+ its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal.
+
+
+It has already been mentioned that in the Old Testament there occur
+the names of three or four animals, which clearly belong to one
+or other of three or four antelopes. Only one of these names now
+remains to be identified. This is the Jachmur, or Yachmur, a word
+which has been rendered in the Septuagint as Boubalos, and has been
+translated in our Authorized Version as FALLOW DEER.
+
+We shall presently see that the Fallow Deer is to be identified
+with another animal, and that the word Jachmur must find another
+interpretation. If we follow the Septuagint, and call it the BUBALE,
+we shall identify it with a well-known antelope called by the
+Arabs the "Bekk'r-el-Wash," and known to zoologists as the BUBALE
+(_Acronotus bubalis_).
+
+This fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by an
+unskilled observer, as in its general appearance it much more
+resembles the ox tribe than the antelope. Indeed, the Arabic
+title, "Bekk'r-el-Wash," or Wild Cow, shows how close must be the
+resemblance to the oxen. The Arabs, and indeed all the Orientals in
+whose countries it lives, believe it not to be an antelope, but one
+of the oxen, and class it accordingly.
+
+How much the appearance of the Bubale justifies them in this opinion
+may be judged by reference to the figure on page 143. The horns are
+thick, short, and heavy, and are first inclined forwards, and then
+rather suddenly bent backwards. This formation of the horns causes
+the Bubale to use his weapons after the manner of the bull, thereby
+increasing the resemblance between them. When it attacks, the Bubale
+lowers its head to the ground, and as soon as its antagonist is
+within reach, tosses its head violently upwards, or swings it with
+a sidelong upward blow. In either case, the sharp curved horns,
+impelled by the powerful neck of the animal, and assisted by the
+weight of the large head, become most formidable weapons.
+
+It is said that in some places, where the Bubales have learned to
+endure the presence of man, they will mix with his herds for the
+sake of feeding with them, and by degrees become so accustomed to
+the companionship of their domesticated friends, that they live with
+the herd as if they had belonged to it all their lives. This fact
+shows that the animal possesses a gentle disposition, and it is said
+to be as easily tamed as the gazelle itself.
+
+Even at the present day the Bubale has a very wide range, and
+formerly had in all probability a much wider. It is indigenous
+to Barbary, and has continued to spread itself over the greater
+part of Northern Africa, including the borders of the Sahara, the
+edges of the cultivated districts, and up the Nile for no small
+distance. In former days it was evidently a tolerably common animal
+of chase in Upper Egypt as there are representations of it on the
+monuments, drawn with the quaint truthfulness which distinguishes
+the monumental sculpture of that period.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUBALE, OR FALLOW-DEER OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+It is probable that in and about Palestine it was equally common, so
+that there is good reason why it should be specially named as one of
+the animals that were lawful food. Not only was its flesh permitted
+to be eaten, but it was evidently considered as a great dainty,
+inasmuch as the Jachmur is mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 23 as one of the
+animals which were brought to the royal table. "Harts and Roebucks
+and Fallow-Deer" are the wild animals mentioned in the passage
+alluded to.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: sheep and birds]
+
+
+
+
+THE SHEEP.
+
+ Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth
+ of the pastoral tribes--Arab shepherds of the present
+ day--Wanderings of the flocks in search of food--Value of the
+ wells--How the Sheep are watered--The shepherd usually a part
+ owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock
+ caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Use of the
+ dogs--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its peculiarities.
+
+
+We now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for some
+little time.
+
+There is, perhaps, no animal which occupies a larger space in the
+Scriptures than the SHEEP. Whether in religious, civil, or domestic
+life, we find that the Sheep is bound up with the Jewish nation in
+a way that would seem almost incomprehensible, did we not recall
+the light which the New Testament throws upon the Old, and the many
+allusions to the coming Messiah under the figure of the Lamb that
+taketh away the sins of the world.
+
+In treating of the Sheep, it will be perhaps advisable to begin the
+account by taking the animal simply as one of those creatures which
+have been domesticated from time immemorial, dwelling slightly on
+those points on which the sheep-owners of the old days differed from
+those of our own time.
+
+The only claim to the land seems, in the old times of the
+Scriptures, to have lain in cultivation, or perhaps in the land
+immediately surrounding a well. But any one appears to have taken a
+piece of ground and cultivated it, or to have dug a well wherever he
+chose, and thereby to have acquired a sort of right to the soil. The
+same custom prevails at the present day among the cattle-breeding
+races of Southern Africa. The banks of rivers, on account of their
+superior fertility, were considered as the property of the chiefs
+who lived along their course, but the inland soil was free to all.
+
+Had it not been for this freedom of the land, it would have been
+impossible for the great men to have nourished the enormous flocks
+and herds of which their wealth consisted; but, on account of
+the lack of ownership of the soil, a flock could be moved to one
+district after another as fast as it exhausted the herbage, the
+shepherds thus unconsciously imitating the habits of the gregarious
+animals, which are always on the move from one spot to another.
+
+Pasturage being thus free to all, Sheep had a higher comparative
+value than is the case with ourselves, who have to pay in some way
+for their keep. There is a proverb in the Talmud which may be curtly
+translated, "Land sell, sheep buy."
+
+The value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great, that
+its possession is well worth a battle, the shepherds being saved
+from a most weary and harassing life, and being moreover fewer in
+number than is needed when the pasturage is scanty Sir S. Baker, in
+his work on Abyssinia, makes some very interesting remarks upon the
+Arab herdsmen, who are placed in conditions very similar to those of
+the Israelitish shepherds.
+
+[Illustration: ARABS JOURNEYING TO FRESH PASTURES.]
+
+"The Arabs are creatures of necessity; their nomadic life is
+compulsory, as the existence of their flocks and herds depends
+upon the pasturage. Thus, with the change of seasons they must
+change their localities according to the presence of fodder for
+their cattle.... The Arab cannot halt in one spot longer than the
+pasturage will support his flocks. The object of his life being
+fodder, he must wander in search of the ever-changing supply. His
+wants must be few, as the constant change of encampment necessitates
+the transport of all his household goods; thus he reduces to a
+minimum his domestic furniture and utensils....
+
+"This striking similarity to the descriptions of the Old Testament
+is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing among
+these curious and original people. With the Bible in one's hand,
+and these unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a thrilling
+illustration of the sacred record; the past becomes the present, the
+veil of three thousand years is raised, and the living picture is a
+witness to the exactness of the historical description. At the same
+time there is a light thrown upon many obscure passages in the Old
+Testament by the experience of the present customs and figures of
+speech of the Arabs, which are precisely those that were practised
+at the periods described....
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS.]
+
+"Should the present history of the country be written by an Arab
+scribe, the style of the description would be precisely that of
+the Old Testament. There is a fascination in the unchangeable
+features of the Nile regions. There are the vast pyramids that have
+defied time, the river upon which Moses was cradled in infancy,
+the same sandy desert through which he led his people, and the
+watering-places where their flocks were led to drink. The wild and
+wandering Arabs, who thousands of years ago dug out the wells in the
+wilderness, are represented by their descendants, unchanged, who now
+draw water from the deep wells of their forefathers, with the skins
+that have never altered their fashion.
+
+"The Arabs, gathering with their goats and sheep around the wells
+to-day, recall the recollection of that distant time when 'Jacob
+went on his journey, and came into the land of the people of the
+east. And he looked, and behold a well in the field, and lo! there
+were three flocks of sheep lying by it,' &c. The picture of that
+scene would be an illustration of Arab daily life in the Nubian
+deserts, where the present is a mirror of the past."
+
+Owing to the great number of Sheep which they have to tend, and the
+peculiar state of the country, the life of the shepherd in Palestine
+is even now very different from that of an English shepherd, and
+in the days of the early Scriptures the distinction was even more
+distinctly marked.
+
+Sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we generally think.
+In the first place, a thoughtful shepherd had always one idea before
+his mind,--namely, the possibility of obtaining sufficient water
+for his flocks. Even pasturage is less important than water, and,
+however tempting a district might be, no shepherd would venture to
+take his charge there if he were not sure of obtaining water. In a
+climate such as ours, this ever-pressing anxiety respecting water
+can scarcely be appreciated, for in hot climates not only is water
+scarce, but it is needed far more than in a temperate and moist
+climate. Thirst does its work with terrible quickness, and there are
+instances recorded where men have sat down and died of thirst in
+sight of the river which they had not strength to reach.
+
+In places therefore through which no stream runs, the wells are the
+great centres of pasturage, around which are to be seen vast flocks
+extending far in every direction. These wells are kept carefully
+closed by their owners, and are only opened for the use of those who
+are entitled to water their flocks at them.
+
+Noontide is the general time for watering the Sheep, and towards
+that hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards their
+respective wells, the shepherd at the head of each flock, and the
+Sheep following him. See how forcible becomes the imagery of David,
+the shepherd poet, "The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want. He
+maketh me to lie down in green pastures (or, in pastures of tender
+grass): He leadeth me beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1, 2).
+Here we have two of the principal duties of the good shepherd
+brought prominently before us,--namely, the guiding of the Sheep to
+green pastures and leading them to fresh water. Very many references
+are made in the Scriptures to the pasturage of sheep, both in a
+technical and a metaphorical sense; but as our space is limited, and
+these passages are very numerous, only one or two of each will be
+taken.
+
+In the story of Joseph, we find that when his father and brothers
+were suffering from the famine, they seem to have cared as much
+for their Sheep and cattle as for themselves, inasmuch as among a
+pastoral people the flocks and herds constitute the only wealth.
+So, when Joseph at last discovered himself, and his family were
+admitted to the favour of Pharaoh, the first request which they made
+was for their flocks. "Pharaoh said unto his brethren, What is your
+occupation? And they said unto Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds,
+both we, and also our fathers.
+
+"They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land are we
+come; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks; for the
+famine is sore in the land of Canaan: now therefore, we pray thee,
+let thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen."
+
+This one incident, so slightly remarked in the sacred history, gives
+a wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by Jacob and his
+sons. Forming, according to custom, a small tribe of their own, of
+which the father was the chief, they led a pastoral life, taking
+their continually increasing herds and flocks from place to place as
+they could find food for them. For example, at the memorable time
+when the story of Joseph begins, he was sent by his father to his
+brothers, who were feeding the flocks, and he wandered about for
+some time, not knowing where to find them. It may seem strange that
+he should be unable to discover such very conspicuous objects as
+large flocks of sheep and goats, but the fact is that they had been
+driven from one pasture-land to another, and had travelled in search
+of food all the way from Shechem to Dothan.
+
+In 1 Chron. iv. 39, 40, we read of the still pastoral Israelites
+that "they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east side
+of the valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they found fat
+pasture and good, and the land was wide, and quiet, and peaceable."
+
+How it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context. It
+was peaceable simply because the Israelites were attracted by the
+good pasturage, attacked the original inhabitants, and exterminated
+them so effectually that none were left to offer resistance to the
+usurpers. And we find from this passage that the value of good
+pasture-land where the Sheep could feed continually without being
+forced to wander from one spot to another was so considerable, that
+the owners of the flocks engaged in war, and exposed their own
+lives, in order to obtain so valuable a possession.
+
+[Illustration: JACOB MEETS RACHEL AT THE WELL.]
+
+We will now look at one or two of the passages that mention watering
+the Sheep--a duty so imperative on an Oriental shepherd, and so
+needless to our own.
+
+In the first place we find that most graphic narrative which occurs
+in Gen. xxix. to which a passing reference has already been made.
+When Jacob was on his way from his parents to the home of Laban
+in Padan-aram, he came upon the very well which belonged to his
+uncle, and there saw three flocks of Sheep lying around the well,
+waiting until the proper hour arrived. According to custom, a large
+stone was laid over the well, so as to perform the double office of
+keeping out the sand and dust, and of guarding the precious water
+against those who had no right to it. And when he saw his cousin
+Rachel arrive with the flock of which she had the management, he,
+according to the courtesy of the country and the time, rolled away
+the ponderous barrier, and poured out water into the troughs for the
+Sheep which Rachel tended.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN SHEPHERD WATCHING HIS FLOCK.]
+
+About two hundred years afterwards, we find Moses performing a
+similar act. When he was obliged to escape into Midian on account
+of his fatal quarrel with a tyrannical Egyptian, he sat down by a
+well, waiting for the time when the stone might be rolled away, and
+the water be distributed. Now it happened that this well belonged
+to Jethro, the chief priest of the country, whose wealth consisted
+principally of Sheep. He entrusted his flock to the care of his
+seven daughters, who led their Sheep to the well and drew water as
+usual into the troughs. Presuming on their weakness, other shepherds
+came and tried to drive them away, but were opposed by Moses, who
+drove them away, and with his own hands watered the flock.
+
+Now in both these examples we find that the men who performed the
+courteous office of drawing the water and pouring it into the
+sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose charge the flocks
+had been committed. This brings us to the Oriental custom which has
+been preserved to the present day.
+
+The wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the
+meeting-places of the tribe, and it is chiefly at the well that
+the young men and women meet each other. As each successive flock
+arrives at the well, the number of the people increases, and while
+the sheep and goats lie patiently round the water, waiting for the
+time when the last flock shall arrive, and the stone be rolled off
+the mouth of the well, the gossip of the tribe is discussed, and the
+young people have ample opportunity for the pleasing business of
+courtship.
+
+As to the passages in which the wells, rivers, brooks,
+water-springs, are spoken of in a metaphorical sense, they are too
+numerous to be quoted.
+
+And here I may observe, that in reality the whole of Scripture has
+its symbolical as well as its outward signification; and that,
+until we have learned to read the Bible strictly according to the
+spirit, we cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mysteries
+which it conceals behind its veil of language; nor can we appreciate
+one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which lie hidden in
+its pages.
+
+Another duty of the shepherd of ancient Palestine was to guard his
+flock from depredators, whether man or beast. Therefore the shepherd
+was forced to carry arms; to act as a sentry during the night; and,
+in fact, to be a sort of irregular soldier. A fully-armed shepherd
+had with him his bow, his spear, and his sword, and not even a
+shepherd lad was without his sling and the great quarter-staff which
+is even now universally carried by the tribes along the Nile--a
+staff as thick as a man's wrist, and six or seven feet in length. He
+was skilled in the use of all these weapons, especially in that of
+the sling.
+
+[Illustration: DAVID GATHERS STONES FROM THE BROOK TO CAST AT
+GOLIATH.]
+
+In these days, the sling is only considered as a mere toy, whereas,
+before the introduction of fire-arms, it was one of the most
+formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops. Round
+and smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were the usual
+projectiles, and, by dint of constant practice from childhood, the
+slingers could aim with a marvellous precision. Of this fact we have
+a notable instance in David, who knew that the sling and the five
+stones in the hand of an active youth unencumbered by armour, and
+wearing merely the shepherd's simple tunic, were more than a match
+for all the ponderous weapons of the gigantic Philistine.
+
+It has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful aim of
+David to a special miracle, whereas those who are acquainted with
+ancient weapons know well that no miracle was wrought, because none
+was needed; a good slinger at that time being as sure of his aim as
+a good rifleman of our days.
+
+The sling was in constant requisition, being used both in directing
+the Sheep and in repelling enemies: a stone skilfully thrown in
+front of a straying Sheep being a well-understood signal that the
+animal had better retrace its steps if it did not want to feel the
+next stone on its back.
+
+[Illustration: AN EASTERN SHEPHERD.]
+
+Passing his whole life with his flock, the shepherd was identified
+with his Sheep far more than is the case in this country. He knew
+all his Sheep by sight, he called them all by their names, and they
+all knew him and recognised his voice. He did not drive them, but he
+led them, walking in their front, and they following him. Sometimes
+he would play with them, pretending to run away while they pursued
+him, exactly as an infant-school teacher plays with the children.
+
+Consequently, they looked upon him as their protector as well as
+their feeder, and were sure to follow wherever he led them.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD.]
+
+We must all remember how David, who had passed all his early years
+as a shepherd, speaks of God as the Shepherd of Israel, and the
+people as Sheep; never mentioning the Sheep as being driven, but
+always as being led. "Thou leddest Thy people like a flock, by
+the hands of Moses and Aaron" (Ps. lxxvii. 20); "The Lord is my
+Shepherd.... He leadeth me beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1,
+2); "Lead me in a plain path, because of mine enemies" (Ps. xxvii.
+11); together with many other passages too numerous to be quoted.
+
+Our Lord Himself makes a familiar use of the same image: "He calleth
+his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out And when he putteth
+forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him:
+for they know his voice."
+
+Although the shepherds of our own country know their Sheep by sight,
+and say that there is as much difference in the faces of Sheep as of
+men, they have not, as a rule, attained the art of teaching their
+Sheep to recognise their names. This custom, however, is still
+retained, as may be seen from a well-known passage in Hartley's
+"Researches in Greece and the Levant:"--
+
+"Having had my attention directed last night to the words in John
+x. 3, I asked my man if it were usual in Greece to give names to
+the sheep. He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed
+the shepherd when he called them by their names. This morning I
+had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark. Passing
+by a flock of sheep, I asked the shepherd the same question which
+I had put to the servant, and he gave me the same answer. I then
+bade him call one of his sheep. He did so, and it instantly left
+its pasturage and its companions, and ran up to the hands of the
+shepherd, with signs of pleasure, and with a prompt obedience which
+I had never before observed in any other animal.
+
+"It is also true that in this country, 'a stranger will they not
+follow, but will flee from him.' The shepherd told me that many of
+his sheep were still wild, that they had not learned their names,
+but that by teaching them they would all learn them."
+
+Generally, the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock, or
+had at all events a share in it, of which latter arrangement we find
+a well-known example in the bargain which Jacob made with Laban, all
+the white Sheep belonging to his father-in-law, and all the dark
+and spotted Sheep being his wages as shepherd. Such a man was far
+more likely to take care of the Sheep than if he were merely a paid
+labourer; especially in a country where the life of a shepherd was a
+life of actual danger, and he might at any time be obliged to fight
+against armed robbers, or to oppose the wolf, the lion, or the bear.
+The combat of the shepherd David with the last-mentioned animals has
+already been noticed.
+
+In allusion to the continual risks run by the Oriental shepherd, our
+Lord makes use of the following well-known words:--"The thief cometh
+not but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy: I am come that
+they might have life, and have it more abundantly. I am the Good
+Shepherd: the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But he
+that is an hireling, ... whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf
+coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth
+them, and scattereth the sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is an
+hireling, and careth not for the sheep."
+
+Owing to the continual moving of the Sheep, the shepherd had very
+hard work during the lambing time, and was obliged to carry in
+his arms the young lambs which were too feeble to accompany their
+parents, and to keep close to him those Sheep who were expected
+soon to become mothers. At that time of year the shepherd might
+constantly be seen at the head of his flock, carrying one or two
+lambs in his arms, accompanied by their mothers.
+
+In allusion to this fact Isaiah writes: "His reward is with Him, and
+His work before Him. He shall feed His flock like a shepherd; He
+shall gather the lambs with His arms and carry them in His bosom,
+and shall gently lead them that are with young" (or, "that give
+suck," according to the marginal reading). Here we have presented
+at once before us the good shepherd who is no hireling, but owns
+the Sheep; and who therefore has "his reward with him, and his work
+before him;" who bears the tender lambs in his arms, or lays them in
+the folds of his mantle, and so carries them in his bosom, and leads
+by his side their yet feeble mothers.
+
+Frequent mention is made of the folds in which the Sheep are penned;
+and as these folds differed--and still differ--materially from those
+of our own land, we shall miss the force of several passages of
+Scripture if we do not understand their form, and the materials of
+which they were built. Our folds consist merely of hurdles, moveable
+at pleasure, and so low that a man can easily jump over them, and so
+fragile that he can easily pull them down. Moreover, the Sheep are
+frequently enclosed within the fold while they are at pasture.
+
+If any one should entertain such an idea of the Oriental fold, he
+would not see the force of the well-known passage in which our
+Lord compares the Church to a sheepfold, and Himself to the door.
+"He that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold, but climbeth
+up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber. But he that
+entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the sheep. To him the
+porter openeth, and the sheep hear his voice.... All that ever came
+before me are thieves and robbers: but the sheep did not hear them.
+I am the door: by me if any man enter in, he shall be saved, and
+shall go in and out, and find pasture."
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT SHEEP PEN.]
+
+Had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of hurdles, such
+an image could not have been used. It is evident that the fold to
+which allusion was made, and which was probably in sight at the time
+when Jesus was disputing with the Pharisees, was a structure of some
+pretensions; that it had walls which a thief could only enter by
+climbing over them--not by "breaking through" them, as in the case
+of a mud-walled private house; and that it had a gate, which was
+guarded by a watchman.
+
+In fact, the fold was a solid and enduring building, made of stone.
+Thus in Numbers xxxii. it is related that the tribes of Reuben and
+Gad, who had great quantities of Sheep and other cattle, asked for
+the eastward side of Jordan as a pasture-ground, promising to go
+and fight for the people, but previously to build fortified cities
+for their families, and folds for their cattle, the folds being
+evidently, like the cities, buildings of an enduring nature.
+
+In some places the folds are simply rock caverns, partly natural
+and partly artificial, often enlarged by a stone wall built outside
+it. It was the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of
+Jordan that compelled the Reubenites and Gadites to build folds
+for themselves, whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were
+comparatively abundant.
+
+See, for example, the well-known history related in 1 Sam.
+xxiii.-xxiv. David and his miscellaneous band of warriors, some six
+hundred in number, were driven out of the cities by the fear of
+Saul, and were obliged to pass their time in the wilderness, living
+in the "strong holds" (xxiii. 14, 19), which we find immediately
+afterwards to be rock caves (ver. 25). These caves were of large
+extent, being able to shelter these six hundred warriors, and,
+on one memorable occasion, to conceal them so completely as they
+stood along the sides, that Saul, who had just come out of the open
+air, was not able to discern them in the dim light, and David even
+managed to approach him unseen, and cut off a portion of his outer
+robe.
+
+That this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from xxiv. 2-4:
+"Then Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and
+went to seek David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats.
+And he came to the sheepcotes by the way." Into these strongholds
+the Sheep are driven towards nightfall, and, as the flocks converge
+towards their resting-place, the bleatings of the sheep are almost
+deafening.
+
+The shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these caves,
+making them their resting-places while they were living the strange,
+wild, pastoral life among the hills; and at the present day many
+of the smaller caves and "holes of the rock" exhibit the vestiges
+of human habitation in the shape of straw, hay, and other dried
+herbage, which has been used for beds, just as we now find the rude
+couches of the coast-guard men in the cliff caves of our shores.
+
+The dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were, as they are
+now, the faithful servants of man, although, as has already been
+related, they are not made the companions of man as is the case with
+ourselves. Lean, gaunt, hungry, and treated with but scant kindness,
+they are yet faithful guardians against the attack of enemies. They
+do not, as do our sheepdogs, assist in driving the flocks, because
+the Sheep are not driven, but led, but they are invaluable as
+nocturnal sentries. Crouching together outside the fold, in little
+knots of six or seven together, they detect the approach of wild
+animals, and at the first sign of the wolf or the jackal they bark
+out a defiance, and scare away the invaders. It is strange that the
+old superstitious idea of their uncleanness should have held its
+ground through so many tens of centuries; but, down to the present
+day, the shepherd of Palestine, though making use of the dog as a
+guardian of his flock, treats the animal with utter contempt, not to
+say cruelty, beating and kicking the faithful creature on the least
+provocation, and scarcely giving it sufficient food to keep it alive.
+
+Sometimes the Sheep are brought up by hand at home. "House-lamb," as
+we call it, is even now common, and the practice of house-feeding
+peculiar in the old Scriptural times.
+
+We have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable of the
+prophet Nathan: "The poor man had nothing, save one little ewe lamb,
+which he had bought and nourished up: and it grew up together with
+him, and with his children; it did eat of his own meat, and drank of
+his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter"
+(2 Sam. xii. 3). A further, though less distinct, allusion is made
+to this practice in Isaiah vii. 21: "It shall come to pass in that
+day, that a man shall nourish a young cow, and two sheep."
+
+How the Sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may be
+conjectured from the following passage in Mr. D. Urquhart's valuable
+work on the Lebanon:--
+
+"In the month of June, they buy from the shepherds, when pasturage
+has become scarce and sheep are cheap, two or three sheep; these
+they feed by hand. After they have eaten up the old grass and the
+provender about the doors, they get vine leaves, and, after the
+silkworms have begun to spin, mulberry leaves. They purchase them on
+trial, and the test is appetite. If a sheep does not feed well, they
+return it after three days. To increase their appetite they wash
+them twice a day, morning and evening, a care they never bestow on
+their own bodies.
+
+[Illustration: THE POOR MAN'S LAMB.]
+
+[Illustration: THE RICH MAN'S FEAST.]
+
+"If the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard, they
+use a little gentle violence, folding for them forced leaf-balls and
+introducing them into their mouths. The mulberry has the property of
+making them fat and tender. At the end of four months the sheep they
+had bought at eighty piastres will sell for one hundred and forty,
+or will realize one hundred and fifty.
+
+"The sheep is killed, skinned, and hung up. The fat is then removed;
+the flesh is cut from the bones, and hung up in the sun. Meanwhile,
+the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire, and as soon as it
+has come to boil, the meat is laid on. The proportion of the fat
+to the lean is as four to ten, eight 'okes' fat and twenty lean. A
+little salt is added, it is simmered for an hour, and then placed in
+jars for the use of the family during the year.
+
+"The large joints are separated and used first, as not fit for
+keeping long. The fat, with a portion of the lean, chopped fine, is
+what serves for cooking the 'bourgoul,' and is called _Dehen_. The
+sheep are of the fat-tailed variety, and the tails are the great
+delicacy."
+
+This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of Sheep
+in Palestine. One much resembles the ordinary English Sheep, while
+the other is a very different animal. It is much taller on its
+legs, larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the rams have horns, and
+they are not twisted spirally like those of our own Sheep, but
+come backwards, and then curl round so that the point comes under
+the ear. The great peculiarity of this Sheep is the tail, which
+is simply prodigious in point of size, and is an enormous mass
+of fat. Indeed, the long-legged and otherwise lean animal seems
+to concentrate all its fat in the tail, which, as has been well
+observed, appears to abstract both flesh and fat from the rest of
+the body. So great is this strange development, that the tail alone
+will sometimes weigh one-fifth as much as the entire animal. A
+similar breed of Sheep is found in Southern Africa and other parts
+of the world. In some places, the tail grows to such an enormous
+size that, in order to keep so valuable a part of the animal from
+injury, it is fastened to a small board, supported by a couple of
+wheels, so that the Sheep literally wheels its own tail in a cart.
+
+Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the Authorized
+Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which would not be
+understood did we not know that the Sheep which is mentioned in
+those passages is the long-tailed Sheep of Syria. See, for example,
+the history narrated in Exod. xxix. 22, where special details
+are given as to the ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were
+consecrated to the priesthood. "Thou shalt take of the ram the fat
+and the rump, and the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul
+above the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them."
+
+[Illustration: FLOCKS OF SHEEP BEING TAKEN INTO JERUSALEM.]
+
+Though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned in
+the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions to it. In
+the Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed to leave
+their folds on the Sabbath-day, because by wheeling their little
+tail-waggons behind them they would break the Sabbath. The writers
+describe the tail very graphically, comparing its shape to that of
+a saddle, and saying that it is fat, without bones, heavy and long,
+and looks as if the whole body were continued beyond the hind-legs,
+and thence hung down in place of a tail.
+
+The Rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the Sheep, and give
+some very amusing advice respecting their management. If the ewes
+cannot be fattened in the ordinary manner, that end may be achieved
+by tying up the udder so that the milk cannot flow, and the elements
+which would have furnished milk are forced to produce fat. If the
+weather should be chilly at the shearing time, and there is danger
+of taking cold after the wool is removed, the shepherd should dip a
+sponge in oil and tie it on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal.
+Or, if he should not have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as
+well. The same potent remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should
+be ill in lambing time.
+
+That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which deposits
+its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, was as well
+known in the ancient as in modern times. It is scarcely necessary
+to mention that the insect in question is the _Æstrus ovis_.
+Instinctively aware of the presence of this insidious and dreaded
+enemy, which, though so apparently insignificant, is as formidable
+a foe as any of the beasts of prey, the Sheep display the greatest
+terror at the sharp, menacing sound produced by the gadfly's wings
+as the insect sweeps through the air towards its destination. They
+congregate together, placing their heads almost in contact with each
+other, snort and paw the ground in their terror, and use all means
+in their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its purpose.
+
+When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly deposits an
+egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. The tiny eggs are
+soon hatched by the natural heat of the animal, and the young larvæ
+crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain
+until they are full-grown, when they crawl through the nostrils,
+fall on the ground, burrow therein, and in the earth undergo their
+changes into the pupal and perfect stages.
+
+It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would devote
+himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he could find,
+and, as these insects are fond of basking on sunny rocks or
+tree-trunks, this is no very difficult matter.
+
+The Rabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of practical
+entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect until it had
+reached its full larval growth. They say that the rams manage to
+shake the grubs out of their nostrils by butting at one another
+in mimic warfare, and that the ewes, which are hornless, and are
+therefore incapable of relieving themselves by such means, ought
+to be supplied with plants which will make them sneeze, so that
+they may shake out the grubs by the convulsive jerkings of the head
+caused by inhaling the irritating substance.
+
+The same writers also recommend that the rams should be furnished
+with strong leathern collars.
+
+When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the van,
+and, being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the wolf,
+they continually raise their heads and look about them. This line
+of conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the foremost rams and
+seize them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece of stout leather be
+fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is baffled, and runs off in
+sullen despair.
+
+Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when
+the flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file
+after the leader, making narrow paths, which are very distinct
+from a distance, but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the
+traveller is actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an
+ancient proverb, "As the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter
+after the mother," a saying which is another form of our own
+familiar proverb, "What is bred in the bone will not come out of the
+flesh."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its uses.
+First and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the chief
+means of subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of Palestine
+what the oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of Southern Africa.
+
+To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom-tasted
+luxury; great men might eat it habitually, "faring sumptuously every
+day," and we find that, among the glories of Solomon's reign, the
+sacred chronicler has thought it worth while to mention that part of
+the daily provision for his household included one hundred Sheep. No
+particular pains seem to have been taken about the cooking of the
+animal, which seems generally to have been boiled. As, however, in
+such a climate the flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making
+it tender, as is the case in this part of the world, it was cooked
+as soon as the animal was killed, the fibres not having time to
+settle into the rigidity of death.
+
+Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of tasting the
+flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of some rejoicing,--such,
+for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of a guest, for
+whom a lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the spot, a young male
+lamb being almost invariably chosen as less injurious than the ewe
+to the future prospects of the flock. Roasting over a fire was
+sometimes adopted, as was baking in an oven sunk in the ground, a
+remarkable instance of which we shall see when we come to the Jewish
+sacrifices. Boiling, however, was the principal mode; so much so,
+indeed, that the Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to
+signify any kind of cooking, even when the meat was roasted.
+
+The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as follows.
+
+The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the skin
+was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint, the right
+shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remembered, was the
+priest's portion; see Lev. vii. 32: "The right shoulder shall ye
+give unto the priest for an heave offering of the sacrifices of your
+peace offerings." The whole of the flesh was then separated from the
+bones, and chopped small, and even the bones themselves broken up,
+so that the marrow might not be lost.
+
+A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, "Who pluck
+off their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their bones;
+who also eat the flesh of my people ... and they break their bones,
+and chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh within the
+caldron." The reader will now understand more fully the force of
+the prophecy, "He keepeth all His bones: not one of them is broken"
+(Psa. xxxiv. 20).
+
+The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the caldron,
+which was generally filled with water, but sometimes with milk, as
+is the custom with the Bedouins of the present day, whose manners
+are in many respects identical with those of the early Jews. It has
+been thought by some commentators that the injunction not to "seethe
+a kid in his mothers milk" (Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom.
+I believe, however, that the expression "in his mother's milk" does
+not signify that the flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its
+mother's milk, but that a kid might not be taken which was still in
+its mother's milk, _i.e._ unweaned.
+
+Salt and spices were generally added to it; see Ezek. xxiv. 10:
+"Heap on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it
+well." The surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat was
+thoroughly cooked, it and the broth were served up separately. The
+latter was used as a sort of sauce, into which unleavened bread was
+dipped. So in Judges vi. 19 we read that when Gideon was visited by
+the angel, according to the hospitable custom of the land, he "made
+ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he
+put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out
+unto him under the oak, and presented it to him."
+
+Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there has
+always existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very sight
+of the flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral Oriental.
+The principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep was, and is
+still, the milk; which afforded abundant food without thinning the
+number of the flock. As all know who have tasted it, the milk of the
+Sheep is peculiarly rich, and in the East is valued much more highly
+than that of cattle. The milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as
+is usually the case with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour,
+curdled, and semi-solid.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less important than
+the flesh and the milk, _i.e._ the fleece, or wool.
+
+In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made of
+wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely the large
+mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could be folded, and
+which was the usual covering during sleep. The wool, therefore,
+would be an article of great national value; and so we find that
+when the king of Moab paid his tribute in kind to the king of
+Israel, it was carefully specified that the Sheep should not be
+shorn. "And Mesha king of Moab was a sheep-master, and rendered
+unto the king of Israel an hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred
+thousand rams, with the wool."
+
+The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value; some
+kinds being coarse and rough, while others were fine.
+
+The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present, being
+carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff being apparently
+unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the hand. The shape of the
+spindle was much like that of the well-known flat spinning-tops that
+come from Japan--namely, a disc through which passes an axle. A
+smart twirl given by the fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve
+very rapidly, and its weight causes the rotation to continue for a
+considerable time. Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the
+women, a custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent
+time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster,"
+and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synonymous with
+a woman's proper work.
+
+When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple loom
+which has existed up to our own day, and which is identical in its
+general principles throughout a very large portion of the world. It
+consisted of a framework of wood, at one end of which was placed the
+"beam" to which the warp was attached; and at the other end was the
+"pin" on which the cloth was rolled as it was finished.
+
+The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling Samson to
+tell her the secret of his strength, he said, "If thou weavest the
+seven locks of my head with the web." So, as he slept, she interwove
+his long hair with the fabric which was on her loom, and, to make
+sure, "fastened it with the pin," _i.e._ wove it completely into the
+cloth which was rolled round the pin. So firmly had she done so,
+that when he awoke he could not disentangle his hair, but left the
+house with the whole of the loom, the beam and the pin, and the web
+hanging to his head.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Wool was often dyed of various colours; blue, purple, and scarlet
+being those which were generally employed. The rams' skins which
+formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were ordered to be
+dyed scarlet, partly on account of the significance of the colour,
+and partly because none but the best and purest fleeces would be
+chosen for so rare and costly a dye. How the colour was produced we
+shall learn towards the end of the volume.
+
+Sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and revelry,
+which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of
+sobriety. Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thousand
+Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to ask for
+some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance with
+the disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally churlish
+nature with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like the feast of
+a king: and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very
+drunken" (1 Sam. xxv. 36).
+
+The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing his Sheep
+(Gen. xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been possible for
+Jacob to have gone away unknown to Laban, taking with him his wives
+and children, his servants, his camels, and his flocks, the rapid
+increase of which had excited the jealousy of his uncle, and which
+were so numerous that, in fear of his brother Esau, he divided them
+into two bands, and yet was able to select from them a present to
+his brother, consisting in all of nearly six hundred sheep, camels,
+oxen, goats, and asses.
+
+Sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral districts
+made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with the wool still
+adhering to it. The custom extends to the present day, and even
+in many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of the shepherds is
+a familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was sometimes tanned
+and used as leather, but was considered as inferior to that of the
+goat. Mr. Tristram conjectures that the leathern "girdle" worn by
+St. John the Baptist was probably the untanned sheep-skin coat which
+has been just mentioned. So it is said of the early Christians, that
+"they wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute,
+afflicted, tormented," the sheep-skins in question being evidently
+the rude shepherd's coats.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The horn of the ram had a national value, as from it were made the
+sacred trumpets which played so important a part in the history of
+the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the primitive trumpets
+were originally formed either from the horn of an animal, such as
+the ox, the large-horned antelopes, the sheep, and the goat, and
+that in process of time they were made of metal, generally copper or
+silver.
+
+References are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets, for
+which there were different names, probably on account of their
+different forms. These names are, however, very loosely rendered in
+our version, the same word being sometimes translated the "cornet,"
+and sometimes the "trumpet."
+
+[Illustration: SOUNDING THE TRUMPETS IN THE YEAR OF JUBILEE.]
+
+The jubilee year was always ushered in by the blasts of the sacred
+trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubilee to sound
+on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the day of atonement shall
+ye make the trumpet sound throughout all your land" (Lev. xxv. 9).
+Then there was the festival known as the Feast of Trumpets. "In the
+seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy
+convocation; ye shall do no servile work: it is a day of blowing the
+trumpets unto you" (Numb. xxix. 1).
+
+One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in the
+accompanying illustration.
+
+In length it measures eighteen inches, _i.e._ a cubit, and it is
+formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made from
+the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already been
+remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, and forming
+nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This structure,
+added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for its purpose.
+In order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn is softened by
+heat, and is then modelled into the very form which was used by the
+Jewish priests who blew the trumpet before the ark.
+
+[Illustration: RAM'S HORN TRUMPET.]
+
+At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in every
+Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the privilege of
+blowing it.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep in
+sacrifice.
+
+No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the Sheep, and
+in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified the precise age as
+well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be sacrificed in certain
+circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was sacrificed as an offering
+of thanksgiving, sometimes as an expiation for sin, and sometimes
+as a redemption for some more valuable animal. The young male lamb
+was the usual sacrifice; and almost the only sacrifice for which a
+Sheep might not be offered was that of the two goats on the great
+Day of Atonement.
+
+[Illustration: A LAMB UPON THE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING.]
+
+To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered for
+sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will therefore
+restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish nation, the
+sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb of God, who
+taketh away the sins of the world.
+
+Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the Paschal
+sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which distinguish
+it from any other sacrifice.
+
+The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined with the
+minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish, and must be of
+the first year. It must be killed on the fourteenth of the month
+Abib as the sun is setting, and the blood must be sprinkled with
+hyssop. In the first or Egyptian Passover the blood was sprinkled
+on the lintels and doorposts of the houses, but afterwards on the
+altar. It must be roasted with fire, and not boiled, after the usual
+custom in the East; not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by
+the household in haste, as if they were just starting on a journey,
+and if any of it should be left, it must be consumed in the fire,
+and not eaten on the following day.
+
+Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite, at
+once a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not being
+sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which
+might hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number
+of directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for
+example, to guard against the destruction of any part of the animal
+by careless cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of a bone
+by a sudden jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather baked than
+roasted, being placed in an earthen oven from which the ashes had
+been removed. In order to prevent it from being burned or blackened
+against the sides of the oven, (in which case it would be cooked
+with earthenware and not with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden
+stake, made from the pomegranate-tree, and a transverse spit was
+thrust through the shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because
+a metal spit would become heated in the oven, and would cause all
+the flesh which it touched to be roasted with metal, and not with
+fire; and the wood of the pomegranate was chosen, because that wood
+was supposed not to emit any sap when heated. If a drop of water had
+fallen on the flesh, the law would have been broken, as that part of
+the flesh would be considered as boiled, and not roasted.
+
+As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with the lamb,
+the custom does not bear on the present subject. In shape the oven
+seems to have resembled a straw beehive, having an opening at the
+side by which the fuel could be removed and the lamb inserted.
+
+The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several persons,
+such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of Westminster, the
+latter of whom has given, a most striking and vivid account of the
+rite in his "Lectures on the Jewish Church."
+
+The place which is now employed in the celebration of this rite
+is a level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of the
+mountain, a place which is apparently selected on account of its
+comparative quiet and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks that in former
+times, when the Samaritans were the masters of the country, they
+celebrated the sacrifice on the sacred plateau on the very summit of
+the mountain, so that the rite could be seen for a vast distance on
+every side. Now, however, the less conspicuous place is preferred.
+By the kindness of the Palestine Exploration Society, I am enabled
+to present the reader with a view of this sacred spot, taken from
+a photograph made an hour or two before the time of sacrifice.
+The rough, rugged character of the mountain is shown by this
+illustration, though not so well as in several other photographs of
+Gerizim, in which the entire surface seems to be loosely covered
+with stones like those of which the low wall is built. Near the
+centre of the illustration may be seen a pile of sticks and the tops
+of two caldrons, on each of which a stone is laid to keep the cover
+from being blown off by the wind. These sticks nearly fill a trench
+in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use will be presently seen
+on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far distance are the
+plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the priest and his
+nephew, and probable successor, show that the time of sacrifice is
+rapidly approaching.
+
+[Illustration: THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE.]
+
+On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched their
+tents on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached the
+women retired to the tents, and all the males, except those who were
+unclean according to the provisions of the Mosaic law, assembled
+near a long deep trench that had been dug in the ground. The men
+are clothed in long white garments, and the six young men who are
+selected as the actual sacrifices are dressed in white drawers and
+shirts. These youths are trained to the duty, but whether they hold
+any sacred office could not be ascertained.
+
+Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, "the priest,
+ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation, recited
+in a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined, prayers or
+praises chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham and Isaac. Their
+attitude was that of all Orientals in prayer; standing, occasionally
+diversified by the stretching out of the hands, and more rarely by
+kneeling or crouching, with their knees wrapped in their clothes and
+bent to the ground, towards the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim.
+The priest recited his prayers by heart; the others had mostly books
+in Hebrew and Arabic.
+
+"Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers six
+sheep, driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned. The
+unconscious innocence with which they wandered to and fro amongst
+the bystanders, and the simplicity in aspect and manner of the young
+men who tended them, more recalled a pastoral scene in Arcadia, or
+one of those inimitable patriarchal _tableaux_ represented in the
+Ammergau Mystery, than a religious ceremonial.
+
+"The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the
+Mediterranean in the distance, now sank very nearly to the farthest
+western ridge overhanging the plain of Sharon. The recitation became
+more vehement. The priest turned about, facing his brethren, and
+the whole history of the Exodus from the beginning of the plagues
+of Egypt was rapidly, almost furiously, chanted. The sheep, still
+innocently playful, were driven more closely together.
+
+"The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst into a
+wild murmur of their own, drew forth their long bright knives, and
+brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep were thrown on their
+backs, and the flashing knives rapidly drawn across their throats.
+Then a few convulsive but silent struggles--'as a sheep ... dumb ...
+that openeth not his mouth,'--and the six forms lay lifeless on the
+ground, the blood streaming from them; the one only Jewish sacrifice
+lingering in the world. In the blood the young men dipped their
+fingers, and a small spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of
+the children. A few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But
+this had now dwindled away into the present practice, preserved,
+we were told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in
+congratulation at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed
+each other, in the Oriental fashion, on each side of the head.
+
+"The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the
+slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished such
+ample provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had been dug;
+one at some distance, of considerable depth, the other, close to
+the scene of the sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In this latter
+cavity, after a short prayer, a fire was kindled, out of the mass of
+dry heath, juniper, and briers, such as furnished the materials for
+the conflagration in Jotham's parable, delivered not far from this
+spot.
+
+"Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. Whilst the
+water boiled, the congregation again stood around, and (as if for
+economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of Exodus,
+and bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip of unleavened
+bread--'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall they eat
+it.' Then was chanted another short prayer; after which the six
+youths again appeared, poured the boiling water over the sheep, and
+plucked off their fleeces. The right forelegs of the sheep, with the
+entrails, were thrown aside and burnt. The liver was carefully put
+back. Long poles were brought, on which the animals were spitted;
+near the bottom of each pole was a transverse peg or stick, to
+prevent the body from slipping off."
+
+This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which in
+most cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no
+resemblance to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on
+this point, because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit
+an emblem of the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem would
+have been more appropriate, as in that ceremony the cross-piece was
+passed through the shoulders, and the forefeet tied to it.
+
+The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven, which
+on this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire had been
+previously kindled. Into this the victims were carefully lowered,
+the stakes on which they were impaled guarding their bodies from
+touching the sides of the oven, and the cross-piece at the end
+preventing them from slipping off the stake to the bottom of the pit
+among the ashes. A hurdle was then laid on the mouth of the pit,
+and wet earth was heaped upon it so as to close it completely. The
+greater part of the community then retired to rest. In about five
+hours, the Paschal moon being high in the heavens, announcement
+was made that the feast was about to begin. Then, to resume Dean
+Stanley's narrative,
+
+"Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose into
+the still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam; recalling,
+with a shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental coincidence,
+Reginald Heber should have so well caught this striking feature of
+so remote and unknown a ritual:
+
+ 'Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice.'
+
+"Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on their
+long spits, black from the oven. The outlines of their heads, their
+ears, their legs, were still visible--'his head, with his legs, and
+with the inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted aloft, and then
+thrown on large square brown mats, previously prepared for their
+reception, on which we were carefully prevented from treading, as
+also from touching even the extremities of the spit.
+
+"The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to the trench
+where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon them in a
+line between two files of the Samaritans. Those who had before been
+dressed in white robes still retained them, with the addition now
+of shoes on their feet and staves in their hands, and ropes round
+their waists--'thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your
+shoes on your feet, your staff in your hand.' The recitation of
+prayers or of the Pentateuch recommenced, and continued till it
+suddenly terminated in their all sitting down on their haunches,
+after the Arab fashion at meals, and beginning to eat. This, too,
+is a deviation from the practice of only a few years since, when
+they retained the Mosaic ritual of standing whilst they ate. The
+actual feast was conducted in rapid silence, as of men in hunger, as
+no doubt most of them were, and so as soon to consume every portion
+of the blackened masses, which they tore away piecemeal with their
+fingers--'ye shall eat in haste.' There was a general merriment, as
+of a hearty and welcome meal.
+
+"In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the priest and
+to the women, who, all but two (probably his two wives), remained
+in the tents, separate morsels were carried round. The remnants
+were gathered into the mats, and put on a wooden grate, or hurdle,
+over the hole where the water had been originally boiled; the fire
+was again lit, and a huge bonfire was kindled. By its blaze, and by
+candles lighted for the purpose, the ground was searched in every
+direction, as for the consecrated particles of sacramental elements;
+and these fragments of flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning
+mass--'ye shall let nothing remain until the morning; and that which
+remaineth until the morning ye shall burn with fire;' 'there shall
+not anything of the flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at
+even remain all night until the morning;' 'thou shalt not carry
+forth aught of the flesh abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed
+up once more, and then gradually sank away.
+
+[Illustration: sheep]
+
+"Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will be the
+only relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite."
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: chamois]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHAMOIS.
+
+ The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the
+ Bible--Signification of the word Zemer--Probability that the
+ Zemer is the Aoudad--Its strength and activity--The Mouflon
+ probably classed with the Aoudad under the name of Zemer.
+
+
+Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one which
+in our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a passage
+which has several times been quoted.
+
+It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that, whatever
+may be the Hebrew word, "Chamois" cannot be the correct rendering,
+inasmuch as this animal does not inhabit Palestine, nor are there
+any proofs that it ever did so. The Chamois frequents the lofty
+inaccessible crags of the highest mountains, finding its food in the
+scanty herbage which grows in such regions, appearing on the brink
+of awful precipices, and leaping from ledge to ledge with ease and
+safety. We must, therefore, look for some other animal.
+
+The Chamois is one of the most wary of Antelopes, and possesses the
+power of scenting mankind at what would seem to be an impossible
+distance.
+
+Its ears are as acute as its nostrils, so that there are few animals
+which are so difficult to approach.
+
+Only those who have been trained to climb the giddy heights of the
+Alpine Mountains, to traverse the most fearful precipices with a
+quiet pulse and steady head, to exist for days amid the terrible
+solitudes of ice, rock, and snow,--only these, can hope to come
+within sight of the Chamois, when the animal is at large upon its
+native cliffs.
+
+The Hebrew word, which has been rendered Chamois, is Zamar, or
+Zemer, _i. e._ the leaper, and therefore an animal which is
+conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in the
+opinion that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome wild sheep
+which we know under the name of Aoudad (_Ammotragus Tragelaphus_).
+This splendid sheep is known by various names. It is the Jaela of
+some authors, and the Bearded Sheep of others. It is also called the
+Fichtall, or Lerwea; and the French zoologists describe it under the
+name of _Mouflon à manchettes_, in allusion to the fringe of long
+hair that ornaments the fore limbs.
+
+The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly active,
+and has the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep, on which
+account it is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs of the present
+day, and doubtless was similarly classed by the ancient inhabitants
+of Palestine. The height of the adult Aoudad is about three feet,
+and its general colour is pale dun, relieved by the dark masses of
+long hair that fall from the neck and the tufts of similar hair
+which decorate the knees of the male. The female is also bearded and
+tufted, but the hair, which in the male looks like the mane of the
+lion, in the female is but slightly developed.
+
+It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male which
+lived for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much dreaded
+by the keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to enter the
+enclosure if he could help himself. The animal was given to making
+unexpected charges, and would do so with astonishing quickness,
+springing round and leaping at the object of his hate with
+tremendous force, and with such rapidity that even the experienced
+keeper, who knew all the ways of the animals under his charge, had
+often some difficulty in slipping behind the door, against which the
+horns of the Aoudad would clatter as if they would break the door to
+pieces. So fond was he of attacking something that he would often
+butt repeatedly at the wooden side of the shed, hurling himself
+against it with eager fury.
+
+[Illustration: CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG.]
+
+[Illustration: CHASING THE AOUDAD.]
+
+The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are of
+considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully backwards,
+their points diverging considerably from each other, so that when
+the animal throws its head up, the points of the horns come on
+either side of the back. This divergence of the horns has another
+object. They cover a considerable space, so that when the animal
+makes its charge the object of its anger has much more difficulty in
+escaping the blow than if the horns were closer together.
+
+Whether these horns were used as musical instruments is doubtful,
+simply because we are not absolutely sure that the Zamar and the
+Aoudad are identical, however great may be the probability. But
+inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently of various sizes, it
+is certain that the Jewish musicians would never have neglected to
+take advantage of such magnificent materials as they would obtain
+from the horns of this animal. Perhaps the Chaldaic "keren" may have
+been the horn of the Aoudad, or of the animal which will next be
+mentioned.
+
+The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones bound to
+an astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their hoofs eight
+feet from the ground.
+
+In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds,
+and prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with
+a sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These
+flocks are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest and
+least broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and then run it
+down with their horses, as seen in the illustration on page 214.
+
+The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now is
+found along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the Egyptian
+monuments, and, owing to its evident profusion, we have every reason
+to conjecture that it was one of those animals which were specially
+indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving the hoof.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Perhaps the MOUFLON (_Caprovis Musimon_) may be the animal which is
+meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not unlikely that both
+animals may have been included in one name.
+
+This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also very
+goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance that
+the name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The name
+Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the Aoudad, has a
+similar signification.
+
+The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal, and are
+of enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and great power
+were needed, they could be obtained from the horns of this animal.
+Those of the Aoudad are very large, and would be well adapted for
+the same purpose, but they would not furnish such instruments as
+the horns of the Mouflon, which are so large that they seem almost
+unwieldy for an animal of twice the Mouflon's size, and give visible
+proofs of the strength and agility of an animal which can carry them
+so lightly and leap about under their weight so easily as does the
+Mouflon.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUFLON.]
+
+At the present time the Mouflon is only to be found in Crete,
+Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to inhabit many
+other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly one of the many
+animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but which have in later days
+been extirpated.
+
+
+
+
+THE GOAT.
+
+ Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the
+ usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh and deception
+ of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking scene--The hair
+ of the goat, and the uses to which it is put--The Goat's skin
+ used for leather--The "bottle" of Scripture--Mode of making
+ and repairing the bottles--Ruse of the Gibeonites--The "bottle
+ in the smoke"--The sacks and the kneading troughs--The Goat as
+ used for sacrifice--General habits of the Goat--Separation of
+ the Goats from the sheep--Performing Goats--Different breeds of
+ Goats in Palestine.
+
+
+Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to
+sacrifice, the GOAT was scarcely a less important animal than the
+sheep. It was especially valuable in such a country as Palestine,
+in which the soil and the climate vary so much according to the
+locality. Upon the large fertile plains the sheep are bred in vast
+flocks, the rich and succulent grass being exactly to their taste;
+while in the hilly and craggy districts the Goats abound, and
+delight in browsing upon the scanty herbage that grows upon the
+mountain-side.
+
+For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the sheep.
+The adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very tough, and
+having an odour which would repel any but an actually starving man.
+Neither were the females generally eaten, as they were needed for
+the future increase of the flocks. The young male kid formed the
+principal material of a feast, and as soon as a stranger claimed the
+hospitality of a man in good circumstances, the first thing that was
+done was to take a young male kid and dress it for him.
+
+For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a
+stranger, Gideon "went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes
+of an ephah of flour," and brought them to his guest (Judges vi.
+19). And when Isaac was on his death-bed and asked Esau to take
+his bow and arrows and hunt for "venison," which was probably the
+flesh of one of the antelopes which have already been mentioned, a
+ready substitute was found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah
+made the dish for which he longed. The imposition might easily
+pass without detection, because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly
+tender, and can scarcely be distinguished from lamb, even when
+simply roasted. Isaac, therefore, with his senses dulled by his
+great age, was the less likely to discover the imposture, when the
+flesh of the kids was stewed into "savoury meat such as he loved."
+
+[Illustration: JACOB DECEIVES HIS FATHER AND TAKES ESAU'S BLESSING.]
+
+A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is
+given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father had
+killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his father, Lo,
+these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any
+time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I
+might make merry with my friends" (Luke xv. 29). The force of the
+reproval cannot be properly understood unless we are acquainted with
+the customs of the East. The kid was the least valuable animal that
+could have been given, less valuable than a lamb, and infinitely
+inferior to the fatted calf, which was kept in wealthy households
+for some feast of more than ordinary magnificence.
+
+The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, namely,
+by cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat and broth
+being served separately. See, for example, the case of Gideon, to
+whom a reference has already been made. When he brought the banquet
+to his guest, "the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth
+in a pot, and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented
+it. And the angel of God said unto him, Take the flesh and the
+unleavened cakes, and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the
+broth."
+
+[Illustration: THE ANGEL APPEARS TO GIDEON.]
+
+Gideon did so, and the angel reached forth the staff that was in his
+hand, and touched the flesh, and there rose up fire out of the rock
+and burnt up the offering.
+
+The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief
+receives a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the
+women to be cooked, and the guest is pressed to stay until it is
+ready, in the very words used by Gideon three thousand years ago.
+"Depart not hence, I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring
+forth my present, and set it before thee." The refusal of proffered
+hospitality would be, and still is considered to be, either a
+studied insult, or a proof of bad manners, and no one with any
+claims to breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause
+and much apology.
+
+Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer,
+and at the present day the milk of the Goat is used as largely as
+that of the sheep. "At Rasheiya, under Mount Hermon," writes Mr.
+Tristram, "we saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night
+in the wide open market-place beneath the castle. It was no easy
+matter to thread our way among them, as they had no idea of moving
+for such belated intruders on their rest. All the she-goats of the
+neighbouring hills are driven in every evening, and remain for
+their morning's milking, after which they set forth on their day's
+excursion.
+
+"Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. The
+evening milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and open space
+is filled with the goats; and women, boys, and girls are everywhere
+milking with their small pewter pots, while the goats are anxiously
+awaiting their turn, or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it
+is over. As no kids or he-goats are admitted, the scene is very
+orderly, and there is none of the deafening bleating which usually
+characterises large flocks.
+
+"These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of their
+demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth, and never
+were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them home in the evening,
+for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected, they
+hurry homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to
+decline."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for the
+manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its quality
+differs according to the particular breed of the animal, which
+assumes almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. The hair
+of some varieties is thick and rough, and can only be made into
+coarse cloths, while others, of which the mohair Goat and Cashmere
+Goat are familiar examples, furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy
+and fineness. It is most likely that the covering and curtains of
+the Tabernacle mentioned in Exod. xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind,
+as otherwise they would have been out of character with the fine
+linen, and blue and scarlet, their golden clasps, and the profuse
+magnificence which distinguished every part of the sacred building.
+Moreover, the hair of the Goat is classed among the costly offerings
+which were made when the Tabernacle was built. "And they came
+forth, men and women, as many as were willing hearted, and brought
+bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels of
+gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of gold unto
+the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, and purple, and
+scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of rams, and
+badgers' skins, brought them" to be used in the structure of that
+wonderful building, in which nothing might be used except the finest
+and costliest that could be procured.
+
+One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was
+the manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still used,
+and is considered far better than that of the sheep. Perhaps the
+most common form in which this leather is used is the well-known
+water-vessel, or "bottle" of the Bible.
+
+These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal,
+which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the
+locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In Palestine they
+are soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture, and are
+then filled with water, after the seams have been pitched. In this
+state they are kept for some time, and are kept exposed to the sun,
+covered entirely with the tanning fluid, and filled up with water to
+supply the loss caused by evaporation and leakage.
+
+The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as a
+preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at
+the hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy covering
+wears off, first in patches, and then over the entire surface, so
+that a new bottle can be recognised at a glance, and any one who
+wished to sell an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at
+once detected.
+
+Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the
+countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels would be
+too heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant evaporation
+that always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps
+down the temperature of the water, even under a burning sun, the
+slight loss which is caused by the porousness of the skin being
+more than counterbalanced by the coolness of the water. It is true
+that the goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavour far from
+pleasant, but in those countries the quality of the water is of
+little consequence, provided that it is plentiful in quantity, and
+tolerably cool.
+
+In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose
+the mode of manufacture is practically identical. An account of the
+art of preparing the goat-skin as practised in Abyssinia is given by
+Mr. C. Johnston, in his "Travels in Southern Abyssinia:"--
+
+"To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around the
+neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to
+draw the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first
+incision is made to commence the process, and which is a circular
+cut carried around both haunches, not many inches from and having
+the tail for a centre. The hide is then stripped over the thighs,
+and two smaller incisions being made round the middle joint of the
+hind-legs enable them to be drawn out.
+
+"A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by this, for
+the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is suspended
+from the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls around the body,
+the skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs, which are
+incised around the knees, to admit of their being taken out; after
+which, the head being removed, the whole business concludes by the
+skin being pulled inside out over the decollated neck. One of the
+parties now takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface,
+to divest it of a few fibres of the subcutaneous muscle which are
+inserted into the skin, and after this operation it is laid aside
+until the next day; the more interesting business of attending to
+the meat calling for immediate attention.
+
+"These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures
+around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the
+skin being sewed upon each other, by means of a slender but very
+tough thong. These small seams are rendered quite air-tight, and
+the larger orifice around the haunches being gathered together by
+the hands, the yet raw skin is distended with air; and the orifice
+being then tied up, the swollen bag is left in that state for a few
+days, until slight putrefaction has commenced, when the application
+of the rough stone soon divests its surface of the hair. After
+this has been effected, a deal of labour, during at least one
+day, is required to soften the distended skin by beating it with
+heavy sticks, or trampling upon it for hours together, the labourer
+supporting himself by clinging to the bough of a tree overhead, or
+holding on by the wall of the house.
+
+"In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented from
+getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil
+condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter.
+When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming
+hard and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and
+a very soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several
+days after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise
+unemployed, by well rubbing it all over with his hands."
+
+The reader will see that the two processes are practically
+identical, the chief difference being that in one country the skins
+are distended with water and in the other with air.
+
+As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns,
+branches, rocks, and similar objects with which they come in
+contact, and are much too valuable to be thrown away as useless,
+their owners have discovered methods of patching and repairing
+them, which enable them to be used for some time longer. Patches of
+considerable size are sometimes inserted, if the rent should be of
+importance, while the wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple
+and efficacious expedient. The skin is first emptied, and a round
+flat piece of wood, or even a stone of suitable shape, is put into
+it. The skin is then held with the wounded part downwards, and the
+stone shaken about until it comes exactly upon the hole. It is then
+grasped, the still wet hide gathered tightly under it, so as to
+pucker up the skin, and a ligature is tied firmly round it. Perhaps
+some of my readers may have practised the same method of mending a
+punctured football.
+
+Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in Josh.
+ix. 4, 13. The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and went and made as if
+they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and
+wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up ... and said ... these
+bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be
+rent."
+
+If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is sometimes the
+case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they shrivel up,
+and become rotten and weak, and are no longer enabled to bear the
+pressure caused by the fermentation of new wine. So, in Ps. cxix.
+81-83: "My soul fainteth for Thy salvation: but I hope in Thy word.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN WATER-CARRIERS WITH BOTTLES MADE OF
+GOAT-SKIN.]
+
+"Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort me?
+
+"For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget Thy
+statutes."
+
+How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the early
+life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are no
+windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until
+it settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other
+rude articles of furniture that are hung from the poles!
+
+In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness
+of old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles, or
+the bottles break and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish;
+but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." It
+would be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless
+we knew that the "bottles" in question were not vessels of glass or
+earthenware, but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats.
+
+Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of
+the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. If the reader
+will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the Gibeonites took with
+them not only old bottles, but old sacks. Now, these sacks bore no
+resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar, but
+were nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in
+the manufacture of bottles, but with the opening at the neck left
+open. They were, in fact, skin-bottles for holding solids instead of
+liquids. The sacks which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in
+the mouths of which they found their money, were simply goat-skin
+bags, made as described.
+
+Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that the
+"kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply circular
+pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground when wanted,
+and rolled up and carried away when out of use. Thus, the fact
+that "the people took their dough before it was leavened, their
+kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their
+shoulders," need cause no surprise.
+
+Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The women were
+all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected journey, when
+the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and
+said, Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and
+the children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said....
+And the Egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send
+them out of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men."
+
+So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven
+out of the country before they had leavened, much less baked,
+their bread, had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the
+leathern "kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their
+spare clothing, and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if we
+connect the kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements
+used in this country, we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of
+the proceeding. As soon as they came to their first halting-place
+at Succoth, they took the leathern kneading-troughs out of their
+clothes, unrolled them, took the dough which had not even been
+leavened, so unexpectedly had the order for marching arrived, made
+it into flat cakes, and baked them as they best could. The same kind
+of "kneading-trough" is still in use in many parts of the world.
+
+Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants
+of ancient Palestine; but they were only employed for the storage of
+wine in houses, whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine
+from one place to another were invariably made of leather. Water
+also was stored in stone or earthenware jars. See, for example,
+John ii. 6: "And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after
+the manner of the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three
+firkins apiece." Whereas, when it was carried about, it was poured
+into bottles made of skin. Such was probably the "bottle of water"
+that Abraham put on Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by
+the jealousy of Sarah, and such was the "bottle of wine" that Hannah
+brought as her offering when she dedicated Samuel to the service of
+God.
+
+In sacrifices the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as the
+lamb, and in one--namely, that which was celebrated on the Great Day
+of Atonement--the Goat was specially mentioned as the only animal
+which could be sacrificed. The reader will, perhaps, remember that
+for this peculiar sacrifice two Goats were required, on which two
+lots were cast, one for the Lord, _i.e._ with the word "Jehovah"
+upon it, and the other for the scapegoat, _i.e._ inscribed with the
+word "Azazel." The latter term is derived from two Hebrew words,
+the former being "Az," which is the general name for the Goat, and
+the second "azel," signifying "he departed." The former, which
+belonged to Jehovah, was sacrificed, and its blood sprinkled upon
+the mercy-seat and the altar of incense; and the Goat Azazel was
+led away into the wilderness, bearing upon its head the sins of the
+people, and there let loose.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined that
+the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is watched as
+carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both sheep and Goats
+belong to the same master, and are tended by the same shepherd, who
+exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep.
+
+They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will follow
+the shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not mix with the
+sheep. The latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley, the
+shepherd leading the way, and the sheep following him, led in their
+turn by the sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram
+of the flock. The Goats, however, will not submit to walk in so
+quiet a manner, but prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks
+that skirt the valleys, skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming
+to take delight in getting themselves into dangerous places, where a
+man could not venture to set his foot.
+
+In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose,
+they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in
+the precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, where
+the jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. When such
+is the case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the
+cave, and assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path
+that leads to the cavern. The Goats, however, need no assistance,
+but come scrambling along by paths where no foot but a Goat's could
+tread, mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave,
+and, as if in exultation at their superior agility, jumping over the
+backs of the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold.
+
+Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle together.
+There may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage,
+but the Goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows,
+while the sheep graze quietly below. Goats are specially fond of the
+tender shoots of trees, which they find in plenty upon the mountain
+side; and, according to Mr. Tristram, by their continual browsing,
+they have extirpated many species of trees which were once common on
+the hills of Palestine, and which now can only be found in Lebanon
+on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Illustration: GOATS ON THE MARCH.]
+
+Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats never
+mix with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and they
+instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at
+mid-day.
+
+This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally
+recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that "before
+Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate them one
+from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and
+He shall set the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left."
+
+The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers,
+who were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and Goats under
+one shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. At feeding-time
+the Goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides,
+while the sheep are grazing in the plain or valley; at mid-day, when
+the flocks are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away
+of the stone that guards the water, the Goats assemble on one side
+and the sheep on the other. And at night, when they are all gathered
+into one fold by one shepherd, they are still separated from each
+other. The same image is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: "As for
+you, O my flock, thus said the Lord God, Behold I judge between
+cattle and cattle, between rams and the he-goats."
+
+Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as well as
+the leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there was an old
+proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds the bell-goat,"
+while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the
+animal--"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats will run away."
+
+Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be
+taught to perform many tricks. "We saw just below us, on the
+rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children,
+surrounding a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which had
+been tutored to perform some cunning trick. It stood with its four
+feet close together on the top of a very long pole, and allowed the
+man to lift it up and carry it round and round within the circle;
+then the Goat was perched on four sticks, and again carried about. A
+little band of music--pipes, drums, and tambourines--called together
+the people from all parts of the town to witness this performance.
+
+"The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly, in
+very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly understanding the
+words and commands of his master. The men who watched the actions of
+the Goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a
+philosophical or scientific lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine,"
+by Miss Rogers.)
+
+Another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained Goats.
+The man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground, so as
+to be perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to stand upon it.
+A piece of wood about six inches in length, and shaped something
+like a dice-box, is then placed on the stool, and the Goat manages
+to stand on it, all his sharp, hard hoofs being pressed closely
+together on the tiny surface. The man then takes another piece of
+wood and holds it to the Goat's feet. The animal gently removes
+first one foot and then another, and, by careful shifting of the
+feet, enables its master to place the second piece of wood on the
+first. Successive additions are made, until at the last the Goat is
+perched on the topmost of some nine or ten pieces of wood balanced
+on each other, the whole looking like a stout reed marked off with
+joints.
+
+The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned
+in the Proverbs: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are
+comely in going:
+
+"A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for
+any;
+
+"A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no
+rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is here rendered as
+he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is given to the animal
+on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns. The
+word is not common in the Bible, but it is used even at the present
+day among the Arabs.
+
+Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of
+which is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian Goat.
+These, however dissimilar they may be in appearance, are only
+varieties of the ordinary domestic animal, the former being produced
+artificially by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding
+which have the longest and finest hair. It was from the hair of this
+breed that the costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle were woven, and
+it is probably to this breed that reference is made in Solomon's
+Song, iv. 1, 2: "Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art
+fair; thou hast doves' eyes within thy locks: thy hair is as a flock
+of goats, that appear from Mount Gilead.
+
+"Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which
+came up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader
+will also note another reference to the habits of the Goats and
+sheep, the hair being compared to the dark-haired Goats that wander
+on the tops of the hills, while the teeth are compared to sheep
+that are ranged in regular order below. The Mohair Goat is known
+scientifically as _Capra Angorensis_. The same image is used again
+in chap. vi. 5.
+
+[Illustration: HERD OF GOATS ATTACKED BY A LION.]
+
+The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country.
+It is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is remarkable for
+the enormous length of its ears, which sometimes exceed a foot from
+root to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species
+under the name of _Capra Mambrica_, or _C. Syriaca_, but, like the
+Mohair Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a
+variety of the common Goat, _Hircus ægragus_.
+
+Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos iii.
+12: "Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth
+of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children
+of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria." Such a scene, which
+was familiar to Amos, the shepherd as well as the prophet, is
+represented in the illustration. In the foreground is the goat on
+which the lion has sprung, and from which one of the long ears has
+been torn away. Its companions are gathering round it in sympathy,
+while its kid is trying to discover the cause of its mother's
+uneasiness. In the background is a group of armed shepherds,
+standing round the lion which they have just killed, while one of
+them is holding up the torn ear which he has taken out of the lion's
+mouth.
+
+
+
+
+THE WILD GOAT.
+
+ The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden
+ or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance
+ and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden
+ formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably
+ common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How
+ the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at
+ the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy.
+
+
+In three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, "Azelim,"
+which is variously translated in our Authorized Version.
+
+It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as
+"Wild Goats." "It was told Saul, saying, Behold, David is in the
+wilderness of En-gedi [_i.e._ the Fountain of the Goat]. Then Saul
+took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went to seek
+David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats (_azelim_)." The
+same word occurs in Job xxxix. 1: "Knowest thou the time when the
+wild goats of the rock bring forth?" It is also found in Ps. civ.
+18: "The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats." In all these
+passages it is rendered as "wild goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is
+translated as roe: "Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. Let her be
+as the loving hind and pleasant roe (_azelah_)." The Jewish Bible
+follows the same diverse renderings.
+
+We now have to discover the animal which was signified by the word
+Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber, just as the
+adult he-goat is called the Butter.
+
+That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and that
+it loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident from the
+repeated connexion of the word rock with the name of the animal. We
+also see, from the passage in Job, that it is a wild animal whose
+habits were not known. There is scarcely any doubt that the Azel of
+the Old Testament is the ARABIAN IBEX or BEDEN (_Capra Nubiana_).
+This animal is very closely allied to the well-known Ibex of the
+Alps, or Steinbock, but may be distinguished from it by one or two
+slight differences, such as the black beard and the slighter make
+of the horns, which moreover have three angles instead of four, as
+is the case with the Alpine Ibex.
+
+The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes called the
+Jaela, sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also known as the Wild
+Goat of Sinai. The general colour of the Beden is grey, becoming
+brownish in winter, and being whitish grey beneath. The feet are
+spotted with black and white, and the beard of the male is black,
+differing from that of the Alpine Ibex, which is brown. The female
+is beardless. The lines along the back and the sides of the tail are
+black, and there are three streaks on each ear.
+
+The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and
+is even now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild,
+weird-looking En-gedi (Ain Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats, the
+Beden is still to be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David and
+his followers took up their residence at En-gedi for the sake of
+the Wild Goats that were plentiful upon the spot, and which would
+furnish food for himself and his hardy band of outlaws. "In the
+neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks this traveller, "while encamped
+by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained several fine specimens, and
+very interesting it was to find the graceful creature by the very
+fountain to which it gave name.
+
+"When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often, by the
+help of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once, when near
+Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started one at a distance
+of four hundred yards. At the south end of the Dead Sea they were
+common, and I have picked up a horn both near Jericho on the hills
+and also on the hills of Moab on the eastern side. At Jericho,
+too, I obtained a young one which I hoped to rear, but which died
+after I had had it for ten days, owing, I believe, to the milk with
+which it was fed being sour. Further north and west we did not
+find it, though I have reason to believe that a few linger on the
+mountains between Samaria and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some
+of the spurs of Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone
+occurring in the Lebanon, proving its former abundance there."
+
+As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days when
+fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and wary, so that
+they will not show themselves within range of a bullet, it is
+evident that in the time when David lived at En-gedi and drank of
+the Goats' Fountain they were far more numerous, and could afford
+nourishment to him and his soldiers. Travellers, moreover, who do
+not happen to be experienced hunters, will often fail in seeing
+the Beden, even in places where it is tolerably plentiful. The
+colour of its coat resembles so nearly that of the rocks, that an
+inexperienced eye would see nothing but bare stones and sticks where
+a practised hunter would see numbers of Beden, conspicuous by their
+beautifully curved horns.
+
+The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest and
+most craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from
+spot to spot with a recklessness that startles one who has not
+been accustomed to the animal, and the wonderful certainty of its
+foot. It will, for example, dash at the face of a perpendicular
+precipice that looks as smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose of
+reaching a tiny ledge which is hardly perceptible, and which is
+some fifteen feet or so above the spot whence the animal sprang.
+Its eye, however, has marked certain little cracks and projections
+on the face of the rock, and as the animal makes its leap, it takes
+these little points of vantage in rapid succession, just touching
+them as it passes upwards, and by the slight stroke of its foot
+keeping up the original impulse of its leap. Similarly, the Ibex
+comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides of the mountains,
+sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn together, on a little
+projection scarcely larger than a penny, and sometimes springing
+boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting with exact precision
+upon a projecting piece of rock that seems scarcely large enough to
+sustain a rat comfortably.
+
+The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed. They are,
+however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble than the
+young gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The natives can
+generally procure the kids at the proper time of year, and sell them
+at a very cheap rate. They seldom, however, can be reared, and even
+those who live in the country experience the greatest difficulty in
+keeping the young Beden alive until it attains maturity.
+
+Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young could
+scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that they
+could easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers. But
+the mother Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent life,
+wandering to considerable distances, and leaving her kid snugly
+hidden in some rock-cleft. The hunters watch the mother as she
+starts off in the morning, clamber up to the spot where the kid is
+concealed, and secure it without difficulty. The Arabs say that
+there are always two kids at a birth, but there is considerable
+discrepancy of evidence on this point, which, after all, is of very
+little importance.
+
+[Illustration: ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior to
+that of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and it has
+been happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in search of
+which Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his bow, and which
+furnished the "savoury meat" which Isaac loved. None but a true
+hunter can hope to secure the Beden, and even all the knowledge,
+patience, and energy of the best hunters are tried before they can
+kill their prey. It was therefore no matter of wonder that Isaac
+should be surprised when he thought that he heard Esau return so
+soon from the hunting-grounds. "How is it that thou hast found it so
+quickly, my son?"
+
+There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even the chamois
+of the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of a hunter more
+than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted with very keen eyes,
+which can discern the approach of an enemy long before its grey coat
+and curved horns can be distinguished from the stones and gnarled
+boughs of the mountain side. And, even if the enemy be not within
+range of the animal's sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can
+detect a man by scent alone at a considerable distance. Like all
+gregarious animals, the Beden insures the safety of the flock by
+stationing sentries, which are posted on places that command the
+whole surrounding country, and to deceive the watchful senses of
+these wary guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter.
+
+The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for approaching
+a herd, because the animals are then feeding, and if the hunter can
+manage to approach them against the wind, he may chance to come
+within range. Should however the wind change its direction, he may
+quietly walk home again, for at the first breath of the tainted gale
+the sentinels utter their shrill whistle of alarm, and the whole
+party dash off with a speed that renders pursuit useless.
+
+The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their bold
+curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their front,
+are remarkably handsome objects. In their own country they are in
+great request as handles to knives, and even in England they may be
+occasionally seen serving as handles to carving-knives and forks.
+
+As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together with
+other animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is so much
+doubt about the correct translation that I can do no more than
+mention that the Jewish Bible follows our authorized edition in
+translating Ako as Wild Goat, but adds the doubtful mark to the
+word.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: deer]
+
+
+
+
+THE DEER.
+
+ The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in
+ Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among
+ the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the
+ mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable
+ character of the Deer.
+
+
+We now come to the DEER which are mentioned in Scripture. There are
+not many passages in which they are mentioned, and one of them is
+rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come to it.
+
+There is no doubt that the two words HART and HIND (in the Hebrew
+_Ayzal_ and _Ayzalah_) represent Deer of some kind, and the question
+is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by these words. I
+think that we may safely determine that no particular species is
+meant, but that under the word Ayzal are comprehended any kinds of
+Deer that inhabit Palestine, and were likely to be known to those
+to whom the earlier Scriptures were addressed. That some kind of
+Deer was plentiful is evident from the references which are made
+to it, and specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala, as it is
+pronounced, which signifies the Deer-ground or pasture. But the
+attempt to discriminate between one species and another is simply
+impossible, and the more careful the search the more impracticable
+the task appears.
+
+[Illustration: RED DEER.]
+
+As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhabited
+Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one belonging
+to the division which is known by its branched horns, and the other
+to that in which the horns are flat or palmated over the tips.
+Examples of both kinds are familiar to us under the titles of the
+RED DEER and the FALLOW DEER, and it is tolerably certain that both
+these animals were formerly found in Palestine, or that at all
+events the Deer which did exist there were so closely allied to them
+as to be mere varieties occasioned by the different conditions in
+which they were placed.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We will now proceed to the various passages in which the Hart and
+Hind are mentioned in the Bible.
+
+[Illustration: FALLOW-DEER, OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+As might be expected, we come upon it among the number of the beasts
+which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and were specially
+indicated as fit for food; see Deut. xii. 15: "Notwithstanding thou
+mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, ... the unclean and the
+clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck, and as of the hart."
+
+There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen. xlix.
+21. It occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which Jacob
+blesses his sons, and prophesies their future, each image serving
+ever afterwards as the emblem of the tribe: "Naphtali is a hind let
+loose: he giveth goodly words;"--or, according to the Jewish Bible,
+"Naphtali is a hind sent forth: he giveth sayings of pleasantness."
+Now, such an image as this would never have been used, had not the
+spectacle of the "hind let loose" been perfectly familiar to the
+eyes both of the dying patriarch and his hearers, and equally so
+with the lion, the ass, the vine, the serpent, and other objects
+used emblematically in the same prophetic poem.
+
+[Illustration: A QUIET SPOT.]
+
+The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence among
+the animals used for King Solomon's table: see 1 Kings iv. 23, a
+passage which has been quoted several times, and therefore need only
+be mentioned.
+
+Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in several
+passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6: "Then shall the lame man
+leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing." Again, in 2 Sam.
+xxii. 33, 34: "God is my strength and power: and He maketh my way
+perfect.
+
+"He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon my high
+places."
+
+Nearly four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk using
+precisely the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm of
+Thanksgiving:--"Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the
+God of my salvation.
+
+"The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet like hinds'
+feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high places." (iii. 18,
+19.)
+
+A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's Song, ii.
+8, 9: "The voice of my beloved! behold, he cometh leaping upon the
+mountains, skipping upon the hills.
+
+"My beloved is like a roe or a young hart."
+
+There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in many
+ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the text
+for so many well-known anthems. "As the hart panteth after the
+water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God.
+
+"My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I come
+and appear before God?" (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.)
+
+Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood without
+the context.
+
+[Illustration: RED DEER AND FAWN.]
+
+David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power, and while
+he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place, and seeking
+an uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6 he enumerates
+some of the spots in which he has been forced to reside, far away
+from the altar, the priests, and the sacrifice. He has been hunted
+about from place to place by his enemies as a stag is hunted by
+the hounds, and his very soul thirsted for the distant Tabernacle,
+in which the Shekinah, the visible presence of God, rested on the
+mercy-seat between the golden cherubim.
+
+Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was ever
+the reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a psalm
+that he wrote in which we do not find some allusion to the visible
+presence of God among men. No matter what might be the troubles
+through which he had to pass, even though he trod the valley of the
+shadow of death, the thought of his God was soothing as water to the
+hunted stag, and in that thought he ever found repose. Through all
+his many trials and adversities, through his deep remorse for his
+sins, through his wounded paternal affections, through his success
+and prosperity, that one thought is the ruling power. He begins his
+career with it when he opposed Goliath: "Thou comest to me with a
+sword, and with a spear, and with a shield: but I come to thee in
+the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies of Israel." He
+closes his career with the same thought, and, in the "last words"
+that are recorded, he charged his son to keep the commandments of
+the Lord, that he might do wisely all that he did.
+
+We now come to another point in the Deer's character; namely, the
+watchful care of the mother over her young. She always retires to
+some secret place when she instinctively knows that the birth is at
+hand, and she hides it from all eyes until it is able to take care
+of itself. By some strange instinct, the little one, almost as soon
+as it is born, is able to comprehend the signals of its mother, and
+there is an instance, well known to naturalists, where a newly-born
+Deer, hardly an hour old, crouched low to the earth in obedience to
+a light tap on its shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the
+intense watchfulness of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so
+warned her young one to hide itself.
+
+[Illustration: THE LEADER OF THE HERD.]
+
+There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer, as
+all hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively easy
+to deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the eyes and
+ears of the hinds is a very different business, and taxes all the
+resources of a practised hunter. If they take such care of the herd
+in general, it may be imagined that their watchfulness would be
+multiplied tenfold when the object of their anxiety is their own
+young.
+
+It is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a passage
+in the Book of Job refers: "Knowest thou the time when the wild
+goats of the rock bring forth? or canst thou mark when the hinds
+do calve?" (xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used in Psa. xxix. 9.
+After enumerating the wonders that are done by the voice of the
+Lord, the thunders and rain torrents, the devastating tempests, the
+forked lightning, and the earthquake "that shaketh the wilderness
+of Kadesh," the Psalmist proceeds: "The voice of the Lord maketh
+the hinds to calve, and discovereth the forests,"--this being as
+mysterious to the writer as the more conspicuous wonders which he
+had previously mentioned.
+
+So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the female
+Deer exercised over her young, that it forms the subject of a
+powerful image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies: "Yea, the
+hind also calved in the field, and forsook it, because there was no
+grass." (xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits of the animal,
+this is a most telling and picturesque image. In the first place,
+the Hind, a wild animal that could find food where less active
+creatures would starve, was reduced to such straits that she was
+obliged to remain in the fields at the time when her young was born,
+instead of retiring to some sheltered spot, according to her custom.
+And when it was born, instead of nurturing it carefully, according
+to the natural maternal instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger
+to abandon it in order to find a sufficiency of food for herself.
+
+That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate
+disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs
+(v. 18, 19): "Let thy fountain be blessed: and rejoice with the wife
+of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe."
+
+We might naturally expect that the Rabbinical writers would have
+much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among much that
+is irrelevant to the object of the present work there are a few
+passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the annual shedding of
+the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respecting one who ventures
+his money too freely in trade, that "he has hung it on the stag's
+horns," meaning thereby that he will never see it again. It is
+remarkable that in Western Africa there is a proverb of a similar
+character, the imprudent merchant being told to look for his money
+in the place where Deer shed their horns.
+
+[Illustration: THE WATCHFUL DOE.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A KNEELING CAMEL.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CAMEL.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing
+ them--Value of the Camel in the East--Thirst-enduring
+ capability--The hump, and its use to the animal--The Camel as
+ a beast of draught and burden--How the Camel is laden--Camels
+ for riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced
+ steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The swift dromedary--Young
+ Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel.
+
+
+Before treating of the Scriptural references to the Camel, it will
+be as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct species
+of Camel are known to zoologists; namely, the common Camel (_Camelus
+dromedarius_), which has one hump, and the Bactrian Camel (_Camelus
+Bactrianus_), which has two of these curious projections. There is a
+popular but erroneous idea that the dromedary and the Camel are two
+distinct animals, the latter being distinguished by its huge hump,
+whereas the fact is, that the dromedary is simply a lighter and more
+valuable breed of the one-humped Camel of Arabia, the two-humped
+Bactrian Camel being altogether a different animal, inhabiting
+Central Asia, Thibet, and China.
+
+The Camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit
+Palestine, and in former times it played a part in Jewish history
+scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep. We shall, therefore,
+devote some space to it.
+
+In some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the sheep, and
+was infinitely more useful than the goat. At the very beginning of
+Jewish history we read of this animal, and it is mentioned in the
+New Testament nearly two thousand years after we meet with it in
+the Book of Genesis. The earliest mention of the Camel occurs in
+Gen. xii. 16, where is related the journey of Abram: "He had sheep,
+and oxen, and he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and
+she-asses, and camels."
+
+[Illustration: JACOB LEAVES LABAN AND RETURNS TO CANAAN WITH HIS
+CAMELS, SHEEP, AND CATTLE.]
+
+Belonging, as he did, to the nomad race which lives almost wholly on
+the produce of their herds, Abram needed Camels, not only for their
+milk, and, for all we know, for their flesh, but for their extreme
+use as beasts of burden, without which he could never have travelled
+over that wild and pathless land. The whole of Abram's outer life
+was exactly that of a Bedouin sheikh of the present day, in whom
+we find reproduced the habits, the tone of thought, and the very
+verbiage of the ancient Scriptures.
+
+Many years afterwards, when the son of his old age was desirous of
+marrying a wife of his own kindred, we find that he sent his trusted
+servants with ten of his Camels to Mesopotamia, and it was by the
+offering of water to these Camels, that Rebekah was selected as
+Isaac's wife (see Gen. xxiv. 10, 19). In after days, when Jacob was
+about to leave Laban, these animals are mentioned as an important
+part of his wealth: "And the man increased exceedingly, and had much
+cattle, and maid-servants, and men-servants, and camels, and asses"
+(Gen. xxx. 43).
+
+It is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that Job
+had three thousand, and afterwards six thousand Camels (Job i. 3,
+and xlii. 12); that the Midianites and Amalekites possessed camels
+without number, as the sand by the seaside.
+
+[Illustration: A CAMP IN THE DESERT.]
+
+They were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one potentate
+to another. For example, when Jacob went to meet Esau, he gave as
+his present two hundred and twenty sheep, the same number of goats,
+fifty oxen, thirty asses, and sixty camels, i.e. thirty mothers,
+each with her calf. They were important enough to be guarded by
+men of position. In 1 Chron. xxvii. 30, we find that the charge
+of David's Camels was confided to one of his officers, Obil the
+Ishmaelite, who, from his origin, might be supposed to be skilful in
+the management of these animals. Bochart, however, conjectures that
+the word Obil ought to be read as Abal, _i.e._ the camel-keeper, and
+that the passage would therefore read as follows: "Over the camels
+was an Ishmaelitish camel-keeper."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We will now proceed to the uses of the Camel, and first take it in
+the light of food.
+
+By the Mosaic law, the Camel was a forbidden animal, because it did
+not divide the hoof, although it chewed the cud. Yet, although the
+Jews might not eat its flesh, they probably used the milk for food,
+as they do at the present day. No distinct Scriptural reference is
+made to the milk of the Camel; but, as the Jews of the present day
+are quite as fastidious as their ancestors in keeping the Mosaic
+law, we are justified in concluding that, although they would not
+eat the flesh of the animal, they drank its milk. At the present
+time, the milk is used, like that of the sheep, goat, and cow, both
+in a fresh and curdled state, the latter being generally preferred
+to the former. A kind of cheese is made from it, but is not much to
+the taste of the European traveller, on account of the quantity of
+salt which is put in it. Butter is churned in a very simple manner,
+the fresh milk being poured into a skin bag, and the bag beaten with
+a stick until the butter makes its appearance.
+
+That it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident by the
+passage which has already been mentioned, where Jacob is related to
+have brought as a present to his brother Esau thirty milch Camels,
+together with their young. So decided a stress would certainly not
+have been laid upon the fact that the animals were milch Camels
+unless the milk were intended for use.
+
+Perhaps the use of the Camel's milk might be justified by saying
+that the prohibition extended only to eating and not to drinking,
+and that therefore the milk might be used though the flesh was
+prohibited.
+
+There was another mode in which the Camel might be used by
+travellers to sustain life.
+
+The reader is probably aware that, even in the burning climate in
+which it dwells, the Camel is able to go for a long time without
+drinking,--not that it requires less liquid nourishment than other
+animals, but that it is able, by means of its internal construction,
+to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which will last for
+a considerable time. It is furnished with a series of cells, into
+which the water runs as fast as it is drunk, and in which it can be
+kept for some time without losing its life-preserving qualities. As
+much as twenty gallons have been imbibed by a Camel at one draught,
+and this amount will serve it for several days, as it has the power
+of consuming by degrees the water which it has drunk in a few
+minutes.
+
+This curious power of the Camel has often proved to be the salvation
+of its owner. It has often happened that, when travellers have been
+passing over the desert, their supply of water has been exhausted,
+partly by the travellers and partly by the burning heat which causes
+it to evaporate through the pores of the goat-skin bottle in which
+it was carried. Then the next well, where they had intended to
+refill their skins and refresh themselves, has proved dry, and the
+whole party seemed doomed to die of thirst.
+
+Under these circumstances, only one chance of escape is left them.
+They kill a Camel, and from its stomach they procure water enough
+to sustain life for a little longer, and perhaps to enable them to
+reach a well or fountain in which water still remains. The water
+which is thus obtained is unaltered, except by a greenish hue, the
+result of mixing with the remains of herbage in the cells. It is,
+of course, very disagreeable, but those who are dying from thirst
+cannot afford to be fastidious, and to them the water is a most
+delicious draught.
+
+It is rather curious that, if any of the water which is taken out of
+a dead Camel can be kept for a few days, both the green hue and the
+unpleasant flavour disappear, and the water becomes fresh, clear,
+and limpid. So wonderfully well do the internal cells preserve the
+water, that after a Camel has been dead for ten days--and in that
+hot climate ten days after death are equal to a month here--the
+water within it has been quite pure and drinkable.
+
+Many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea that the
+Camel does not require as much water as ordinary animals. He will
+see, however, from the foregoing account that it needs quite as much
+water as the horse or the ox, but that it possesses the capability
+of taking in at one time as much as either of these animals would
+drink in several days. So far from being independent of water, there
+is no animal that requires it more, or displays a stronger desire
+for it. A thirsty Camel possesses the power of scenting water at a
+very great distance, and, when it does so, its instincts conquer
+its education, and it goes off at full speed towards the spot,
+wholly ignoring its rider or driver. Many a desert spring has been
+discovered, and many a life saved, by this wonderful instinct, the
+animal having scented the distant water when its rider had lost all
+hope, and was resigning himself to that terrible end, the death by
+thirst. The sacred Zemzem fountain at Mecca was discovered by two
+thirsty Camels.
+
+[Illustration: A GRATEFUL SHADE.]
+
+Except by the Jews, the flesh of the Camel is eaten throughout
+Palestine and the neighbouring countries, and is looked upon as a
+great luxury. The Arab, for example, can scarcely have a greater
+treat than a Camel-feast, and looks forward to it in a state of
+wonderful excitement. He is so impatient, that scarcely is the
+animal dead before it is skinned, cut up, and the various parts
+prepared for cooking.
+
+To European palates the flesh of the Camel is rather unpleasant,
+being tough, stringy, and without much flavour. The fatty hump is
+universally considered as the best part of the animal, and is always
+offered to the chief among the guests, just as the North American
+Indian offers the hump of the bison to the most important man in the
+assembly. The heart and the tongue, however, are always eatable,
+and, however old a Camel may be, these parts can be cooked and eaten
+without fear.
+
+The hump, or "bunch" as it is called in the Bible, has no connexion
+with the spine, and is a supplementary growth, which varies in size,
+not only in the species, but in the individual. It is analogous to
+the hump upon the shoulders of the American bison and the Indian
+zebra, and in the best-bred Camels it is the smallest though the
+finest and most elastic.
+
+This hump, by the way, affords one of the points by which the value
+of the Camel is decided. When it is well fed and properly cared for,
+the hump projects boldly, and is firm and elastic to the touch.
+But if the Camel be ill, or if it be badly fed or overworked, the
+hump becomes soft and flaccid, and in bad cases hangs down on one
+side like a thick flap of skin. Consequently, the dealers in Camels
+always try to produce their animals in the market with their humps
+well developed; and, if they find that this important part does not
+look satisfactory, they use various means to give it the required
+fulness, inflating it with air being the most common. In fact, there
+is as much deception among Camel-dealers in Palestine as with dog or
+pigeon fanciers in England.
+
+Here perhaps I may remark that the hump has given rise to some
+strange but prevalent views respecting the Camel. Many persons
+think that the dromedary has one hump and the Camel two--in fact,
+that they are two totally distinct animals. Now the fact is that
+the Camel of Palestine is of one species only, the dromedary being
+a lighter and swifter breed, and differing from the ordinary Camel
+just as a hunter or racer differs from a cart-horse. The two-humped
+Camel is a different species altogether, which will be briefly
+described at the end of the present article.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The Camel is also used as a beast of draught, and, as we find, not
+only from the Scriptures, but from ancient monuments, was employed
+to draw chariots and drag the plough. Thus in Isa. xxi. 7: "And
+he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, a chariot of asses,
+and a chariot of camels." It is evident that in this passage some
+chariots were drawn by Camels and some by asses. It is, however,
+remarkable that in Kennard's "Eastern Experiences", these two
+very useful animals are mentioned as being yoked together: "We
+passed through a fertile country, watching the fellaheen at their
+agricultural labours, and not a little amused at sometimes remarking
+a very tall camel and a very small donkey yoked together in double
+harness, dragging a plough through the rich brown soil." Camels
+drawing chariots are still to be seen in the Assyrian sculptures. In
+Palestine--at all events at the present time--the Camel is seldom
+if ever used as a beast of draught, being exclusively employed for
+bearing burdens and carrying riders.
+
+Taking it first as a beast of burden, we find several references in
+different parts of the Scriptures. For example, see 2 Kings viii.
+9: "So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even
+of every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burden." Again, in
+1 Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto
+Issachar and Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on
+camels, and on mules, and on oxen." Another allusion to the same
+custom is made in Isaiah: "They will carry their riches upon the
+shoulders of young asses, and their treasures upon the bunches (or
+humps) of camels."
+
+The Camel can carry a considerable load, though not so much
+as is generally fancied. A sort of a pack-saddle of a very
+simple description is used, in order to keep the burden upon so
+strangely-shaped an animal. A narrow bag about eight feet long is
+made, and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar material. It
+is then doubled, and the ends firmly sewn together, so as to form
+a great ring, which is placed over the hump, and forms a tolerably
+flat surface. A wooden framework is tied on the pack-saddle, and
+is kept in its place by a girth and a crupper. The packages which
+the Camel is to carry are fastened together by cords, and slung
+over the saddle. They are only connected by those semi-knots called
+"hitches," so that, when the Camel is to be unloaded, all that is
+needed is to pull the lower end of the rope, and the packages fall
+on either side of the animal. So quickly is the operation of loading
+performed, that a couple of experienced men can load a Camel in very
+little more than a minute.
+
+As is the case with the horse in England, the Camels that are
+used as beasts of burden are of a heavier, slower, and altogether
+inferior breed to those which are employed to carry riders, and
+all their accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order, devoid
+of the fantastic ornaments with which Oriental riders are fond of
+decorating their favourite animals.
+
+In the large illustration are represented four of the ordinary
+Camels of burden, as they appear when laden with boughs for the
+Feast of Tabernacles. The branches are those of the Hebrew pine,
+and, as may be seen, the animals are so heavily laden with them that
+their forms are quite hidden under their leafy burdens. The weight
+which a Camel will carry varies much, according to the strength
+of the individual, which has given rise to the Oriental proverb,
+"As the camel, so the load." But an animal of ordinary strength is
+supposed to be able to carry from five to six hundred pounds for a
+short journey, and half as much for a long one,--a quantity which,
+as the reader will see, is not so very great when the bulk of the
+animal is taken into consideration. It is remarkable that the Camel
+knows its own powers, and instinctively refuses to move if its
+correct load be exceeded. But, when it is properly loaded, it will
+carry its burden for hours together at exactly the same pace, and
+without seeming more fatigued than it was when it started.
+
+[Illustration: CAMELS LADEN WITH BOUGHS.]
+
+[Illustration: MORNING IN THE DESERT: STARTING OF THE CARAVAN.]
+
+The riding Camels are always of a better breed than those which are
+used for burden, and maybe divided into two classes; namely, those
+which are meant for ordinary purposes, and those which are specially
+bred for speed and endurance. There is as much difference between
+the ordinary riding Camel and the swift Camel as there is between
+the road hack and the race-horse. We will first begin with the
+description of the common riding Camel and its accoutrements.
+
+The saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from the
+pack-saddle on which burdens are carried, and has a long upright
+projection in front, to which the rider can hold if he wishes it.
+
+The art of riding the Camel is far more difficult of accomplishment
+than that of riding the horse, and the preliminary operation of
+mounting is not the least difficult portion of it. Of course,
+to mount a Camel while the animal is standing is impossible, and
+accordingly it is taught to kneel until the rider is seated.
+Kneeling is a natural position with the Camel, which is furnished
+with large callosities or warts on the legs and breast, which act as
+cushions on which it may rest its great weight without abrading the
+skin. These callosities are not formed, as some have imagined, by
+the constant kneeling to which the Camel is subjected, but are born
+with it, though of course less developed than they are after they
+have been hardened by frequent pressure against the hot sand.
+
+When the Camel kneels, it first drops on its knees, and then on
+the joints of the hind legs. Next it drops on its breast, and then
+again on the bent hind legs. In rising it reverses the process, so
+that a novice is first pitched forward, then backward, then forward,
+and then backward again, to the very great disarrangement of his
+garments, and the probable loss of his seat altogether. Then when
+the animal kneels he is in danger of being thrown over its head by
+the first movement, and jerked over its tail by the second; but
+after a time he learns to keep his seat mechanically.
+
+As to the movement of the animal, it is at first almost as
+unpleasant as can be conceived, and has been described by several
+travellers, some of whose accounts will be here given. One
+well-known traveller declares that any person desiring to practise
+Camel-riding can readily do so by taking a music-stool, screwing
+it up as high as possible, putting it into a cart without springs,
+sitting on the top of it cross-legged, and having the cart driven at
+full speed transversely over a newly-ploughed field.
+
+There is, however, as great a difference in the gait of Camels as
+of horses, some animals having a quiet, regular, easy movement,
+while others are rough and high-stepping, harassing their riders
+grievously in the saddle. Even the smooth-going Camel is, however,
+very trying at first, on account of its long swinging strides, which
+are taken with the legs of each side alternately, causing the body
+of the rider to swing backwards and forwards as if he were rowing in
+a boat.
+
+Those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with the
+same malady when they make their first attempts at Camel-riding,
+while even those who are proof against this particular form of
+discomfort soon begin to find that their backs are aching, and that
+the pain becomes steadily worse. Change of attitude is but little
+use, and the wretched traveller derives but scant comfort from
+the advice of his guide, who tells him to allow his body to swing
+freely, and that in a short time he will become used to it. Some
+days, however, are generally consumed before he succeeds in training
+his spine to the continual unaccustomed movement, and he finds that,
+when he wakes on the morning that succeeds his first essay, his back
+is so stiff that he can scarcely move without screaming with pain,
+and that the prospect of mounting the Camel afresh is anything but a
+pleasant one.
+
+"I tried to sit erect without moving," writes Mr. Kennard, when
+describing his experience of Camel-riding. "This proved a relief for
+a few minutes, but, finding the effort too great to continue long in
+this position, I attempted to recline with my head resting upon my
+hand. This last manœuvre I found would not do, for the motion of
+the camel's hind legs was so utterly at variance with the motion of
+his fore-legs that I was jerked upwards, and forwards, and sideways,
+and finally ended in nearly rolling off altogether.
+
+"Without going into the details of all that I suffered for the
+next two or three days--how that on several occasions I slid from
+the camel's back to the ground, in despair of ever accustoming my
+half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and swaying to and
+fro, and how that I often determined to trudge on foot over the
+hot desert sand all the way to Jerusalem rather than endure it
+longer--I shall merely say that the day did at last arrive when I
+descended from my camel, after many hours' riding, in as happy and
+comfortable a state of mind as if I had been lolling in the easiest
+of arm-chairs."
+
+A very similar description of the transition from acute and constant
+suffering to perfect ease is given by Albert Smith, who states that
+more than once he has dozed on the back of his Camel, in spite of
+the swaying backwards and forwards to which his body was subjected.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAMEL POST.]
+
+If such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good-tempered
+Camel, it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going and
+cross-grained animal must be a very severe trial to an inexperienced
+rider. A very amusing account of a ride on such a Camel, and of
+a fall from its back, is given by Mr. Hamilton in his "Sinai, the
+Hedjaz, and Soudan:"--
+
+"A dromedary I had obtained at Suk Abu Sin for my own riding did not
+answer my expectations, or rather the saddle was badly put on--not
+an easy thing to do well, by the way--and one of my servants,
+who saw how out of patience I was at the many times I had had to
+dismount to have it arranged, persuaded me to try the one he was
+riding, the Sheik's present. I had my large saddle transferred to
+his beast, and, nothing doubting, mounted it.
+
+"He had not only no nose-string, but was besides a vicious brute,
+rising with a violent jerk before I was well in the saddle, and
+anxious to gain the caravan, which was a little way ahead, he set
+off at his roughest gallop. Carpets, kufieh, tarbush, all went off
+in the jolting; at every step I was thrown a foot into the air, glad
+to come down again, bump, bump, on the saddle, by dint of holding
+on to the front pommel with the left hand, while the right was
+engaged with the bridle, which in the violence of the exercise it
+was impossible to change to its proper hand. I had almost reached
+the caravan, and had no doubt my hump-backed Pegasus would relax his
+exertions, when a camel-driver, one of the sons of iniquity, seeing
+me come up at full speed, and evidently quite run away with, took it
+into his head to come to my assistance.
+
+"I saw what he was at, and called out to him to get out of the way,
+but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me, stretching
+himself out like a St. Andrew's cross, with one hand armed with a
+huge club, and making most diabolical grimaces. Of course the camel
+was frightened, it was enough to frighten a much more reasonable
+being; so, wheeling quickly round, it upset my unstable equilibrium.
+Down I came head foremost to the ground, and when I looked up, my
+forehead streaming with blood, the first thing I saw was my Arab
+with the camel, which he seemed mightily pleased with himself for
+having so cleverly captured, while the servant who had suggested the
+unlucky experiment came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary,
+and consoled me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast, which
+there was no riding without a nose-string.
+
+"I now began to study the way of keeping one's seat in such an
+emergency. An Arab, when he gallops his dromedary with one of these
+saddles, holds hard on with the right hand to the back part of
+the seat, not to the pommel, and grasps the bridle tightly in the
+other. The movement of the camel in galloping throws one violently
+forward, and without holding on, excepting on the naked back, when
+the rider sits behind the hump, it is impossible to retain one's
+seat. I afterwards thought myself lucky in not having studied this
+point sooner, as, from the greater resistance I should have offered,
+my tumble, since it was _fated_ I should have one, would probably
+have been much more severe. It is true I might also have escaped it,
+but in the chapter of probabilities I always think a mishap the most
+probable."
+
+[Illustration: A RUNAWAY.]
+
+[Illustration: AN ARAB SHEIK MOUNTED UPON HIS CAMEL.]
+
+It may be imagined that a fall from a Camel's back is not a trifle,
+and, even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to fall on soft
+sand instead of hard rock, he receives a tolerably severe shock,
+and runs no little risk of breaking a limb. For the average height
+of a Camel's back is rather more than six feet, while some animals
+measure seven feet from the ground to the top of the hump.
+
+This height, however, is of material advantage to the traveller. In
+the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that are
+continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays of the
+sun are poured throughout the day; and in the second place it brings
+him within reach of the slightest breeze that passes above the
+stratum of hot air, and which comes to the traveller like the breath
+of life. Moreover, his elevated position enables him to see for a
+very great distance, which is an invaluable advantage in a land
+where every stranger may be a robber, and is probably a murderer
+besides.
+
+The best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the Arab mode of
+riding,--namely, to pass one leg over the upright pommel, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mere wooden peg or stake, and hitching the
+other leg over the dangling foot. Perhaps the safest, though not the
+most comfortable, mode of sitting is by crossing the legs in front,
+and merely grasping the pommel with the hands.
+
+Yet, fatiguing as is the seat on the Camel's back to the beginner,
+it is less so than that on the horse's saddle, inasmuch as in the
+latter case one position is preserved, while in the former an
+infinite variety of seat is attainable when the rider has fairly
+mastered the art of riding.
+
+The Camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse, but by
+a rope tied like a halter round the muzzle, and having a knot on
+the left or "near" side. This is held in the left hand, and is used
+chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal. The Camel is guided
+partly by the voice of its rider, and partly by a driving-stick,
+with which the neck is lightly touched on the opposite side to that
+which its rider wishes it to take. A pressure of the heel on the
+shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its pace, and a little tap on the
+head followed by a touch on the short ears are the signals for full
+speed.
+
+There are three different kinds of stick with which the Camel
+is driven; one of them, a mere almond branch with the bark, and
+an oblique head, is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of the
+Prince of Mecca. Mr. Hamilton suggests that this stick, called the
+"_mesh'ab_," is the original of the jackal-headed stick with which
+so many of the Egyptian deities are represented; and that Aaron's
+rod that "brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded
+almonds," was the _mesh'ab_, the almond-branch sceptre, the emblem
+of his almost regal rank and authority.
+
+[Illustration: AARON'S ROD BEARS ALMONDS.]
+
+The women mostly ride in a different manner from the men. Sometimes
+they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same way as their
+husbands, but as a rule they are carried by the animal rather than
+ride it, sitting in great basket-like appendages which are slung on
+either side of the Camel. These constitute the "furniture" which
+is mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 34. When Jacob left the house of Laban,
+to lead an independent life, Rachel stole her father's images, or
+"teraphim," and carried them away with her, true to her affectionate
+though deceptive nature, which impelled her to incur the guilt of
+robbery for the sake of enriching her husband with the cherished
+teraphim of her father. From the most careful researches we learn
+that these teraphim were used for divining the future, and that they
+were made in the human form. That they were of considerable size
+is evident from the fact that, when Saul was hunting after David,
+his wife Michal contrived to convey him out of the house, and for
+a time to conceal her fraud by putting an image (or teraph) into
+the bed as a representative of her husband. Had not, therefore, the
+camel-furniture been of considerable dimensions, images of such a
+size could not be hidden, but they could well be stowed away in the
+great panniers, as long as their mistress sat upon them, after the
+custom of Oriental travellers and declined to rise on the ready plea
+of indisposition.
+
+[Illustration: CAMEL-RIDING.]
+
+This sort of carriage is still used for the women and children. "The
+wife and child came by in the string of camels, the former reclining
+in an immense circular box, stuffed and padded, covered with red
+cotton, and dressed with yellow worsted ornaments. This family
+nest was mounted on a large camel. It seemed a most commodious and
+well-arranged travelling carriage, and very superior as a mode of
+camel-riding to that which our Sitteen rejoiced in (_i.e._ riding
+upon a saddle). The Arab wife could change her position at pleasure,
+and the child had room to walk about and could not fall out, the
+sides of the box just reaching to its shoulders. Various jugs and
+skins and articles of domestic use hung suspended about it, and
+trappings of fringe and finery ornamented it."
+
+This last sentence brings us to another point which is several
+times mentioned in the Bible; namely, the ornaments with which the
+proprietors of Camels are fond of bedizening their favourite animals.
+
+Their leathern collars are covered with cowrie shells sewn on them
+in various fantastic patterns. Crescent-shaped ornaments are made of
+shells sewn on red cloth, and hung so abundantly upon the harness of
+the animal that they jingle at every step which it takes. Sheiks and
+other men of rank often have these ornaments made of silver, so that
+the cost of the entire trappings is very great.
+
+[Illustration: THE DELOUL, OR SWIFT CAMEL.]
+
+We now come to the Swift Camel, or Deloul.
+
+The limbs of the Deloul are long and wiry, having not an ounce of
+superfluous fat upon them, the shoulders are very broad, and the
+hump, though firm and hard, is very small.
+
+A thoroughbred Deloul, in good travelling condition, is not at
+all a pleasing animal to an ordinary eye, being a lank, gaunt, and
+ungainly-looking creature, the very conformation which insures its
+swiftness and endurance being that which detracts from its beauty.
+An Arab of the desert, however, thinks a good Deloul one of the
+finest sights in the world. As the talk of the pastoral tribes is of
+sheep and oxen, so is the talk of the nomads about Camels. It is a
+subject which is for ever on their lips, and a true Bedouin may be
+seen to contemplate the beauties of one of these favourite animals
+for hours at a time,--if his own, with the rapture of a possessor,
+or, if another's, with the determination of stealing it when he can
+find an opportunity.
+
+Instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour, which
+is the average speed of the common Camel, the Deloul can cover,
+if lightly loaded, nine or ten miles an hour, and go on at the
+same pace for a wonderful time, its long legs swinging, and its
+body swaying, as if it were but an animated machine. Delouls have
+been reported to have journeyed for nearly fifty hours without
+a single stop for rest, during which time the animals must have
+traversed nearly five hundred miles. Such examples must, however,
+be exceptional, implying, as they do, an amount of endurance on the
+part of the rider equal to that of the animal; and even a journey of
+half that distance is scarcely possible to ordinary men on Delouls.
+
+For the movements of the Deloul are very rough, and the rider is
+obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting himself
+tightly with two leathern bands, one just under the arms, and the
+other round the pit of the stomach. Without these precautions, the
+rider would be likely to suffer serious injuries, and, even with
+them, the exercise is so severe, that an Arab makes it a matter of
+special boast that he can ride a Deloul for a whole day.
+
+A courier belonging to the Sherif of Mecca told Mr. Hamilton that he
+often went on the same dromedary from Mecca to Medina in forty-eight
+hours, the distance being two hundred and forty miles. And a
+thoroughbred Deloul will travel for seven or eight weeks with only
+four or five days of rest.
+
+Even at the present time, these Camels are used for the conveyance
+of special messages, and in the remarkable Bornu kingdom a regular
+service of these animals is established, two couriers always
+travelling in company, so that if one rider or Camel should fail
+or be captured by the Arabs, who are always on the alert for so
+valuable a prey, the other may post on and carry the message to its
+destination.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER MODE OF RIDING THE CAMEL.]
+
+The swift dromedary, or Deloul, is mentioned several times in the
+Old Testament. One of them occurs in Isa. lx. 6: "The multitude of
+camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah." In
+this passage a distinction is drawn between the ordinary Camel and
+the swift dromedary, the former being the word "gamel," and the
+latter the word "beker," which is again used in Jer. ii. 23: "See
+thy way in the valley, know what thou hast done: thou art a swift
+dromedary."
+
+There is a passage in the Book of Esther which looks as if it
+referred to the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, but there
+is considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering It runs as
+follows: "And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with
+the king's ring, and sent letters and posts on horseback, and riders
+on mules, camels, and young dromedaries."
+
+The Jewish Bible, however, translates this passage as follows: "And
+sent letters by the runners on the horses, and riders on the racers,
+mules, and young mares." Now, the word _rekesh_, which is translated
+as "racer," is rendered by Buxtorf as "a swift horse or mule," and
+the word _beni-rammachim_, which is translated as "young mares,"
+literally signifies "those born of mares."
+
+The Camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the curious
+inconsistency which forms so large a part of the Oriental character.
+
+Prizing them above nearly all earthly things, proud of them, and
+loving them after their own fashion, the drivers will talk to
+them, cheer them, and sing interminable songs for their benefit.
+Towards the afternoon the singing generally begins, and it goes on
+without cessation in a sort of monotonous hum, as Dr. Bonar calls
+it. The same traveller calls attention to a passage in Caussinus'
+"Polyhistor Symbolicus," in which the learned and didactic author
+symbolizes the maxim that more can be done by kindness than by
+blows. "The Camel is greatly taken with music and melody. So much
+so, indeed, that if it halts through weariness, the driver does not
+urge it with stripes and blows, but soothes it by his songs."
+
+Several travellers have mentioned these songs. See, for example,
+Miss Rogers' account of some Bedouins: "Their songs were already
+subdued to harmonize with their monotonous swinging pace, and chimed
+softly and plaintively with the tinkling of camel-bells, thus--
+
+ "'Dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes,
+ Art thou, O my Camel!
+ Precious to me as the health of my life,
+ Art thou, O my Camel!
+ Sweet to my ears is the sound
+ Of thy tinkling bells, O my Camel!
+ And sweet to thy listening ears
+ Is the sound of my evening song.'
+
+And so on, _ad libitum_."
+
+Sometimes a female Camel gives birth to a colt on the journey. In
+such a case, a brief pause is made, and then the train proceeds
+on its journey, the owner of the Camel carrying the young one in
+his arms until the evening halt. He then gives it to its mother,
+and on the following day it is able to follow her without further
+assistance. The young Camels are almost pretty, their hair being
+paler than that of the adult animal, and their limbs more slender.
+
+Although the young Camel is better-looking than its parents, it is
+not one whit more playful. Unlike almost all other animals, the
+Camel seems to have no idea of play, and even the young Camel of a
+month or two old follows its mother with the same steady, regular
+pace which she herself maintains.
+
+In spite of all the kindness with which a driver treats his
+Camels, he can at times be exceedingly cruel to them, persisting
+in over-loading and over-driving them, and then, if a Camel fall
+exhausted, removing its load, and distributing it among the other
+Camels. As soon as this is done, he gives the signal to proceed, and
+goes on his way, abandoning the wretched animal to its fate--_i.e._
+to thirst and the vultures. He will not even have the humanity to
+kill it, but simply leaves it on the ground, muttering that it is
+"his fate!"
+
+
+
+
+THE CAMEL.
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A
+ boy killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated
+ Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent
+ stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of
+ expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the
+ streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The
+ Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation
+ to locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and
+ skin--Sal-ammoniac and Desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's
+ eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel.
+
+We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel.
+
+The Camels know their master well, some of them being much more
+affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits of strange
+fury, in which case even their own masters are not safe from them.
+They are also of a revengeful nature, and have an unpleasant
+faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of
+repaying it. Signor Pierotti gives a curious example of this trait
+of character. As he was going to the Jordan, he found a dead Camel
+lying on the roadside, the head nearly separated from the body. On
+inquiry he found that the animal had a master who ill-treated it,
+and had several times tried to bite him. One evening, after the
+Camels had been unloaded, the drivers lay down to sleep as usual.
+
+The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him as he
+slept. The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time for
+another. The infuriated Camel followed up its attack by grasping his
+throat in its powerful jaws, and shaking him to death. The whole
+scene passed so rapidly, that before the other drivers could come to
+the man's assistance he was hanging dead from the jaws of the Camel,
+who was shaking him as a dog shakes a rat, and would not release
+its victim until its head had been nearly severed from its body by
+sword-cuts.
+
+A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central and
+Eastern Arabia:"--
+
+"One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which he gives
+many a hideous example; while, in carrying it out, he shows an
+unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile with
+all the cold stupidity of his usual character. One instance of this
+I well remember--it occurred hard by a small town in the plain of
+Baalbec, where I was at the time residing.
+
+"A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden
+with wood, from that very village to another at half an hour's
+distance or so. As the animal loitered or turned out of the way,
+its conductor struck it repeatedly, and harder than it seems to
+have thought he had a right to do. But, not finding the occasion
+favourable for taking immediate quits, it 'bided its time,' nor was
+that time long in coming.
+
+"A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast, but
+unladen, to his own village. When they were about half way on the
+road, and at some distance from any habitation, the camel suddenly
+stopped, looked deliberately round in every direction to assure
+itself that no one was in sight, and, finding the road clear of
+passers-by, made a step forward, seized the unlucky boy's head in
+its monstrous mouth, and, lifting him up in the air, flung him down
+again on the earth, with the upper part of his head completely torn
+off, and his brains scattered on the ground. Having thus satisfied
+its revenge, the brute quietly resumed its pace towards the village,
+as though nothing were the matter, till some men, who had observed
+the whole, though unfortunately at too great a distance to be able
+to afford timely help, came up and killed it.
+
+"Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some
+philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs
+to the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have in
+their sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to those
+who partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral qualities of
+the animal to which they belonged. I do not feel myself capable of
+pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question, but thus much I
+can say, that the camel and its Bedouin master do afford so many and
+such divers points of resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of
+Shomer far in the wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, 'God
+created the Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.'"
+
+The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote makes
+reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no doubt that the
+Camel is by no means an intellectual animal; but it is very possible
+that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that
+no one has tried to cultivate its intellectual powers. The preceding
+anecdotes show clearly that the Camel must possess a strong memory,
+and be capable of exercising considerable ingenuity.
+
+Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall off its
+back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse would
+do, but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his master to
+catch it if he can. Should it turn out of the way to crop some green
+thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, never thinking
+of turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider.
+Should the Camel stray, "it is a thousand to one that he will never
+find his way back to his accustomed home or pasture, and the first
+man who picks him up will have no particular shyness to get over;
+... and the losing of his old master and of his former cameline
+companions gives him no regret, and occasions no endeavour to find
+them again."
+
+He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter
+how light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation by
+growling and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual is this
+conduct that if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and a stone as
+large as a walnut laid on its back, it begins to remonstrate in its
+usual manner, groaning as if it were crushed to the earth with its
+load.
+
+The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading it to
+plod onward in its direct course. What may have been its habits in
+a state of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon as a wild
+Camel has never been known in the memory of man. There are wild
+oxen, wild goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and wild asses, but there
+is no spot on the face of the earth where the Camel is found except
+as the servant of man. Through innate stupidity, according to Mr.
+Palgrave, it goes straight forwards in the direction to which its
+head happens to be pointed, and is too foolish even to think of
+stopping unless it hears the signal for halt.
+
+As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city, laden
+with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up the
+thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every one
+who is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and
+to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The driver
+or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to the
+pedestrians to get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely passes
+through a long street without having knocked down a man or two, or
+driven before it a few riders on asses who cannot pass between the
+Camel and the wall.
+
+One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low archways
+which span so many of the streets. They are just high enough to
+permit a laden Camel to pass under them, but are so low that they
+leave no room for a rider. The natives, who are accustomed to this
+style of architecture, are always ready for an archway, and, when
+the rider sees an archway which will not allow him to retain his
+seat, he slips to the ground, and remounts on the other side of the
+obstacle.
+
+Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these arch ways.
+"I had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without being
+obliged to do more than just bend my head forward, and was in
+the act of conversing with one of my companions behind, and was
+therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately
+before me, when the shouting and running together of the people in
+the street on either side made me turn my head quickly, but only
+just in time to feel my breath thrown back on my face against the
+keystone of a gateway, beneath which my camel, with too much way on
+him to be stopped immediately, had already commenced to pass.
+
+"With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw
+myself back as far as I could, and was carried through in an almost
+breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the
+stonework. On emerging again into the open street, I could hardly
+realize my escape, for if there had been a single projecting stone
+to stop my progress, the camel would have struggled to get free, and
+my chest must have been crushed in."
+
+It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity
+is not an undeserved one. Still the animal has enough intellect to
+receive all the education which it needs for the service of man, and
+which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary Camel of burden
+is merely taught to follow its conductor, to obey the various words
+and gestures of command, and to endure a load. The Deloul, however,
+is more carefully trained. It is allowed to follow its mother for
+a whole year in perfect liberty. Towards the expiration of that
+time the young animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk,
+and forced to browse for its nourishment. On the anniversary of its
+birth, the young Deloul is turned with its head towards Canopus,
+and its ears solemnly boxed, its master saying at the same time,
+"Henceforth drinkest thou no drop of milk." For this reason the
+newly-weaned Camel is called Lathim, or the "ear-boxed." It is then
+prevented from sucking by a simple though cruel experiment. A wooden
+peg is sharpened at both ends, and one end thrust into the young
+animal's nose. When it tries to suck, it pricks its mother with
+the projecting end, and at the same time forces the other end more
+deeply into the wound, so that the mother drives away her offspring,
+and the young soon ceases to make the attempt.
+
+The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything that
+it can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to browse as
+it goes along, bending its long neck to the ground, and cropping
+the scanty herbage without a pause. Camels have been known to
+travel for twenty successive days, passing over some eight hundred
+miles of ground, without receiving any food except that which they
+gathered for themselves by the way. The favourite food of the Camel
+is a shrub called the ghada, growing to six feet or so in height,
+and forming a feathery tuft of innumerable little green twigs, very
+slender and flexible. It is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can
+scarcely ever pass a bush without turning aside to crop it; and even
+though it be beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the
+process at the next shrub that comes in sight.
+
+[Illustration: PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN
+CITY.]
+
+It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so
+plentifully in that part of the world; and though the thorns are an
+inch or two in length, very strong, and as sharp as needles, the
+hard, horny palate of the animal enables it to devour them with
+perfect ease.
+
+[Illustration: MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH.]
+
+There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are scattered
+profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the commonest growth
+of the place. After they die, being under the fierce sun of that
+climate, they dry up so completely, that if a light be set to them
+they blaze up in a moment, with a sharp cracking sound and a roar
+of flame, and in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light
+ashes. No wonder was it that when Moses saw the thorn-bush burning
+without being consumed he was struck with awe at the miracle. These
+withered bushes are the common fuel of the desert, giving out a
+fierce but brief heat, and then suddenly sinking into ashes. "For as
+the crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool"
+(Eccl. vii. 6).
+
+The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten by the
+Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment from
+every sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed on charcoal, and,
+as has been happily remarked, could thrive on the shavings of a
+carpenter's workshop.
+
+[Illustration: AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT.]
+
+Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be
+managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. "Our guide,"
+writes Mr. Hamilton, in the work which has already been mentioned,
+"is an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel-drivers. He
+has three camels in the caravan, and it was amusing to see his
+preparations for their evening's entertainment. The table-cloth, a
+circular piece of leather, was duly spread on the ground; on this he
+poured the quantity of dourrah destined for their meal, and calling
+his camels, they came and took each its place at the feast. It is
+quaint to see how each in his turn eats, so gravely and so quietly,
+stretching his long neck into the middle of the heap, then raising
+his head to masticate each mouthful; all so slowly and with such
+gusto, that we could swear it was a party of epicures sitting in
+judgment on one of Vachette's _chefs d'œuvre_."
+
+The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully adapted
+is the constitution of the Camel for the country in which it lives,
+and how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has been called
+"the ship of the desert," for without the Camel the desert would be
+as impassable as the sea without ships. No water being found for
+several days' journey together, the animal is able to carry within
+itself a supply of water which will last it for several days, and,
+as no green thing grows far from the presence of water, the Camel is
+able to feed upon the brief-lived thorn-shrubs which have sprung up
+and died, and which, from their hard and sharp prickles, are safe
+from every animal except the hard-mouthed Camel.
+
+But these advantages would be useless without another--_i. e._ the
+foot. The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin the feet
+of almost any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel should be
+furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of
+a horse, that is broad enough to prevent the creature from sinking
+into the sand, and is tough enough to withstand the action of the
+rough and burning soil.
+
+Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long toes
+resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny sole.
+This cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal is as
+noiseless as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the toes,
+it spreads as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives a firm
+footing on loose ground. The foot of the moose-deer has a similar
+property, in order to enable the animal to walk upon the snow.
+
+In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply into
+the ground than any other animal; but yet it does sink in it, and
+dislikes a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step, and being
+wearied by the exertion of dragging its hard foot out of the
+holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are
+impracticable to the Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky
+ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American
+traveller, was much surprised by seeing a caravan of fifty camels
+pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petræa. The rock was as smooth as
+polished marble, and the angle was on an average fifteen degrees;
+but the whole caravan passed over it without an accident.
+
+[Illustration: ON THE MARCH.]
+
+The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground, on
+which it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a Camel
+from behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close together
+until the ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that the feet
+are set on the ground at a considerable distance from each other.
+On dry ground this structure increases the stability of the animal
+by increasing its base; but on wet ground the effect is singularly
+unpleasant. The soft, padded feet have no hold, and slip sideways
+at every step, often with such violence as to dislocate a joint and
+cause the death of the animal. When such ground has to be traversed,
+the driver generally passes a bandage round the hind legs just below
+the ankle-joint, so as to prevent them from diverging too far.
+
+It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the animal
+lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy ground
+is so exceptional that the generality of Camels never see it in
+their lives. Camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep,
+provided that there is firm ground below; and they have been seen
+to walk with confident safety over pavements covered with mud and
+half-frozen snow.
+
+The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the bed be
+stony or gravelly; but they are bad swimmers, their round bodies and
+long necks being scarcely balanced by their legs, so that they are
+apt to roll over on their sides, and in such a case they are sure
+to be drowned. When swimming is a necessity, the head is generally
+tied to the stern of a boat, or guided by the driver swimming in
+front, while another often clings to the tail, so as to depress the
+rump and elevate the head. It is rather curious that the Camels of
+the Sahara cannot be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim
+the river readily enough; but they are apt to be seized with illness
+afterwards, and to die in a few hours.
+
+We now come to some other uses of the Camel.
+
+Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many
+purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the
+Camel's hair is that it is employed in making brushes for painters;
+but in its own land the hair plays a really important part. At the
+proper season it is removed from the animal, usually by being pulled
+away in tufts, but sometimes by being shorn, and it is then spun by
+the women into strong thread.
+
+From this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is required
+and coarseness is not an objection. The "black tents" of the Bedouin
+Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived, are made of Camel's
+hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage used by the nomad
+tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of Camel's
+hair, and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that
+St. John the Baptist was clad. The best part of the Camels hair is
+that which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump, the fibre
+being much longer than that which covers the body. There is also a
+little very fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a
+sufficient quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments.
+Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which are
+made from the Cachmire goat.
+
+[Illustration: HAIR OF THE CAMEL.]
+
+The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is simply
+tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with salt.
+
+Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some places
+water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being thicker
+and less porous than that of the goat, and therefore wasting less of
+the water by evaporation. The bones are utilized, being made into
+various articles of commerce.
+
+So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is important
+to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the animal feeds,
+it consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic shrubs.
+It is much used as poultices in case of bruises or rheumatic pains,
+and is even applied with some success to simple fractures. It is
+largely employed for fuel, and the desert couriers use nothing else,
+their Camels being furnished with a net, so that none of this useful
+substance shall be lost. For this purpose it is carefully collected,
+mixed with bits of straw, and made into little rolls, which are
+dried in the sun, and can then be laid by for any time until they
+are needed.
+
+Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of mortar
+or cement with which the walls of huts are rendered weather-proof,
+and the same material is used in the better-class houses to make a
+sort of terrace on the flat roof. This must be waterproof in order
+to withstand the wet of the rainy season, and no material answers
+the purpose so well as that which has been mentioned. So strangely
+hard and firm is this composition, that stoves are made of it. These
+stoves are made like jars, and have the faculty of resisting the
+power of the inclosed fire. Even after it is burned it has its uses,
+the ashes being employed in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+There are two passages in the New Testament which mention the Camel
+in an allegorical sense. The first of these is the proverbial saying
+of our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of
+heaven. Again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through
+the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom
+of God" (Matt. xix. 23, 24).
+
+Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires some
+little dissection. If the reader will refer to the context, he will
+see that this saying was spoken in allusion to the young and wealthy
+man who desired to be one of the disciples, but clung too tightly
+to his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be
+received. His possessions were a snare to him, as was proved by his
+refusal to part with them at Christ's command. On his retiring,
+the expression was used, "that a rich man shall hardly (or, with
+difficulty) enter the kingdom of heaven;" followed by the simile of
+the Camel and the needle's eye.
+
+Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw one
+conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter heaven than a
+camel pass through the eye of a needle, i.e. that it is impossible
+for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous sentence, Christ says not
+that it is impossible, but difficult (δυσκόλως) for him to do so. It
+is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of God,
+the only purpose for which it was given him, and the difficulty
+increases in proportion to its amount. But wealth in itself is no
+more a bar to heaven than intellect, health, strength, or any other
+gift, and, if it be rightly used, is one of the most powerful tools
+that can be used in the service of God. Our Lord did not condemn
+all wealthy men alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He
+advised to sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the
+condition of being admitted among the disciples.
+
+[Illustration: CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE."]
+
+We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the needle's eye.
+Of course it can be taken merely as a very bold metaphor, but it
+may also be understood in a simpler sense, the sense in which it
+was probably understood by those who heard it. In Oriental cities,
+there are in the large gates small and very low apertures called
+metaphorically "needle's-eyes," just as we talk of certain windows
+as "bull's-eyes." These entrances are too narrow for a Camel to
+pass through them in the ordinary manner, especially if loaded.
+When a laden Camel has to pass through one of these entrances, it
+kneels down, its load is removed, and then it shuffles through on
+its knees. "Yesterday," writes Lady Duff-Gordon from Cairo, "I saw a
+camel go through the eye of a needle, _i.e._ the low-arched door of
+an enclosure. He must kneel, and bow his head to creep through; and
+thus the rich man must humble himself."
+
+There is another passage in which the Camel is used by our Lord in
+a metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence: "Ye blind
+guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii.
+24). It is remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this
+passage of its true force. The real translation is: "which strain
+_out_ the gnat, and swallow the camel." The Greek word is διυλίζω,
+which signifies to filter thoroughly; and the allusion is made to
+the pharisaical custom of filtering liquids before drinking them,
+lest by chance a gnat or some such insect which was forbidden as
+food might be accidentally swallowed.
+
+
+
+
+THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.
+
+ General description of the animal--Its use in mountain
+ roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed
+ breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast
+ of draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of
+ harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A
+ Rabbinical legend.
+
+
+The second kind of Camel--namely, the Bactrian species--was probably
+unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion of their
+history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, as we find by
+the sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other way the Jews would
+become acquainted with them through the nation by whom they were
+conquered, and in whose land they abode for so long.
+
+The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that which
+has already been described by the two humps and the clumsier and
+sturdier form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian and Arabian
+species are so similar that none but a very skilful anatomist
+can distinguish between them, and several learned zoologists
+have expressed an opinion, in which I entirely coincide, that the
+Bactrian and Arabian Camels are but simple varieties of one and the
+same species, not nearly so dissimilar as the greyhound and the
+bulldog.
+
+[Illustration: A REST IN THE DESERT.]
+
+Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at home
+in a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its congener does
+over smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber, and is said even
+to surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. This quality is
+probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot, which has
+an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad, and forming a sort
+of claw. In the winter time the riders much prefer them to horses,
+because their long legs enable them to walk easily through snow,
+in which a horse could only plunge helplessly, and would in all
+probability sink and perish.
+
+A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is thought
+to be the best for hill work in winter time, and General Harlan
+actually took two thousand of these animals in winter time for a
+distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the
+Indian Caucasus; and though the campaign lasted for seven months, he
+only lost one Camel, and that was accidentally killed. Owing to its
+use among the hills, the Bactrian species is sometimes called the
+Mountain Camel.
+
+It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because the warm
+mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow, and the frost
+of night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When the Camel walks
+upon this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge into the soft substratum
+through the icy crust, against which its legs are severely cut. The
+beginning of the winter is liable to the same objection.
+
+The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be procured from
+a male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If the parentage be
+reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak, ill-tempered, and
+disobedient.
+
+The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of cold, and
+is indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest winters
+without seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen quietly
+feeding when the thermometer has reached a temperature several
+degrees below zero. Sometimes, when the cold is more than usually
+sharp, the owners sew a thick cloth round its body, but even in such
+extreme cases the animal is left to find its own food as it best
+can. And, however severe the weather may be, the Bactrian Camel
+never sleeps under a roof.
+
+This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but its
+general use is for draught. It is not often used alone for the
+plough, because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, and
+does not possess the steady dragging movement which is obtained by
+the use of the horse or ox.
+
+[Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART.]
+
+It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs. The
+mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be conceived.
+A pole runs between them from the front of the vehicle, and the
+Camels are attached to it by means of a pole which passes over their
+necks. Oxen were harnessed in a similar manner. It was probably
+one of these cars or chariots that was mentioned by Isaiah in his
+prophecy respecting Assyria:--"And he saw a chariot with a couple of
+horsemen, a chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels" (Isa. xxi.
+7). The cars themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing
+them, being almost exactly like the ox carts which have already been
+described.
+
+The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is really
+considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair of Camels are
+expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight hundred weight,
+and to continue their labours for twenty or thirty successive
+days, traversing each day an average of thirty miles. It is much
+slower than the Arabian Camel, seldom going at more than two and a
+half miles per hour. If, however, the vehicle to which a pair of
+Bactrians are harnessed were well made, the wheels truly circular,
+and the axles kept greased so as to diminish the friction, there is
+no doubt that the animals could draw a still greater load to longer
+distances, and with less trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels
+are wretchedly fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual
+creaking that is most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally
+unheeded by the drivers.
+
+The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong; and,
+like that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth. It is
+plucked off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally becomes
+loose in readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight of the
+entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds. The skin is not
+much valued, and is seldom used for any purpose except for making
+ropes, straps, and thongs, and is not thought worth the trouble of
+tanning. The milk, like that of the Arabian animal, is much used for
+food, but the quantity is very trifling, barely two quarts per diem
+being procured from each Camel.
+
+There is but little that is generally interesting in the Rabbinical
+writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying upon the
+shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request that is likely
+to be refused, they quote the instance of the Camel, who, it seems,
+was dissatisfied with its appearance, and asked for horns to match
+its long ears. The result of the request was, that it was deprived
+of its ears, and got no horns.
+
+
+
+
+THE HORSE.
+
+ The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced
+ into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of
+ Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics
+ of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of
+ its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty
+ of purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the
+ Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot,
+ its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The
+ cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal.
+
+
+Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural writers to
+signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse, mare, pony,
+charger, &c., are used to express the different qualities of the
+animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed to lie in its
+use for riding or driving, the larger and heavier animals being
+naturally required for drawing the weighty springless chariots. The
+chariot horse was represented by the word _Sus_, and the cavalry
+horse by the word _Parash_, and in several passages both these words
+occur in bold contrast to each other. See, for example, 1 Kings iv.
+26, &c.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is
+mentioned, there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of
+war, and therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must regard
+it.
+
+The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal to the
+Arab Horse of the present day, as we find not only from internal
+evidence, but from the sculptures and paintings which still remain
+to tell us of the vanished glories of Egypt and Assyria. It is
+remarkable, by the way, that the first mention of the Horse in the
+Scriptures alludes to it as an Egyptian animal. During the terrible
+famine which Joseph had foretold, the Egyptians and the inhabitants
+of neighbouring countries were unable to find food for themselves
+or fodder for their cattle, and, accordingly, they sold all their
+beasts for bread. "And they brought their cattle unto Joseph, and
+Joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses and the flocks, and
+for the cattle of herds, and for the asses, and he fed them with
+bread for all their cattle for that year."
+
+This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the
+purposes of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than the
+heavier and more powerful breeds, which are found in different parts
+of the world. It is remarkable for the flexible agility of its
+movements, which enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the
+rider, whose intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct,
+and who guides it not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of
+the knees and the voice. Examples of a similar mode of guidance
+may be seen on the well-known frieze of the Parthenon, where, in
+the Procession of Horsemen, the riders may be seen directing their
+steeds by touching the side of the neck with one finger, thus
+showing their own skill and the well-trained quality of the animals
+which they ride.
+
+[Illustration: TRIAL OF ARAB HORSES.]
+
+Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Kochlani breed
+will go through an amount of work which is almost incredible. Even
+the trial by which a Horse is tested is so severe, that any other
+animal would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life. When a
+young mare is tried for the first time, her owner rides her for some
+fifty or sixty miles at full speed, always finishing by swimming
+her through a river. After this trial she is expected to feed
+freely; and should she refuse her food, she is rejected as an animal
+unworthy of the name of Kochlani.
+
+[Illustration: AN ARAB HORSE OF THE KOCHLANI BREED.]
+
+Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant association
+with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent animal.
+In Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the sensitive
+intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon it rather as
+a machine for draught and carriage than a companion to man. The
+Arab, however, lives with his horse, and finds in it the docility
+and intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the
+dog rather than the Horse. It will follow him about and come at
+his call. It will stand for any length of time and await its
+rider without moving. Should he fall from its back, it will stop
+and stand patiently by him until he can remount; and there is a
+well-authenticated instance of an Arab Horse whose master had been
+wounded in battle, taking him up by his clothes and carrying him
+away to a place of safety.
+
+Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true Arab Horse
+seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves the splendid
+eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19-25): "Hast thou given the
+horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?
+
+"Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his
+nostrils is terror.
+
+"He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on
+to meet the armed men.
+
+"He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back
+from the sword.
+
+"The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the
+shield.
+
+"He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage: neither believeth
+he that it is the sound of the trumpet.
+
+"He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle
+afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting."
+
+In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the Horse,
+and its love for the battle. "I hearkened and heard, but they spake
+not aright: no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have
+I done? Every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into
+the battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the mimic battle of the djereed
+the Horse seems to exult in the conflict as much as his rider, and
+wheels or halts almost without the slightest intimation.
+
+[Illustration: THE WAR HORSE.]
+
+The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners thinking
+that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even among the
+burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads with unbroken hoof. In
+such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would be worse than useless,
+as it would only scorch the hoof by day, and in consequence of the
+rapid change of temperature by day or night, the continual expansion
+and contraction of the metal would soon work the nails loose, and
+cause the shoe to fall off.
+
+A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we often
+find in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is reckoned
+among one of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for example, Isa.
+v. 28: "Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their
+horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a
+whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise and thresh, O daughter
+of Zion: for I will make thine horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs
+brass: and thou shalt beat in pieces many people." Allusion is here
+made to one mode of threshing, in which a number of Horses were
+turned into the threshing-floor, and driven about at random among
+the wheat, instead of walking steadily like the oxen.
+
+In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of the
+Horse. It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by Deborah and
+Barak after the death of Sisera: "Then were the horse-hoofs broken
+by the means of the prancings, the prancings of their mighty ones."
+
+Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and
+sureness of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the present
+day the Arab warrior esteems above all things a Horse of the purest
+breed, and, whether he buys or sells one, takes care to have its
+genealogy made out and hung on the animal's neck.
+
+As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to make
+an Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale of the
+animal is hindered by a number of impediments which in point of
+fact are almost prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose long residence
+in Palestine has given him a deep insight into the character of the
+people, speaks in the most glowing terms of the pure Arab Horse,
+and of its inestimable value to its owner. Of the difficulties with
+which the sale of the animal is surrounded, he gives a very amusing
+account:--
+
+"After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will describe
+the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the case of the
+mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price varies with the
+purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of its owner. When he
+is requested to fix a value, his first reply is, 'It is yours, and
+belongs to you, I am your servant;' because, perhaps, he does not
+think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing;
+when the demand is repeated, he either makes no answer or puts the
+question by; at the third demand he generally responds rudely with
+a sardonic smile, which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a
+sign of anger; and then says that he would sooner sell his family
+than his mare. This remark is not meant as a mere jest; for it is no
+uncommon thing for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather
+than separate himself from his friend.
+
+[Illustration: ARAB HORSES.]
+
+"If, however, owing to some misfortune, he determines on selling his
+mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her
+to leave their country without taking the precaution to render her
+unfit for breeding.
+
+"There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which I should
+like to describe particularly; however, I will confine myself to a
+general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon the question of
+the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the parents, friends,
+and allies of the owners give their consent to the sale, without
+which some difficulty or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may be
+stolen from her new master. He must also obtain an unquestionable
+warranty that she is fit for breeding purposes, and that no other
+has a prior claim to any part of her body. This last precaution may
+seem rather strange, but it arises from the following custom. It
+sometimes happens that, when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money,
+he raises it most easily by selling a member of his horse; so that
+very frequently a horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom
+has purchased the right fore-leg, another the left, another the
+hind-leg, or the tail, or an ear, or the like; and the proprietors
+have each a proportionate interest in the profits of its labour or
+sale.
+
+"So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner; sometimes only
+the first-born, sometimes the first three; and then it occasionally
+happens that two or three members of the foal are, as it were,
+mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant of this custom may
+find that, after he has paid the price of the mare to her supposed
+owner, a third person arises who demands to be paid the value of his
+part; and, if the purchaser refuse to comply, he may find himself in
+a very unpleasant situation, without any possibility of obtaining
+help from the local government. Whoever sells his mare entirely,
+without reserving to himself one or two parts, must be on good terms
+with the confederate chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have
+obtained their formal sanction, otherwise they would universally
+despise him, and perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only
+hope of escape would be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had
+committed some great crime. It is an easier matter to purchase
+a stallion; but even in this case the above formalities must be
+observed.
+
+[Illustration: BUYING AN ARAB HORSE.]
+
+"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest blood;
+those of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and at fair
+prices."
+
+For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites from
+the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity, the use
+of the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it, was forbidden
+to the Israelites; see Deut. xvi. 16. After prophesying that the
+Israelites, when they had settled themselves in the Promised Land,
+would want a king, the inspired writer next ordains that the new
+king must be chosen by Divine command, and must belong to one of
+the twelve tribes. He then proceeds as follows:--"But he shall not
+multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt,
+to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord
+hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way."
+
+The foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown by the
+fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for Horses, Egypt
+being the chief source from which these animals were obtained. And,
+judging from the monuments to which reference has been made, the
+Horse of Egypt was precisely the same animal as the Arab Horse of
+the present day, and was probably obtained from nomad breeders.
+
+In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon used
+Horses in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely from
+Egypt, disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality of
+Horses as that against plurality of wives, which immediately follows.
+
+David seems to have been the first king who established a force
+of chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of action
+on the flat grounds of Palestine, where infantry were at a great
+disadvantage when attacked by the dreaded chariots; yet he did not
+controvert the law by multiplying to himself Horses, or even by
+importing them from Egypt; and when he had an opportunity of adding
+to his army an enormous force of chariots, he only employed as many
+as he thought were sufficient for his purpose. After he defeated
+Hadadezer, and had taken from him a thousand chariots with their
+Horses together with seven hundred cavalry, he houghed all the
+Horses except those which were needed for one hundred chariots.
+
+[Illustration: THE ARAB'S FAVOURITE STEEDS.]
+
+Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke the ancient
+law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending to Egypt for
+them. We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 of the enormous establishment
+which he kept up both for chariots and cavalry. Besides those which
+were given to him as tribute, he purchased both chariots and their
+Horses from Egypt and Syria.
+
+Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, probably
+because their weight made their onset irresistible against infantry,
+who had no better weapons than bows and spears. The slingers
+themselves could make little impression on the chariots; and even
+if the driver, or the warrior who fought in the chariot, or his
+attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty machine, with its two
+Horses, still went on its destructive way.
+
+[Illustration: PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND
+HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS THEM.]
+
+Of their use in battle we find very early mention. For example, in
+Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready his chariot to
+pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part of the same chapter
+we find that six hundred of the Egyptian chariot force accompanied
+their master in the pursuit, and that the whole army was delayed
+because the loss of the chariot wheels made them drive heavily.
+
+Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished general
+is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he would be
+conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his death, his
+mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and saying to the
+women of the household, "Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why
+tarry the wheels of his chariot?"
+
+During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot plays a
+somewhat important part. As long as the war was carried on in the
+rugged mountainous parts of the land, no mention of the chariot is
+made; but when the battles had to be fought on level ground, the
+enemy brought the dreaded chariots to bear upon the Israelites. In
+spite of these adjuncts, Joshua won the battles, and, unlike David,
+destroyed the whole of the Horses and burned the chariots.
+
+Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron
+chariot, was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new
+instrument of war seems to have cowed the people completely; for
+we find that by means of his nine hundred chariots of iron Jabin
+"mightily oppressed the children of Israel" for twenty years. It has
+been well suggested that the possession of the war chariot gave rise
+to the saying of Benhadad's councillors, that the gods of Israel
+were gods of the hills, and so their army had been defeated; but
+that if the battle were fought in the plain, where the chariots and
+Horses could act, they would be victorious.
+
+So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were familiar
+with them and were accustomed to use them, that when the Syrians
+had besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by starvation, the
+fancied sound of a host of chariots and Horses that they heard in
+the night caused them all to flee and evacuate the camp, leaving
+their booty and all their property in the hands of the Israelites.
+
+Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots is not
+quite certain, though it is probable that they may have done so;
+and this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that they were
+employed against the Jews by Antiochus, who had "footmen an hundred
+and ten thousand, and horsemen five thousand and three hundred,
+and elephants two and twenty, and three hundred chariots armed with
+hooks" (2 Macc. xiii. 2). Some commentators think that by the iron
+chariots mentioned above were signified ordinary chariots armed with
+iron scythes projecting from the sides.
+
+[Illustration: ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP.]
+
+By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces
+in war, and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the
+Scriptures, not only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which
+every one could understand. In the Psalms, for example, are several
+allusions to the war-chariot." He maketh wars to cease unto the end
+of the earth; He breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder;
+He burneth the chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9). Again: "At Thy
+rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the chariot and horse are cast into
+a dead sleep" (Ps. lxxvi. 6). And: "Some trust in chariots, and
+some in horses: but we will remember the name of the Lord our God"
+(Ps. xx. 7). Now, the force of these passages cannot be properly
+appreciated unless we realize to ourselves the dread in which the
+war-chariot was held by the foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much
+feared; but the chariots were objects of almost superstitious fear,
+and the rushing sound of their wheels, the noise of the Horses'
+hoofs, and the shaking of the ground as the "prancing horses and
+jumping chariots" (Nah. iii. 2) thundered along, are repeatedly
+mentioned.
+
+See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10: "By reason of the abundance of
+his horses their dust shall cover thee: thy walls shall shake at
+the noise of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the chariots."
+Also, Jer. xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of the hoofs
+of his strong horses, at the rushing of his chariots, and at the
+rumbling of his wheels, the fathers shall not look back to their
+children for feebleness of hands." See also Joel ii. 4, 5: "The
+appearance of them is as the appearance of horses; and as horsemen,
+so shall they run.
+
+"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they
+leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble,
+as a strong people set in battle array."
+
+In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold imagery
+as expressions of Divine power: "The chariots of God are twenty
+thousand, even thousands of angels: the Lord is among them, as
+in Sinai, in the holy place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A similar image
+is employed in Ps. civ. 3: "Who maketh the clouds His chariot:
+who walketh upon the wings of the wind." In connexion with these
+passages, we cannot but call to mind that wonderful day when the
+unseen power of the Almighty was made manifest to the servant
+of Elisha, whose eyes were suddenly opened, and he saw that the
+mountain was full of Horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.
+
+The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from earth
+are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage which
+describes that wonderful event, we may mention one which occurs in
+the splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was the Lord displeased
+against the rivers? was Thine anger against the rivers? was Thy
+wrath against the sea, that Thou didst ride upon Thine horses and
+Thy chariots of salvation?"
+
+By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes, and
+was employed as our carriages of the present day, in carrying
+persons of wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from very early
+times is evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are told that after
+Pharaoh had taken Joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in
+rank to himself, the king caused him to ride in the second chariot
+which he had, and so to be proclaimed ruler over Egypt. Many years
+afterwards we find him travelling in his chariot to the land of
+Goshen, whither he went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the
+presence of Pharaoh.
+
+At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the
+Israelites to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is
+not until a comparatively late time that we find it employed as a
+carriage, and even then it is only used by the noble and wealthy.
+Absalom had such chariots, but it is evident that he used them for
+purposes of state, and as appendages of his regal rank. Chariots or
+carriages were, however, afterwards employed by the Israelites as
+freely as by the Egyptians, from whom they were originally procured;
+and accordingly we find Rehoboam mounting his chariot and fleeing
+to Jerusalem, Ahab riding in his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel,
+with Elijah running before him; and in the New Testament we read of
+the chariot in which sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip
+baptized (Acts viii. 28).
+
+As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are
+made familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt
+and Assyria, from both of which countries the Jews procured the
+vehicles. Differing very slightly in shape, the principle of the
+chariot was the same; and it strikes us with some surprise that
+the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and the Jews, the three wealthiest
+and most powerful nations of the world, should not have invented a
+better carriage. They lavished the costliest materials and the most
+artistic skill in decorating the chariots, but had no idea of making
+them comfortable for the occupants.
+
+They were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of very
+small size. They were hung very low, so that the occupants could
+step in and out without trouble, though they do not seem to have
+had the sloping floor of the Greek or Roman chariot. They had no
+springs, but, in order to render the jolting of the carriage less
+disagreeable, the floor was made of a sort of network of leathern
+ropes, very tightly stretched so as to be elastic. The wheels were
+always two in number, and generally had six spokes.
+
+To the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained
+the bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rich man these
+bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and adorned with
+figures of lions and other animals. Should the chariot be intended
+for two persons, two bow-cases were fastened to it, the one crossing
+the other. The spear had also its tubular case, in which it was kept
+upright, like the whip of a modern carriage.
+
+Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though three were
+sometimes employed. They were harnessed very simply, having no
+traces, and being attached to the central pole by a breast-band, a
+very slight saddle, and a loose girth. On their heads were generally
+fixed ornaments, such as tufts of feathers, and similar decorations,
+and tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies.
+Round the neck of each Horse passed a strap, to the end of which was
+attached a bell. This ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20: "In
+that day shall there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto
+the Lord"--i.e. the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the
+animals once used in war.
+
+Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going into
+battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed the
+Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both his hands
+at liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins passed round
+his waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist by a thong, so
+that when the charioteer used the bow, his principal weapon, he
+could do so without danger of losing his whip.
+
+Thus much for the use of the chariot in war; we have now the Horse
+as the animal ridden by the cavalry.
+
+As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not employed by
+the Jews until a comparatively late period of their history. They
+had been familiarized with cavalry during their long sojourn in
+Egypt, and in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered
+defeat from the horsemen of the enemy. But we do not find any
+mention of a mounted force as forming part of the Jewish army until
+the days of David, although after that time the successive kings
+possessed large forces of cavalry.
+
+Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets,
+sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for example,
+Jer. vi. 23: "They shall lay hold on bow and spear; they are cruel,
+and have no mercy; their voice roareth like the sea; and they ride
+upon horses, set in array as men for war against thee, O daughter
+of Zion." The same prophet has a similar passage in chap. l. 42,
+couched in almost precisely the same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4,
+there is a further reference to the cavalry, which is specially
+valuable as mentioning the weapons used by them. The first call of
+the prophet is to the infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield,
+and draw near to battle" (verse 3); and then follows the command
+to the cavalry, "Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and
+stand forth with your helmets; furbish the spears, and put on the
+brigandines." The chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore
+the cuirass, the helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all
+ages, and in all countries, have been found to be peculiarly
+suitable to the horse-soldier.
+
+[Illustration: THE ISRAELITES, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO.]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation
+of the war and state chariots, I have selected Egypt as the typical
+country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both have been
+executed with the greatest care in details, every one of which, even
+to the harness of the Horses, the mode of holding the reins, the
+form of the whip, and the offensive and defensive armour, has been
+copied from the ancient records of Egypt and Nineveh.
+
+We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT BATTLE-FIELD.]
+
+This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot because
+the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots of
+Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted chariots as
+an acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as well as the
+trained Horses, and probably their occupants, were procured from
+Egypt.
+
+The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and a
+revolted province, so that the reader may have the opportunity of
+seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour which were in use in
+Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the foreground is the chariot of
+the general, driven at headlong speed, the Horses at full gallop,
+and the springless chariot leaping off the ground as the Horses
+bound along. The royal rank of the general in question is shown by
+the feather fan which denotes his high birth, and which is fixed in
+a socket at the back of his chariot, much as a coachman fixes his
+whip. The rank of the rider is further shown by the feather plumes
+on the heads of his Horses.
+
+By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case, the
+former being covered with decorations, and having the figure of a
+recumbent lion along its sides. The simple but effective harness
+of the Horses is especially worthy of notice, as showing how the
+ancients knew, better than the moderns, that to cover a Horse with a
+complicated apparatus of straps and metal only deteriorates from the
+powers of the animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well
+if he can see freely on all sides, than if all lateral vision be cut
+off by the use of blinkers.
+
+Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one
+of whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the
+ground. The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes past
+the fallen animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of some slain
+enemies, and the Horses are snorting and shaking their heads,
+significative of their unwillingness to trample on a human being.
+By the side of the dead man are his shield, bow, and quiver, and
+it is worthy of notice that the form of these weapons, as depicted
+upon the ancient Egyptian monuments, is identical with that which is
+still found among several half-savage tribes of Africa.
+
+In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards. One
+chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing round
+the body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side, on the
+other the imperial chariots are thundering along to support the
+attack, and are driving their enemies before them. In the distance
+are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and
+wheels, and circling in clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce
+rush of the vehicles, thus illustrating the passage in Jer. iv. 13:
+"Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots shall be as a
+whirlwind: his horses are swifter than eagles. Woe unto us! for we
+are spoiled." The reader will see, by reference to the illustration,
+how wonderfully true and forcible is this statement, the writer
+evidently having been an eye-witness of the scene which he so
+powerfully depicts.
+
+[Illustration: CHARIOT OF STATE.]
+
+The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong
+contrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the
+galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the archers
+bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour of
+battle, we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king making
+a solemn progress in his chariot after a victory, accompanied by
+his attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all the placid
+splendour of Eastern state.
+
+Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his
+chariot, wearing the regal crown, or mitre, and sheltered from
+the sun by the umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more
+modern times, was the emblem of royalty. By his side is his
+charioteer, evidently a man of high rank, holding the reins in a
+business-like manner; and in front marches the shield-bearer. In
+one of the sculptures from which this illustration was composed,
+the shield-bearer was clearly a man of rank, fat, fussy, full of
+importance, and evidently a portrait of some well-known individual.
+
+The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they bear
+the gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider, their
+heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which
+the Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot Horses, and the
+breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated in successive
+rows like the plumes of the head.
+
+The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the
+Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more valued
+among the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the sculptures
+show the Horses with their knees almost touching their noses. Of
+course the artist exaggerrated the effect that he wanted to produce;
+but the very fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was
+set on a high and showy action in a Horse that was attached to a
+chariot of state. The old Assyrian sculptors knew the Horse well,
+and delineated it in a most spirited and graphic style, though they
+treated it rather conventionally. The variety of attitude is really
+wonderful, considering that all the figures are profile views, as
+indeed seemed to have been a law of the historical sculptures.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well to
+remark the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural accounts. Of
+the other domesticated animals many such details are given, but of
+the Horse we hear but little, except in connexion with war. There
+are few exceptions to this rule, and even the oft-quoted passage
+in Job, which goes deeper into the character of the Horse than any
+other portion of the Scriptures, only considers the Horse as an
+auxiliary in battle. We miss the personal interest in the animal
+which distinguishes the many references to the ox, the sheep, and
+the goat; and it is remarkable that even in the Book of Proverbs,
+which is so rich in references to various animals, very little is
+said of the Horse.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE REPRESENTING A VICTORIOUS
+KING IN HIS CHARIOT SLAYING HIS ENEMIES.]
+
+[Illustration: MUMMY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING (OVER THREE THOUSAND YEARS
+OLD).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ass]
+
+
+
+
+THE ASS.
+
+ Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the
+ saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal
+ entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling
+ the Ass--Samson and Balaam.
+
+
+In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the
+Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more important
+of the two, we will give it precedence.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+In the East, the Ass has always played a much more important part
+than among us Westerns, and on that account we find it so frequently
+mentioned in the Bible. In the first place, it is the universal
+saddle-animal of the East. Among us the Ass has ceased to be
+regularly used for the purposes of the saddle, and is only casually
+employed by holiday-makers and the like. Some persons certainly
+ride it habitually, but they almost invariably belong to the
+lower orders, and are content to ride without a saddle, balancing
+themselves in some extraordinary manner just over the animal's tail.
+In the East, however, it is ridden by persons of the highest rank,
+and is decorated with saddle and harness as rich as those of the
+horse.
+
+So far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal being a mark of
+humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the opposite light.
+In consequence of the very natural habit of reading, according
+to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books essentially
+Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, many persons
+have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar passage,
+the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future Messiah. "Rejoice
+greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold,
+thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; lowly,
+and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" (Zech.
+ix. 9).
+
+Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its fulfilment
+so many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as a proof of
+the meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding upon so humble
+an animal when He made His entry into Jerusalem. The fact is, that
+there was no humility in the case, neither was the act so understood
+by the people. He rode upon an Ass as any prince or ruler would have
+done who was engaged on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved
+for war purposes. He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because
+He was the Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very
+clearly in the context. For, after writing the words which have just
+been quoted, Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10): "And I will
+cut off the chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jerusalem, and
+the battle bow shall be cut off: and He shall speak peace unto the
+heathen: and His dominion shall be from sea even to sea, and from
+the river even to the ends of the earth."
+
+Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character, hitherto unknown
+to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince, not of war, as had been
+all other celebrated kings, but of peace. Had He come as the Jews
+expected--despite so many prophecies--their Messiah to come, as a
+great king and conqueror, He might have ridden the war-horse, and
+been surrounded with countless legions of armed men. But He came as
+the herald of peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet
+a Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had borne
+no inferior burden.
+
+That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident from
+the manner in which it was received by the people, accepting Him as
+the Son of David, coming in the name of the Highest, and greeting
+Him with the cry of "Hosanna!" ("Save us now,") quoted from verses
+25, 26 of Ps. cxviii.: "Save now, I beseech Thee, O Lord: O Lord, I
+beseech Thee, send now prosperity."
+
+"Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord."
+
+[Illustration: ENTERING JERUSALEM.]
+
+The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were not chosen
+by the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing honour to Him
+whom they acknowledged as the Son of David. They were necessarily
+connected with the cry of "Hosanna!" At the Feast of Tabernacles,
+it was customary for the people to assemble with branches of palms
+and willows in their hands, and for one of the priests to recite the
+Great Hallel, _i.e._ Ps. cxiii. and cxviii. At certain intervals,
+the people responded with the cry of "Hosanna!" waving at the same
+time their palm-branches. For the whole of the seven days through
+which the feast lasted they repeated their Hosannas, always
+accompanying the shout with the waving of palm-branches, and setting
+them towards the altar as they went in procession round it.
+
+Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to take part
+in the solemnity, just as did the children on the occasion of the
+triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna was transferred to
+the palm-branches themselves, as well as to the feast, the last day
+being called the Great Hosanna.
+
+The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of
+palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who used
+them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem had no idea
+that He was acting any lowly part.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Again, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet Elisha, a
+mission in which the life of her only child was involved, was a
+woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not only to
+receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish it for him.
+
+Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that the Ass of
+the East was held in comparatively high estimation, being used for
+the purposes of the saddle, just as would a high-bred horse among
+ourselves.
+
+Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this country
+he is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for displaying the
+intellectual powers which he possesses, and which are of a much
+higher order than is generally imagined. It is rather remarkable,
+that when we wish to speak slightingly of intellect we liken the
+individual to an Ass or a goose, not knowing that we have selected
+just the quadruped and the bird which are least worthy of such a
+distinction.
+
+Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we shall
+find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated
+animals. We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence,
+and of the Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing that, of the two
+animals, the Ass is by far the superior in point of intellect. It
+has been well remarked by a keen observer of nature, that if four or
+five horses are in a field, together with one Ass, and there be an
+assailable point in the fence, the Ass is sure to be the animal that
+discovers it, and leads the way through it.
+
+Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a common
+to graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when persecuted
+by the idle boys who generally frequent such places, and who try to
+ride every beast that is within their reach. It seems to divine at
+once the object of the boy as he steals up to it, and he takes a
+pleasure in baffling him just as he fancies that he has succeeded in
+his attempt.
+
+[Illustration: SYRIAN ASSES.]
+
+Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that proves
+more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it resents,
+and sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing but a
+slave, it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that it can
+possibly avoid.
+
+Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than our own
+animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different from those
+displayed by the generality of its brethren. "Why, the very slave of
+slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer in Arabia," "the crushed
+and grief-stricken, is so no more in Egypt: the battered drudge has
+become the willing servant. Is that active little fellow, who, with
+race-horse coat and full flanks, moves under his rider with the
+light step and the action of a pony--is he the same animal as that
+starved and head-bowed object of the North, subject for all pity and
+cruelty, and clothed with rags and insult?
+
+"Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his small head
+well up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains
+and red leather can make him. It was a gladdening sight to see the
+unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt."
+
+Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance
+of cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and
+spirit in proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it
+might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it
+were as carefully treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; but it is
+a well-known fact that the horse does not necessarily degenerate
+by moving towards a colder climate, though the Ass has always been
+found to do so.
+
+There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass
+receives even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the
+customs and traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned,
+writes in very glowing terms of the animal. He states that he formed
+a very high opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, not only from
+its spirited aspect and its speed, but because it was employed even
+by the Viceroy and the great Court officers, who may be said to use
+Asses of more or less intelligence for every occasion. He even goes
+so far as to say that, if all the Asses were taken away from Egypt,
+travel would be impossible.
+
+The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character of
+the Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. "What, then, are the
+characteristics of the ass? Much the same as those which adorn it
+in other parts of the East--namely, it is useful for riding and for
+carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and shows gratitude;
+it is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and more tractable than
+its European congener; its pace is easy and pleasant; and it will
+shrink from no labour, if only its poor daily feed of straw and
+barley is fairly given.
+
+"If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise,
+and wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of its
+extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, who,
+however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having learned to
+live among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the same system of
+education with their miserable dependants.
+
+"The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and silver
+trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with rich Persian
+carpets. The poor do the best they can for him, steal for his
+benefit, give him a corner at their fireside, and in cold weather
+sleep with him for more warmth. In Palestine, all the rich men,
+whether monarchs or chiefs of villages, possess a number of asses,
+keeping them with their flocks, like the patriarchs of old. No one
+can travel in that country, and observe how the ass is employed for
+all purposes, without being struck with the exactness with which the
+Arabs retain the Hebrew customs."
+
+The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an enduring
+and tolerably swift animal, vying with the camel itself in its
+powers of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a sort of easy
+canter. On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said even to gain on
+the horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs give it a firm
+footing where the larger hoof of the horse is liable to slip.
+
+The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little
+explanation.
+
+The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know by
+that name, but is very large and complicated in structure. Over the
+animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick woollen stuff,
+and folded several times. The saddle itself is a very thick pad of
+straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, instead of being
+rounded as is the case with our saddles. The pommel is very high,
+and when the rider is seated on it, he is perched high above the
+back of the animal. Over the saddle is thrown a cloth or carpet,
+always of bright colours, and varying in costliness of material and
+ornament according to the wealth of the possessor. It is mostly
+edged with a fringe and tassels.
+
+The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells,
+embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments.
+
+As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally guided
+by a driver who ran behind it, just as is done with donkeys hired
+to children here. Owing to the unchanging character of the East,
+there is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures rode
+exactly after the mode which is adopted at the present day. What
+that mode is, we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amusing and
+vivid description of a ride through the streets of Cairo:--
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT.]
+
+"To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to the
+ways of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I would
+advise no one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey-riding is
+universal, and no one thinks of going beyond the Frank quarters on
+foot. If he does, he must submit to be followed by not less than
+six donkeys with their drivers. A friend of mine who was attended
+by such a cavalcade for two hours, was obliged to yield at last,
+and made no second attempt. When we first appeared in the gateway
+of an hotel, equipped for an excursion, the rush of men and animals
+was so great that we were forced to retreat until our servant and
+the porter whipped us a path through the yelling and braying mob.
+After one or two trials I found an intelligent Arab boy named Kish,
+who for five piastres a day furnished strong and ambitious donkeys,
+which he kept ready at the door from morning till night. The other
+drivers respected Kish's privilege, and henceforth I had no trouble.
+
+"The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the ground,
+but there is no end to their strength and endurance. Their gait,
+whether in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light that fatigue is
+impossible. The drivers take great pride in having high-cushioned
+red saddles, and in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles.
+They keep their donkeys close shorn, and frequently beautify them
+by painting them various colours. The first animal I rode had legs
+barred like a zebra's, and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks
+and a yellow belly. The drivers ran behind them with a short stick,
+punching them from time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the
+rump. Very few of them own their donkeys, and I understood their
+pertinacity when I learned that they frequently received a beating
+on returning home empty-handed.
+
+"The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous on
+donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between knocking
+somebody down and being knocked down yourself, and one certainly
+prefers the former alternative. There is no use in attempting to
+guide the donkey, for he won't be guided. The driver shouts behind,
+and you are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys,
+camels, horses, carts, water-carriers, and footmen. In vain you cry
+out '_Bess_' (enough), '_Piacco_,' and other desperate adjurations;
+the driver's only reply is: 'Let the bridle hang loose!' You
+dodge your head under a camel-load of planks; your leg brushes the
+wheel of a dust-cart; you strike a fat Turk plump in the back; you
+miraculously escape upsetting a fruit-stand; you scatter a company
+of spectral, white-masked women; and at last reach some more quiet
+street, with the sensations of a man who has stormed a battery.
+
+[Illustration: BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO.]
+
+"At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but presently I
+let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious interest in seeing
+how near a chance I ran of striking or being struck. Sometimes there
+seemed no hope of avoiding a violent collision; but, by a series
+of the most remarkable dodges, he generally carried you through in
+safety. The cries of the driver running behind gave me no little
+amusement. 'The hawadji comes! Take care on the right hand! Take
+care on the left hand! O man, take care! O maiden, take care! O boy,
+get out of the way! The hawadji comes!' Kish had strong lungs, and
+his donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we
+contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion."
+
+[Illustration: NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO.]
+
+This description explains several allusions which are made in the
+Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, and to the
+chariots raging and jostling against each other in the ways.
+
+The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as it is
+at present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same way.
+Sacks and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle; but poles,
+planks, and objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping direction
+on the side of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on the ground,
+and the shorter projecting at either side of the animal's head. The
+North American Indians carry the poles of their huts, or wigwams, in
+precisely the same way, tying them on either side of their horses,
+and making them into rude sledges, upon which are fastened the skins
+that form the walls of their huts. The same system of carriage is
+also found among the Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme
+North, who harness their dogs in precisely the same manner. The
+Ass, thus laden, becomes a very unpleasant passenger through the
+narrow and crowded streets of an Oriental city; and many an unwary
+traveller has found reason to remember the description of Issachar
+as the strong Ass between two burdens.
+
+The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in the
+plough, as we find from many passages. See for example, "Blessed
+are ye that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet
+of the ox and the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside the waters
+is a custom that still prevails in all hot countries, the margins
+of rivers being tilled, while outside this cultivated belt there is
+nothing but desert ground.
+
+The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation,
+turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river, and
+poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of the
+tilled land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of the
+East is at the present day identical with those which were used in
+the old Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine in rather
+an ingenious manner. The machine consists of an upright pivot, and
+to it is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or Ass is
+harnessed. A machine exactly similar in principle may be seen in
+almost any brick-field in England; but the ingenious part of the
+Eastern water-machine is the mode in which the animal is made to
+believe that it is being driven by its keeper, whereas the man in
+question might be at a distance, or fast asleep.
+
+The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the
+horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar,
+is one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting
+end, being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, keeps
+up a continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe that it is
+being drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some ingenious but lazy
+attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting whip, _i.e._ a
+stick which is lifted and allowed to fall on the animal's back by
+the action of the wheel once every round.
+
+The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used for
+ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present day the
+prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is often
+disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, as the
+slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and more active
+animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its companion with its
+horns in order to stimulate it to do more than its fair proportion
+of the work.
+
+There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed in the
+days of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find any
+reference to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays from its
+master, the man who captures the trespasser on his grounds clips a
+piece out of its ear before he returns it to its owner. Each time
+that the animal is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh
+clip of the ear. By looking at the ears of an Ass, therefore, any
+one can tell whether it has ever been a straggler; and if so, he
+knows the number of times that it has strayed, by merely counting
+the clip-marks, which always begin at the tip of the ear, and extend
+along the edges. Any Ass, no matter how handsome it may be, that has
+many of those clips, is always rejected by experienced travellers,
+as it is sure to be a dull as well as a disobedient beast.
+
+There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circumstances
+connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few words. The
+first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab, in the course
+of which there occurred that singular incident of the Ass speaking
+in human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35). The second is the
+well-known episode in the story of Samson, where he is recorded as
+breaking the cords with which his enemies had bound him, and killing
+a thousand Philistines with the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass.
+
+
+
+
+THE WILD ASS.
+
+ Various allusions to the Wild Ass--Its swiftness and
+ wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and Africa--How the Wild Ass is
+ hunted--Excellence of its flesh--Meeting a Wild Ass--Origin of
+ the domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito.
+
+
+There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass is
+distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of them there
+is some reference made to its swiftness, its intractable nature,
+and love of freedom. It is an astonishingly swift animal, so that
+on the level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of
+overtaking it. It is exceedingly wary, its sight, hearing, and sense
+of scent being equally keen, so that to approach it by craft is a
+most difficult task.
+
+Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending hills or
+rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and even in the
+plains it will generally contrive to discover some earth-mound or
+heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm
+in case of danger. It is a gregarious animal, always assembling in
+herds, varying from two or three to several hundred in number, and
+has a habit of partial migration in search of green food, traversing
+large tracts of country in its passage.
+
+It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when captured
+very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a burden or draw a
+vehicle.
+
+Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that have
+been born in captivity, but with very slight success, the wild
+nature of the animal constantly breaking out, even when it appears
+to have become moderately tractable.
+
+Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within the limits
+of the Holy Land, it was common enough in the surrounding country,
+and, from the frequent references made to it in Scriptures, was well
+known to the ancient Jews.
+
+We will now look at the various passages in which the Wild Ass is
+mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in Job xxxix. 5-8:
+
+"Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands
+of the wild ass?
+
+"Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren lands (or
+salt places) his dwellings.
+
+"He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the
+crying of the driver.
+
+"The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after
+every green thing."
+
+Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and truth of
+detail that can only be found in personal knowledge; its love of
+freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration in search of
+pasture.
+
+Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is to
+be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5: "Doth the wild
+ass bray when he hath grass?" or, according to the version of the
+Jewish Bible, "over tender grass?"
+
+ * * * * *
+
+A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its wild
+state is given by Sir R. Kerr Porter, who was allowed by a Wild Ass
+to approach within a moderate distance, the animal evidently seeing
+that he was not one of the people to whom it was accustomed, and
+being curious enough to allow the stranger to approach him.
+
+"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern mountains,
+when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which, my
+Persians said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. I
+instantly put spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave chase.
+After an unrelaxed gallop of three miles, we came up with the dog,
+who was then within a short stretch of the creature he pursued; and
+to my surprise, and at first vexation, I saw it to be an ass.
+
+"Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it must
+be a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which the
+Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I
+determined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was
+on could carry me. But the single instant of checking my horse to
+consider had given our game such a head of us that, notwithstanding
+our speed, we could not recover our ground on him.
+
+"I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions, when,
+at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and
+allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him. He then darted off
+again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sporting
+in his flight, as if he were not blown in the least, and the chase
+was his pastime. When my followers of the country came up, they
+regretted that I had not shot the creature when he was within my
+aim, telling me that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in
+Persia.
+
+"The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which he
+fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description that
+Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above all, it
+reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author of the Book
+of Job. I was informed by the Mehnander, who had been in the desert
+when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild ass of
+Irak Arabi differs in nothing from the one I had just seen. He had
+observed them often for a short time in the possession of the Arabs,
+who told him the creature was perfectly untameable.
+
+"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these animals,
+and, pursuing it determinately, had the good fortune to kill it."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+It has been suggested by many zoologists that the Wild Ass is
+the progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the
+domesticated animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have no
+data whereon even a theory can be built. It is true that the Wild
+and the Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance, and that
+an _Asinus hemippus_, or Wild Ass, looks so like an Asiatic _Asinus
+vulgaris_, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye alone the two are
+hardly distinguishable from each other. But with their appearance
+the resemblance ends, the domestic animal being quiet, docile, and
+fond of man, while the wild animal is savage, intractable, and has
+an invincible repugnance to human beings.
+
+[Illustration: HUNTING WILD ASSES.]
+
+This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and is
+strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They are the
+descendants of the animals that were imported by the Spaniards, and
+live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine the habits of
+the Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame animal. They are as
+swift of foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or Africa, and have the same
+habit of frequenting lofty situations, leaping about among rocks and
+ravines, which seem only fitted for the wild goat, and into which no
+horse can follow them.
+
+Nominally, they are private property, but practically they may be
+taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The lasso is employed
+for the purpose, and when the animals are caught they bite, and
+kick, and plunge, and behave exactly like their wild relations of
+the Old World, giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding
+the teeth and hoofs which they wield so skilfully. But, as soon
+as a load has once been bound on the back of one of these furious
+creatures, the wild spirit dies out of it, the head droops, the
+gait becomes steady, and the animal behaves as if it had led a
+domesticated life all its days.
+
+
+
+
+THE MULE.
+
+ Ancient use of the Mule--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date
+ of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to
+ the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of
+ state--The king's Mule--Obstinacy of the Mule.
+
+
+There are several references to the MULE in the Holy Scriptures, but
+it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the
+time of David, and that in the New Testament the name does not occur
+at all.
+
+The origin of the Mule is unknown, but that the mixed breed between
+the horse and the ass has been employed in many countries from very
+ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very strange circumstance
+that the offspring of these two animals should be, for some
+purposes, far superior to either of the parents, a well-bred Mule
+having the lightness, surefootedness, and hardy endurance of the
+ass, together with the increased size and muscular development of
+the horse. Thus it is peculiarly adapted either for the saddle or
+for the conveyance of burdens over a rough or desert country.
+
+The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from the male
+ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the father and the
+ass as the mother being small, and comparatively valueless. At the
+present day, Mules are largely employed in Spain and the Spanish
+dependencies, and there are some breeds which are of very great size
+and singular beauty, those of Andalusia being especially celebrated.
+In the Andes, the Mule has actually superseded the llama as a beast
+of burden.
+
+Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In Gen.
+xxxvi. 24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred to the
+Mule: "This was that Anah that found the mules in the wilderness."
+Now the word which is here rendered as Mules is "Yemim," a word
+which is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Scriptures. The best
+Hebraists are agreed that, whatever interpretation may be put upon
+the word, it cannot possibly have the signification that is here
+assigned to it. Some translate the word as "hot springs," while the
+editors of the Jewish Bible prefer to leave it untranslated, thus
+signifying that they are not satisfied with any rendering.
+
+[Illustration: MULES OF THE EAST.]
+
+The word which is properly translated as Mule is "Pered;" and the
+first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom had taken
+advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother Amnon in
+revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the servants of
+Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the
+king's sons arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and
+fled." It is evident from this passage that the Mule must have been
+in use for a considerable time, as the sacred writer mentions, as a
+matter of course, that the king's sons had each his own riding mule.
+
+[Illustration: ABSALOM IS CAUGHT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TREE.]
+
+Farther on, chap. xviii. 9 records the event which led to the death
+of Absalom by the hand of Joab. "And Absalom met the servants of
+David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the
+thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak,
+and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule
+that was under him went away."
+
+We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such high
+estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the saddle, and
+had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage we shall find that
+the Mule was ridden by the king himself when he travelled in state,
+and that to ride upon the king's Mule was considered as equivalent
+to sitting upon the king's throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in
+which there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact.
+See first, ver. 33, in which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan
+the prophet, and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for
+bringing his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the
+stead of his father: "Take with you the servants of your lord, and
+cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down
+to Gihon."
+
+That the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal in
+Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that the
+Eastern mules of the present day are quite as troublesome as their
+European brethren. They are very apt to shy at anything, or nothing
+at all; they bite fiercely, and every now and then they indulge
+in a violent kicking fit, flinging out their heels with wonderful
+force and rapidity, and turning round and round on their fore-feet
+so quickly that it is hardly possible to approach them. There is
+scarcely a traveller in the Holy Land who has not some story to tell
+about the Mule and its perverse disposition; but, as these anecdotes
+have but very slight bearing on the subject of the Mule as mentioned
+in the Scriptures, they will not be given in these pages.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT THE KING'S MEAT.]
+
+
+
+
+SWINE.
+
+ The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and
+ Mahometans--The prodigal son--Supposed connexion between Swine
+ and diseases of the skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The
+ wild boar of the woods--The damage which it does to the vines.
+
+
+Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the Mosaic law
+as unfit for food, beside those that come under the general head of
+being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cud.
+There is none, however, that excited such abhorrence as the hog, or
+that was more utterly detested.
+
+It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the
+present day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing
+with which the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews. Even at the
+present day, a zealous Jew or Mahometan looks upon the hog, or
+anything that belongs to the hog, with an abhorrence too deep for
+words. The older and stricter Jews felt so deeply on this subject,
+that they would never even mention the name of the hog, but always
+substituted for the objectionable word the term "the abomination."
+
+Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding
+disgust felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of the
+Mosaic law on which a Jew would ground his antipathy to the flesh of
+Swine is that passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7: "And the swine,
+though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not
+the cud; he is unclean to you." But the very same paragraph, of
+which this passage forms the termination, treats of other unclean
+beasts, such as the coney (or hyrax) and the hare, neither of which
+animals are held in such abhorrence as the Swine.
+
+This enactment could not therefore have produced the singular
+feeling with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews, and in all
+probability the antipathy was of far greater antiquity than the time
+of Moses.
+
+How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer from many
+passages, several of which occur in the Book of Isaiah. See, for
+example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh me to anger continually
+to my face; that sacrificeth in gardens, and burneth incense upon
+altars of brick;
+
+"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which
+eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their
+vessels." Here we have the people heaping one abomination upon
+another--the sacrifice to idols in the gardens, the burning of
+incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange fire, the living
+among the tombs, where none but madmen and evil spirits were
+supposed to reside, and, as the culminating point of iniquity,
+eating Swine's flesh, and drinking the broth in which it was boiled.
+
+In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the
+Swine. Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the uselessness
+of their sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say: "He that killeth
+an ox is as if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he
+had cut off a dog's neck; he that offereth an oblation, as if he
+offered swine's blood." We see here how the prophet proceeds from
+one image to another: the murder of a man, the offering of a dog
+instead of a lamb, and the pouring out of Swine's blood upon the
+altar instead of wine--the last-mentioned crime being evidently held
+as the worst of the three. Another reference to the Swine occurs
+in the same chapter, verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and
+purify themselves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst,
+eating swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be
+consumed together, saith the Lord."
+
+Not only did the Jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but they
+held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it, and
+would have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched
+with a hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feeling has not
+diminished, and both by Jews and Mahometans the hog is held in utter
+abhorrence.
+
+Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling. Signor
+Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine, found
+the flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. "How often has the
+flesh of this animal supported me, especially during the earlier
+part of my stay in Palestine, before I had learned to like the
+mutton and the goats' flesh! I give the preference to this meat
+because it has often saved me time by rendering a fire unnecessary,
+and freed me from importunate, dirty, and unsavoury guests, who used
+their hands for spoons, knives, and forks.
+
+"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that
+served me for a table was always my best friend. Without this
+talisman I should never have freed myself from unwelcome company,
+at least without breaking all the laws of hospitality by not
+inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal;
+a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country. Therefore,
+on the contrary, when thus provided I pressed them with the utmost
+earnestness to eat with me, but of course never succeeded in
+persuading them; and so dined in peace, keeping on good terms with
+them, although they did call me behind my back a 'dog of a Frank'
+for eating pork.
+
+"Besides, I had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always took
+care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants of my
+party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver,
+a rifle, or a sword; and I recommend all travellers in Palestine to
+carry bacon rather than arms."
+
+Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the abject
+degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable must have
+descended, when he was compelled to become a swine-herd for a
+living, and would have been glad even to have eaten the very husks
+on which the Swine fed. These husks, by the way, were evidently the
+pods of the locust-tree, or carob, of which we shall have more to
+say in a future page. We have in our language no words to express
+the depths of ignominy into which this young man must have fallen,
+nor can we conceive any office which in our estimation would be so
+degrading as would be that of swine-herd to a Jew.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRODIGAL SON.]
+
+How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh we can
+see from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a series of
+insults offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple in Jerusalem
+was to be called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, and that on Gerizim
+was to be dedicated to Jupiter, the defender of strangers. The
+altars were defiled by forbidden things, and the celebration of the
+Sabbath, or of any Jewish ceremony, was punishable with death.
+
+Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the Jews
+seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly than
+any other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's flesh, an act
+which was so abhorrent to the Jews that in attempting to enforce it,
+Antiochus found that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered
+to him. The Jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the
+worship of heathen deities, they had submitted to the deprivation of
+their sacred rites, they had even consented to walk in procession on
+the Feast of Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers
+in that most licentious festival. It might be thought that any
+people who submit to such degradation would suffer any similar
+indignity. But even their forbearance had reached its limits, and
+nothing could induce them to eat the flesh of Swine.
+
+[Illustration: ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH.]
+
+Several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded in
+the book just mentioned. Eleazer, for example, a man ninety years
+old, sternly refused to partake of the abominable food. Some of the
+officials, in compassion for his great age, advised him to take
+lawful meat with him and to exchange it for the Swine's flesh.
+This he refused to do, saying that his age was only a reason for
+particular care on his part, lest the young should be led away by
+his example. His persecutors then forced the meat into his mouth,
+but he rejected it, and died under the lash.
+
+Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given by
+the same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were urged with
+blows to eat the forbidden food, and refused to do so. Thinking
+that the mother would not be able to endure the sight of her sons'
+sufferings, the officers took them in succession, and inflicted a
+series of horrible tortures upon them, beginning by cutting off
+their tongues, hands, and feet, and ending by roasting them while
+still alive. Their mother, far from counselling her sons to yield,
+even though they were bribed by promises of wealth and rank, only
+encouraged them to persevere, and, when the last of her sons was
+dead, passed herself through the same fiery trial.
+
+[Illustration: A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING TO
+EAT SWINE'S FLESH.]
+
+It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig was
+prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of its flesh
+in a hot country, and that its almost universal repudiation in such
+lands is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries where
+diseases of the skin are so common, and where the dreaded leprosy
+still maintains its hold, the flesh of the pig is thought, whether
+rightly or wrongly, to increase the tendency to such diseases, and
+on that account alone would be avoided.
+
+[Illustration: THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OF SWINE.]
+
+It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be
+habitually consumed in hot countries without producing any evil
+results; and, moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was not
+confined to the Swine, but included many other animals whose flesh
+is used without scruple by those very persons who reject that of the
+pig.
+
+Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal, we may
+naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of Swine kept in
+Jewish lands.
+
+Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of Swine that
+was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28-34). It is an open question
+whether those who possessed the Swine were Jews of lax principles,
+who disregarded the Law for the sake of gain, or whether they
+were Gentiles, who, of course, were not bound by the Law. The
+former seems the likelier interpretation, the destruction of the
+Swine being a fitting punishment for their owners. It must be here
+remarked, that our Lord did not, as is often said, destroy the
+Swine, neither did He send the devils into them, so that the death
+of these animals cannot be reckoned as one of the divine miracles.
+Ejecting the evil spirits from the maniacs was an exercise of His
+divine authority; the destruction of the Swine was a manifestation
+of diabolical anger, permitted, but not dictated.
+
+Swine are at the present day much neglected in Palestine, because
+the Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the Christians,
+as a rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt the feelings
+of their neighbours. Pigs are, however, reared in the various
+monasteries, and by the Arabs attached to them.
+
+[Illustration: WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER.]
+
+We now come to the wild animal. There is only one passage in the
+Scriptures in which the WILD BOAR is definitely mentioned, and
+another in which a reference is made to it in a paraphrase.
+
+[Illustration: WILD BOARS.]
+
+The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms: "Why hast
+thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way
+do pluck her?
+
+"The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of
+the field doth devour it" (Ps. lxxx. 12, 13). The second passage
+is to be found in Ps. lxviii. 30. In the Authorized Version it is
+thus rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen, the multitude of
+bulls, with the calves of the people." If the reader will refer to
+the marginal translation (which, it must be remarked, is of equal
+authority with the text), the passage runs thus: "Rebuke the beasts
+of the reeds," &c. Now, this is undoubtedly the correct rendering,
+and is accepted in the Jewish Bible.
+
+Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the description
+and character of the animal.
+
+In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much more
+plentiful than is the case in these days, owing to the greater
+abundance of woods, many of which have disappeared by degrees, and
+others been greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind. Woods
+and reed-beds are always the habitations of the Wild Boar, which
+resides in these fastnesses, and seems always to prefer the reed-bed
+to the wood, probably because it can find plenty of mud, in which it
+wallows after the fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever
+that the "beast of the reeds" is simply a poetical phrase for the
+Wild Boar.
+
+If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood, the
+Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to the crops. It
+is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground,
+as it not only devours the grapes, but tears down and destroys the
+vines, trampling them under foot, and destroying a hundredfold as
+much as it eats.
+
+If the reader will refer again to Ps. lxxx. he will see that the
+Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine: "Thou hast
+brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the heathen and
+planted it," &c. No image of a destructive enemy could therefore
+be more appropriate than that which is used. We have read of the
+little foxes that spoil the vines, but the Wild Boar is a much more
+destructive enemy, breaking its way through the fences, rooting up
+the ground, tearing down the vines themselves, and treading them
+under its feet. A single party of these animals will sometimes
+destroy an entire vineyard in a single night.
+
+[Illustration: WILD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD.]
+
+We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a vineyard even
+by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar is infinitely more
+destructive. It is of very great size, often resembling a donkey
+rather than a boar, and is swift and active beyond conception. The
+Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as the very near relation of the
+domestic species. It runs with such speed, that a high-bred horse
+finds some difficulty in overtaking it, while an indifferent steed
+would be left hopelessly behind. Even on level ground the hunter
+has hard work to overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or
+hilly ground, no horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a
+considerable distance, and can wheel and turn when at full speed,
+with an agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed,
+the inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would
+as soon face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose
+razor-like tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is
+sufficient to rip up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder.
+
+Although the Wild Boar is not as plentiful in Palestine as used to
+be the case, it is still found in considerable numbers. Whenever the
+inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of marauding parties
+among the crops, they turn out for a general hunt, and kill as many
+as they can manage to slay. After one of these hunts, the bodies are
+mostly exposed for sale, but, as the demand for them is very small,
+they can be purchased at a very cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought
+one in the plains of Jericho for five shillings. For the few who may
+eat the hog, this is a fortunate circumstance, the flesh being very
+excellent, and as superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a
+barn-door fowl or venison to mutton.
+
+[Illustration: chase]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN ELEPHANT.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+ The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized
+ Version--The Elephant as an engine of war--Antiochus and
+ his Elephants--Oriental exaggeration--Self-devotion of
+ Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants, and their gradual abandonment
+ in war.
+
+
+Except indirectly, the Elephant is never mentioned in the Authorized
+Version of the Canonical Scriptures, although frequent references
+are made to ivory, the product of that animal.
+
+The earliest mention of ivory in the Scriptures is to be found in 1
+Kings x. 18: "Moreover the king (_i.e._ Solomon) made a great throne
+of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold." This passage forms
+a portion of the description given by the sacred historian of the
+glories of Solomon's palace, of which this celebrated throne, with
+the six steps and the twelve lions on the steps, was the central
+and most magnificent object. It is named together with the three
+hundred golden shields, the golden vessel of the royal palace, and
+the wonderful arched viaduct crossing the valley of the Tyropœon,
+"the ascent by which he went up unto the house of the Lord," all of
+which glories so overcame the Queen of Sheba that "there was no more
+spirit in her."
+
+[Illustration: KING SOLOMON, SEATED UPON HIS THRONE, RECEIVES THE
+QUEEN OF SHEBA.]
+
+We see, therefore, that in the time of Solomon ivory was so precious
+an article that it was named among the chief of the wonders to be
+seen in the palace of Solomon, the wealthiest and most magnificent
+monarch of sacred or profane history.
+
+That it should not have been previously mentioned is very singular.
+Five hundred years had elapsed since the Israelites escaped from
+the power of Egypt, and during the whole of that time, though gold
+and silver and precious stones and costly raiment are repeatedly
+mentioned, we do not find a single passage in which any allusion is
+made to ivory. Had we not known that ivory was largely used among
+the Egyptians, such an omission would cause no surprise. But the
+researches of modern travellers have brought to light many articles
+of ivory that were in actual use in Egypt, and we therefore cannot
+but wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem
+to have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought by the
+Israelites from the land of their captivity, and which were so
+abundant that the Tabernacle was entirely formed of them.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN ELEPHANTS.]
+
+In the various collections of Europe are many specimens of ivory
+used by the ancient Egyptians, among the chief of which may be
+mentioned an ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid the name of
+the dynasty in which it was carved, and the ivory-tipped lynch-pins
+of the splendid war-chariot in Florence, from which the illustration
+on page 309 has been drawn.
+
+The ivory used by the Egyptians was, of course, that of the African
+Elephant; and was obtained chiefly from Ethiopia, as we find in
+Herodotus ("Thalia," 114):--"Where the meridian declines towards the
+setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches, being the extreme part
+of the habitable world. It produces much gold, huge elephants, wild
+trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large stature, very handsome
+and long-lived."
+
+The passages in the Bible in which the Elephant itself is named are
+only to be found in the Apocrypha, and in all of them the Elephant
+is described as an engine of war. If the reader will refer to
+the First Book of the Maccabees, he will find that the Elephant
+is mentioned at the very commencement of the book. "Now when the
+kingdom was established before Antiochus, he thought to reign over
+Egypt, that he might have the dominion of two realms.
+
+"Wherefore he entered into Egypt with a great multitude, with
+chariots, and elephants, and horsemen, and a great navy." (i. 16,
+17.)
+
+Here we see that the Elephant was considered as a most potent engine
+of war, and, as we may perceive by the context, the King of Egypt
+was so alarmed by the invading force, that he ran away, and allowed
+Antiochus to take possession of the country.
+
+After this, Antiochus Eupator marched against Jerusalem with a vast
+army, which is thus described in detail:--"The number of his army
+was one hundred thousand footmen, and twenty thousand horsemen, and
+two and thirty elephants exercised in battle.
+
+"And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to fight, they
+showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries.
+
+"Moreover, they divided the beasts among the armies, and for every
+elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with coats of mail,
+and with helmets of brass on their heads; and, besides this for
+every beast were ordained five hundred horsemen of the best.
+
+"These were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast was; and
+whithersoever the beast went they went also, neither departed they
+from him.
+
+"And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood, which covered
+every one of them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there
+were also upon every one two and thirty strong men that fought upon
+them, beside the Indian that ruled him.
+
+"As for the remnant of the horsemen, they set them on this side and
+that side at the two fronts of the host, giving them signs what to
+do, and being harnessed all over amidst the ranks." (1 Macc. vi. 30,
+&c.)
+
+It is evident from this description that, in the opinion of the
+writer, the Elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing
+force, these animals being prominently mentioned, and the rest of
+the army being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the terrible
+beasts. The thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken such a hold of
+the narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon them in the same
+light that the ancient Jews regarded chariots of war, or as at the
+present day savages regard artillery. According to his ideas, the
+thirty-two Elephants constituted the real army, the hundred thousand
+infantry and twenty thousand cavalry being only in attendance upon
+these animals.
+
+Taken as a whole, the description of the war Elephant is a good
+one, though slightly exaggerated, and is evidently written by an
+eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or "Indian that
+guided him," is characteristic enough, as is the account of the
+howdah, or wooden carriage on the back of the animal.
+
+The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated, though
+not to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's Elephants,
+which are said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers, beside
+the wooden tower in which they fought. It is evident that, in the
+first place, no Elephant could carry a tower large enough to hold so
+many fighting men, much less one which would afford space for them
+to use their weapons.
+
+A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel (p.
+157):--"There were certain officers and guides of the Elephants,
+who were called _Elephantarchæ_, who were the governors of sixteen
+Elephants, and they which did institute and teach them martial
+discipline were called _Elephantagogi_.
+
+"The Military Elephant did carry four persons on his bare back, one
+fighting on the right hand, another fighting on the left hand, a
+third, which stood fighting backwards from the Elephant's head, and
+a fourth in the middle of these, holding the rains, and guiding the
+Beast to the discretion of the Souldiers, even as the Pilot in a
+ship guideth the stem, wherein was required an equall knowledge and
+dexterity; for when the Indian which ruled them said, Strike here on
+the right hand, or else on the left, or refrain and stand still, no
+reasonable man could yield readier obedience."
+
+This description is really a very accurate as well as spirited one,
+and conveys a good idea of the fighting Elephant as it appeared when
+brought into action.
+
+Strangely enough, after giving this temperate and really excellent
+account of the war Elephant, the writer seems to have been unable to
+resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds to describe, with
+great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting adopted by the animal,
+intermixed with a considerable amount of the exaggeration from which
+the former part of his account is free.
+
+"They did fasten iron chains, first of all, upon the Elephant that
+was to bear ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty men, on either side
+two panniers of iron bound underneath their belly, and upon them
+the like panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they placed their men
+at armes, and covered them over with small boards (for the trunck
+of the Elephant was covered with a mail for defence, and upon that
+a broadsword two cubits long); this (as also the wooden Castle, or
+pannier aforesaid) were fastened first to the neck and then to the
+rump of the Elephant.
+
+"Being thus armed, they entered the battle, and they shewed unto the
+Beasts, to make them more fierce, wine, liquor made of Rice, and
+white cloth, for at the sight of any of these his courage and rage
+increaseth above all measure. Then at the sound of the Trumpet, he
+beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil, take up into the
+air, cast down again, stamp upon men under feet, overthrow with his
+trunck, and make way for his riders to pierce with Spear, Shield,
+and Sword; so that his horrible voice, his wonderful body, his
+terrible force, his admirable skill, his ready and inestimable
+obedience, and his strange and seldom-seen shape, produced in a main
+battel no mean accidents and overturns."
+
+[Illustration: THE WAR ELEPHANT.]
+
+In this account there is a curious mixture of truth and
+exaggeration. As we have already seen, the number of soldiers which
+the animal was supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated, and it is
+rather amusing to note how the "towers" in which they fought are
+modified into "panniers." Then the method by which the animal is
+incited to the combat is partly true, and partly false. Of course
+an Elephant is not angered by seeing a piece of white cloth, or by
+looking at wine, or a liquor made of rice.
+
+But that the wine, or the "liquor made of rice," _i.e._ arrack,
+was administered to the Elephant before it was brought into the
+battle-field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of
+strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task within their
+powers by a provision of arrack, and when stimulated by a plentiful
+supply of their favourite drink they would be in good fighting
+condition.
+
+Next we find the writer describing the Elephant as being furnished
+with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis, the end of which was
+armed with a sword a yard in length. Now any one who is acquainted
+with the Elephant will see at once that such offensive and defensive
+armour would deprive the animal of the full use of the proboscis,
+and would, therefore, only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in
+battle. Accordingly we find that the writer, when describing with
+perfect accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly
+omits all mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and
+describes the animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword,
+but as overthrowing with the trunk, taking up into the air, and
+casting down again--acts which could only be performed when the
+proboscis was unencumbered by armour. The use of weapons was left to
+the soldiers that fought upon its back, the principal object of the
+huge animal being to trample its way through the opposing ranks, and
+to make a way for the soldiers that followed.
+
+It may be easily imagined that, before soldiers become familiarized
+with the appearance of the Elephant, they might be pardoned for
+being panic-struck at the sight of so strange an animal. Not only
+was it formidable for its vast size, and for the armed men which it
+carried, but for the obedience which it rendered to its keeper, and
+the skill with which it wielded the strange but powerful weapon with
+which Nature had armed it.
+
+At first, the very approach of so terrible a foe struck
+consternation into the soldiers, who knew of no mode by which
+they could oppose the gigantic beast, which came on in its swift,
+swinging pace, crushing its way by sheer weight through the ranks,
+and striking right and left with its proboscis. No other method of
+checking the Elephant, except by self-sacrifice, could be found; and
+in 1 Macc. vi. 43-46, we read how Eleazar, the son of Mattathias,
+nobly devoted himself for his country.
+
+"Eleazar also, surnamed Savaran, perceiving that one of the beasts,
+armed with royal harness, was higher than all the rest, and
+supposing that the king was upon him,
+
+"Put himself in jeopardy, to the end he might deliver his people,
+and get him a perpetual name.
+
+"Whereupon he ran upon him courageously, through the midst of the
+battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left, so that they were
+divided from him on both sides.
+
+"Which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him under, and
+slew him; whereupon the elephant fell down upon him, and he died."
+
+I may here mention that the surname of Savaran, or Avaran, as it
+ought to be called, signifies one who pierces an animal from behind,
+and was given to him after his death, in honour of his exploit.
+
+At first, then, Elephants were the most formidable engines of war
+that could be brought into the battle-field, and the very sight of
+these huge beasts, towering above even the helmets of the cavalry,
+disheartened the enemy so much that victory became easy.
+
+After a while, however, when time for reflection had been allowed,
+the more intellectual among the soldiers began to think that, after
+all, the Elephant was not a mere engine, but a living animal, and,
+as such, subject to the infirmities of the lower animals. So they
+invented scheme after scheme, by which they baffled the attacks of
+these once dreaded foes, and sometimes even succeeded in driving
+them back among the ranks of their own soldiery, so maddened with
+pain and anger, that they dealt destruction among the soldiers for
+whom they were fighting, and so broke up their order of battle that
+the foe easily overcame them.
+
+The vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered, and
+soldiers were armed with very sharp swords, set on long handles,
+with which they continually attacked the Elephants' trunks. Others
+were mounted on swift horses, dashed past the Elephant, and hurled
+their darts before the animal could strike them. Others, again, were
+placed in chariots, and armed with very long and sharply-pointed
+spears. Several of these chariots would be driven simultaneously
+against an Elephant, and sometimes succeeded in killing the animal.
+Slingers also were told off for the express purpose of clearing the
+"castles," or howdahs, of the soldiers who fought on the Elephants'
+backs, and their especial object was the native mahout, who sat on
+the animal's neck.
+
+Sometimes they made way for the Elephant as it pressed forward, and
+then closed round it, so as to make it the central mark, on which
+converged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones on every side,
+until the huge animal sank beneath its many wounds. By degrees,
+therefore, the Elephant was found to be so uncertain an engine of
+war, that its use was gradually discontinued, and finally abandoned
+altogether.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The Elephant which was employed in these wars was the Indian
+species, _Elephas Indicus_, which is thought to be more susceptible
+of education than the African Elephant. The latter, however, has
+been tamed, and, in the days of Rome's greatest splendour, was
+taught to perform a series of tricks that seem almost incredible.
+As, however, the Indian species is that with which we have here to
+do, I have selected it for the principal illustrations.
+
+It may be at once distinguished from its African relative by the
+comparatively small ears, those of the African Elephant reaching
+above the back of the head, and drooping well below the neck. The
+shape of the head, too, is different. In the Indian species, only
+the males bear tusks, and even many of them are unarmed. In the
+African species, however, both sexes bear tusks, those of the male
+furnishing the best ivory, with its peculiar creamy colour and
+beautiful graining, and those of the female being smaller in size,
+and producing ivory of a much inferior quality.
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN ELEPHANTS.]
+
+The Elephant, whether of Asia or Africa, always lives in herds
+varying greatly in numbers, and invariably found in the deepest
+forests, or in their near vicinity. Both species are fond of
+water, and never wander far from some stream or fountain, although
+they can, and do, make tolerably long journeys for the purpose of
+obtaining the needful supply of liquid.
+
+They have a curious capability of laying up a store of water in
+their interior, somewhat after the fashion of the camel, but also
+possess the strange accomplishment of drawing the liquid supply from
+their stomachs by means of their trunks, and scattering it in a
+shower over their backs to cool their heated bodies.
+
+When drinking, the Elephant inserts the tip of his trunk into the
+stream, fills it with water, and then, turning it into his throat,
+discharges the contents.
+
+The strangest portion of the Elephant is the trunk, or proboscis.
+This wonderful appendage is furnished at its extremity with a
+finger-like projection, with which the animal can pluck a single
+blade of grass or pick up a small object from the ground.
+
+The value of the proboscis to the Elephant can be estimated when it
+is considered that without its aid the animal must soon starve to
+death. The short, thick neck and projecting tusks would entirely
+prevent it from reaching any of the vegetation upon which it feeds.
+
+With the trunk, however, the Elephant readily carries its food to
+its mouth, and employs the useful member just as if it were a long
+and flexible arm.
+
+The Elephant bears a worldwide fame for its capabilities as a
+servant and companion of man, and for the extraordinary development
+of its intellectual faculties. The Indian or Asiatic Elephant is the
+variety that is considered most docile and easy to train; these are
+almost invariably taken in a wild state from their native forests.
+The Indian hunters usually proceed into the woods with trained
+female Elephants. These advance quietly, and by their blandishments
+so occupy the attention of any unfortunate male that they meet that
+the hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and fasten him to
+a tree. His treacherous companions now leave him to struggle in
+impotent rage until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue that the
+hunters can drive him home between two tame elephants. When once
+captured, he is easily trained.
+
+The following curious instance of intelligence in an Elephant is
+given by a traveller in Ceylon:
+
+"One evening, while riding in the vicinity of Kandy, my horse showed
+some excitement at a noise which was heard in the thick jungle,
+sounding something like '_Urmph! Urmph!_' uttered in a hoarse and
+dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by
+bringing me face to face with a tame working Elephant unaccompanied
+by any driver or attendant. He was laboring painfully with a heavy
+beam of timber, which he had balanced across his tusks and was
+carrying to the village from which I had come.
+
+"The pathway being narrow, he was compelled to bend his head
+to one side to permit the passage of the long piece of wood, and
+the exertion and inconvenience combined, led him to utter the
+dissatisfied sounds which had frightened my horse.
+
+[Illustration: ELEPHANTS' WATERING-PLACE.]
+
+"On seeing us halt, the Elephant raised his head, looked at us for a
+moment, then dropped the timber, and forced himself backward among
+the bushes at the side of the road, so as to leave us plenty of room
+to pass.
+
+"My horse still hesitated; the Elephant observed this, and
+impatiently crowded himself still deeper in the jungle, repeating
+his cry of, '_Urmph! Urmph!_' but in a voice evidently meant to
+encourage us to come on. Still the horse trembled; and, anxious to
+observe the conduct of the two sagacious creatures, I forbore any
+interference. Again the Elephant wedged himself farther in among the
+trees and waited for us to pass him. At last the horse timidly did
+so, after which I saw the wise Elephant come out of the wood, take
+up the heavy timber upon his tusks, and resume his route, hoarsely
+snorting, as before, his discontented remonstrance."
+
+Although so valuable an animal for certain kinds of work, the
+Elephant is hardly so effective an assistant as might be supposed.
+The working Elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
+watchfulness and care; as a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory,
+for, although in the matter of mere strength there is hardly any
+weight that could be conveniently placed on him which he could not
+carry, it is difficult to pack it without causing abrasions of the
+Elephant's skin, which afterwards ulcerate.
+
+His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wet weather.
+Either during long droughts, or too much moisture, his feet are also
+liable to sores which render him useless for months.
+
+In India the Elephant is used more for purposes of state display
+or for hunting than for hard labor. It is especially trained for
+tiger-hunting, and, as there is a natural dread of the terrible
+tiger deeply implanted in almost all Elephants, it is no easy matter
+to teach the animal to approach his powerful foe.
+
+A stuffed tiger-skin is employed for this purpose, and is
+continually shown to the Elephant until he learns to lose all
+distrust of the inanimate object, and to strike it, to crush it with
+his feet, or to pierce it with his tusks.
+
+After a while a boy is put inside the tiger-skin, in order to
+accustom the Elephant to the sight of the tiger in motion.
+
+[Illustration: TIGER.]
+
+The last stage in the proceedings is to procure a dead tiger, and to
+substitute it for the stuffed skin. Even with all this training, it
+most frequently happens that when the Elephant is brought to face
+a veritable living tiger the furious bounds, the savage yells, and
+gleaming eyes of the beast are so terrifying that he turns tail and
+makes a hasty retreat. Hardly one Elephant out of ten will face an
+angry tiger. The Elephant, when used in tiger-hunting, is always
+guided by a native driver, called a mahout, who sits astride of the
+animal's neck and guides its movements by means of the voice and the
+use of an iron hook at the end of a short stick.
+
+[Illustration: THE TIGER IN THE REEDS.]
+
+The hunters who ride upon the Elephant sit in a kind of box called
+a howdah, which is strapped firmly upon the animal's back, or else
+merely rests upon a large flat pad furnished with cross-ropes for
+maintaining a firm hold. The Elephant generally kneels to enable
+the riders to mount, and then rises from the ground with a peculiar
+swinging motion that is most discomposing to beginners in the art.
+
+The chase of the tiger is among the most exciting and favourite
+sports in India. When starting on a hunt, a number of hunters
+usually assemble, mounted on Elephants trained for the purpose, and
+carrying with them a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs, or
+carriages mounted on the Elephants' backs. Thus armed, they proceed
+to the spot where a tiger has been seen. The animal is usually
+found hidden in the long grass or jungle, which is frequently
+eight or more feet in height; and when roused, it endeavours to
+creep away under the grass. The movement of the leaves betrays him,
+and he is checked by a rifle-ball aimed at him through the jungle.
+Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he turns round
+and springs at the nearest Elephant, endeavouring to clamber up it
+and attack the party in the howdah. This is the most dangerous part
+of the proceedings, as many Elephants will turn round and run away,
+regardless of the efforts of their drivers to make them face the
+tiger. Should, however, the Elephant stand firm, a well-directed
+ball checks the tiger in his spring; and he then endeavours to
+again escape, but a volley of rifle-balls from the backs of the
+other Elephants, who by this time have come up, lays the savage
+animal prostrate, and in a very short time his skin decorates the
+successful marksman's howdah.
+
+[Illustration: tiger]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: jungle scene]
+
+
+
+
+THE CONEY, OR HYRAX.
+
+ The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of
+ the word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian
+ Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent
+ rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of
+ the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax,
+ and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in
+ appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of
+ Hyrax known to naturalists.
+
+
+Among the many animals mentioned in the Bible, there is one which is
+evidently of some importance in the Jewish code, inasmuch as it is
+twice named in the Mosaic law.
+
+That it was also familiar to the Jews is evident from other
+references which are made to its habits. This animal is the
+Shaphan of the Hebrew language, a word which has very wrongly been
+translated in the Authorized Version as Coney, _i.e._ Rabbit, the
+creature in question not being a rabbit, nor even a rodent. No
+rabbit has ever been discovered in Palestine, and naturalists
+have agreed that the true Coney or Rabbit has never inhabited
+the Holy Land. There is no doubt that the Shaphan of the Hebrew
+Scripture, and the Coney of the Vulgate, was the SYRIAN HYRAX
+(_Hyrax Syriacus_). This little animal is rather larger than an
+ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in appearance, and has many of
+its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, it is very active, it
+inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, and it has in the front of
+its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth, very much like those of the
+rabbit. Consequently, it was classed by naturalists among the
+rodents for many years, under the name of Rock Rabbit. Yet, as I
+have already mentioned, it is not even a rodent, but belongs to the
+pachydermatous group of animals, and occupies an intermediate place
+between the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus.
+
+[Illustration: THE HYRAX.]
+
+If it be examined carefully, the rodent-like teeth will be seen to
+resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus, with
+their sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a close
+inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny hoofs just
+like those of the rhinoceros; and there are many other points in
+its structure which, to the eye of a naturalist, point out its true
+place in nature.
+
+In common with the rodents, and other animals which have
+similarly-shaped teeth, the Hyrax, when at rest, is continually
+working its jaws from side to side, a movement which it
+instinctively performs, in order that the chiselled edges of the
+upper and lower teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing
+against each other, and that they may not be suffered to grow too
+long, and so to deprive the animal of the means whereby it gains
+its food. But for this peculiar movement, which looks very like the
+action of ruminating, the teeth would grow far beyond the mouth,
+as they rapidly deposit dental material in their bases in order to
+supply the waste caused at their tips by the continual friction of
+the edges against each other.
+
+It may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the
+elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, all bare-skinned
+animals, should be clothed with a furry coat. The reader may perhaps
+remember that the Hyrax does not afford a solitary instance of this
+structure, and that, although the elephants of our day have only a
+few bristly hairs thinly scattered over the body, those of former
+days were clad in a thick and treble coat of fur and hair.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+There are four passages of Scripture in which the CONEY is
+mentioned--two in which it is prohibited as food, and two in which
+allusion is made to its manner of life. In order to understand the
+subject better, we will take them in their order.
+
+The first mention of the Coney occurs in Leviticus xi. 5, among the
+list of clean and unclean animals: "The coney, because he cheweth
+the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you." The
+second is of a like nature, and is to be found in Deut. xiv. 7:
+"These ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that
+divide the cloven hoof; as the camel, and the hare, and the coney:
+for they chew the cud, but divide not the hoof; therefore they are
+unclean unto you."
+
+The remaining passages, which describe the habits of the Coney,
+are as follow. The first alludes to the rock-loving habits of the
+animal: "The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the
+rocks for the conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second makes a similar
+mention of the localities which the animal frequents, and in
+addition speaks of its wariness, including it among the "four things
+which are little upon the earth, but they are exceedingly wise." The
+four are the ants, the locusts, the spiders, and the Conies, which
+"are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks."
+
+We will take these passages in their order.
+
+It has already been mentioned that the Hyrax, a true pachyderm,
+does not merely chew the cud, but that the peculiar and constant
+movement of its jaws strongly resembles the act of rumination. The
+Jews, ignorant as they were of scientific zoology, would naturally
+set down the Hyrax as a ruminant, and would have been likely to
+eat it, as its flesh is very good. It must be remembered that two
+conditions were needful to render an animal fit to be eaten by a
+Jew, the one that it must be a ruminant, and the second that it
+should have a divided hoof. Granting, therefore, the presence of the
+former qualification, Moses points out the absence of the latter,
+thereby prohibiting the animal as effectually as if he had entered
+into a question of comparative anatomy, and proved that the Hyrax
+was incapable of rumination.
+
+We now come to the habits of the animal.
+
+As we may gather from the passages of Scripture which have already
+been mentioned, the Hyrax inhabits rocky places, and lives in
+the clefts that are always found in such localities. It is an
+exceedingly active creature, leaping from rock to rock with
+wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm hold
+of the hard and irregular surface of the stony ground. Even in
+captivity it retains much of its activity, and flies about its cage
+with a rapidity that seems more suitable to a squirrel than to an
+animal allied to the rhinoceros and hippopotamus.
+
+There are several species--perhaps only varieties--of the Hyrax,
+all of them identical in habits, and almost precisely similar in
+appearance. The best known of these animals is that which inhabits
+Southern Africa (_Hyrax Capensis_), and which is familiar to the
+colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit. In situations
+which suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is much hunted
+by the natives, who esteem its flesh very highly. Small and
+insignificant as it appears to be, even Europeans think that to kill
+the Hyrax is a tolerable test of sportsmanship, the wariness of
+the animal being so great that much hunter's craft is required to
+approach it.
+
+The following account of the Hyrax has been furnished to me by Major
+A. W. Drayson, R.A.:--"In the Cape Colony, and over a great portion
+of Southern Africa, this little creature is found. It is never, as
+far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers, as we find rabbits
+in England, though the caution of the animal is such as to enable
+it to remain safe in districts from which other animals are soon
+exterminated.
+
+"As its name implies, it is found among rocks, in the crevices and
+holes of which it finds a retreat. When a natural cavity is not
+found, the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the rocks,
+and burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about equal to a
+hare, though it is much shorter in the legs, and has ears more like
+those of a rat than a rabbit. Its skin is covered with fur, thick
+and woolly, as though intended for a colder climate than that in
+which it is usually found; and, when seen from a distance, it looks
+nearly black.
+
+"The rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature, and usually feeds on
+the summit of any piece of rock near its home, always choosing one
+from which it can obtain a good view of the surrounding country.
+When it sees an enemy approaching, it sits rigidly on the rock and
+watches him without moving, so that at a little distance it is
+almost impossible to distinguish it from the rock on which it sits.
+When it does move, it darts quickly out of sight, and disappears
+into its burrow with a sudden leap.
+
+"In consequence of its activity and cunning, the rock-rabbit is
+seldom killed by white men; and when a hunter does secure one, it is
+generally by means of a long shot. The natives usually watch near
+its burrow, or noiselessly stalk it.
+
+"I once killed one of these animals by a very long shot from a
+rifle, as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large
+boulder, at a distance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts.
+The Dutch Boers who were with me were delighted at the sight of
+it, as they said it was good eating; and so it proved to be, the
+flesh being somewhat like that of a hare, though in our rough
+field-cookery we could not do justice to it."
+
+This short narrative excellently illustrates the character of the
+animal, which is classed among the "four things which be exceeding
+wise." It is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set has induced
+a Hyrax to enter it, and so wary that it is with difficulty to be
+killed even with the aid of fire-arms. "No animal," writes Mr.
+Tristram, "ever gave us so much trouble to secure.... The only
+chance of securing one is to be concealed, particularly about sunset
+or before sunrise, on some overhanging cliff, taking care not to
+let the shadow be cast below, and then to wait until the little
+creatures cautiously peep forth from their holes. They are said to
+be common by those who have not looked for them, but are certainly
+not abundant in Palestine, and few writers have ever had more than a
+single glimpse of one. I had the good fortune to see one feeding in
+the gorge of the Kedron, and then to watch it as it sat at the mouth
+of its hole, ruminating, metaphorically if not literally, while
+waiting for sunset."
+
+Should the Hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy, it utters a
+shrill cry or squeal, and darts at once to its hole--an action which
+is followed by all its companions as soon as they hear the warning
+cry. It is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing four or five young
+at a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of hay and fur, in which
+they are almost hidden. If surprised in its hole and seized, the
+Hyrax will bite very sharply, its long chisel-edged teeth inflicting
+severe wounds on the hand that attempts to grasp it. But it is of a
+tolerably docile disposition, and in a short time learns to know its
+owner, and to delight in receiving his caresses.
+
+Three species of Hyrax are known to naturalists. One is the
+Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit, of Southern Africa; the second is the
+Ashkoko of Abyssinia; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or the
+Coney of the Bible. The two last species have often been confounded
+together, but the Syrian animal may be known by the oblong pale spot
+on the middle of its back.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS.]
+
+
+
+
+BEHEMOTH.
+
+ Literal translation of the word Behemoth--Various theories
+ respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known
+ to the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He
+ eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among
+ the crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or
+ scythe" of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts
+ of the Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable
+ painting--Strength of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the
+ Nile--Modern hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall
+ and the drop-trap.
+
+
+In the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so familiar
+to us as the Book of Job, the Lord is represented as reproving the
+murmurs of Job, by showing that he could not even understand the
+mysteries of the universe, much less the purposes of the Creator.
+By presuming to bring a charge of injustice against his Maker, he
+in fact inferred that the accuser was more competent to govern
+the world than was the Creator, and thus laid himself open to the
+unanswerable irony of the splendid passages contained in chapters
+xl. xli., which show that man cannot even rule the animals, his
+fellow-creatures, much less control the destinies of the human race.
+
+The passages with which we are at present concerned are to be found
+at the end of the fortieth chapter, and contain a most powerful
+description of some animal which is called by the name of Behemoth.
+Now this word only occurs once in the whole of the Scriptures,
+_i.e._ in Job xl. 15: "Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee,"
+&c. Some commentators, in consequence of the plural termination
+of the word, which may be literally translated as "beasts," have
+thought that it was a collective term for all the largest beasts of
+the world, such as the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle,
+and their like. Others have thought that the elephant was signified
+by the word Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with
+palæontology, have put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must
+have been some extinct pachydermatous animal, like the dinotherium,
+in which might be combined many of the qualities of the elephant and
+hippopotamus.
+
+It is now, however, agreed by all Biblical scholars and naturalists,
+that the hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the creature which
+was signified by the word Behemoth, and this interpretation is
+followed in the Jewish Bible.
+
+We will now take the whole of the passage, and afterwards examine it
+by degrees, comparing the Authorized Version with the Jewish Bible,
+and noting at the same time one or two variations in the rendering
+of certain phrases. The passage is given as follows in the Jewish
+Bible, and may be compared with our Authorized Version:--
+
+ "Behold now the river-horse, which I have made with thee: he eateth
+ grass like an ox.
+
+ "Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his vigour is in the
+ muscles of his body.
+
+ "He moveth his tail like a cedar: the sinews of his thighs are
+ wrapped together.
+
+ "His bones are pipes of copper; his bones are like bars of iron.
+
+ "He is the chief of the ways of God: he that made him can alone
+ reach his sword.
+
+ "That the mountains should bring forth food for him, and all the
+ beasts of the field play there.
+
+ "He lieth under wild lotuses, in the covert of the reed, and fens.
+
+ "Wild lotuses cover him with their shadow; willows of the brook
+ compass him about.
+
+ "Behold, should a river overflow, he hasteth not: he feels secure
+ should Jordan burst forth up to his mouth.
+
+ "He taketh it in with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares."
+
+We will now take this description in detail, and see how far it
+applies to the now familiar habits of the hippopotamus. A little
+allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but we shall
+find that in all important details the account of the Behemoth
+agrees perfectly with the appearance and habits of the hippopotamus.
+
+In the first place, it is evident that we may dismiss from our minds
+the idea that the Behemoth was an extinct pachyderm. The whole tenor
+of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing,
+and whose habits were familiar to Job and his friends. Now the date
+of the Book of Job could not have been earlier than about 1500
+B.C., and in consequence, the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be
+discarded.
+
+We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most unlikely
+that Job should have known anything about the animal, and it is
+certain that he could not have attained the familiarity with its
+appearance and habits which is inferred by the context. Moreover,
+it cannot be said of the elephant that "he eateth grass as an ox."
+The elephant feeds chiefly on the leaves of trees, and when he
+does eat grass, he cannot do so "like an ox," but plucks it with
+his proboscis, and then puts the green tufts into his mouth. So
+characteristic a gesture as this would never have passed unnoticed
+in a description so full of detail.
+
+That the hippopotamus was known to the ancient Hebrews is
+certain. After their sojourn in Egypt they had necessarily become
+familiarized with it; and if, as most commentators believe, the
+date of the Book of Job be subsequent to the liberation of the
+Israelites, there is no difficulty in assuming that Job and his
+companions were well acquainted with the animal. Even if the book
+be of an earlier date, it is still possible that the hippopotamus
+may, in those days, have lived in rivers where it is now as much
+extinct as it is in England. Mr. Tristram remarks on this point: "No
+hippopotamus is found in Asia, but there is no reason for asserting
+that it may not have had an eastern range as far as Palestine, and
+wallowed in the Jordan; for its bones are found in the _débris_
+of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the Mediterranean, when
+tradition is quite silent as to its former existence."
+
+[Illustration: THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.]
+
+There is no doubt that the hippopotamus and the urus were the two
+largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably on that
+account that the former received the name of Behemoth.
+
+Assuming, therefore, that the Behemoth is identical with the
+hippopotamus, we will proceed with the description.
+
+"He eateth grass like the ox." The word which is here rendered
+"grass" is translated in Numb. xi. 5 as "leeks." It means, something
+that is green, and is probably used to signify green herbage of
+any description. Now it is perfectly true of the hippopotamus
+that it eats grass like an ox, or like cattle, as the passage
+may be translated. In order to supply its huge massive body with
+nourishment, it consumes vast quantities of food. The mouth is
+enormously broad and shovel-shaped, so as to take in a large
+quantity of food at once; and the gape is so wide, that when the
+animal opens its jaws to their full extent it seems to split its
+head into two nearly equal portions. This great mobility of jaw is
+assisted by the peculiar form of the gape, which takes a sudden turn
+upwards, and reaches almost to the eyes.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT JAWS OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.]
+
+Just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of food,
+so the jaws and teeth are made to procure it. From the front of
+the lower jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally, no longer
+performing the ordinary duties of teeth, but being modified into
+tusks, which are in all probability used as levers for prising up
+the vegetables on which the animal lives. But the most singular
+portion of the jaw is the mode in which the canine teeth are
+modified so as to resemble the incisor teeth of rodents, and to
+perform a similar office.
+
+[Illustration: THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.]
+
+These teeth are very long, curved, and chisel-edged at their tips,
+their shape being preserved by continual attrition, just as has been
+mentioned of the hyrax. The material of the teeth is peculiarly
+hard, so much so, indeed, that it is in great request for artificial
+teeth, the "verniers" of philosophical instruments, and similar
+purposes. Consequently, with these teeth the hippopotamus can cut
+through the stems of thick and strong herbage as with shears, and
+the strength of its jaws is so great that an angered hippopotamus
+has been known to bite a man completely in two, and to crush a canoe
+to fragments with a single movement of its enormous jaws.
+
+Keeping this description in our minds, we shall see how true is the
+statement in verse 19. This passage is not adequately rendered in
+the Authorized Version: the word which is translated as "sword" also
+signifies a scythe, and evidently having that meaning in the text.
+The passage is best translated thus: "His Maker hath furnished him
+with his scythe."
+
+The havoc which such an animal can make among growing crops may be
+easily imagined. It is fond of leaving the river, and forcing its
+way into cultivated grounds, where it eats vast quantities of green
+food, and destroys as much as it eats, by the trampling of its heavy
+feet. Owing to the width of the animal, the feet are placed very far
+apart, and the consequence is that the hippopotamus makes a double
+path, the feet of each side trampling down the herbage, and causing
+the track to look like a double rut, with an elevated ridge between
+them.
+
+Some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in
+verse 20, "Surely the mountains bring him forth food." Commentators
+ignorant of the habits of the hippopotamus, and not acquainted with
+the character of the country where it lives, have thought that the
+animal only lived in the rivers, and merely found its food along
+its banks, or at most upon the marshes at the river-side. The
+hippopotamus, say they, is not a dweller on the mountains, but an
+inhabitant of the river, and therefore this passage cannot rightly
+be applied to the animal.
+
+Now, in the first place, the word _harim_, which is translated
+as "mountains" in the Authorized Version, is rendered as "hills"
+by many Hebraists. Moreover, as we know from many passages of
+Scripture, the word "mountain" is applied to any elevated spot,
+without reference to its height. Such places are very common
+along the banks of the Nile, and are employed for the culture
+of vegetables, which would not grow properly upon the flat and
+marshy lands around them. These spots are very attractive to the
+hippopotamus, who likes a change of diet, and thus finds food
+upon the mountains. In many parts of Egypt the river runs through
+a mountainous country, so that the hills are within a very short
+distance of the water, and are easily reached by the hippopotamus.
+
+[Illustration: THE HIPPOPOTAMUS EATING GRASS.]
+
+We will now proceed to the next verse. After mentioning that the
+Behemoth can eat grass like an ox, and finds its food upon the
+hills, the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its moments of
+repose it is an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy ground: "He
+lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and fens.
+
+"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the
+brook compass him about."
+
+Here I may remind the reader that the compound Hebrew word which is
+rendered in the Authorized Version as "shady trees" is translated
+by some persons as "wild lotuses"--a rendering which is followed by
+the editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently, however, the Authorized
+Version gives a more correct meaning of the term. Judging from a
+well-known Egyptian painting, which represents a hunter in the
+act of harpooning the hippopotamus, the tall papyrus reeds are the
+plants that are signified by this word, which occurs in no other
+place in the Scriptures.
+
+Nothing can be more accurate than this description of the habits
+of the animal. I have now before me a number of sketches by Mr.
+T. Baines, representing various incidents in the life of the
+hippopotamus; and in one or two of them, the little islands that
+stud the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly clothed
+with reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly similar to
+those which are represented in the conventional style of Egyptian
+art. These spots are the favourite haunts of the hippopotamus, which
+loves to lie under their shadow, its whole body remaining concealed
+in the water, and only the eyes, ears, and nostrils appearing above
+the surface.
+
+As reference will be made to this painting when we come to the
+Leviathan, it will be as well to describe it in detail. In
+order that the reader should fully understand it, I have had it
+translated, so to speak, from the conventional outline of Egyptian
+art into perspective, exactly as has been done with the Assyrian and
+Egyptian chariots.
+
+In the foreground is seen the hunter, standing on a boat that
+closely resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several
+parts of Africa. It is made of the very light wood called ambatch,
+by cutting down the requisite number of trees, laying them side by
+side so that their bases form the stern and their points the bow of
+the extemporized boat. They are then firmly lashed together, the
+pointed ends turned upwards, and the simple vessel is complete. It
+is, in fact, nothing more than a raft of triangular shape, but the
+wood is so buoyant that it answers every purpose.
+
+In his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about to
+launch at the hippopotamus. This is evidently the same weapon which
+is still employed for that purpose. It consists of a long shaft,
+into the end of which a barbed iron point is loosely inserted. To
+the iron point is attached one end of a rope, and to the other end,
+which is held in the left hand of the harpooner, a float of ambatch
+wood is fastened.
+
+When the weapon is thrown, the furious struggles of the wounded
+animal disengage the shaft of the harpoon, which is regained by the
+hunter; and as it dashes through the water, throwing up spray as it
+goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of the rope at the surface, so
+that it can be seen as soon as the animal becomes quieter. Sometimes
+it dives to the bottom, and remains there as long as its breath
+can hold out; and when it comes up to breathe, it only pushes the
+nostrils out of the water under the shadow of the reeds, so that but
+for the float it might manage to escape.
+
+[Illustration: A HIPPOPOTAMUS HUNT IN EGYPT.
+
+(This picture is taken from an ancient Egyptian painting.)]
+
+In the meantime, guided by the float, the hunter follows the course
+of the animal, and, as soon as it comes within reach of his weapon,
+drives another spear into it, and so proceeds until the animal dies
+from loss of blood. The modern hunters never throw a second harpoon
+unless the one already fixed gives way, mainly employing a spear to
+inflict the last wounds. But if we may judge from this painting, the
+Egyptian hunter attached a new rope with every cast of his weapon,
+and, when the hippopotamus became weak from its wounds, gathered up
+the ropes and came to close quarters.
+
+In the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant, armed with a rope
+made lasso-wise into a noose, which he is throwing over the head
+of the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression show evidently,
+in spite of the rudeness of the drawing, the impotent anger of the
+weakened animal.
+
+Behind the hippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and papyrus
+under the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and on the
+surface of the water float the beautiful white flowers of the lotus.
+
+In the Egyptian painting, the artist, in spite of the
+conventionalities to which he was bound, has depicted the whole
+scene with skill and spirit. The head and open mouth of the
+hippopotamus are remarkably fine, and show that the artist who drew
+the animal must have seen it when half mad with pain, and half dead
+from loss of blood.
+
+The enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in verses 16,
+18, the last of which passages requires a little explanation. Two
+different words are used here to express the bones of the animal.
+The first is derived from a word signifying strength, and means the
+"strong bones," _i.e._ those of the legs. These are hollow, and are
+therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of copper. The second
+term is thought by some Hebraists to refer to the rib-bones, which
+are solid, and therefore are not likened to tubes, but to bars of
+iron.
+
+The 23d verse has been translated rather variously. The Authorized
+Version can be seen by reference to a Bible, and another
+translation, that of the Jewish Bible, is given on page 374. A
+third, and perhaps the best rendering of this passage is given by
+the Rev. W. Drake, in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible:" "Lo, the
+river swelleth proudly against him, yet he is not alarmed; he is
+securely confident though a Jordan burst forth against his mouth."
+
+In all probability reference is here made to the annual rising of
+the Nile, and the inundations which it causes. In some years,
+when it rises much above its usual height, the floods become most
+disastrous. Whole villages are swept away, and scarcely a vestige of
+the mud-built houses is left; the dead bodies of human beings are
+seen intermixed with those of cattle, and the whole country is one
+scene of desolation. Yet the almost amphibious hippopotamus cares
+nothing for the floods, as long as it can find food, and so, "though
+the river swelleth proudly against him," he is not alarmed.
+
+From the use of the word "Jordan" in the same verse, it might be
+thought that the river of Palestine was intended. This, however, is
+not the case. The word "Jordan" is simply used as a poetical term
+for any river, and is derived from a Hebrew word which signifies
+"descending quickly."
+
+We now come to the last verse of this noble description: "He taketh
+it in with his eyes." These words have also been variously rendered,
+some translating them as "He receiveth it (_i.e._ the river) up to
+his eyes." But the translation which seems to suit the context best
+is, "Who will take him when in his sight? His nose pierceth through
+(_i.e._ detects) snares." Now, this faculty of detecting snares is
+one of the chief characteristics of the hippopotamus, when it lives
+near places inhabited by mankind, who are always doing their best
+to destroy it. In the first place, its body gives them an almost
+unlimited supply of flesh, the fat is very highly valued for many
+purposes, the teeth are sold to the ivory-dealers, and the hide is
+cut up into whips, or khoorbashes.
+
+There is now before me a khoorbash, purchased from a native Egyptian
+who was beating a servant with it. The whip is identical with that
+which was used by the ancient Egyptians in urging the Israelites to
+their tasks, and the scene reminded the traveller so forcibly of the
+old Scriptural times that he rescued the unfortunate servant, and
+purchased the khoorbash, which is now in my collection.
+
+Not content with hunting the hippopotamus, the natives contrive
+various traps, either pitfalls or drop-traps. The former are simply
+pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with sticks and reeds,
+and having at the bottom a sharp stake on which the victim is
+impaled, and so effectually prevented from escaping or damaging the
+pit by its struggles.
+
+The drop-trap is a log of wood, weighted with stones, and having at
+one end an iron spike, which is sometimes poisoned. The path which
+the animal takes is watched, a conveniently overhanging branch is
+selected, and from that branch the cruel spear is suspended, by a
+catch or trigger, exactly over the centre of the path. There is no
+difficulty in finding the precise centre of the path, owing to the
+peculiar gait of the animal, which has already been described. One
+end of the trigger supports the spear, and to the other is attached
+a rope, which is brought across the path in such a way that when
+touched it relieves the spear, which is driven deeply into the
+animal's back. If well hung, the spear-blade divides the spine, and
+the wounded animal falls on the spot, but, even if it should miss a
+vital part, the poison soon does its fatal work.
+
+[Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP.]
+
+In consequence of the continual persecution to which it is
+subjected, the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary, and, huge,
+clumsy, and blundering as it looks, is clever enough to detect
+either pitfall or drop-trap that have not been contrived with
+especial care. An old and experienced hippopotamus becomes so wary
+that he will be suspicious even of a bent twig, and, rather than
+venture across it, he will leave the path, force for himself a
+roundabout passage, and return to the path beyond the object that
+alarmed him.
+
+Mr. T. Baines, to whose sketches I am indebted for the illustration,
+told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of much more intellect
+than might be expected from a creature of so dull, clumsy, and
+unpromising aspect. Apathetic it generally is, and, as long as it is
+left unmolested, does not care to molest even the human beings that
+intrude upon its repose.
+
+It likes to lie in the shade of the reeds and rushes, and may be
+seen floating in the water, with only the nostrils, the eyes, and
+the ears above the surface, these organs being set in a line along
+the head, evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole body to be
+hidden under water while the three most important senses are capable
+of acting.
+
+A canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will fearlessly
+take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals, knowing
+that, if he only avoids contact with them, they will not interfere
+with him. The only danger is, that a hippopotamus may rise under
+the canoe, and strike itself against the boat, in which case the
+animal is rather apt to consider the intruding object as an enemy,
+and to attack it, sometimes crushing the canoe between its teeth,
+and mostly upsetting it, and throwing the crew into the water. In
+such a case, the men always dive at once to the bottom of the river,
+and hold on to some weed or rock as long as they can exist without
+breathing. The reason for this proceeding is, that the hippopotamus
+always looks for its enemy upon the surface of the water, and, if
+the men were to swim to shore, they would be caught and killed
+before they had swum many strokes. But, as it sees nothing but the
+damaged canoe, its short-lived anger vanishes, and it sinks again
+into the river, leaving the men at liberty to regain and repair
+their vessel.
+
+There is one passage in the description of the Behemoth which
+requires a few words of explanation: "He moveth his tail like a
+cedar" (v. 17).
+
+Several commentators have imagined that this expression shows that
+the Behemoth must have been an animal which had a very long and
+powerful tail, and have adduced the passage as a proof that the
+crocodile was the animal that was signified by the Behemoth. Others,
+again, have shifted the position of the tail, and, by rendering it
+as the "proboscis," have identified the Behemoth with the elephant.
+There is, however, no necessity for straining the interpretation,
+the passage evidently signifying that the member in question is
+stiff and inflexible as the cedar-stem.
+
+[Illustration: lily pad scene]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: BABOON.]
+
+
+
+
+THE APE.
+
+ The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape
+ was introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their
+ cargo of Apes, peacocks, ivory, and gold--Various species of
+ Monkey that might have been imported--Habits of the Monkey, and
+ reverence in which it is held by the natives--The Egyptians and
+ their Baboon worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--its
+ singular aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into
+ Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--Various species of
+ Monkey that may be included in the term "Kophim."
+
+
+Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly mentioned in
+Holy Writ. If, as is possible, the Satyr of Scripture signifies some
+species of baboon, there are but three passages either in the Old or
+New Testament where these animals are mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22,
+and the parallel passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes
+a passing allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes
+which were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshish, the remaining
+articles being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage
+occurs in Is. xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the site
+of Babylon satyrs shall dance.
+
+The reason for this reticence is simple enough. No monkey was
+indigenous to Palestine when the various writers of the Bible lived,
+and all their knowledge of such animals must have been derived
+either from the description of sailors, or from the sight of the few
+specimens that were brought as curiosities from foreign lands. Such
+specimens must have been extremely rare or they would not have been
+mentioned as adjuncts to the wealth of Solomon, the wealthiest, as
+well as the wisest monarch of his time. To the mass of the people
+they must have been practically unknown, and therefore hold but a
+very inferior place in the Scriptures, which were addressed to all
+mankind.
+
+There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect,
+which is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery which
+pervades the whole of the Scriptures. For example, the various
+carnivorous animals, such as the lion, wolf, and bear, are used
+as emblems of destruction in various ways; while the carnivorous
+birds, such as the eagle and hawk, and the destructive insects, such
+as the locust and the caterpillar, are all similarly employed in
+strengthening and illustrating the words of Holy Writ.
+
+But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned
+metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were imported into
+Palestine must only have been intended as objects of curiosity,
+just as the peacocks which accompanied them were objects of beauty,
+and the gold and ivory objects of value--all being employed in the
+decoration of the king's palace.
+
+The question that now comes before us is the species of monkey
+that is signified by the Hebrew word Kophim. In modern days, we
+distinguish this tribe of animals into three great sections, namely,
+the apes, the baboons, and the monkey; and according to this
+arrangement the ape, being without tails, must have been either the
+chimpanzee of Africa, the orang-outan of Sumatra, or one of the
+Gibbons. But there is no reason to imagine that the word Kophim was
+intended to represent any one of these animals, and it seems evident
+that the word was applied to any species of monkey, whether it had a
+tail or not.
+
+Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the
+particular species of monkey, is to notice the land from which the
+animals came. Accordingly, we find that the ships of Solomon brought
+gold, ivory, apes, and peacocks, and that they evidently brought
+their cargoes from the same country. Consequently, the country in
+question must produce gold, and must be inhabited by the monkey
+tribe, by the elephant, and by the peacock. If the peacock had not
+been thus casually mentioned, we should have been at a loss to
+identify the particular country to which reference is made; but the
+mention of that bird shows that some part of Asia must be signified.
+It is most probable that the vessels in question visited both India
+and Ceylon, although, owing to the very imperfect geographical
+knowledge of the period, it is not possible to assert absolutely
+that this is the case. In India, however, and the large island of
+Ceylon, gold, elephants, peacocks, and monkeys exist; and therefore
+we will endeavour to identify the animals which are mentioned under
+the general term Apes, or Kophim.
+
+[Illustration: THE RHESUS MONKEY.]
+
+We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question
+must have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely that one
+of them was the RHESUS MONKEY.
+
+[Illustration: FEEDING THE MONKEYS IN INDIA.]
+
+This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many
+creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently, it
+takes up its quarters near human habitations, feeling sure that it
+will not be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at hand.
+It is said that in some parts of India the natives always leave
+one-tenth of their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus the animals
+content themselves with this offering, and refrain from devastating
+the fields, as they would otherwise do. This story may be true or
+not. It is certainly possible that in a long series of years the
+monkeys of that neighbourhood have come to look upon their tithe as
+a matter belonging to the ordinary course of things; but whether
+it be true or not, it illustrates the reverence entertained by the
+Hindoos for their monkeys.
+
+In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the
+monkeys get rather more than their share, plundering without
+scruple, and finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who dare
+not drive them away, lest they should injure any of these sacred
+beings. However, being of the opinion that no evil will follow a
+foreigner's action, they are only too glad to avail themselves of
+the assistance of Europeans, who have no scruples on the subject.
+Still, although they are pleased to see the monkeys driven off, and
+their crops saved, they would rather lose all their harvest than
+allow a single monkey to be killed, and in the earlier years of the
+Indian colony, several riots took place between the natives and the
+English, because the latter had killed a monkey through ignorance of
+the reverence in which it was held.
+
+[Illustration: TROUBLESOME NEIGHBORS.]
+
+Another monkey which may probably have been brought to Palestine
+from India is the HOONUMAN, ENTELLUS, or MAKUR, which is more
+reverenced by the Hindoos than any other species. Its scientific
+title is _Presbytes entellus_. In some parts of India it is
+worshipped as a form of divinity, and in all it is reverenced and
+protected to such an extent that it becomes a positive nuisance to
+Europeans who are not influenced by the same superstitious ideas as
+those which are so prevalent in India. Being a very common species,
+it could easily be captured, especially if, as is likely to be the
+case, it was fearless of man through long immunity from harm. The
+sailors who manned Solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about
+the sacred character of the monkeys, but would take them without the
+least scruple wherever they could be found.
+
+[Illustration: MONKEYS ENTERING A PLANTATION.]
+
+The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of its docility
+when taken young, and the amusing tricks which it is fond of
+displaying in captivity as well as in a state of freedom. Moreover,
+it is rather a pretty creature, the general colour being yellowish,
+and the face black.
+
+[Illustration: SLOTHFUL MONKEYS.]
+
+Perfectly aware of the impunity with which they are permitted to
+act, these monkeys prefer human habitations to the forests which
+form the natural home of their race, and crowd into the villages and
+temples, the latter being always swarming with the long-tailed host.
+As is the case with the Rhesus, the Hoonuman monkeys are much too
+fond of helping themselves from the shops and stalls, and if they
+can find a convenient roof, will sit there and watch for the arrival
+of the most dainty fruits.
+
+However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling to
+inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in making
+arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on forbidden spots
+will inflict injury on itself. They may not shoot or wound in any
+way the monkeys which cluster on their roofs, and the animals
+are so perfectly aware of the fact, that they refuse to be driven
+away by shouts and menacing gestures. But, they contrive to make
+the roofs so uncomfortable by covering them with thorns, that the
+monkeys are obliged to quit their points of vantage, and to choose
+some spot where they can sit down without fear of hurting themselves.
+
+[Illustration: A PRIVILEGED RACE.]
+
+That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a monkey,
+does seem equally absurd and contemptible. But, strange as
+this superstition may be, and the more strange because the
+intellectual powers of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly subtle
+and penetrating, it was shared by a greater, a mightier, and a
+still more intellectual race, now extinct as a nation. The ancient
+Egyptians worshipped the baboon, and ranked it among the most
+potent of their deities; and it can but strike us with wonder
+when we reflect that a people who could erect buildings perfectly
+unique in the history of the world, who held the foremost place in
+civilization, who perfected arts which we, at a distance of three
+thousand years, have only just learned, should pay divine honours to
+monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such, however, was the case; and we find
+that the modern Hindoo shows as great reverence for the identical
+animals as did the Egyptian when Pharaoh was king, and Joseph his
+prime minister.
+
+It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient times,
+nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped these
+creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs of some
+attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have been made as
+to the worship of idols, and it is likely enough that the highly
+educated among the worshippers did look upon a serpent merely as
+an emblem of divine wisdom, a bull as an image of divine strength,
+and a monkey as an external memorial of the promised incarnation of
+divinity. So with idols, which to the man of educated and enlarged
+mind were nothing but visible symbols employed for the purpose of
+directing the mind in worship. But, though this was the case with
+the educated and intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who
+compose the great mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that
+both the living animal and the lifeless idol were themselves divine,
+and did worship them accordingly.
+
+There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely to have
+been brought to Palestine, and used for the adornment of a luxurious
+monarch's palace. This is the WANDEROO, or NIL-BHUNDER (_Silenus
+veter_). The Wanderoo, or Ouanderoo, as the name is sometimes
+spelled, is a very conspicuous animal, on account of the curious
+mane that covers its neck and head, and the peculiarly formed tail,
+which is rather long and tufted, like that of a baboon, and has
+caused it to be ranked among those animals by several writers, under
+the name of the Lion-tailed Baboon. That part of the hairy mass
+which rolls over the head is nearly black, but as it descends over
+the shoulders, it assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is
+nearly white. As is the case with many animals, the mane is not
+noticeable in the young specimens, but increases in size with age,
+only reaching its full dimensions when the animal has attained adult
+age. Only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, venerable,
+wig-like mane to be seen in perfection.
+
+In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corresponds with
+its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be more sedate than the
+ordinary monkeys, to judge from the specimens which have lived in
+the Zoological Gardens, and sits peering with its shiny brown eyes
+out of the enormous mane, with as much gravity as if it were really
+a judge deciding an important case in law. Not that it will not
+condescend to the little tricks and playful sallies for which the
+monkeys are so celebrated; but it soon loses the vivacity of youth,
+and when full-grown, presents as great a contrast to its former
+vivacity, as does a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the
+restless, lively, playful kitten of three months old. During its
+growth, it can be taught to go through several amusing performances,
+but it has little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally
+found among the monkey tribe.
+
+[Illustration: THE WANDEROO.]
+
+The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its youth.
+The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable when young,
+and yet, when a few years have passed over its head and whitened its
+mane, may be totally obstinate and dull.
+
+[Illustration: THE ENEMY DISCOVERED.]
+
+The natives of the country in which the Wanderoo lives, attribute
+to it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to imply, much as
+the ancient Athenians venerated the owl as the bird of wisdom, and
+the chosen companion of the learned Minerva. In many places, the
+Wanderoo is thought to be a sort of king among monkeys, and to enjoy
+the same supremacy over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king-vulture
+maintains over the other vultures which are destitute of the
+brilliant crest that marks its rank.
+
+I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have been one of the
+monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two reasons.
+
+In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and
+therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together with
+the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely probable, the
+Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it is almost
+certain that the Wanderoo would have been brought to Solomon, in
+order to increase the glories of his palace. Sir Emerson Tennant
+points out very forcibly, that in the Tamil language, the words for
+apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew names for
+the same objects, and thus gives a very strong reason for supposing
+that Ceylon was the country from which Solomon's fleet drew its
+supplies.
+
+Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would have been
+one of the animals sent to grace the palace of Solomon is this. In
+the days when that mighty sovereign lived, as indeed has been the
+case in all partially civilized countries, the kings and rulers have
+felt a pride in collecting together the rarest objects which they
+could purchase, giving the preference to those which were in any way
+conspicuous, whether for intrinsic value, for size, for beauty, or
+for ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs, and deformed persons of either
+sex, and even idiots, were seen as regular attendants at royal
+courts, a custom which extended even into the modern history of
+England, the "Fool" being an indispensable appendage to the train of
+every person of rank. Animals from foreign lands were also prized,
+and value was set upon them, not only for their variety, but for any
+external characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous.
+
+Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects, simply
+because they were rare, and in accordance with the general custom;
+and in importing the "apes" and peacocks together with the gold and
+ivory, Solomon but followed the usual custom. He, however, on whom
+the gift of wisdom had been especially bestowed, would have another
+motive besides ostentation or curiosity. He was learned in the study
+of that science which we now call Natural History. It is, therefore,
+extremely probable, that he would not neglect any opportunities of
+procuring animals from distant lands, in order that he might study
+the products of countries which he had not personally visited, and
+it is not likely that so conspicuous an animal as the Wanderoo would
+have escaped the notice of those who provided the cargo for which so
+wealthy a king could pay, and for which they would demand a price
+proportionate to its variety.
+
+[Illustration: BONNET MONKEYS.]
+
+There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among its kin
+as the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or ape inhabiting those
+parts of the world to which the fleet of Solomon would have access.
+Its staid, sedate manners, its black body, lion-like tail, and huge
+white-edged mane, would distinguish it so boldly from its kinsfolk,
+that the sailors would use all their efforts to capture an animal
+for which they would be likely to obtain a high price.
+
+The peculiar and unique character of Solomon affords good reason
+for conjecture that, not only were several species of the monkey
+tribe included under the general word Kophim, but that the number
+of species must have been very great. He wrote largely of the
+various productions of the earth, and, to judge him by ourselves,
+it is certain that with such magnificent means at his command, he
+would have ransacked every country that his ships could visit, for
+the purpose of collecting materials for his works. It is therefore
+almost certain that under the word Kophim may be included all the
+most plentiful species of monkey which inhabit the countries to
+which his fleet had access, and that in his palace were collected
+together specimens of each monkey which has here been mentioned,
+besides many others of which no special notice need be taken, such
+as the Bonnet Monkeys, and other Macaques.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BAT.]
+
+
+
+
+THE BAT.
+
+ The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew
+ name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species,
+ their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat,
+ and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of light--Mr.
+ Tristram's discoveries--Bats found in the quarries from which
+ the stone of the Temple was hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the
+ centre of Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured
+ in the rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species
+ which probably inhabit Palestine.
+
+
+Among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the Israelites
+we find the BAT prominently mentioned, and in one or two parts of
+Scripture the same creature is alluded to with evident abhorrence.
+In Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is prophesied that when the day of
+the Lord comes, the worshippers of idols will try to hide themselves
+from the presence of the Lord, and will cast their false gods to the
+bats and the moles, both animals being evidently used as emblems of
+darkness and ignorance, and associated together for a reason which
+will be given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the Bat
+is expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies some
+being that flies by night, and it is a notable fact that the Greek
+and Latin names for the bat have also a similar derivation.
+
+In Lev. xi. 20, the words, "All fowls that creep, going upon all
+four, shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently intended
+to apply to the bat, which, as is now well known, is not a bird
+with wings, but a mammal with very long toes, and a well developed
+membrane between them. Like other mammals, the Bat crawls, or walks,
+on all four legs, though the movement is but a clumsy one, and
+greatly different from the graceful ease with which the creature
+urges its course through the evening air in search of food.
+
+Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may seem
+almost needless; but it must be remembered that in several parts
+of the earth, certain species of Bat are used as food. These are
+chiefly the large species, that are called Kalongs, and which
+feed almost entirely on fruit, thus being to their insectivorous
+relatives what the fruit-loving bear is among the larger carnivora.
+These edible Bats have other habits not shared by the generality
+of their kin. Some of the species do not retire to caves and
+hollow trees for shelter during their hours of sleep, but suspend
+themselves by their hind legs from the topmost branches of the trees
+whose fruit affords them nourishment. In this position they have a
+most singular aspect, looking much as if they themselves were large
+bunches of fruit hanging from the boughs. Thus, they are cleanly
+animals, and are as little repulsive as bats can be expected to be.
+
+But the ordinary bats, such as are signified by the "night-fliers"
+of the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceedingly
+unpleasant creatures. Almost all animals are infested with parasitic
+insects, but the Bat absolutely swarms with them, so that it is
+impossible to handle a Bat recently dead without finding some of
+them on the hands. Also, the bats are in the habit of resorting
+to caverns, clefts in the rocks, deserted ruins, and similar dark
+places, wherein they pass the hours of daylight, and will frequent
+the same spots for a long series of years. In consequence of this
+habit, the spots which they select for their resting place become
+inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely be entered by human beings,
+so powerful is the odour with which they are imbued.
+
+Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chambers of
+ruined buildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the recesses
+of rocky caves, they have been repelled by the bats which had taken
+up their habitation therein. No sooner does the light of the torch
+or lamp shine upon the walls, than the clusters of bats detach
+themselves from the spots to which they had been clinging, and fly
+to the light like moths to a candle. No torch can withstand the
+multitude of wings that come flapping about it, sounding like the
+rushing of a strong wind, while the bats that do not crowd around
+the light, dash against the explorers, beating their leathery wings
+against their faces, and clinging in numbers to their dress. They
+would even settle on the face unless kept off by the hands, and
+sometimes they force the intruders to beat a retreat. They do not
+intend to attack, for they are quite incapable of doing any real
+damage; and, in point of fact, they are much more alarmed than those
+whom they annoy. Nocturnal in their habits, they cannot endure the
+light, which completely dazzles them, so that they dash about at
+random, and fly blindly towards the torches in their endeavours to
+escape.
+
+[Illustration: BATS' RESTING-PLACE.]
+
+If, then, we keep in mind the habits of the bats, we shall
+comprehend that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolting
+to human beings, and shall the better understand the force of the
+prophecy that the idols shall be cast to the bats and the moles.
+
+No particular species of Bat seems to be indicated by the Hebrew
+word Hatalleph, which is evidently used in a comprehensive sense,
+and signifies all and any species of Bat. Until very lately, the
+exact species of Bats which inhabit Palestine were not definitely
+ascertained, and could only be conjectured. But, Mr. Tristram, who
+travelled in the Holy Land for the express purpose of investigating
+its physical history, has set this point at rest, in his invaluable
+work, "The Land of Israel," to which frequent reference will be made
+in the course of the following pages.
+
+Almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted by bats, and he
+procured several species of these repulsive but interesting animals.
+While exploring the vast quarries in which the stone for the Temple
+was worked beneath the earth, so that no sound of tool was heard
+during the building, numbers of bats were disturbed by the lights,
+and fluttered over the heads of the exploring party.
+
+On another occasion, he was exploring a cave near the centre of
+Palestine, when he succeeded in procuring some specimens, and
+therefore in identifying at least one species. "In climbing the
+rocks soon afterwards, to examine a cave, I heard a singular whining
+chatter within, and on creeping into its recesses, a stone thrown
+up roused from their roosting-places a colony of large bats, the
+soft waving flap of whose wings I could hear in the darkness. How
+to obtain one I knew not; but on vigorously plying my signal
+whistle, all the party soon gathered to my help. B. suggested
+smoking them, so a fire of brushwood was kindled, and soon two or
+three rushed out. Two fell to our shot, and I was delighted to find
+myself the possessor of a couple of large fox-headed bats of the
+genus Pteropus (_Xantharpya ægyptiaca_), and extending twenty and
+a half inches from wing to wing. As none of the bats of Palestine
+are yet known, this was a great prize, and another instance of the
+extension westward of the Indian fauna." These Bats belong to the
+fruit-eating tribe, and are closely allied to the Flying Foxes of
+Java, Australia, and Southern Africa. Therefore, this would be one
+of the species commonly used for food, and hence the necessity for
+the prohibition. The present species extends over the greater part
+of Northern Africa and into parts of Asia.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT FOX-HEADED BAT, OR FLYING FOX.]
+
+The same traveller subsequently discovered several more species of
+bats. On one occasion, he was exploring some caves, near the site of
+the ancient Jericho. On the eastern face of the cliffs are a number
+of caves, arranged in regular tiers, and originally approached
+by steps cut out of the face of the rock. These staircases are,
+however, washed away by time and the rains, and in consequence the
+upper tiers were almost inaccessible. In some of these caves the
+walls were covered with brilliant, but mutilated frescoes; and in
+others, hermits had lived and died and been buried. Mr. Tristram and
+his companions had penetrated to the second tier, and there made a
+curious discovery.
+
+[Illustration: CAVE NEAR THE SITE OF ANCIENT JERICHO.]
+
+"In the roof of this was a small hole, athwart which lay a stick.
+After many efforts, we got a string across it, and so hauled up
+a rope, by which, finding the stick strong enough, we climbed,
+and with a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art, we found
+ourselves in a third tier of cells, similar to the lower ones, and
+covered with the undisturbed dust of ages. Behind the chapel was a
+dark cave, with an entrance eighteen inches high. Having lighted
+our lantern, we crept in on our faces, and found the place full of
+human bones and skulls; with dust several inches deep. We were in an
+ancient burying-place of the Anchorites, or hermits of the country,
+whose custom it was to retire to such desert and solitary places.
+
+"Their bones lay in undisturbed order, probably as the corpses had
+been stretched after death.
+
+"After capturing two or three long-tailed bats, of a species new
+to us, which were the only living occupants of the cave, we crept
+out, with a feeling of religious awe, from this strange, sepulchral
+cavern."
+
+Besides the species of bats that have been described, it is probable
+that representatives of several more families of bats inhabit
+Palestine.
+
+[Illustration: bat]
+
+[Illustration: LEOPARDS.]
+
+[Illustration: BIRDS.]
+
+[Illustration: bird and nest]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ossifrage]
+
+
+
+
+THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+ Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in
+ Scripture--The vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or
+ Ossifrage of Scripture--Appearance of the Lämmergeier--Its
+ flight and mode of feeding--Nest of the Lämmergeier.
+
+
+It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical scholars
+have found very great difficulties in identifying several of the
+animals which are named in Scripture. This difficulty is greatly
+increased when we come to the BIRDS, and in many instances it is
+absolutely impossible to identify the Hebrew word with any precise
+species. In all probability, however, the nomenclature of the birds
+is a very loose one, several species being classed under the same
+title.
+
+[Illustration: THE LÄMMERGEIER.]
+
+Keeping this difficulty in mind, I shall mention all the species
+which are likely to have been classed under a single title, giving
+a general description of the whole, and a detailed account of the
+particular species which seems to answer most closely to the Hebrew
+word.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Following the arrangement which has been employed in this work, I
+shall begin with the bird which has been placed by zoologists at
+the head of its class, namely, the LÄMMERGEIER, the bird which may
+be safely identified with the Ossifrage of Scripture. The Hebrew
+word is "Peres," a term which only occurs twice when signifying a
+species of bird; namely, in Lev. xi. 13, and the parallel passage in
+Deut. xiv. 12. The first of these passages runs as follows: "These
+ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be
+eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and
+the ospray." The corresponding passage in Deuteronomy has precisely
+the same signification, though rather differently worded: "These are
+they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and
+the ospray."
+
+The word _peres_ signifies a breaker; and the Latin term Ossifraga,
+or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the word. How it
+applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently see.
+
+The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more the
+appearance of an eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed
+with feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with down.
+It may at once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like feathers
+which depends from the beak, and which has gained for the bird the
+title of Bearded Vulture. The colour of the plumage is a mixture of
+different browns and greys, tawny below and beautifully pencilled
+above, a line of pure white running along the middle of each
+feather. When young it is nearly black, and indeed has been treated
+as a separate species under the name of Black Vulture.
+
+It is one of the largest of the flying birds, its length often
+exceeding four feet, and the expanse of its wings being rather more
+than ten feet. In consequence of this great spread of wing, it
+looks when flying like a much larger bird than it really is, and
+its size has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as may be
+imagined from the possession of such wings, is equally grand and
+graceful, and it sweeps through the air with great force, apparently
+unaccompanied by effort.
+
+The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of country, and
+is found throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. It is spread
+over the Holy Land, never congregating in numbers, like ordinary
+vultures, but living in pairs, and scarcely any ravine being
+uninhabited by at least one pair of Lämmergeiers.
+
+The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures, the
+flesh of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the same
+manner that they do. When the ordinary vultures have found a carcase
+they tear it to pieces, and soon remove all the flesh. This having
+been done, the Lämmergeier comes to the half-picked bones, eats the
+remaining flesh from them, and finishes by breaking them and eating
+the marrow. That a bird should be able to break a bone as thick and
+hard as the thigh-bone of a horse or ox seems rather problematical,
+but the bird achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner.
+
+Seizing the bone in its claws, it rises to an immense height in the
+air, and then, balancing itself over some piece of rock, it lets the
+bone fall, and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than the
+bone falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird picks
+the marrow out of the fragments; and should it have escaped fracture
+by reason of falling on a soft piece of ground instead of a hard
+rock, the bird picks it up, and renews the process until it has
+attained its object. It will be seen, therefore, that the name of
+Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker, may very properly be given to this bird.
+
+Not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this peculiar
+manner, but it procures other articles of food by employing
+precisely the same system. If it sees a tortoise, many of which
+reptiles are found in the countries which it inhabits, it does not
+waste time and trouble by trying to peck the shell open, but carries
+its prey high in the air, drops it on the ground, and so breaks its
+shell to pieces. Tortoises are often very hard-shelled creatures,
+and the Lämmergeier has been observed to raise one of them and
+drop it six or seven times before the stubborn armour would yield.
+Snakes, too, are killed in a similar manner, being seized by the
+neck, and then dropped from a height upon rocks or hard ground. The
+reader may perhaps be aware that the Hooded Crow of England breaks
+bones and the shells of bivalve molluscs in a similar manner.
+
+Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the "eagle" which
+mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for a white stone, and
+killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was in all likelihood
+a Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the same country, and
+the act of tortoise-dropping being its usual mode of killing those
+reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: A SUCCESSFUL DEFENCE.]
+
+We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such enormous
+wings, and so great a power of flight, these attributes being
+needful in order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient
+height. The air, as we all know, becomes more and more attenuated in
+exact proportion to the height above the earth; and did not the bird
+possess such great powers of flight, it would not be able to carry a
+heavy tortoise into the thinner strata of air which are found at the
+height to which it soars.
+
+The instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against other
+animals besides snakes and tortoises, though exerted in a somewhat
+different manner. The bird, as has already been mentioned, lives
+among mountain ranges, and it may be seen floating about them for
+hours together, watching each inch of ground in search of prey.
+Should it see a goat or other inhabitant of the rocks standing near
+a precipice, the Lämmergeier sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow
+of its wing knocks the animal off the rock into the valley beneath,
+where it lies helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall.
+
+Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from
+the havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that it has
+obtained the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So swift and
+noiseless is the rush of the bird, that an animal which has once
+been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop; and
+even the Alpine hunters, who spend their lives in pursuit of the
+chamois, have occasionally been put in great jeopardy by the sudden
+attack of a Lämmergeier, the bird having mistaken their crouching
+forms for the chamois, and only turned aside at the last moment.
+
+The reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to be
+found in the structure of the feet, which, although belonging to
+so large and powerful a bird, are comparatively feeble, and are
+unable, like those of the eagle, to grasp the living animal in a
+deadly hold, and to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. They
+are not well adapted for holding prey, the talons not possessing
+the hook-like form or the sharp points which characterise those of
+the eagle. The feet, by the way, are feathered down to the toes.
+The beak, too, is weak when compared with the rest of the body,
+and could not perform its work were not the object which it tears
+previously shattered by the fall from a height.
+
+[Illustration: STRUCK FROM A DIZZY HEIGHT.]
+
+The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and is of
+enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff,
+and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks rudely interwoven,
+and supporting a nearly equal amount of sods and moss.
+
+An allied species lives in Northern Africa, where it is called by a
+name which signifies Father Longbeard, in allusion to the beard-like
+tufts of the bill.
+
+[Illustration: bird feeding young]
+
+
+
+
+THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.
+
+ The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian
+ Vulture--Its appearance on the Egyptian monuments--The shape,
+ size, and colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger, and its
+ general habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons--Its
+ fondness for the society of man--Nest of the Egyptian Vulture.
+
+
+In the same list of unclean birds which has already been given,
+we find the name of a bird which we can identify without much
+difficulty, although there has been some little controversy about
+it. This is the so-called Gier-Eagle, which is named with the
+cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the Jews are
+forbidden to eat. The word which is translated as Gier-Eagle is
+Râchâm, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic name of the
+EGYPTIAN VULTURE, sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, because it is
+so often sculptured on the ancient monuments of Egypt. It is called
+by the Turks by a name which signifies White Father, in allusion to
+the colour of its plumage.
+
+This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven in
+size, though its enormously long wings give it an appearance of much
+greater size. Its colour is white, with the exception of the quill
+feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill and the naked
+face and legs are bright ochreous yellow. It does not attain this
+white plumage until its third year, its colour before reaching adult
+age being brown, with a grey neck and dull yellow legs and face.
+
+The Egyptian Vulture, although not large, is a really handsome
+bird, the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown being very
+conspicuous when it is on the wing. In this plumage it has never
+been seen in England, but one or two examples are known of the
+Egyptian Vulture being killed in England while still in its
+dark-brown clothing.
+
+It inhabits a very wide range of country, being found throughout
+all the warmer parts of the Old World. Although it is tolerably
+plentiful, it is never seen in great numbers, as is the case with
+several of the vultures, but is always to be found in pairs, the
+male and female never separating, and invariably being seen close
+together. In fact, in places where it is common it is hardly
+possible to travel more than a mile or two without seeing a pair
+of Egyptian Vultures. Should more than two of these birds be seen
+together, the spectator may be sure that they have congregated
+over some food. It has been well suggested that its Hebrew name
+of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it in consequence of this
+constant association of the male and female.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.]
+
+The Egyptian Vulture is one of the best of scavengers, not only
+devouring the carcases of dead animals, but feeding on every kind of
+offal or garbage. Indeed, its teeth and claws are much too feeble
+to enable it to cope with the true vultures in tearing up a large
+carcase, and in consequence it never really associates with them,
+although it may be seen hovering near them, and it never ventures
+to feed in their company, keeping at a respectful distance while
+they feed, and, when they retire, humbly making a meal on the scraps
+which they have left.
+
+Mr. Tristram narrates an amusing instance of this trait of
+character. "On a subsequent occasion, on the north side of Hermon,
+we observed the griffons teaching a lesson of patience to the
+inferior scavengers. A long row of Egyptian vultures were sitting on
+some rocks, so intently watching a spot in a corn-field that they
+took no notice of our approach. Creeping cautiously near, we watched
+a score of griffons busily engaged in turning over a dead horse, one
+side of which they had already reduced to a skeleton.
+
+"Their united efforts had just effected this, when we showed
+ourselves, and they quickly retired. The inferior birds, who dreaded
+us much less than them, at once darted to the repast, and, utterly
+regardless of our presence within ten yards of them, began to gorge.
+We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when the griffons came down
+with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures and a pair or two of eagles
+hurriedly resumed their post of observation; while some black kites
+remained, and contrived by their superior agility to filch a few
+morsels from their lordly superiors."
+
+So useful is this bird as a scavenger, that it is protected in all
+parts of the East by the most stringent laws, so that a naturalist
+who wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the bird,
+or even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages, and
+may generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse which are
+left to be cleared away by the animals and birds which constitute
+the scavengers of the East.
+
+It not only eats dead animal substances, but kills and devours great
+quantities of rats, mice, lizards, and other pests that swarm in
+hot countries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed, like
+the gull and the rook of our own country, following the ploughman
+as he turns up the ground, and examining the furrow for the purpose
+of picking up the worms, grubs, and similar creatures that are
+disturbed by the share.
+
+Being thus protected and encouraged by man, there is good reason
+why it should have learned in course of time to fear him far less
+than its own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with regard to
+human beings, that it habitually follows the caravans as they pass
+from one town to another, for the sake of feeding on the refuse food
+and other offal which is thrown aside on the road.
+
+Two articles of diet which certainly do not seem to fall within the
+ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed by this
+bird. The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell of which is
+too hard to be broken by the feeble beak of the Egyptian Vulture.
+The bird cannot, like the lämmergeier, carry the egg into the air
+and drop it on the ground, because its feet are not large enough
+to grasp it, and only slip off its round and polished surface.
+Therefore, instead of raising the egg into the air and dropping it
+upon a stone, it carries a stone into the air and drops it upon the
+egg. So at least say the natives of the country which it inhabits,
+and there is no reason why we should doubt the truth of the
+statement.
+
+The other article of food is a sort of melon, very full of juice.
+This melon is called "nara," and is devoured by various creatures,
+such as lions, leopards, mice, ostriches, &c. and seems to serve
+them instead of drink.
+
+The nest of the Egyptian Vulture is made in some rocky ledge, and
+the bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot inaccessible
+to man, knowing well that it will not be disturbed. The nest is,
+like that of other vultures, a large and rude mass of sticks,
+sods, bones, and similar materials, to which are added any bits of
+rag, rope, skin, and other village refuse which it can pick up as
+it traverses the streets. There are two, and occasionally three,
+eggs, rather variously mottled with red. In its breeding, as in
+its general life, it is not a gregarious bird, never breeding in
+colonies, and, indeed, very seldom choosing a spot for its nest near
+one which has already been selected by another pair.
+
+The illustration on page 420 represents part of the nest of the
+Egyptian Vulture, in which the curious mixture of bones and sticks
+is well shown. The parent birds are drawn in two characteristic
+attitudes taken from life, and well exhibit the feeble beak, the
+peculiar and intelligent, almost cunning expression of the head,
+and the ruff of feathers which surrounds the upper part of the
+neck. In the distance another bird is drawn as it appears on the
+wing, in order to show the contrast between the white plumage and
+the dark quill feathers of the wings, the bird presenting a general
+appearance very similar to that of the common sea-gull.
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+ The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of
+ Scripture--Geographical range of the Griffon--Its mode of
+ flight and sociable habits--The featherless head and neck of
+ the bird--The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness,
+ and rapacity--Its powers of sight--How Vultures assemble round
+ a carcase--Nesting-places of the Griffon--Mr. Tristram's
+ description of the Griffon--Rock-caves of the Wady Hamâm--Care
+ of the young, and teaching them to fly--Strength of the Griffon.
+
+
+The Griffon Vulture is found throughout a large portion of the Old
+World, inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this hemisphere.
+The colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish brown,
+diversified by the black quill feathers and the ruff of white down
+that surrounds the neck. The head and neck are without feathers, but
+are sparingly covered with very short down of a similar character to
+that of the ruff.
+
+It is really a large bird, being little short of five feet in total
+length, and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet.
+
+The Griffon Vulture is very plentiful in Palestine, and, unlike the
+lesser though equally useful Egyptian Vulture, congregates together
+in great numbers, feeding, flying, and herding in company. Large
+flocks of them may be seen daily, soaring high in the air, and
+sweeping their graceful way in the grand curves which distinguish
+the flight of the large birds of prey. They are best to be seen in
+the early morning, being in the habit of quitting their rocky homes
+at daybreak, and indulging in a flight for two or three hours, after
+which they mostly return to the rocks, and wait until evening, when
+they take another short flight before retiring to rest.
+
+Allusion is made in the Scriptures to the gregarious habits of the
+Vultures: "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be
+gathered together" (Matt. xxiv. 28). That the Vulture, and not the
+eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that the eagles
+do not congregate like the Vultures, never being seen in greater
+numbers than two or three together, while the Vultures assemble in
+hundreds.
+
+There is also a curious passage in the Book of Proverbs, chap. xxx.
+ver. 17, which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird: "The
+eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother,
+the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles
+shall eat it."
+
+Allusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the
+Vulture, as well as its voracity. See, for example, a portion of
+David's lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who,
+according to the poet's metaphor, "were lovely and pleasant in their
+lives, and in their death they were not divided; they were swifter
+than eagles, they were stronger than lions."
+
+The "bitter" people--namely, the Chaldeans--are again mentioned in
+a very similar manner by the prophet Jeremiah: "Our persecutors are
+swifter than the eagles of the heavens; they pursued us upon the
+mountains, they laid wait for us in the wilderness" (Lam. iv. 19).
+
+There is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the Vulture
+as an image of strength and swiftness when applied to warriors, the
+bird being an invariable attendant on the battle, and flying to the
+field of death with marvellous swiftness. All who had ever witnessed
+a battle were familiar with the presence of the Vulture--the scene
+of carnage, and the image which is employed, would be one which
+commended itself at once to those for whom it was intended. And, as
+the earlier history of the Jewish nation is essentially of a warlike
+character, we cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image
+should have been repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings.
+
+Wonderful powers of sight are possessed by this bird. Its eyes
+are able to assume either a telescopic or a microscopic character,
+by means of a complex and marvellous structure, which can alter the
+whole shape of the organ at the will of the bird.
+
+[Illustration: VULTURES.]
+
+Not only can the eye be thus altered, but it changes
+instantaneously, so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is
+to perform. A Vulture, for example, sees from a vast height the body
+of a dead animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like an arrow
+from a bow. In order to enable the bird to see so distant an object,
+the eye has been exercising its telescopic powers, and yet, in a
+second or two, when the Vulture is close to its prey, the whole form
+of the eye must be changed, or the bird would mistake its distance,
+and dash itself to pieces on the ground.
+
+By means of its powerful eyes, the Vulture can see to an enormous
+distance, and with great clearness, but neither so far nor so
+clearly as is popularly supposed. It is true that, as soon as a
+carcase is discovered, it will be covered with Vultures, who arrive
+from every side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air,
+scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing their
+flight to the same point. "Where the carcase is, there will the
+vultures be gathered together." But, although they all fly towards
+the same spot, it does not follow that they have all seen the same
+object. The fact is, they see and understand each other's movements.
+
+A single Vulture, for example, sees a dead or dying sheep, and
+swoops down upon it. The other Vultures which are flying about
+in search of food, and from which the animal in question may be
+concealed, know perfectly well that a Vulture soars high in the air
+when searching for food, and only darts to the earth when it has
+found a suitable prey. They immediately follow its example, and
+in their turn are followed by other Vultures, which can see their
+fellows from a distance, and know perfectly well why they are all
+converging to one spot.
+
+In this way all the Vultures of a neighbourhood will understand, by
+a very intelligible telegraph, that a dead body of some animal has
+been found, and, aided by their wonderful powers of flight, will
+assemble over its body in an almost incredibly short space of time.
+
+The resting-place of the Griffon Vulture is always on some lofty
+spot. The Arabian Vulture will build within easy reach, the eagle
+prefers lofty situations, but nothing but the highest and most
+inaccessible spots will satisfy the Vulture. To reach the nest of
+this bird is therefore a very difficult task, only to be attempted
+by experienced and intrepid cragsmen; and, in consequence, both the
+eggs and young of the Griffon Vulture cannot be obtained except for
+a very high price. The birds are fond of building in the rock-caves
+which are found in so many parts of Palestine, and in some places
+they fill these places as thickly as rooks fill a rookery.
+
+In Mr. Tristram's "Land of Israel," there is a very graphic
+description of the Griffon's nests, and of the difficulty
+experienced in reaching them. "A narrow gorge, with limestone
+cliffs from five hundred to six hundred feet high, into which the
+sun never penetrates, walls the rapid brook on each side so closely
+that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs
+are perforated with caves at all heights, wholly inaccessible to
+man, the secure resting-place of hundreds of noble griffons, some
+lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and several species of eagle....
+One day in the ravine well repaid us, though so terrific were the
+precipices, that it was quite impossible to reach any of the nests
+with which it swarmed.
+
+"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the south-west end of
+the plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, where we spent
+three days in exploration. The cliffs, though reaching the height of
+fifteen hundred feet, rise like terraces, with enormous masses of
+_débris_, and the wood is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo,
+who proved himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest
+of griffons' eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while
+those above were guided in working them by signals from others below
+in the valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture
+these nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite new
+to some Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who could not,
+excepting one little girl, be induced to render any assistance. She
+proved herself most sensible and efficient in telegraphing.
+
+"While capturing the griffons' nests, we were re-enacting a
+celebrated siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of the
+cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were
+the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the
+remains of a synagogue, of which some marble shafts and fragments of
+entablature, like those of Tell Hûm, are still to be seen, and were
+afterwards visited by us.
+
+"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress: 'All thy
+fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the
+day of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet here refers to the
+refuges in the rocks below.
+
+"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the
+precipice are called by the Arabs, Kulat Ibn Maân, and are very
+fully described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes of a set
+of bandits, who resided here with their families, and for years set
+the power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, when all other
+attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let down soldiers at
+this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked the robbers with
+long hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all out.
+
+"The rock galleries, though now only tenanted by griffons, are very
+complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long galleries wind
+backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their walls being built
+with dressed stone, flush with the precipice, and often opening
+into spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise one after another
+with projecting windows, connected by narrow staircases, carried
+sometimes upon arches, and in the upper portions rarely broken away.
+In many of the upper chambers to which we were let down, the dust of
+ages had accumulated, undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds
+of the air; and here we rested during the heat of the day, with the
+plains and lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full
+zoological harvest, as in three days we captured fourteen nests of
+griffons."
+
+Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more accessible
+than most of the places whereon the Griffons build, the natives
+never venture to enter them, being deterred not so much by their
+height, as by their superstitious fears. The Griffons instinctively
+found out that man never entered these caverns, and so took
+possession of them.
+
+As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous
+places, it is evident that their first flight must be a dangerous
+experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds. At first the
+young are rather nervous at the task which lies before them, and
+shrink from trusting themselves to the air. The parents, however,
+encourage them to use their wings, take short flights in order to
+set them an example, and, when they at last venture from the nest,
+accompany and encourage them in their first journey.
+
+In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be seen,
+and even when perched it often retains a certain look of majesty and
+grandeur. Sometimes, however, especially when basking in the sun, it
+assumes a series of attitudes which are absolutely grotesque, and
+convert the noble-looking bird into a positively ludicrous object.
+At one moment it will sit all hunched up, its head sunk between its
+shoulders, and one wing trailing behind it as if broken. At another
+it will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its
+feet out in front, and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of
+its tail. Often it will touch nearly flat on the ground, partly
+spread its wings, and allow their tips to rest on the earth, and
+sometimes it will support nearly all the weight of its body on the
+wings, which rest, in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have
+before me a great number of sketches, taken in a single day, of
+the attitudes assumed by one of these birds, every one of which is
+strikingly different from the others, and transforms the whole shape
+of the bird so much that it is scarcely recognisable as the same
+individual.
+
+[Illustration: tree]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: eagle]
+
+
+
+
+THE EAGLE.
+
+ Signification of the word _Asniyeh_--The Golden Eagle and its
+ habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The
+ Short-toed Eagle--Its domestic habits and fondness for the
+ society of man--The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its mode of
+ catching fish--Its distribution in Palestine.
+
+
+As to the Eagle, rightly so called, there is little doubt that it
+is one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed
+under the general title of Asniyeh--the word which in the Authorized
+Version of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confusion is
+observable in the modern Arabic, one word, _ogab_, being applied
+indiscriminately to all the Eagles and the large _falconidæ_.
+
+The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle (_Aquila
+chrysaëtos_), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and is seen
+frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its predacious
+habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which
+lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires a large
+district in order to enable it to live, and thus twenty or thirty
+eagles will be scattered over a district of twice the number of
+miles. Like the lion among the mammalia, the Eagle leads an almost
+solitary life, scarcely ever associating with any of its kind except
+its mate and its young.
+
+The whole of the Falconidæ, as the family to which the Eagles belong
+is called, are very destructive birds, gaining their subsistence
+chiefly by the chase, seldom feeding on carrion except when pressed
+by hunger, or when the dead animal has only recently been killed.
+
+Herein they form a complete contrast to the vultures, whose usual
+food is putrefying carrion, and fresh meat the exception.
+
+Destructive though the Eagles may be, they cannot be called cruel
+birds, for, although they deprive many birds and beasts of life,
+they effect their purpose with a single blow, sweeping down upon the
+doomed creature with such lightning velocity, and striking it so
+fiercely with their death-dealing talons, that almost instantaneous
+death usually results.
+
+When the Eagle pounces on a bird, the mere shock caused by the
+stroke of the Eagle's body is almost invariably sufficient to cause
+death, and the bird, even if a large one--such as the swan, for
+example--falls dead upon the earth with scarcely a wound.
+
+Smaller birds are carried off in the talons of their pursuers, and
+are killed by the grip of their tremendous claws, the Eagle in no
+case making use of its beak for killing its prey. If the great
+bird carries off a lamb or a hare, it grasps the body firmly with
+its claws, and then by a sudden exertion of its wonderful strength
+drives the sharp talons deep into the vitals of its prey, and does
+not loosen its grasp until the breath of life has fled from its
+victim.
+
+The structure by means of which the Eagle is enabled to use its
+talons with such terrible effect is equally beautiful and simple,
+deserving special mention.
+
+Now, many observant persons have been struck with the curious
+power possessed by birds which enables them to hold their position
+upon a branch or perch even while sleeping. In many instances the
+slumbering bird retains its hold of the perch by a single foot, the
+other being drawn up and buried in the feathers.
+
+As this grasp is clearly an involuntary one, it is evidently
+independent of the mere will of the bird, and is due to some
+peculiar formation.
+
+On removing the skin from the leg of any bird, and separating the
+muscles from each other, the structure in question is easily seen.
+The muscles which move the leg and foot, and the tendons, or leaders
+which form the attachment of the muscles to the bones, are so
+arranged that whenever the bird bends its leg the foot is forcibly
+closed, and is opened again when the leg is straightened.
+
+A common chicken, as it walks along, closing its toes as it lifts
+its foot from the ground and spreading them as the leg is unbent,
+cannot do otherwise, as the tendons are shortened and lengthened as
+each step is taken.
+
+[Illustration: EAGLES.]
+
+It will be seen, therefore, that when a bird falls asleep upon a
+branch the legs are not only bent, but are pressed downwards by the
+weight of the body; so that the claws hold the perch with a firm and
+involuntary grasp which knows no fatigue, and which remains secure
+as long as the pressure from above keeps the limbs bent.
+
+To return to the Eagle. When, therefore, the bird desires to
+drive his talons into the body of his prey, he needs only to sink
+downwards with his whole weight, and the forcible bending of his
+legs will contract the talons with irresistible force, without the
+necessity of any muscular exertion.
+
+Exertion, indeed, is never needlessly used by the Eagle, for it is
+very chary of putting forth its great muscular powers, and unless
+roused by the sight of prey, or pressed to fly abroad in search of
+food, will sit upon a tree or point of rock for hours as motionless
+as a stuffed figure.
+
+The Golden Eagle is a truly magnificent bird in size and appearance.
+A full-grown female measures about three feet six inches in length,
+and the expanse of her wings is nine feet. The male bird is smaller
+by nearly six inches. The colour of the bird is a rich blackish
+brown on the greater part of the body, the head and neck being
+covered with feathers of a golden red, which have earned for the
+bird its customary name.
+
+The Golden Eagle is observed to frequent certain favourite places,
+and to breed regularly in the same spot, for a long series of years.
+The nest is always made upon some high place, generally upon a ledge
+of rock, and is most roughly constructed of sticks.
+
+In hunting for their prey the Eagle and his mate assist each other.
+It may be also mentioned here that Eagles keep themselves to a
+single mate, and live together throughout their lives. Should,
+however, one of them die or be killed, the survivor does not long
+remain in a state of loneliness, but vanishes from the spot for a
+longer or shorter time, and then returns with a new mate.
+
+As rabbits and hares, which form a frequent meal for the Eagle, are
+usually hidden under bushes and trees during the day, the birds are
+frequently forced to drive them from their place of concealment;
+this they have been observed to do in a very clever manner. One of
+the Eagles conceals itself near the cover, and its companion dashes
+among the bushes, screaming and making such a disturbance that the
+terrified inmates rush out in hopes of escape, and are immediately
+pounced upon by the watchful confederate.
+
+The prey is immediately taken to the nest, and distributed to the
+young after being torn to pieces by the parent birds.
+
+Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine. There
+is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (_Aquila mogilnik_), which may
+be distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white patch on the
+shoulders, and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of the head and
+neck. These feathers are of a fawn colour, and contrast beautifully
+with the deep black-brown of the back and wings. It is not very
+often seen, being a bird that loves the forest, and that does not
+care to leave the shelter of the trees. It is tolerably common in
+Palestine.
+
+Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best
+example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (_Circaëtus cinereus_), a
+bird which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land--so plentiful
+indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as
+many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other
+species put together. The genus to which this bird belongs does
+not take rank with the true Eagles, but is supposed by systematic
+naturalists to hold an intermediate place between the true Eagles
+and the ospreys.
+
+The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to kill
+its prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and other reptiles,
+and is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and somewhat heavily
+built bird, lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than
+strength in taking the animals on which it feeds. It is rather
+more than two feet in length, and is a decidedly handsome bird,
+the back being dark brown, and the under parts white, covered with
+crescent-shaped black spots.
+
+[Illustration: eagle]
+
+[Illustration: EAGLE RETURNING TO THE NEST WITH HER PREY.]
+
+
+
+
+THE OSPREY.
+
+ The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of
+ securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing
+ itself in the air.
+
+
+We now come to the Osprey itself (_Pandion haliaëtus_), which was
+undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective
+term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut.
+xiv. and Lev. xi. which have been several times quoted already, and
+need not be mentioned again.
+
+This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and is
+found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence of its
+peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle.
+
+The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange that
+a predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds can
+swim, much less dive, should obtain its living from the water. That
+the cormorant and other diving birds should do so is no matter of
+surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own
+element, and catch them by superior speed. But any bird which cannot
+dive, and which yet lives on fish, is forced to content itself
+with those fish that come to the surface of the water, a mode of
+obtaining a livelihood which does not appear to have much chance of
+success. Yet the Osprey does on a large scale what the kingfisher
+does on a small one, and contrives to find abundant food in the
+water.
+
+Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is
+employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of food, it
+soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water, watching
+every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field.
+No sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly, or to
+leap into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts downwards, grasps
+the fish in its talons, drags the struggling prey from the water,
+and with a scream of joy and triumph bears it away to shore, where
+it can be devoured at leisure.
+
+The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak
+like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as
+otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and carry
+off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard and
+slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp,
+and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides of
+the fish, and hold it as with grappling irons.
+
+[Illustration: THE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FISH.]
+
+The flight of the Osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant, as might
+be expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty-two
+inches, and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half.
+
+It is therefore able to hover over the water for long periods of
+time, and can balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a
+wing, having the singular facility of doing so even when a tolerably
+strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed to maintain its
+place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over the spot.
+
+Harmless though the Osprey be--except to the fish--it is a most
+persecuted bird, being everywhere annoyed by rooks and crows, and,
+in America, robbed by the more powerful white-headed eagle.
+
+Such a scene is thus described by Wilson:
+
+ "Elevated on the high, dead limb of a gigantic tree that
+ commanded a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, the
+ great white-headed eagle calmly surveys the motions of various
+ smaller birds that pursue their busy avocations below.
+
+ "The snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the trains of
+ ducks streaming over the surface; silent and watchful cranes,
+ intent and wading, and all the winged multitude that subsist by
+ the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature.
+
+ "High over all these, hovers one whose action instantly arrests
+ the eagle's attention. By his wide curvature of wing and sudden
+ suspension in the air he knows him to be the Osprey, settling
+ over some devoted victim of the deep. The eyes of the eagle
+ kindle at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened
+ wings on the branch, he watches the result.
+
+ "Down, rapid as an arrow, from heaven descends the Osprey, the
+ roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the
+ water, making the surges foam around! At this moment the eager
+ looks of the eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for
+ flight, he sees the Osprey once more emerge, struggling with his
+ prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation.
+
+ "These are the signals for the eagle, who, launching into the
+ air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on the Osprey; each
+ exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in this
+ encounter the most elegant and sublime aërial evolutions.
+
+ [Illustration: SNATCHED FROM THE DEEP: THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS
+ PREY.]
+
+ "The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the
+ point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream,
+ probably of despair and honest execration, the Osprey drops his
+ fish.
+
+ "The eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more
+ certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his
+ grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty
+ silently away to the woods."
+
+Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any other
+country, the Osprey is seen throughout the whole of that country
+where it can find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the sea-shore
+and the rivers of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea of Galilee.
+
+
+
+
+THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+ The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term
+ for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful
+ in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black
+ Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or
+ Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine
+ Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the
+ eastern parts of the country.
+
+
+In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the list
+of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The word which
+is translated as Vulture is _dayah_, and we find it occurring again
+in Isaiah xxxiv. 15, "There shall the vultures also be gathered,
+every one with her mate." There is no doubt, however, that this
+translation of the word is an incorrect one, and that it ought to be
+rendered as Kite. In Job xxviii. 7, there is a similar word, _ayah_,
+which is also translated as Vulture, and which is acknowledged to
+be not a Vulture, but one of the Kites: "There is a path which no
+fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these
+words are nearly identical with modern Arabic terms which are
+employed rather loosely to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf,
+in his Hebrew Lexicon, gives the correct rendering, translating
+_dayah_ as _Milvus_, and the Vulgate in one or two places gives the
+same translation, though in others it renders the word as Vulture.
+
+[Illustration: THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject, is
+inclined to refer the word _ayah_ to the Common Kite (_Milvus
+regalis_), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now
+nearly extinct; and _dayah_ to the Black Kite (_Milvus atra_). He
+founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species,
+the Common or Red Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the
+habit of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter
+being very plentiful and gregarious.
+
+We will first take the Red Kite.
+
+This bird is scattered all over Palestine, feeding chiefly on the
+smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the
+Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a great height
+into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The wings of
+this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it through the air in
+a peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in consequence of this
+flight that it has been called the Glede, the word being derived
+from its gliding movements.
+
+The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and, from
+the vast elevation to which it soars when in search of food, it is
+able to survey the face of the country beneath, and to detect the
+partridge, quail, chicken, or other creature that will serve it for
+food. This piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in
+Job peculiarly appropriate to this species of Kite, though it does
+not express the habits of the other. Should the Kite suspect danger
+when forced to leave its nest, it escapes by darting rapidly into
+the air, and soaring at a vast height above the trees among which
+its home is made. From that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and
+will not come down again until it is assured of safety.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Of the habits of the BLACK KITE (_Milvus atra_), Mr. Tristram
+gives an admirable description. "The habits of the bird bear out
+the allusion in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting during the
+winter three months, so numerous everywhere in Palestine as to be
+almost gregarious. It returns about the beginning of March, and
+scatters itself over the whole country, preferring especially the
+neighbourhood of valleys, where it is a welcome and unmolested
+guest. It does not appear to attack the poultry, among whom it may
+often be seen feeding on garbage. It is very sociable, and the
+slaughter of a sheep at one of the tents will soon attract a large
+party of black kites, which swoop down regardless of man and guns,
+and enjoy a noisy scramble for the refuse, chasing each other in a
+laughable fashion, and sometimes enabling the wily raven to steal
+off with the coveted morsel during their contentions. It is the
+butt of all the smaller scavengers, and is evidently most unpopular
+with the crows and daws, and even rollers, who enjoy the amusement
+of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which is a manœuvre most
+perplexing to the kite."
+
+The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite unlike the
+red species, is very careless about the position of its nest, and
+never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building it in a tree,
+sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush growing on the
+rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the nest as conspicuous as
+possible, and hangs it all over with bits of cloth, strips of bark,
+wings of birds, and even the cast skins of serpents.
+
+Another species (_Milvus Ægyptiacus_) is sometimes called the Black
+Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather to retain
+the title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, this bird is
+a great thief, and makes as much havoc among poultry as the red
+kite. It is also a robber of other birds, and if it should happen
+to see a weaker bird with food, it is sure to attack and rob it.
+Like the black kite, it is fond of the society of man, and haunts
+the villages in great numbers, for the purpose of eating the offal,
+which in Oriental towns is simply flung into the streets to be
+devoured by the dogs, vultures, kites, and other scavengers, without
+whom no village would be habitable for a month.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Whether the word _raah_, which is translated as Glede in Deut. xiv.
+13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten, is one of these
+species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a very doubtful
+point. This is the only passage in which the word occurs, and we
+have but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one
+species. The Hebrew Bible retains the word Glede, but affixes a mark
+of doubt to it, and several commentators are of opinion that the
+word is a wrong reading of _dayah_, which occurs in the parallel
+passage in Lev. xi. 14. The reading of the Septuagint follows this
+interpretation, and renders it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf
+translates the word _raah_ as Rook, but suggests that _dayah_ is the
+correct reading.
+
+Accepting, however, the word _raah_, we shall find that it is
+derived from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of
+some particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore be
+the chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one of
+the attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, so
+that it evidently must be classed among the group with which we are
+now concerned. It has been suggested that, granting the _raah_ to
+be a species distinct from the _dayah_, it is a collective term for
+the larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which inhabit
+Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible.
+
+Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there is
+no particular reason why they should be mentioned except by a
+collective name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds, and
+though their wings are short when compared with those of the
+vultures and eagles, the flight of the bird is both powerful and
+graceful. It is not, however, remarkable for swiftness, and never
+was employed, like the falcon, in catching other birds, being
+reckoned as one of the useless and cowardly birds of prey. In
+consonance with this opinion, to compare a man to a buzzard was
+thought a most cutting insult.
+
+[Illustration: THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or the
+large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches for
+some animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns to its
+post, the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher.
+This sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and almost owl-like
+plumage, have been the means of bringing the bird into contempt
+among falconers.
+
+As to the large falcons, which seem to be included in the term
+_raah_, the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon (_Falco
+peregrinus_), which is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his
+"Land of Israel," Mr. Tristram gives several notices of this bird,
+from which we may take the following picture from a description of
+a scene at Endor. "Dreary and desolate looked the plain, though of
+exuberant fertility. Here and there might be seen a small flock of
+sheep or herd of cattle, tended by three or four mounted villagers,
+armed with their long firelocks, and pistols and swords, on the
+watch against any small party of marauding cattle-lifters.
+
+"Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the rounded top
+of Tabor; and here and there an eagle was soaring beneath them in
+search of food, but at a most inconvenient distance from our guns.
+Hariers were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground,
+where lambs appeared to be their only prey; and a noble peregrine
+falcon, which in Central Palestine does not give place to the more
+eastern lanner, was perched on an isolated rock, calmly surveying
+the scene, and permitting us to approach and scrutinize him at our
+leisure."
+
+The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned above, is very
+characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest and
+most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can only be
+reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests of this bird
+are never built in close proximity, the Peregrine preferring to have
+its home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk.
+Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees, taking possession of the
+deserted home of some other bird; but it loves the cliff better
+than the tree, and seldom builds in the latter when the former is
+attainable.
+
+In the passage from the "Land of Israel" is mentioned the LANNER
+FALCON (_Falco lanarius_), another of the larger falcons to which
+the term _raah_ may have been applied.
+
+This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, indeed, is
+very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one of the
+birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and the female,
+which is much larger and stronger than the male, was employed for
+the purpose of chasing the kite, whose long and powerful wings could
+not always save it from such a foe.
+
+Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among the British
+birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is not even
+a visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by an error in
+nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon, which is much
+larger and darker than the male bird, having been erroneously called
+by the name of Lanner.
+
+[Illustration: THE LANNER FALCON.]
+
+In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as
+pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine, the
+attitudes of both birds being taken from life.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: hawk]
+
+
+
+
+THE HAWK.
+
+ The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under
+ that name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and
+ its general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or
+ Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its
+ mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable
+ derivation of the name--Species of Harier known to inhabit
+ Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews.
+
+
+There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are grouped
+together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word which is
+rightly enough translated. That a great number of birds should have
+been thus confounded together is not surprising, seeing that even
+in this country and at the present time, the single word Hawk may
+signify any one of at least twelve different species. The various
+falcons, the hariers, the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk, and the
+hobbies, are one and all called popularly by the name of Hawk, and
+it is therefore likely that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as
+many species as the English word Hawk. From them we will select one
+or two of the principal species.
+
+In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We only
+find it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in which it is
+named, together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many other birds,
+as among the unclean creatures, to eat which was an abomination. It
+is next found in the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 15, neither of
+which portions of Scripture need be quoted at length.
+
+That the word _netz_ was used in its collective sense is very
+evident from the addition which is made to it in both cases. The
+Hawk, "after its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore that
+several kinds or species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any specific
+detail would be quite needless, as the collective term was quite a
+sufficient indication, and, having named the vultures, eagles, and
+larger birds of prey, the simple word _netz_ was considered by the
+sacred writer as expressing the rest of the birds of prey.
+
+We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which we
+usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job xxxix. 26,
+we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and turn [or
+stretch] her wings toward the south?" The precise signification of
+this passage is rather doubtful, but it is generally considered to
+refer to the migration of several of the Hawk tribe. That the bird
+in question was distinguished for its power of flight is evident
+from the fact that the sacred poet has selected that one attribute
+as the most characteristic of the Netz.
+
+Taking first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that the
+SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_) is plentiful in Palestine, finding
+abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It selects for
+its nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the Holy Land,
+_i.e._ the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees. Sometimes
+it builds in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot seems to be
+the lofty tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice. It
+seldom builds a nest of its own, but takes possession of that which
+has been made by some other bird. Some ornithologists think that
+it looks out for a convenient nest, say of the crow or magpie, and
+then ejects the rightful owner. I am inclined to think, however,
+that it mostly takes possession of a nest that is already deserted,
+without running the risk of fighting such enemies as a pair of angry
+magpies. This opinion is strengthened by the fact that the bird
+resorts to the same nest year after year.
+
+It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and
+when wild and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in
+captivity. As is the case with so many of the birds, the female is
+much larger than her mate, the former weighing about six ounces, and
+measuring about a foot in length, and the latter weighing above nine
+ounces, and measuring about fifteen inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: KESTREL HOVERING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF PREY.]
+
+The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the COMMON
+KESTREL. This is the same species which is known under the names of
+Kestrel, Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk.
+
+It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit of
+hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes
+together. This action is always performed at a moderate distance
+from the ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in question
+never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while others,
+myself included, have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as
+many yards. Generally, however, it prefers a lower distance, and is
+able by employing this manœuvre to survey a tolerably large space
+beneath. As its food consists in a very great measure of field-mice,
+the Kestrel is thus able by means of its telescopic eyesight to see
+if a mouse rises from its hole; and if it should do so, the bird
+drops on it and secures it in its claws.
+
+[Illustration: THE WIND-HOVER, OR KESTREL.]
+
+Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious, and
+will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations of other
+birds, a number of nests being often found within a few yards of
+each other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the
+recesses of the caverns occupied by the griffon vultures, and that
+the Kestrel also builds close to the eagles, and is the only bird
+which is permitted to do so. It also builds in company with the
+jackdaw.
+
+Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least two
+inhabit the Holy Land, the second being a much smaller bird than
+the Common Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on insects, which
+it catches with its claws, the common chafers forming its usual
+prey. Great numbers of these birds live together, and as they rather
+affect the society of mankind, they are fond of building their nests
+in convenient crannies in the mosques or churches. Independently of
+its smaller size, it may be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by
+the whiteness of its claws.
+
+The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life. The bird
+hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place, that the
+artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of the bird
+in the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming. After a
+while, the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and then resumed
+its hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure. In
+consequence of the great abundance of this species in Palestine, and
+the peculiarly conspicuous mode of balancing itself in the air while
+in search of prey, we may feel sure that the sacred writers had it
+specially in their minds when they used the collective term Netz.
+
+It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it was
+considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be trained
+to chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be
+taught to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is supposed by some
+to have been given to the bird in allusion to its peculiar cry,
+which is clear, shrill, and consists of a single note several times
+repeated.
+
+On page 444 the reader may see a representation of a pair of HARIER
+HAWKS flying below the rock on which the peregrine falcon has
+perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller birds.
+
+They have been introduced because several species of Harier are
+to be found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains and
+lowlands, the place which is occupied by the other hawks and falcons
+among the rocks.
+
+The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on account of
+their habit of regularly quartering the ground over which they fly
+when in search of prey, just like hounds when searching for hares.
+This bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands, where
+it finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which it usually feeds. It does
+not, however, confine itself to such food, but will chase and kill
+most of the smaller birds, and occasionally will catch even the
+leveret, the rabbit, the partridge, and the curlew.
+
+When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the air,
+but almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it to
+the ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is mostly
+low, as suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom
+soars to any great height, except when it amuses itself by rising
+and wheeling in circles together with its mate. This proceeding
+generally takes place before nest-building. The usual flight is a
+mixture of that of the kestrel and the falcon, the Harier sometimes
+poising itself over some particular spot, and at others shooting
+forwards through the air with motionless wings.
+
+Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does not as a
+rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on the ground,
+perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some similar elevation.
+Even its nest is made on the ground, and is composed of reeds,
+sedges, sticks, and similar matter, materials that can be procured
+from marshy land. The nest is always elevated a foot or so from the
+ground, and has occasionally been found on the top of a mound more
+than a yard in height. It is, however, conjectured that in such
+cases the mound is made by one nest being built upon the remains of
+another. The object of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the
+eggs in case of a flood.
+
+At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the Holy
+Land, two of which are among the British birds, namely, the Marsh
+Harier (_Circus æruginosus_), sometimes called the Duck Hawk and
+the Moor Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (_Circus cyaneus_), sometimes
+called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue Hawk, on account of the
+plumage of the male, which differs greatly according to age; and the
+Ring-tailed Hawk, on account of the dark bars which appear on the
+tail of the female. All the Hariers are remarkable for the circlet
+of feathers that surrounds the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser
+degree the bold feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the entire
+absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry. Now, seeing
+that the art of catching birds and animals by means of Hawks is a
+favourite amusement among Orientals, as has already been mentioned
+when treating of the gazelle (page 168), and knowing the unchanging
+character of the East, we cannot but think it remarkable that no
+reference should be made to this sport in the Scriptures.
+
+It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little scope
+for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of cultivated
+soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible. Besides, the use
+of the falcon implies that of the horse, and, as we have already
+seen, the horse was scarcely ever used except for military purposes.
+
+Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined
+to Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence
+of the sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember that
+the surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that the
+amusement is practised there at the present day, and that the
+Israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries, we
+can but wonder that the Hawks should never be mentioned as aids
+to bird-catching. We find that other bird-catching implements are
+freely mentioned and employed as familiar symbols, such as the gin,
+the net, the snare, the trap, and so forth; but that there is not
+a single passage in which the Hawks are mentioned as employed in
+falconry.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: BARN OWL.]
+
+
+
+
+THE OWL.
+
+ The words which have been translated as Owl--Use made of the
+ Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits of the bird--The Barn,
+ Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine--The Yanshûph, or
+ Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and nest.
+
+
+In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several words
+which are translated as OWL in the Authorized Version, and in most
+cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the correct one, while in
+one or two instances there is a difference of opinion on the subject.
+
+In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among
+those which are an abomination, and which might not be eaten by the
+Israelites: "The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the
+hawk after his kind;
+
+"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl."
+
+It is very likely that the Little Owl here mentioned is identical
+with the Boomah of the Arabs. It is a bird that is common in Europe,
+where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as a means
+of attracting small birds to their traps. They place it on the top
+of a long pole, and carry it into the fields, where they plant the
+pole in the ground. This Owl has a curious habit of swaying its
+body backwards and forwards, and is sure to attract the notice of
+all the small birds in the neighbourhood. It is well known that the
+smaller birds have a peculiar hatred to the Owl, and never can pass
+it without mobbing it, assembling in great numbers, and so intent
+on their occupation that they seem to be incapable of perceiving
+anything but the object of their hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and
+hawks are taken by this simple device.
+
+Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by the
+ancient inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful; but as they
+certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting
+game, it is not unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve as a
+decoy. We shall learn more about the system of decoy-birds when we
+come to the partridge.
+
+The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring
+little whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in
+villages, among deserted ruins, or in places where man has never
+lived. As, however, it is protected by the natives, it prefers
+the neighbourhood of villages, and may be seen quietly perched in
+some favourite spot, not taking the trouble to move unless it be
+approached closely. And to detect a perched Owl is not at all an
+easy matter, as the bird has a way of selecting some spot where
+the colours of its plumage harmonize so well with the surrounding
+objects that the large eyes are often the first indication of its
+presence. Many a time I have gone to search after Owls, and only
+been made aware of them by the sharp angry snap that they make when
+startled.
+
+The common and well-known Barn Owl, also inhabits Palestine. Like
+the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, though it may
+be found in ruins and similar localities. An old ruined building
+is sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose nightly shrieks very
+often terrify the belated wanderer, and make him fancy that the
+place is haunted by disturbed spirits. Such being the habits of the
+bird, it is likely that in the East, where popular superstition has
+peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its spirit, the
+nocturnal cry of this bird, which is often called the Screech Owl
+from its note, should be exceedingly terrifying, and would impress
+itself on the minds of sacred writers as a fit image of solitude,
+terror, and desolation.
+
+[Illustration: THE LITTLE OWL.]
+
+The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than the
+Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a separate
+name, is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is made in
+the Scriptures.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, translated
+as the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory
+passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In
+that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find the following passage:
+"From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass
+through it for ever and ever.
+
+[Illustration: CAUGHT NAPPING.]
+
+"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl
+(_yanshûph_) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall
+stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of
+emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading.
+
+It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the EGYPTIAN
+EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ascalaphus_), a bird which is closely allied to the
+great Eagle Owl of Europe (_Bubo maximus_), and the Virginian Eared
+Owl (_Bubo Virginianus_) of America. This fine bird measures some
+two feet in length, and looks much larger than its real size, owing
+to the thick coating of feathers which it wears in common with all
+true Owls, and the ear-like feather tufts on the top of its head,
+which it can raise or depress at pleasure. Its plumage is light
+tawny.
+
+This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and ruins,
+and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of which the
+prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful in Egypt,
+where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away
+or modified into other forms of religion, and its presence only
+intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling of loneliness that
+oppresses the traveller as he passes among the ruins.
+
+The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic congener.
+It dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of man, and during
+the day is hidden in some deep and dark recess, its enormous eyes
+not being able to endure the light of day. In the evening it issues
+from its retreat, and begins its search after prey, which consists
+of various birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fish, and even insects when
+it can find nothing better.
+
+On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able to
+overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb and the
+young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. It seems never
+to chase any creature on the wing, but floats silently through the
+air, its soft and downy plumage deadening the sound of its progress,
+and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting prey while it is on the
+ground.
+
+The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in ruins,
+and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs, lined with a
+tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent Owls returning to
+the same spot year after year. Should it not be able to find either
+a rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a hollow in the ground,
+and there lays its eggs, which are generally two in number, though
+occasionally a third egg is found. The Egyptian Eagle Owl does much
+the same thing, burrowing in sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears
+danger, into the hollow where its nest has been made.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ RAVEN.
+ BARN OWL.
+ EAGLE OWL.
+]
+
+[Illustration: A FAMILY COUNCIL.]
+
+In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are given.
+The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards the spectator,
+grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts erect is
+looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating in mingled
+anger and fear the proceedings of the larger bird. Near them is
+perched a raven, in order to carry out more fully the prophetic
+words, "the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it."
+
+[Illustration: owl]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: night-hawk]
+
+
+
+
+THE NIGHT-HAWK.
+
+ Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs--Probability
+ that it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its
+ remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of
+ feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size.
+
+
+We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs which is
+rendered in the Authorized Version as NIGHT-HAWK.
+
+This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see Lev.
+xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies among
+commentators. The balance of probability seems to lie between two
+interpretations,--namely, that which considers the word _tachmâs_
+to signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For
+both of these interpretations much is to be said, and it cannot be
+denied that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so,
+the White or Barn Owl is probably the particular species to which
+reference is made.
+
+Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or Nightjar is
+the bird which is signified by the word _tachmâs_; and, as we have
+already treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the
+Authorized Version. Moreover, the Jewish Bible follows the same
+translation, and renders _tachmâs_ as Night-hawk, but affixes the
+mark of doubt.
+
+[Illustration: THE NIGHT-HAWK.]
+
+It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird among
+the owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among ourselves,
+who popularly speak of the Nightjar as the Fern Owl, Churn Owl, or
+Jar Owl, the two last names being given to it on account of its
+peculiar cry. There are few birds, indeed, which have received a
+greater variety of popular names, for, besides the Goatsucker and
+the five which have already been mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird
+and Dor-hawk, the former of these names having been given to the
+bird on account of its wheeling round the trees while seeking for
+prey, and the latter on account of the dor-beetles on which it
+largely feeds.
+
+This curious variety of names is probably due to the very
+conspicuous character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring,
+weird-like cry forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as
+it breaks the silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of
+a bird, but rather resembles the sound of a pallet falling on the
+cogs of a rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of evening,
+the long, jarring note being rolled out almost interminably, until
+the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a
+prolonged sound. The hearer may hold his breath as long as he can,
+take a full inspiration, hold his breath afresh, and repeat this
+process over and over again, and yet the Nightjar continues to trill
+out its rapid notes without a moment's cessation for breath, the
+sound now rising shrill and clear, and now sinking as if the bird
+were far off, but never ceasing for an instant.
+
+This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to look upon
+the bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing its cry full
+well, though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice. It is
+probable that, in the days when Moses wrote the Law, so conspicuous
+a bird was well known to the Jews, and we may therefore conjecture
+that it was one of those birds which he would specially mention by
+name.
+
+The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as its
+note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various moths,
+beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It may be seen
+wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak being a special
+favourite, sometimes circling round it, and sometimes rising high
+in the air, and the next moment skimming along the ground. Suddenly
+it will disappear, and next moment its long trilling cry is heard
+from among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying.
+To see it while singing is almost impossible, for it has a habit of
+sitting longitudinally on the branch, and not across it, like most
+birds, so that the outline of its body cannot be distinguished from
+that of the bough of which it is seated. As suddenly as it began,
+the sound ceases, and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling
+again through the air with its noiseless flight.
+
+Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows a
+careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often stood
+close to the tree round which several Nightjars were circling, and
+seen them chase their prey to the ground within a yard or two of
+the spot on which I was standing. The flight of the Nightjar is
+singularly graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, it presents a
+command of wing that is really wonderful, gliding through the air
+with consummate ease, wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some
+active moth, whose white wings glitter against the dark background,
+while the sober plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible, passing
+often within a few feet of the spectator, and yet not a sound or a
+rustle will reach his ears. Sometimes the bird is said to strike
+its wings together over its back, so as to produce a sharp snapping
+sound, intended to express anger at the presence of the intruder. I
+never, however, heard this sound, though I have watched the bird so
+often.
+
+Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird, like
+the owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between ten
+and eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of twenty
+inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large
+mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as the eyes,
+and is furnished with a set of _vibrissæ_ or bristles, which remind
+the observer of the "whale-bone" which is set on the jaw of the
+Greenland whale.
+
+[Illustration: trees and bird]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: swallow]
+
+
+
+
+THE SWALLOW.
+
+ Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to
+ natural history--Use of collective terms--The Swallow--The Bird
+ of Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--Variety of small birds found in
+ Palestine--The Swallows of Palestine.
+
+
+Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned in the
+Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate.
+
+Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty,
+but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous species,
+we are at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can only
+offer conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no idea of
+discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they happened to be
+tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. We need not be much
+surprised at this. The Orientals of the present day do precisely the
+same thing, and not only fail to discriminate between the smaller
+birds, but absolutely have no names for them.
+
+By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes,
+the larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by
+a common title, derived from the twittering sound of their voices,
+only one or two of them having any distinctive titles. They look
+upon the birds much as persons ignorant of entomology look at a
+collection of moths. There is not much difficulty in discriminating
+between the great hawk-moths, and perhaps in giving a name to one or
+two of them which are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of
+form or colour; but when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpets,"
+the "Wainscots," and similar groups, they are utterly lost; and,
+though they may be able to see the characteristic marks when the
+moths are placed side by side, they are incapable of distinguishing
+them separately, and, to their uneducated eyes, twenty or thirty
+species appear absolutely alike.
+
+I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical
+natural history is so widely extended as in England, and yet how few
+educated persons are there who, if taken along a country lane, can
+name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish between a sparrow,
+a linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a chaffinch. Nay, how many are there
+who, if challenged even to repeat the names of twelve little birds,
+would be unable to do so without some consideration, much less to
+know them if the birds were placed before them.
+
+Such being the case in a country where the capability of observation
+is more or less cultivated in every educated person, we may well
+expect that a profound ignorance on the subject should exist in
+countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of
+education. Moreover, in England, there is a comparatively limited
+list of birds, whereas in Palestine are found nearly all those which
+are reckoned among British birds, and many other species besides.
+Those which reside in England reside also for the most part in
+Palestine, while the greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we
+might expect, into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries.
+
+If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant people and a
+vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that so many collective
+terms are used in the Scriptures, one word often doing duty for
+twenty or thirty species. The only plan, therefore, which can be
+adopted, is to mention generally the birds which were probably
+grouped under one name, and to describe briefly one or two of the
+most prominent.
+
+It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does not
+appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might expect that
+several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great sacred poet,
+who drew so many of his images from natural objects, would have
+found in the song of birds some metaphor expressive of sweetness
+or joy. We might expect that in the Book of Job, in which so many
+creatures are mentioned, the singing of birds would be brought as
+prominently forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse,
+the tameless freedom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture,
+and the swiftness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds
+to be mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces into
+his rugged poem the roar of the old lion and the wail of the cub,
+the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of the herdman's
+hut, and the ravages of the palmer-worm among the olives. Above all,
+we might expect that in the Psalms there would be many allusions
+to the notes of the various birds which have formed such fruitful
+themes for the poets of later times. There are, however, in the
+whole of the Scriptures but two passages in which the song of birds
+is mentioned, and even in these only a passing allusion is made.
+
+One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12: "By them (_i.e._ the springs
+of water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation,
+which sing among the branches." This passage is perhaps rendered
+more closely in the Jewish Bible: "Over them dwell the fowls of the
+heaven; they let their voices resound (or give their voice) from
+between the foliage."
+
+The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4: "And the doors shall be shut in
+the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and he shall
+rise up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters of music
+shall be brought low." The word which is here translated as "bird,"
+is that which is rendered in some places as "sparrow," in others
+as "fowl," and in others as "bird." Even in these passages, as the
+reader will have noticed, no marks of appreciation are employed, and
+we hear nothing of the sweetness, joyousness, or mournfulness of the
+bird's song.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We will now proceed to the words which have been translated as
+Swallow in the Authorized Version.
+
+These are two in number, namely, _derôr_ and _agar_. Hebraists are,
+however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the
+translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous
+words.
+
+We will therefore first take the word _deror_. This word signifies
+liberty, and is well applied to the Swallow, the bird of freedom.
+It is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old commentators have
+contrived to perplex themselves about a very simple matter. One of
+them comments upon the bird as being "so called, because it has
+the liberty of building in the houses of mankind." Another takes a
+somewhat similar view of the case, but puts it in a catechetical
+form: "Why is the swallow called the bird of liberty? Because it
+lives both in the house and in the field." It is scarcely necessary
+to point out to the reader that the "liberty" to which allusion is
+made is the liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its
+appointed times, and not being capable of domestication.
+
+[Illustration: LOST FROM THE FLOCK.]
+
+Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including the true
+Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall presently
+see, it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished by a
+separate name. Whether or not the word _deror_ included other birds
+beside the Swallows is rather doubtful, though not at all unlikely;
+and if so, it is probable that any swift-winged insectivorous bird
+would be called by the name of Deror, irrespective of its size or
+colour.
+
+The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number of the
+birds grouped together under the word _deror_, and we may conjecture
+that the same is the case with the sunbirds, those bright-plumed
+little beings that take in the Old World the place occupied by the
+humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers
+who are not acquainted with ornithology. One of these birds, the
+_Nectarinia Oseæ_, is described by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little
+creature of gorgeous plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America
+in the metallic lustre of its feathers--green and purple, with
+brilliant red and orange plumes under its shoulders."
+
+In order to account for the singular variety of animal life which
+is to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding diversity
+of species among the birds, we must remember that Palestine is a
+sort of microcosm in itself, comprising within its narrow boundaries
+the most opposite conditions of temperature, climate, and soil.
+Some parts are rocky, barren, and mountainous, chilly and cold at
+the top, and acting as channels through which the winds blow almost
+continuously. The cliffs are full of holes, rifts, and caverns, some
+natural, some artificial, and some of a mixed kind, the original
+caverns having been enlarged and improved by the hand of man.
+
+As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close
+at hand large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered
+cattle, and of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the animals
+which are pastured in it can find food throughout the year. Through
+the centre of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing its banks with
+perpetual verdure, and ending its course in the sulphurous and
+bituminous waters of the Dead Sea, under whose waves the ruins of
+the wicked cities are supposed to lie. Westward we have the shore of
+the Mediterranean with its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on
+the eastward of the mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the
+sea is the great Lake of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the
+name of the Sea of Galilee.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT.]
+
+Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of species
+which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can be seen
+in any other part of the earth of the same dimensions, and it
+seems probable that for this reason, among many others, Palestine
+was selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example, the Christian
+Church had been originated under the tropics, those who lived in a
+cold climate could scarcely have understood the language in which
+the Scriptures must necessarily have been couched. Had it, on the
+contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic regions, the inhabitants
+of the tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended
+the imagery in which the teachings of Scripture must have been
+conveyed. But the small and geographically insignificant Land of
+Palestine combines in itself many of the characteristics which
+belong respectively to the cold, the temperate, and the hot regions
+of the world, so that the terms in which the sacred writings are
+couched are intelligible to a very great proportion of the world's
+inhabitants.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF THE SEA OF GALILEE.]
+
+This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several
+species of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if so migratory
+a bird can be said to be an inhabitant of any one country.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWALLOW'S FAVOURITE HAUNT.]
+
+The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of freedom,"
+is that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct to
+pass from one country to another for the purpose of preserving
+itself in a tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards as the
+spring ripens into summer, and southwards as autumn begins to sink
+into winter. By some marvellous instinct it traces its way over
+vast distances, passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but
+the sea is beneath it, and yet at the appointed season returning
+with unerring certainty to the spot where it was hatched. How it
+is guided no one knows, but the fact is certain, that Swallows,
+remarkable for some peculiarity by which they could be at once
+identified, have been observed to leave the country on their
+migration, and to return in the following year to the identical nest
+whence they started.
+
+Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of mankind is
+mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "The sparrow hath
+found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where she may
+lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King and my
+God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all countries to have
+enjoyed the protection of man, and to have been suffered to build
+in peace under his roof. We find the same idea prevalent in the New
+World as well as the Old, and it is rather curious that the presence
+of the bird should so generally be thought to bring luck to a house.
+
+In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill a
+Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks that if
+he did so his cows would fail to give their due supply of milk.
+The connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the
+destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to
+see, but nevertheless such is the belief. This idea ranks with that
+which asserts the robin and the wren to be the male and female of
+the same species, and to be under some special divine protection.
+
+Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it be
+derived from some forgotten source, or whether it be the natural
+result of the confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow enjoys at
+the present day the protection of man, and builds freely in his
+houses, and even his places of worship. The heathen temples, the
+Mahometan mosques, and the Christian churches are alike inhabited by
+the Swallow, who seems to know her security, and often places her
+nest where a child might reach it.
+
+The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations of
+man, though it prefers them; and in those places where no houses
+are to be found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it takes
+possession of the clefts of rocks, and therein makes its nest.
+Many instances are known where the Swallow has chosen the most
+extraordinary places for its nest. It has been known to build year
+after year on the frame of a picture, between the handles of a pair
+of shears hung on the wall, on a lamp-bracket, in a table-drawer, on
+a door-knocker, and similar strange localities.
+
+The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is noticed
+by the sacred writers. "As the bird by wandering, as the swallow
+by flying, so the curse causeless shall not come" (Prov. xxvi. 2).
+This passage is given rather differently in the Jewish Bible, though
+the general sense remains the same: "As the bird is ready to flee,
+as the swallow to fly away; so a causeless execration, it shall not
+come." It is possible, however, that this passage may allude rather
+to the migration than the swiftness of the bird.
+
+[Illustration: SWALLOWS AT HOME.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+ The "Dukiphath" of Scripture--Various interpretations of the
+ word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant
+ odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and
+ remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe.
+
+
+In the two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs
+the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version,
+Lapwing: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing, and
+the bat."
+
+The Hebrew word is _dukiphath_, and various interpretations have
+been proposed for it, some taking it to be the common domestic fowl,
+others the cock-of-the-woods, or capercailzie, while others have
+preferred to translate it as Hoopoe. The Jewish Bible retains the
+word lapwing, but adds the mark of doubt. Commentators are, however,
+agreed that of all these interpretations, that which renders the
+word as HOOPOE (_Upupa epops_) is the best.
+
+There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such a
+bird as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be very
+good reasons for the same injunction with regard to the Hoopoe.
+
+In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an ill
+reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence seems to
+be regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion.
+This universal distaste for the Hoopoe is probably occasioned by an
+exceedingly pungent and disagreeable odour which fills the nest of
+the bird, and which infects for a considerable time the hand which
+is employed to take the eggs.
+
+The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any unpleasant
+smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and having
+therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in
+nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays.
+
+The food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects They
+have been said to feed on earth-worms; but this notion seems to be
+a mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch an earth-worm
+so long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of various kinds
+seem to be their favourite food, and when the beetles are tolerably
+large--say, for example, as large as the common cockchafer and
+dor-beetle--the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts
+to eat them. Smaller beetles are swallowed without any ceremony. The
+various boring insects which make their home in decaying wood are
+favourite articles of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of
+the soft wood with its long curved beak.
+
+It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made in the
+hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however, hollow trees
+cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts to clefts in
+the rock, or even to holes in old ruins.
+
+The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account of
+its boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its cry
+and its gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing its
+crest, and bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which could
+not fail to attract the attention even of the most incurious, the
+whole aspect and expression of the bird varying with the raising and
+depressing of the crest.
+
+Respecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the case
+with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of King
+Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty wizard
+rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on which was
+engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway over the birds,
+the beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns and Afreets,
+_i.e._ the good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal for the
+material world and too gross for the spiritual, and therefore hold
+the middle place between them.
+
+On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perishing from
+the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid, and flew in
+a dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter from the fiery
+sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the monarch told the Hoopoes
+to ask for a boon, and it should be granted to them. The birds,
+after consulting together, agreed to ask that from that time every
+Hoopoe should wear a crown of gold like Solomon himself. The request
+was immediately granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned with
+a royal crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was
+the joy of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to
+contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery mirror so
+as to display the crown to the best advantage.
+
+Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition. The
+golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and, besides, the
+wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler.
+The unfortunate Hoopoes were persecuted in all directions for the
+sake of their golden crowns which they could neither take off nor
+conceal.
+
+At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solomon, and
+begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by substituting a
+crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The Hoopoe, however, never
+forgets its former grandeur, and is always bowing and bending itself
+as it used to do when contemplating its golden crown in the water.
+
+[Illustration: lapwing]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN HOUSE-TOP.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SPARROW.
+
+ The Sparrow upon the house top--Architecture of the East--Little
+ birds exposed for sale in the market--The two Sparrows sold for
+ a farthing--Bird-catching--The net, the snare, and the trap.
+
+
+We have already discussed the signification of the compound word
+_tzippor-deror_, and will now take the word _tzippor_ alone.
+
+Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used in a
+collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially
+designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as
+Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves.
+
+On turning to Ps. cii. 5-7, we find that the word is used as an
+emblem of solitude and misery: "By reason of the voice of my
+groaning, my bones cleave to my skin.
+
+"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the
+desert,
+
+"I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top."
+
+The word which is here translated as "Sparrow" is _tzippor_, the
+same which is rendered as "bird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The Hebrew Bible
+more consistently uses the collective term "bird" in both instances,
+and renders the passage as, "I watch, and am as a lonely bird upon a
+roof."
+
+Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is perfectly aware
+that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrelsome enough with
+its fellows, and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel
+of food; but it is exceedingly gregarious, assembling together in
+little parties, enlivening the air with its merry though unmusical
+twitterings.
+
+This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of Palestine,
+where it haunts the habitations of men with the same dauntless
+confidence which it displays in this country. It is often seen upon
+roofs or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone in Palestine
+than it is here. On the contrary, the Sparrows collect in great
+numbers on the house-tops, attracted by the abundant supply of food
+which it finds there. This requires some little explanation.
+
+The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as
+among ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat,
+and serve as terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for
+sleeping-places; and from the house-tops proclamations were made.
+See, for example, 1 Sam. ix. 25: "And when they were come down from
+the high place into the city, Samuel communed with Saul upon the top
+of the house"--this being the ordinary place which would be chosen
+for a conversation. In order to keep out the heat of the mid-day
+sun, tents were sometimes pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See
+2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference to the use of the house-tops as places
+for conversation are made in the New Testament. See, for example,
+Matt. x. 27: "What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in light;
+and what ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops."
+Another passage of a similar nature occurs in Luke xii. 3:
+"Therefore whatsoever ye have spoken in darkness shall be heard in
+the light, and that which ye have spoken in the ear in closets shall
+be proclaimed on the house-tops."
+
+These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like those
+to which we are accustomed in this country, are made with great
+beams of wood laid horizontally, and crossed by planks, poles, and
+brushwood packed tightly together. As this roof would not keep out
+the rain, it is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw,
+and beaten down as hard as possible. This covering has constantly
+to be renewed, as, even in the best made roofs, the heavy rains are
+sure to wash away some portion of the clay covering, which has to be
+patched up with a fresh supply of earth. A stone roller is generally
+kept on the roof of each house for the purpose of making a flat and
+even surface.
+
+The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the
+uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the
+rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows
+and other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house-tops,
+and then peck away just as they do in our own streets and farm-yards.
+
+It is now evident that the "sparrow alone and melancholy upon the
+house-tops" cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow which assembles
+in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places. We must therefore
+look for some other bird, and naturalists are now agreed that we may
+accept the BLUE THRUSH (_Petrocossyphus cyaneus_) as the particular
+Tzippor, or small bird, which sits alone on the house-tops.
+
+The colour of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its
+popular name. Its habits exactly correspond with the idea of
+solitude and melancholy. The Blue Thrushes never assemble in flocks,
+and it is very rare to see more than a pair together. It is fond of
+sitting on the tops of houses, uttering its note, which, however
+agreeable to itself, is monotonous and melancholy to a human ear.
+
+In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye hear in
+the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take the
+opportunity of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely seems
+relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings. The
+context shows that our Lord was speaking of the new doctrines which
+He had come to teach, and the duty of spreading them, and alludes
+to a mode of religious teaching which was then in vogue.
+
+The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the Hebrew
+language to be disused among the common people, who had learned
+the Chaldaic language from their captors. After their return to
+Palestine, the custom of publicly reading the Scriptures was found
+to be positively useless, the generality of the people being
+ignorant of the Hebrew language.
+
+[Illustration: READING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE AFTER THE RETURN FROM
+CAPTIVITY.]
+
+Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The roll of
+the Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred words read,
+or rather chanted. After each passage was read, a doctor of the law
+whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista or interpreter,
+who repeated to the people in the Chaldaic language the explanation
+which the doctor had whispered in Hebrew. The reader will now see
+how appropriate is the metaphor, the whispering in the ear and
+subsequent proclamation being the customary mode of imparting
+religious instruction.
+
+If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that the
+word "sparrow" is used in a passage which has become very familiar
+to us. "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them
+shall not fall on the ground without your Father.
+
+"But the very hairs of your head are all numbered.
+
+"Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many sparrows."
+The same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in almost the
+same words.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+Now the word which is translated as "Sparrow" is _strouthion_, a
+collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the addition
+of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any kind of small
+bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large
+a creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had been mentioned
+beforehand. Conjoined with the word "great," it signifies the
+ostrich; and when used in connexion with a word significative of
+running, it is employed as a general term for all cursorial birds.
+
+In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and evidently
+signifies any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not.
+Allusion is made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived to
+the present day, of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies
+of little birds. They are stripped of their feathers, and spitted
+together in rows, and always have a large sale.
+
+Various birds are sold in this manner, little if any distinction
+being made between them, save perhaps in respect of size, the larger
+species commanding a higher price than the small birds. In fact,
+they are arranged exactly after the manner in which the Orientals
+sell their "kabobs," _i.e._ little pieces of meat pierced by wooden
+skewers.
+
+It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that
+the birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a
+considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were employed for
+this purpose, and we may safely infer that the forms of the nets
+and the methods of using them were identical with those which are
+employed in the same country at the present day.
+
+The fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two
+sticks, and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top of a
+pole, they sally out at night to the places where the small birds
+sleep.
+
+Raising the net on its sticks, they lift it to the requisite height,
+and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place the
+net between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places are
+then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to awaken the
+sleeping birds. Startled by the sudden noise, they dash from their
+roosts, instinctively make towards the light, and so fall into the
+net. Bird-catching with nets is several times mentioned in the Old
+Testament, but in the New the net is only alluded to as used for
+taking fish.
+
+Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used by
+the ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day. Boys, for
+example, who catch birds for their own consumption, and not for the
+market, can do so by means of various traps, most of which are made
+on the principle of the noose, or snare. Sometimes a great number
+of hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed, so
+that in hopping about many of them are sure to become entangled in
+the snares. Sometimes the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow
+passage which the birds are likely to traverse, and sometimes a
+simple fall-trap is employed.
+
+We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. lxxxiv. 1-3,
+we come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again mentioned: "How
+amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts!
+
+"My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the Lord; my
+heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God.
+
+"Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for
+herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of
+hosts, my King, and my God."
+
+[Illustration: THE TREE-SPARROW, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird from the
+Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops; and though the same
+word, _tzippor_, is used in both cases, it is clear that whereas
+the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow, solitude,
+and sadness, the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and
+happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the Psalmist, "that dwell
+in Thy house: they will be still praising Thee.... For a day in Thy
+courts is better than a thousand. I had rather be a doorkeeper in
+the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness."
+
+According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species to
+which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting the ruins
+in the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an old wall. "Near
+this gate I climbed on to the top of the wall, and walked along for
+some time, enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the Kedron, with
+its harvest crop of little white tombs. In a chink I discovered a
+sparrow's nest (_Passer cisalpinus_, var.) of a species so closely
+allied to our own that it is difficult to distinguish it, one of the
+very kind of which the Psalmist sung.... The swallows had departed
+for the winter, but the sparrow has remained pertinaciously through
+all the sieges and changes of Jerusalem."
+
+The same traveller thinks that the TREE SPARROW (_Passer montanus_)
+may be the species to which the sacred writer refers, as it is even
+now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the Temple. In all
+probability we may accept both these birds as representatives of the
+Sparrow which found a home in the Temple. The swallow is separately
+mentioned, possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a
+peculiarly conspicuous bird; but it is probable that many species of
+birds might make their nests in a place where they felt themselves
+secure from disturbance, and that all these birds would be mentioned
+under the collective and convenient term of Tzipporim.
+
+[Illustration: sparrows]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: old tree]
+
+
+
+
+THE CUCKOO.
+
+ The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--The common
+ species, and the Great Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg.
+
+
+Only in two instances is the word CUCKOO found in the Authorized
+Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages they
+are practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it mentioned
+among the birds that might not be eaten, and the same prohibition is
+repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being ordered to hold the bird
+in abomination.
+
+It is rather remarkable that the Arabic name for the bird is exactly
+the same as ours, the peculiar cry having supplied the name. Its
+habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds is well known,
+together with the curious fact, that although so large a bird,
+measuring more than a foot in length, its egg is not larger than
+that of the little birds, such as the hedge-sparrow, robin, or
+redstart.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.]
+
+Besides this species, another Cuckoo inhabits Palestine, and is
+much more common. This is the GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO (_Oxylophus
+glandarius_). The birds belonging to this genus have been separated
+from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed
+into a bold crest, in some species, such as Le Vaillant's Cuckoo,
+reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo. This fine bird
+measures nearly sixteen inches in length, and can be distinguished,
+not only by the crested head, but by the reddish grey of the throat
+and chest, and the white tips of the wing and tail feathers.
+
+This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large
+birds, such as the rooks, crows, and magpies.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE DOVE.
+
+ Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--The Dove and the olive
+ branch--Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance--The Dove-sellers
+ of the Temple--The Rock Dove and its multitudes.
+
+
+In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we
+shall find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful
+information into a reasonable space. There is no bird which plays
+a more important part, both in the Old and the New Testaments, or
+which is employed so largely in metaphor and symbol.
+
+The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep and
+lambs to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief interest
+from their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the young pigeon
+being emblems of innocence, both were used on similar occasions, the
+latter being in many instances permitted when the former were too
+expensive for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the
+Hebrew words which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle
+Dove, there has never been any discussion. The Hebrew word _yonâh_
+has always been acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the
+word _tôr_ to signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are
+used in combination, so that _tor-yonâh_ signifies the Turtle Dove.
+
+Though the interpretation of the word _yonâh_ is universally
+accepted, there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and
+its signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is
+derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth of
+its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been selected as
+the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is Buxtorf, derive it
+from a word which signifies oppression, because the gentle nature of
+the Dove, together with its inability to defend itself, cause it to
+be oppressed, not only by man, but by many rapacious birds.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The first passage in which we hear of the Dove occurs in the earlier
+part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the first
+two creatures that are mentioned by any definite names, the word
+_nachosh_, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1, being
+a collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether venomous
+or otherwise, and not used for the purpose of designating any
+particular species.
+
+Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the Dove.
+The whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and it is only
+needful to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark in order that
+Noah might learn whether the floods had subsided, and that, after
+she had returned once, he sent her out again seven days afterwards,
+and that she returned, bearing an olive-branch (or leaf, in the
+Jewish Bible). Seven days afterwards he sent the Dove for the third
+time, but she had found rest on the earth, and returned no more.
+
+It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in the
+most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of the
+Scriptures. I shall, therefore, allude but very slightly to the
+metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from the
+ark and the sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting
+entirely aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the
+Dove are well contrasted. The one went out, and, though the trees
+were at that time submerged, it trusted in its strong wings, and
+hovered above the watery expanse until the flood had subsided. The
+Dove, on the contrary, fond of the society of man, and having none
+of the wild, predatorial habits which distinguish the raven, twice
+returned to its place of refuge, before it was finally able to find
+a resting-place for its foot.
+
+After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of Abraham,
+some four hundred years afterwards, when the covenant was made
+between the Lord and Abram, when "he believed in the Lord, and it
+was counted to him for righteousness." In order to ratify this
+covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice, which consisted of a
+young heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young dove or
+pigeon. The larger animals were severed in two, but the birds were
+not divided, and between the portions of the sacrifice there passed
+a lamp of fire as a symbol of the Divine presence.
+
+In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram should be as
+the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply fulfilled, together
+with the prophecy that they should be "strangers in a land that was
+not theirs," and should be in slavery and under oppression for many
+years, the Dove was specially mentioned in the new law as one of the
+creatures that were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions.
+
+Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly defined.
+See Lev. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the
+Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering of turtle-doves,
+or of young pigeons.
+
+"And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off his
+head, and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall be wrung
+out at the side of the altar.
+
+"And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast it
+beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes.
+
+"And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not divide
+it asunder: and the priest shall burn it upon the altar, upon the
+wood that is upon the fire."
+
+Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram, but
+of the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that the body
+of the bird should not be divided. There is a slight, though not
+very important variation in one or two portions of this passage.
+For example, the wringing off the head of the bird is, literally,
+pinching off, and had to be done with the thumb nail; and the
+passage which is by some translators rendered as the crop and the
+feathers, is by others translated as the crop and its contents--a
+reading which seems to be more consonant with the usual ceremonial
+of sacrifice than the other.
+
+As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial
+animal in case one of more value could not be afforded; and so much
+care was taken in this respect, that with the exception of the two
+"sparrows" (_tzipporim_) that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice
+by which the cleansed leper was received back among the people (Lev.
+xiv. 4), no bird might be offered in sacrifice unless it belonged to
+the tribe of pigeons.
+
+It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the
+Virgin Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to present
+her new-born Son in the Temple. For those who were able to
+afford it, the required sacrifice was a lamb of the first year
+for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or Turtle Dove for a
+sin-offering. But "if she be not able to bring a lamb, then she
+shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, the one for the
+burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering." The extraordinary
+value which all Israelites set upon the first-born son is well
+known, both parents even changing their own names, and being called
+respectively the father and mother of Elias, or Joseph, as the case
+may be. If the parents who had thus attained the summit of their
+wishes possessed a lamb, or could have obtained one, they would most
+certainly have offered it in the fulness of their joy, particularly
+when, as in the case of Mary, there was such cause for rejoicing;
+and the fact that they were forced to substitute a second pigeon for
+the lamb is a proof of their extreme poverty.
+
+While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact nation,
+dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could easily offer
+their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes to the altar. But
+in process of time, when the nation had become a large and scattered
+one, its members residing at great distances, and only coming to the
+Temple once or twice in the year to offer their sacrifices, they
+would have found that for even the poor to carry their pigeons with
+them would have greatly increased the trouble, and in many cases
+have been almost impossible.
+
+For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers
+established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, for the
+purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice. Sheep and
+oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, as offerings of money
+could only be made in the Jewish coinage, money-changers established
+themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from
+a distance for the legal Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded
+their object, and endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were
+ignorant of the comparative value of money and goods, is evident
+from the fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which
+were applied to them.
+
+[Illustration: JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEY-CHANGERS AND
+THOSE WHO SOLD DOVES.]
+
+According to some old writers, the Dove was considered as having a
+superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty with which
+it finds its way from one place to another. At the present time,
+our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the Carrier has
+taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon
+for the direction of its flight. Those who fly pigeons for long
+distances always take them several times over the same ground,
+carrying them to an increasing distance at every journey, so that
+the birds shall be able to note certain objects which serve them as
+landmarks.
+
+Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a young wasp
+leaves its nest for the first time, it does not fly away at once,
+but hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting farther
+and farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of
+surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the same manner,
+and so completely does it depend upon eyesight that, if a heavy fog
+should come on, the best-trained pigeon will lose its way.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROCK DOVE.]
+
+The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon found
+its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their ideas, could
+guide it across the sea. They were not aware of the power possessed
+by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, or of the enormous
+increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation. A pigeon at
+the elevation of several hundred yards can see to an astonishing
+distance, and there is no need of imagining one sense to receive
+a peculiar development when the ordinary powers of another are
+sufficient to obtain the object.
+
+That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well known. An
+allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes is seen in Isa.
+lx. 8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their
+windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates the passage, "as the
+doves to their apertures?" In this passage the sacred writer utters
+a prophecy concerning the coming of the world to the Messiah, the
+Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds of pigeons fly homeward to
+their cotes.
+
+[Illustration: BLUE ROCK PIGEONS.]
+
+The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day, the
+houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses
+for the protection and shelter of these popular birds.
+
+In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons with which
+we are familiar, together with one or two others. First, there is
+the Rock Pigeon, or Blue Rock Dove, which is acknowledged to be the
+origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons, with all their infinite
+variety of colour and plumage. This species, though plentiful in
+Palestine, is not spread over the whole of the land, but lives
+chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country. In
+these places it multiplies in amazing numbers, its increase being
+almost wholly unchecked by man, on account of the inaccessible
+cliffs in which it lays its eggs and nurtures its young, its only
+enemies being a few of the birds and beasts of prey, which can
+exercise but a trifling influence on these prolific birds.
+
+Mr. Tristram, while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies
+near the Lake of Gennesaret, witnessed an amusing example of the
+vast number of these Pigeons.
+
+"No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of rock
+pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the ravine,
+whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a
+gust of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the
+equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept past him. This
+enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite turned on his back
+by the sudden rush of wings and wind."
+
+In Palestine these birds are taken in nets, into which they are
+decoyed by a very effective though cruel device.
+
+When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by its
+capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy.
+They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it to
+a perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive cries, and
+continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of its kind, who
+settle on the surrounding branches and are easily taken, their whole
+attention being occupied by the cries of their distressed companion.
+
+We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit the Holy
+Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will confine ourselves
+to the common species, with which we are so familiar in this
+country. Its migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings.
+See the following passage in the Song of Solomon:
+
+"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers
+appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and
+the voice of the turtle is heard in our land" (Cant. ii. 11, 12).
+The prophet Jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird:
+"Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the
+turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their
+coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord" (viii. 7).
+
+Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove, one variety
+of which is known as the Barbary Dove. It is a large species,
+measuring more than a foot in length. Another species is the Palm
+Turtle, so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it
+is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man. It is
+a gregarious bird, several nests being generally found on one tree,
+and even, when it cannot find a palm, it will build among the thorns
+in multitudes. Like the common Dove, it is fond of the society of
+man, and is sure to make its nest among human habitations, secure in
+its knowledge that it will not be disturbed.
+
+[Illustration: THE TURTLE DOVE.]
+
+It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length, and
+having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding species.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: chickens]
+
+
+
+
+POULTRY.
+
+ Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The
+ Domestic Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The
+ eating and gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the
+ New Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of
+ Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited
+ within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing.
+
+
+At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and
+Syria, and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is
+evident from one or two references which are made by our Lord. How
+long the Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is extremely
+uncertain, and we have very little to guide us in our search.
+
+That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period of their
+history is evident from the utter silence of the Old Testament on
+the subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly
+have been mentioned in the Law of Moses had it been known to the
+Israelites; but, in all its minute and detailed provisions, the Law
+is silent on the subject.
+
+Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although there
+are a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird which
+laid them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers not to
+a domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be
+before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young
+ones, or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the young, or upon the
+eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young: but thou shalt in
+any wise let the dam go, and take the young to thee; that it may be
+well with thee, that thou mayest prolong thy days."
+
+[Illustration: THE DOMESTIC FOWL.]
+
+There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has ever been
+conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in 1 Kings iv.
+22, 23: "And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of
+fine flour, and threescore measures of meal,
+
+"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred
+sheep, besides harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted
+fowl."
+
+Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the
+above-quoted passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon
+had introduced into Palestine, together with various other birds
+and animals, by means of his fleet. There may be truth in this
+conjecture, but, as there can be no certainty, we will pass from the
+Old Testament to the New.
+
+We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic Fowl
+is mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example, that
+touching image employed by our Lord when lamenting over Jerusalem:
+"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest
+them that are sent unto thee; how often would I have gathered
+thy children together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her
+wings, and ye would not!" The reference is evidently made to the
+Domesticated Fowl, which in the time of our Lord was largely bred in
+the Holy Land.
+
+Some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence
+of a Rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from being kept within
+the walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search for food they should
+scratch up any impurity which had been buried, and so defile the
+holy city. But it must be remembered that in the time of Christ
+Jerusalem belonged practically to the Romans, who held it with a
+garrison, and who, together with other foreigners, would not trouble
+themselves about any such prohibition, which would seem to them, as
+it does to us, exceedingly puerile, not to say unjustifiable.
+
+That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident from the
+reference to the "cock-crowing" as a measure of time.
+
+[Illustration: chickens]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: peacock]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEACOCK.
+
+ The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_
+ and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with
+ the Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock
+ should have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and
+ extirpation.
+
+
+Among the many foreign objects which were imported by Solomon into
+Palestine, we find that the Peacock is specially mentioned. (See a
+passage which has already been mentioned in connexion with ivory and
+apes.) The sacred historian, after mentioning the ivory throne, the
+golden shields and targets, that all the vessels in Solomon's house
+were of gold, and that silver was so common as to be of no account,
+proceeds to give the reason for this profuse magnificence. "For the
+king had at sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in
+three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver,
+ivory, and apes, and peacocks" (1 Kings x. 22).
+
+That this magnificent bird should have been one of those creatures
+that were imported by Solomon is almost certain. It would be
+imported for the same reason as the apes; namely, for the purpose
+of adding to the glories of Solomon's house, and no bird could have
+been selected which would have a more magnificent effect than the
+Peacock. Moreover, although unknown in Palestine, it is extremely
+plentiful in India and Ceylon, inhabiting the jungle by thousands,
+and, by a curious coincidence, being invariably most plentiful in
+those spots which are most frequented by tigers. In many parts
+of the country, great numbers of Peacocks frequent the temples,
+and live amicably with the sacred monkeys, passing their lives in
+absolute security, protected by the sanctity of the place.
+
+Their numbers, therefore, would render them easily accessible to
+Solomon's envoys, who would purchase them at a cheap rate from the
+native dealers, while their surpassing beauty would render them
+sure of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem. Indeed, their beauty
+made so great an impression that they are separately mentioned by
+the sacred chronicler, the Peacock and the ape being the only two
+animals that are thought worthy of enumeration.
+
+The Peacock may safely be termed one of the most beautiful of the
+feathered tribe, and may even lay a well-founded claim to the
+chief rank among birds, in splendour of plumage and effulgence of
+colouring.
+
+We are so familiar with the Peacock that we think little of its
+real splendour; but if one of these birds was brought to this
+country for the first time, it would create a greater sensation than
+many animals which are now viewed in menageries with the greatest
+curiosity and interest.
+
+The train of the male Peacock is the most remarkable feature of this
+beautiful bird; the feathers composing it are very long, and are
+coloured with green, purple, bronze, gold, and blue in such a manner
+as to form distinct "eyes."
+
+On the head is a tuft of upright feathers, blackish upon their
+shafts, and rich golden green, shot with blue, on their expanded
+tips. The top of the head, the throat, and neck are the most
+refulgent blue, changing in different lights to gold and green. The
+wings are darker than the rest of the plumage, the abdomen blackish,
+and the feathers of the thighs are fawn.
+
+[Illustration: THE PEACOCK.]
+
+The female is much smaller than her mate, and not nearly so
+beautiful, the train being almost wanting, and the colour
+ashy-brown, with the exception of the throat and neck, which are
+green.
+
+It seems that after Solomon's death the breed of Peafowl was not
+kept up, owing in all probability to the troubles which beset the
+throne after that magnificent monarch died.
+
+[Illustration: feathers]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: partridge]
+
+
+
+
+THE PARTRIDGE.
+
+ The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon
+ the mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and
+ its habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the
+ Partridge--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of
+ Partridge.
+
+
+There is a bird mentioned in the Old Testament, which, although its
+name is only given twice, is a very interesting bird to all students
+of the Scriptures, both passages giving an insight into the manners
+and customs of the scarcely changing East. This is the bird called
+in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been generally accepted as
+signifying some kind of Partridge. There is no doubt that, like most
+other Hebrew names of animated beings, the word is a collective one,
+signifying a considerable number of species.
+
+The first passage occurs in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. When David was being
+pursued by Saul, and had been forced to escape from the city and
+hide himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself to the
+Partridge, which frequented exactly the same places: "The king of
+Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge
+upon the mountains."
+
+The appositeness of this simile is perfect. The bird to which David
+alluded was in all probability the Desert Partridge (_Ammoperdix
+Heyii_), a species which especially haunts rocky and desert places,
+and even at the present day is exceedingly plentiful about the Cave
+of Adullam. The males, when they think themselves unobserved, are
+fond of challenging, or calling to each other in a loud ringing
+note, a peculiarity that has earned for the bird the Hebrew name of
+Kore, or "the caller."
+
+It is a very active bird, not taking to flight if it can escape by
+means of its legs, and, when pursued or disturbed, running with
+great swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide itself,
+taking care to interpose, as it runs, stones or other obstacles
+between itself and the object of its alarm. Thus, then, it will be
+seen how close was the parallel between this bird and David, who was
+forced, like the Partridge, to seek for refuge in the rocky caves.
+
+But the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine the
+full meaning of the passage. The Partridge is at the present day
+hunted on the mountains exactly as was the case in the time of
+David. The usual hunters are boys, who provide themselves with
+a supply of stout sticks about eighteen inches in length, and,
+armed with these, they chase the birds, hurling the sticks one
+after the other along the ground, so as to strike the Partridge as
+it runs. Generally, several hunters chase the same bird, some of
+them throwing the sticks along the ground, while others hurl them
+just above the bird, so that if it should take to flight, it may
+be struck as it rises into the air. By pertinaciously chasing an
+individual bird, the hunters tire it, and contrive to come so close
+that they are certain to strike it.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREEK PARTRIDGE.]
+
+The reader will now see how perfect is the image. Driven from
+the city, David was forced to wander, together with the Desert
+Partridge, upon the hill-sides, and, like that bird, his final
+refuge is the rock. Then came the hunters and pursued him, driving
+him from place to place, as the boys hunt the Partridge, until he
+was weary of his life, and exclaimed in his despair, "I shall now
+perish one day by the hand of Saul."
+
+The Partridges of Palestine are, like those of our own land,
+exceedingly prolific birds, laying a wonderful number of eggs, more
+than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest. These eggs are
+used for food, and the consumption of them is very great, so that
+many a Partridge has been deprived of her expected family: she has
+sat upon eggs, and hatched them not.
+
+Just as hunting the Partridge is an acknowledged sport among the
+inhabitants of the uncultivated parts of Palestine, so is searching
+for the eggs of the bird a regular business at the proper time of
+year.
+
+[Illustration: PARTRIDGES AND THEIR YOUNG.]
+
+Of these birds several species inhabit Palestine. There is, for
+example, the Desert Partridge, which has already been mentioned. It
+is beautifully, though not brilliantly coloured, and may be known by
+the white spot behind the eye, the purple and chestnut streaks on
+the sides, and the orange bill and legs. These, however, soon lose
+their colour after death.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN QUAIL.]
+
+
+
+
+THE QUAIL.
+
+ Migration of the Quail--Modes of catching the Quail in the
+ East--The Quail-hunters of Northern Africa--Quarrelsome nature
+ of the bird--Quail-fighting in the East--How the Quails were
+ brought to the Israelites.
+
+
+In one or two parts of the Old Testament is found a word which has
+been translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as QUAIL.
+
+The word is _selâv_, and in every case where it is mentioned it is
+used with reference to the same occurrence; namely, the providing
+of flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could find no
+food. As the passages remarkably bear upon each other, it will be
+advisable to quote them in the order in which they come.
+
+The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a few days
+after the Israelites had passed the Red Sea, they began to complain
+of the desert land into which Moses had led them, and openly said
+that they wished they had never left the land of their slavery,
+where they had plenty to eat. According to His custom, pitying their
+narrow-minded and short-sighted folly, the natural result of the
+long servitude to which they had been subject, the Lord promised to
+send both bread and flesh-meat.
+
+"And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying,
+
+"I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel: speak unto
+them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye
+shall be filled with bread; and ye shall know that I am the Lord
+your God.
+
+[Illustration: THE QUAIL.]
+
+"And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and covered
+the camp" (ver. 11-13).
+
+The next passage records a similar circumstance, which occurred
+about a year afterwards, when the Israelites were tired of eating
+nothing but the manna, and again wished themselves back in Egypt.
+"And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from
+the sea, and let them fall by the camp as it were a day's journey
+on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side,
+round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face
+of the earth.
+
+"And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all
+the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least
+gathered ten homers; and they spread them all abroad for themselves
+round about the camp" (Numb. xi. 31, 32).
+
+The last passage in which Quails are mentioned occurs in the Psalms.
+In Ps. cv. are enumerated the various wonders done on behalf of the
+Israelites, and among them is specially mentioned this gift of the
+Quails and manna. "The people asked, and He brought quails, and
+satisfied them with the bread of heaven" (ver. 40).
+
+"He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the doors of
+heaven,
+
+"And had rained down manna upon them to eat, and had given them of
+the corn of heaven.
+
+"Man did eat angels' food: He sent them meat to the full.
+
+"He caused an east wind to blow in the heaven; and by His power He
+brought in the south wind.
+
+"He rained flesh also upon them as dust, and feathered fowls like as
+the sand of the sea" (Ps. lxxviii. 23-27).
+
+If the ordinary interpretation of _selâv_ by "Quail" be accepted,
+the description is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks,
+and, being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of the
+wind. They will wait for days until the wind blows in the required
+direction, and will then take wing in countless multitudes; so that
+in an hour or two a spot on which not a Quail could be seen is
+covered with them.
+
+On account of their short wings, they never rise to any great
+height, even when crossing the sea, while on land they fly at a very
+low elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a yard or
+"two cubits high upon the face of the earth."
+
+Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and would
+be a great temptation to men who had passed so long a time without
+eating animal food. Another corroboration of the identity of the
+Quail and the Selâv is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is
+prepared at the present day. As soon as the birds have arrived, they
+are captured in vast multitudes, on account of their weariness.
+Many are consumed at once, but great numbers are preserved for
+future use by being split and laid out to dry in the sun, precisely
+as the Israelites are said to have spread out the Selavim "all
+abroad for themselves round about the camp."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we may
+proceed to the description of the bird.
+
+It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set closely on
+the shoulders. Owing to this peculiarity of form, it has its Arab
+name, which signifies plumpness or fatness. The wings are pressed
+closely to the body, and the tail is pointed, very short, and
+directed downwards, so that it almost appears to be absent, and the
+bird seems to be even more plump than really is the case.
+
+Several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in the
+East, and were probably employed, not only on the two occasions
+mentioned in Exodus and Numbers, but on many others of which the
+Scriptural narrative takes no notice. One very simple plan is, for
+the hunters to select a spot on which the birds are assembled,
+and to ride or walk round them in a large circle, or rather in a
+constantly diminishing spiral. The birds are by this process driven
+closer and closer together, until at the last they are packed in
+such masses that a net can be thrown over them, and a great number
+captured in it.
+
+Sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the Quails, and employ a
+similar manœuvre, except that, instead of merely walking round
+the Quails, they approach simultaneously from opposite points,
+and then circle round them until the birds are supposed to be
+sufficiently packed. At a given signal they all converge upon the
+terrified birds, and take them by thousands at a time.
+
+In Northern Africa these birds are captured in a very similar
+fashion. As soon as notice is given that a flight of Quails has
+settled, all the men of the village turn out with their great
+burnouses or cloaks. Making choice of some spot as a centre, where
+a quantity of brushwood grows or is laid down, the men surround it
+on all sides, and move slowly towards it, spreading their cloaks in
+their outstretched hands, and flapping them like the wings of huge
+birds. Indeed, when a man is seen from a little distance performing
+this act, he looks more like a huge bat than a human being.
+
+As the men gradually converge upon the brushwood, the Quails
+naturally run towards it for shelter, and at last they all creep
+under the treacherous shade. Still holding their outspread cloaks
+in their extended hands, the hunters suddenly run to the brushwood,
+fling their cloaks over it, and so enclose the birds in a trap from
+which they cannot escape. Much care is required in this method of
+hunting, lest the birds should take to flight, and so escape. The
+circle is therefore made of very great size, and the men who compose
+it advance so slowly that the Quails prefer to use their legs rather
+than their wings, and do not think of flight until their enemies are
+so close upon them that their safest course appears to be to take
+refuge in the brushwood.
+
+Boys catch the Quails in various traps and springes, the
+most ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door of which
+over-balances itself by the weight of the bird.
+
+By reason of the colour of the Quail, and its inveterate habit
+of keeping close to the ground, it easily escapes observation,
+and even the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single
+bird, though there may be hundreds within a very small compass.
+Fortunately for the hunters, and unfortunately for itself, it
+betrays itself by its shrill whistling note, which it frequently
+emits, and which is so peculiar that it will at once direct the
+hunter to his prey.
+
+This note is at the same time the call of the male to the female
+and a challenge to its own sex. Like all the birds of its group,
+the Quail is very combative, and generally fights a battle for the
+possession of each of its many mates. It is not gifted with such
+weapons of offence as some of its kinsfolk, but it is none the
+less quarrelsome, and fights in its own way as desperately as the
+game-cock of our own country.
+
+Indeed, in the East, it is used for exactly the same purpose as
+the game-cock. Battles between birds and beasts, not to say men,
+are the common amusement with Oriental potentates, and, when they
+are tired of watching the combats of the larger animals, they have
+Quail-fights in their own chambers. The birds are selected for this
+purpose, and are intentionally furnished with stimulating food,
+so as to render them even more quarrelsome than they would be by
+nature. Partridges are employed for the same cruel purpose; and as
+both these birds are easily obtained, and are very pugnacious, they
+are especially suited for the sport.
+
+Two passages occur in the Scriptures which exactly explain the mode
+in which the Quails were sent to the Israelites. The first is in
+Ps. lxxviii. 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord "caused an
+east wind to blow in the heaven, and by His power He brought in the
+south wind." Here, on examining the geographical position of the
+Israelites, we see exactly how the south-east wind would bring the
+Quails.
+
+The Israelites had just passed the Red Sea, and had begun to
+experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect
+in the desert through which they had to pass. Passing northwards
+in their usual migrations, the birds would come to the coast of
+the Red Sea, and there would wait until a favourable wind enabled
+them to cross the water. The south-east wind afforded them just the
+very assistance which they needed, and they would naturally take
+advantage of it.
+
+It is remarkable how closely the Scriptural narrative agrees with
+the habits of the Quail, the various passages, when compared
+together, precisely coinciding with the character of the bird. In
+Exod. xvi. 13 it is mentioned that "at even the quails came up and
+covered the camp." Nocturnal flight is one of the characteristics of
+the Quail. When possible, they invariably fly by night, and in this
+manner escape many of the foes which would make great havoc among
+their helpless columns if they were to fly by day.
+
+The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen to be
+established. In the first place, we have the name still surviving
+in the Arabic language. Next, the various details of the Scriptural
+narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that even if we were to
+put aside the etymological corroboration, we could have but little
+doubt on the subject. There is not a detail which is not correct.
+The gregarious instinct of the bird, which induces it to congregate
+in vast numbers; its habit of migration; its inability to fly
+against the wind, and the necessity for it to await a favourable
+breeze; its practice of flying by night, and its custom of merely
+skimming over the surface of the ground; the ease with which it is
+captured; the mode of preserving by drying in the sun, and the
+proverbial delicacy of its flesh, are characteristics which all
+unite in the Quail.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Before closing our account of the Quail, it will be as well to
+devote a short space to the nature of the mode by which the
+Israelites were twice fed. Commentators who were unacquainted
+with the natural history of the bird have represented the whole
+occurrence as a miraculous one, and have classed it with the
+division of the Red Sea and of the Jordan, with the various plagues
+by which Pharaoh was induced to release the Israelites, and with
+many other events which we are accustomed to call miracles.
+
+[Illustration: birds]
+
+In reality, there is scarcely anything of a miraculous character
+about the event, and none seems to have been claimed for it. The
+Quails were not created at the moment expressly for the purpose of
+supplying the people with food, nor were they even brought from any
+great distance. They were merely assisted in the business on which
+they were engaged--namely, their migration or customary travel from
+south to north, and waiting on the opposite side of the narrow sea
+for a south-east wind. That such a wind should blow was no miracle.
+The Quails expected it to blow, and without it they could not have
+crossed the sea. That it was made to blow earlier than might have
+been the case is likely enough, but that is the extent of the
+miraculous character of the event.
+
+
+
+
+THE RAVEN.
+
+ The Raven tribe plentiful in Palestine--The Raven and the
+ Dove--Elijah and the Ravens--Desert-loving habits of the
+ Raven--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial use of the
+ Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the bird--Nesting-places
+ of the Raven--The magpie and its character--The starling--Its
+ introduction into Palestine.
+
+
+It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word _oreb_
+primarily signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the
+name of RAVEN, it was also used by the Jews in a much looser sense,
+and served to designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe, such as
+the raven itself, the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and the like. We
+will first take the word in its restricted sense, and then devote a
+brief space to its more extended signification.
+
+As might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the Raven, it
+is very plentiful in Palestine, and even at the present time is
+apparently as firmly established as it was in the days when the
+various Scriptural books were written.
+
+There are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in the
+Holy Scriptures than the Raven, though the passages in which its
+name occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird which is
+mentioned in the Scriptures, its name occurring in Gen. viii. 7:
+"And it came to pass at the end of forty days that Noah opened the
+window of the ark which he had made;
+
+"And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro until the
+waters were dried up from off the earth."
+
+Here we have, at the very outset, a characteristic account of the
+bird. It left the ark, and flew to and fro, evidently for the
+purpose of seeking food. The dove, which immediately followed
+the Raven, acted in a different manner. She flew from the ark in
+search of food, and, finding none, was forced to return again. The
+Raven, on the contrary, would find plenty of food in the bodies
+of the various animals that had been drowned, and were floating
+on the surface of the waters, and, therefore, needed not to enter
+again into the ark. The context shows that it made the ark a
+resting-place, and that it "went forth to and fro," or, as the
+Hebrew Bible renders the passage, "in going and returning," until
+the waters had subsided. Here, then, is boldly drawn the distinction
+between the two birds, the carrion-eater and the feeder on vegetable
+substances--a distinction to which allusion has already been made in
+the history of the dove.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAVEN.]
+
+Passing over the declaration in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14, that
+every Raven (_i.e._ the Raven and all its tribe) is unclean, we
+come to the next historical mention of the bird. This occurs in 1
+Kings xvii. When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by prophesying
+three years of drought, he was divinely ordered to take refuge by
+the brook Cherith, one of the tributaries of the Jordan. "And it
+shall be, that thou shalt drink of the brook; and I have commanded
+the ravens [_orebim_] to feed thee there.
+
+[Illustration: ELIJAH FED BY THE RAVENS.]
+
+"So he went and did according unto the word of the Lord: for he went
+and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before Jordan.
+
+"And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and
+bread and flesh in the evening, and he drank of the brook."
+
+In this passage we have a history of a purely miraculous character.
+It is not one that can be explained away. Some have tried to do so
+by saying that the banished prophet found the nests of the Ravens,
+and took from them daily a supply of food for his sustenance. The
+repetition of the words "bread and flesh" shows that the sacred
+writer had no intention of signifying a mere casual finding of food
+which the Ravens brought for their young, but that the prophet was
+furnished with a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice
+in the day. It is a statement which, if it be not accepted as the
+account of a miracle, must be rejected altogether.
+
+The desert-loving habit of the Raven is noticed in Isa. xxxiv. 11:
+"The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and
+the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the
+line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We will now pass to the notices of the Raven as given by the writers
+and commentators of the Talmud.
+
+Being an unclean bird, and one of ill omen, it was not permitted
+to perch on the roof of the Temple. According to some writers, it
+was kept off by means of scarecrows, and according to others, by
+long and sharp iron spikes set so closely together that there was
+no room for the bird to pass between them. The latter is by far the
+more probable account, as the Raven is much too cunning a bird to be
+deceived by a scarecrow for any length of time. It might be alarmed
+at the first sight of a strange object, but in a very short time it
+would hold all scarecrows in supreme contempt.
+
+Its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient
+writers, who must have had many opportunities of seeing the Raven
+unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies, not only of dead
+animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was the Raven of
+this food that, according to those writers, the very smell of human
+blood attracted the bird; and, if a man accidentally cut himself, or
+if he were bled for some illness, the odour of the blood would bring
+round the spot all the Ravens of the place.
+
+The punctuality with which the Raven, in common with all its kin,
+returns to its roosting-place, was also familiar to the Talmudists,
+who made rather an ingenious use of this habit The ceremonial law of
+the Jews required the greatest care in observing certain hours, and
+it was especially necessary to know the precise time which marked
+the separation of one day from another. This was ascertained easily
+enough as long as the day was clear, but in case of a dull, murky
+day, when the course of the sun could not be traced, some other plan
+was needed.
+
+In the olden times, no artificial means of measuring time were
+known, and the devout Jew was consequently fearful lest he might
+unwittingly break the law by doing on one day an act which ought
+to have been done on another. A convenient method for ascertaining
+the time was, however, employed, and, as soon as the Ravens, rooks,
+and similar birds were seen returning to their homes, the sun was
+supposed to be setting.
+
+This habit of returning regularly at the same time is mentioned by
+Mr. Tristram in his "Land of Israel:"--
+
+"Of all the birds of Jerusalem, the raven is decidedly the most
+characteristic and conspicuous. It is present everywhere to eye and
+ear, and the odours that float around remind us of its use. On the
+evening of our arrival we were perplexed by a call-note, quite new
+to us, mingling with the old familiar croak, and soon ascertained
+that there must be a second species of raven along with the common
+_Corvus corax_. This was the African species (_Corvus umbrinus_,
+Hed.), the ashy-necked raven, a little smaller than the world-wide
+raven, and here more abundant in individuals.
+
+"Beside these, the rook (_Corvus agricola_, Trist.), the common
+grey, or hooded crow (_Corvus cornix_, L.), and the jackdaw (_Corvus
+monedula_, L.), roost by hundreds in the sanctuary. We used to watch
+them in long lines passing over our tents every morning at daybreak,
+and returning in the evening, the rooks in solid phalanx leading the
+way, and the ravens in loose order bringing up the rear, generally
+far out of shot. Before retiring for the night, popular assemblies
+of the most uproarious character were held together in the trees of
+the Kedron and Mount Olivet, and not until sunset did they withdraw
+in silence, mingled indiscriminately, to their roosting-places on
+the walls.
+
+"My companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of these
+Jerusalem birds, which could only be approached as they settled for
+the night; but we were warned by the Consul that shooting them so
+close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege by the Moslems, and
+provoke an attack by the guardians of the Haram and the boys of the
+neighbourhood. They finally determined, nevertheless, to run the
+risk; and stationing themselves just before sunset in convenient
+hiding-places near the walls, at a given signal they fired
+simultaneously, and, hastily gathering up the spoils, had retreated
+out of reach, and were hurrying to the tents before an alarm could
+be raised. The discharge of ten barrels had obtained fourteen
+specimens, comprising five species.
+
+[Illustration: RAVENS' ROOSTING-PLACE.]
+
+"The same manœuvre was repeated with equal success on another
+evening; but on the third occasion the ravens had learned wisdom by
+experience, and, sweeping round Siloam, chose another route to their
+dormitory."
+
+Those who have tried to come within gunshot of a Raven, can
+appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the Raven would
+ever afterwards keep clear of the spot where the flash and smoke
+of fire-arms had twice appeared. In a large garden in which the
+sparrows used to congregate, it was a custom of the owner to lay a
+train of corn for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake the whole
+line with a discharge from a gun concealed in an outhouse. A tame
+Raven lived about the premises, and as soon as it saw any one
+carrying a gun towards the fatal outhouse, it became much alarmed,
+and hurried off to hide itself. As soon as the gun was fired, out
+came the Raven from its place of concealment, pounced on one of the
+dead sparrows, carried it off, and ate it in its private haunt.
+
+[Illustration: birds in flight]
+
+The nest to which the Raven returns with such punctuality is placed
+in some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders. The tops of
+lofty trees are favoured localities for the nest, and so are old
+towers, the interior of caves, and clefts in lofty precipices.
+
+
+
+
+THE OSTRICH.
+
+ Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird
+ in the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed
+ heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the
+ eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the
+ Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged
+ stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the
+ bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The
+ flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their
+ uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich,
+ and reference made to it in Micah.
+
+
+There is rather a peculiarity about the manner in which this bird is
+mentioned in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures, and, unless
+we go to the original Hebrew, we shall be greatly misled. In that
+version the Ostrich is mentioned only three times, but in the Hebrew
+it occurs eight times.
+
+The Hebrew word _bath-haya'nah_, which is translated in the
+Authorized Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as
+"Ostrich." Taking this to be the case, we find that there are
+several passages in the Scriptures in which the word has been used
+in the wrong sense.
+
+In those places, instead of rendering the word as "owl," we ought to
+read it as "Ostrich."
+
+The first mention of this bird occurs in Lev. xi. 16, and the
+parallel passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned
+among the unclean birds, without any notice being given of its
+appearance or habits.
+
+In the Book of Job, however, we have the Ostrich mentioned with that
+preciseness and fulness of description which is so often the case
+when the writer of that wonderful poem treats of living creatures.
+
+"Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or wings and
+feathers unto the ostrich?
+
+"Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust,
+
+"And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast
+may break them.
+
+"She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not
+hers: her labour is in vain without fear;
+
+"Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He imparted
+to her understanding.
+
+"What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse
+and his rider." (Job xxxix. 13-19.)
+
+There is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage,
+wherein the word which has been translated as "peacock" is now
+allowed to be properly rendered as "Ostrich," while the word which
+is translated as "Ostrich" ought to have been given as "feathers."
+The marginal translation gives the last words of ver. 13 in a rather
+different manner, and renders it thus:--"Gavest thou the goodly
+wings unto the peacocks, or the feathers of the stork and ostrich?"
+The Hebrew Bible renders the next verses as follows:--
+
+"She would yet leave her eggs on the earth, and warm them in dust;
+and forget that the foot may crush them, or that the beast of the
+field may break them.
+
+"She is hardened against her young ones, for those not hers; being
+careless, her labour is in vain."
+
+In the same Book, chap. xxx., is another passage wherein this bird
+is mentioned. "I went mourning without the sun: I stood up, and I
+cried in the congregation.
+
+"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls," or Ostriches,
+in the marginal and correct reading. The Jewish Bible also
+translates the word as Ostriches, but the word which the Authorized
+Version renders as "dragons" it translates as "jackals." Of this
+point we shall have something to say on a future page. A somewhat
+similar passage occurs in Isa. xliii. 20: "The beast of the field
+shall honour me, the dragons and the owls" (Ostriches in marginal
+reading), "because I give waters in the wilderness, and rivers in
+the desert, to give drink to My people, My chosen." The Jewish Bible
+retains the same reading, except that the word "dragons" is given
+with the mark of doubt.
+
+Accepting, therefore, the rendering of the Hebrew as Ostriches, let
+us see how far the passages of Scripture agree with the appearance
+and habits of the bird.
+
+Here I may observe that, although in the Scriptures frequent
+allusions are made to the habits of animals, we are not to look for
+scientific exactness to the Scriptures. Among much that is strictly
+and completely true, there are occasional errors, to which a most
+needless attention has been drawn by a certain school of critics,
+who point to them as invalidating the truth of Scripture in general.
+The real fact is, that they have no bearing whatever on the truth or
+falsehood of the Scriptural teachings.
+
+The Scriptures were written at various times, for instruction in
+spiritual and not in temporal matters, and were never intended for
+scientific treatises on astronomy, mathematics, zoology, or any
+such branch of knowledge. The references which are made to the
+last-mentioned subject are in no case of a scientific nature, but
+are always employed by way of metaphor or simile, as the reader must
+have seen in the previous pages. No point of doctrine is taught by
+them, and none depends on them.
+
+The Spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people
+could only use the means that existed, and could no more employ
+the scientific knowledge of the present time than use as metaphors
+the dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The Scriptures
+were written in Eastern lands for Orientals by Orientals, and were
+consequently adapted to Oriental ideas; and it would be as absurd to
+look for scientific zoology in the writings of an ancient Oriental,
+as for descriptions of the printing-press, the steam-engine, the
+photographic camera, or the electric telegraph.
+
+So, when we remember that only a few years ago the real history of
+the Ostrich was unknown to those who had made zoology the study of
+their lives, we cannot wonder that it was also unknown to those who
+lived many centuries ago, and who had not the least idea of zoology,
+or any kindred science.
+
+Still, even with these drawbacks, it is wonderful how accurate in
+many instances were the writers of the Scriptures, and the more
+so when we remember the character of the Oriental mind, with its
+love of metaphor, its disregard of arithmetical precision, and its
+poetical style of thought.
+
+We will now take the passage in Job xxxix. In ver. 13 reference is
+made to the wings and feathers of the Ostrich. If the reader will
+refer to page 310, he will see that the feathers of the Ostrich were
+formerly used as the emblem of rank. In this case, they are shown
+as fastened to the heads of the horses, and also in the form of a
+plume, fixed to the end of a staff, and appended to a chariot, as
+emblematical of the princely rank of the occupier. In the ancient
+Egyptian monuments these Ostrich plumes are repeatedly shown, and in
+every case denote very high rank. These plumes were therefore held
+in high estimation at the time in which the Book of Job was written,
+and it is evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer
+has mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the Ostrich.
+
+Passing the next portion of the description, we find that the
+Ostrich is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs, and
+leaves them "in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and
+forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast may
+break them."
+
+Now it is true that the Ostrich is often known to take the greatest
+care of its eggs, the male collecting and sitting on them, and
+watching them with loving assiduity, and by some persons this fact
+has been brought forward as a proof that the writer of the Book of
+Job was mistaken in his statements. A further acquaintance with the
+habits of the bird tells us, however, that in those parts of the
+world which were known to the writer of that book the Ostrich does
+behave in precisely the manner which is described by the sacred
+writer.
+
+Several females lay their eggs in the same nest, if the title of
+nest can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the sand,
+and, at least during the daytime, when the sun is shining, they
+simply cover the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from ordinary
+enemies, and leave them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams. They
+are buried to the depth of about a foot, so that they receive the
+benefit of a tolerably equable warmth. So much, then, for the
+assertion that the Ostrich leaves her eggs "in the earth, and
+warmeth them in the dust."
+
+We next come to the statement that she forgets that "the foot may
+crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." It is evident
+from the preceding description that eggs which are buried a foot
+deep in the sand could not be crushed by the foot, even were they of
+a fragile character, instead of being defended by a shell as thick,
+and nearly as hard, as an ordinary earthenware plate. Neither would
+the wild beast be likely to discover much less to break them.
+
+[Illustration: OSTRICH AND NEST.]
+
+A more intimate acquaintance with the history of the Ostrich shows
+that, even in this particular, the sacred writer was perfectly
+correct. Besides the eggs which are intended to be hatched, and
+which are hidden beneath the sand to be hatched, a number of
+supplementary eggs are laid which are not meant to be hatched,
+and are evidently intended as food for the young until they are
+able to forage for themselves. These are left carelessly on the
+surface of the ground, and may easily be crushed by the hoof of a
+horse, if not by the foot of man. We meet, however, with another
+statement,--namely, that they may be broken by the wild beasts. Here
+we have reference to another fact in the history of the Ostrich.
+The scattered eggs, to which allusion is made, are often eaten,
+not only by beasts, but also by birds of prey; the former breaking
+the shells by knocking them against each other, and the latter by
+picking up large stones in their claws, rising above the eggs, and
+dropping the stones on them. The bird would like to seize the egg,
+rise with it in the air, and drop it on a stone, as mentioned on
+page 414, but the round, smooth surface of the egg defies the grasp
+of talons, and, instead of dropping the egg upon a stone, it is
+obliged to drop a stone upon the egg.
+
+Up to the present point, therefore, the writer of the Book of Job is
+shown to be perfectly correct in his statements. We will now proceed
+to verse 16: "She is hardened against her young ones, as though they
+were not hers." Now in the Jewish Bible the passage is rendered
+rather differently: "She is hardened against her young ones, for
+those not hers;" and, as we shall presently see, the reading
+perfectly agrees with the character of the Ostrich.
+
+There has long existed a belief that the Ostrich, contrary to the
+character of all other birds, is careless of her young, neglects
+them, and is even cruel to them. That this notion was shared by the
+writer of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding passage.
+It also prevailed for at least a thousand years after the Book of
+Job was written. See Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea monsters draw out
+the breast, they give suck to their young ones: the daughter of my
+people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness."
+
+It is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the Ostrich
+towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock of
+Ostriches be chased, and among them there be some very young birds,
+the latter are left behind by their parents, and fall a prey to the
+hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice in the matter.
+The wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment in which it
+might hide its young. Nature has not furnished it with weapons by
+means of which it can fight for them; and consequently it is forced
+to use the only means of escape by which it can avoid sacrificing
+its own life, as well as the lives of the young.
+
+It does not, however, leave the young until it has tried, by all
+means in its power, to save them. For example, it sometimes has
+recourse to the manœuvre with which we are so familiar in the
+case of the lapwing, and pretends to be wounded or lamed, in order
+to draw the attention of its pursuers, while its young escape
+in another direction. An instance of this practice is given by
+Mr. Andersson in his "Lake Ngami." "When we had proceeded little
+more than half the distance, and in a part of the plain entirely
+destitute of vegetation, we discovered a male and female ostrich,
+with a brood of young ones, about the size of ordinary barn-yard
+fowls. We forthwith dismounted from out oxen, and gave chase, which
+proved of no ordinary interest.
+
+"The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention, they set
+off at full speed--the female leading the way, and the cock, though
+at some little distance, bringing up the rear of the family party.
+It was very touching to observe the anxiety the birds evinced for
+the safety of their progeny. Finding that we were quickly gaining
+upon them, the male at once slackened his pace and diverged somewhat
+from his course; but, seeing that we were not to be diverted from
+our purpose, he again increased his speed, and, with wings drooping
+so as almost to touch the ground, he hovered round us, now in wide
+circles, and then decreasing the circumference until he came almost
+within pistol-shot, when he abruptly threw himself on the ground,
+and struggled desperately to regain his legs, as it appeared, like a
+bird that has been badly wounded.
+
+"Having previously fired at him, I really thought he was disabled,
+and made quickly towards him. But this was only a ruse on his part,
+for, on my nearer approach, he slowly rose, and began to run in a
+different direction to that of the female, who by this time was
+considerably ahead with her charge." Nor is this a solitary instance
+of the care which the Ostrich will take of her young. Thunberg
+mentions that on one occasion, when he happened to ride near a place
+where an Ostrich was sitting on the eggs, the bird jumped up and
+pursued him, evidently with the object of distracting his attention
+from the eggs. When he faced her, she retreated; but as soon as he
+turned his horse, she pursued him afresh.
+
+The care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed with
+the Ostrich than with most birds. The young are able to run with
+such speed that ordinary animals are not able to overtake them, and,
+besides, they are protected by their colour as long as they are
+comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage harmonizes completely
+with the sandy and stony ground, even when they run, and when they
+crouch to the earth, as is their manner when alarmed, even the most
+practised eye can scarcely see them. Mr. Andersson, an experienced
+hunter, states that when the Ostrich chicks were crouching almost
+under his feet, he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing
+their forms.
+
+Owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid, the young are
+often very numerous, between thirty and forty chicks sometimes
+belonging to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has already been
+described, the brood were eighteen in number, and so great was
+their speed that, in spite of their youth and diminutive size, Mr.
+Andersson only succeeded in capturing nine of them after an hour's
+severe chase.
+
+We find, therefore, that we must acquit the Ostrich of neglecting
+its young, much more of cruelty towards them; and we will now turn
+to the next charge against the bird, that of stupidity.
+
+In one sense, the bird certainly may be considered stupid. Like
+nearly all wild creatures which live on large plains, it always runs
+against the wind, so as to perceive by scent if any enemies are
+approaching. Its nostrils are very sensitive, and can detect a human
+being at a very great distance. So fastidious is it in this respect,
+that no hunter who knows his business ever attempts to approach the
+Ostrich except from leeward. If a nest is found, and the discoverer
+wishes the birds to continue laying in it, he approaches on the
+leeward side, and rakes out the eggs with a long stick.
+
+The little Bushman, who kills so many of these birds with his tiny
+bow and arrow, makes use of this instinct when he goes to shoot the
+Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds. Should an Ostrich
+attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only shifts his position
+to windward, so as to allow the birds to catch the scent of a human
+being, when they instantly make off in terror.
+
+When, therefore, the Ostriches are alarmed, they always run to
+windward, instinctively knowing that, if an enemy should approach
+in that direction, their powers of scent will inform them of the
+danger. Being aware of this habit, the hunters manage so that while
+one of them goes round by a long detour to frighten the game, the
+others are in waiting at a considerable distance to windward, but
+well on one side, so that no indication of their presence may
+reach the sensitive nostrils of the birds. As soon as the concealed
+hunters see the Ostriches fairly settled down to their course, they
+dash off at right angles to the line which the birds are taking, and
+in this way come near enough to use their weapons. The antelopes
+of the same country have a similar instinct, and are hunted in
+precisely the same manner.
+
+Thus, then, in one sense the Ostrich may be considered as open to
+the charge of stupidity, inasmuch as it pursues a course which can
+be anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be unable to overtake
+it. But it must be remembered that instinct cannot be expected to
+prove a match for reason, and that, although its human enemies are
+able to overreach it, no others can do so, the instinct of running
+against the wind serving to guard it from any foe which it is likely
+to meet in the desert.
+
+When captured alive and tamed, it certainly displays no particular
+amount of intellect. The Arabs often keep tame Ostriches about
+their tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their quarters
+as the horses. In all probability they did so in ancient times, and
+the author of the Book of Job was likely to be familiar with tame
+Ostriches, as well as with the wild bird.
+
+Stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in consequence
+of the habit possessed by the Ostrich of picking up and eating
+substances which cannot be used as food. For example, it will eat
+knives, bits of bone or metal, and has even been known to swallow
+bullets hot from the mould. On dissecting the digestive organs of an
+Ostrich, I have found a large quantity of stones, pieces of brick,
+and scraps of wood. These articles are, however, not intended to
+serve as food, but simply to aid digestion, and the bird eats them
+just as domestic fowls pick up gravel, and smaller birds grains of
+sand. In swallowing them, therefore, the Ostrich does not display
+any stupidity, but merely obeys a natural instinct.
+
+Lastly, we come to the speed of the Ostrich: "What time she lifteth
+up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider."
+
+This statement is literally true. When the Ostrich puts forth its
+full speed, there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase. It
+may be killed by the ruse which has already been described, but an
+adult Ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse. When it runs
+at full speed, it moves its long legs with astonishing rapidity,
+covering at each stride an average of twenty-four feet, a fact
+from which its rate of speed may be deduced. In consequence of
+this width of stride, and the small impression made in the sand by
+the two-toed foot, the track of a running Ostrich is very obscure.
+Perhaps no better proof of the swiftness of the bird can be given
+than the extreme value set upon it by the Arabs. Although they are
+bred to the desert as much as the Ostrich itself, and are mounted on
+horses whose swiftness and endurance are proverbial, they set a very
+high value on the Ostrich, and to have captured one of these birds
+establishes an Arab's fame as a hunter.
+
+Sometimes the Arabs employ the plan of cutting across the course
+of the bird, but at others they pursue it in fair chase, training
+their horses and themselves specially for the occasion. They furnish
+themselves with a supply of water, and then start in pursuit of the
+first flock of Ostriches they find. They take care not to alarm the
+birds, lest they should put out their full speed and run away out
+of sight, but just keep sufficiently near to force the birds to be
+continually on the move. They will sometimes continue this chase for
+several days, not allowing their game time to eat or rest, until at
+last it is so tired that it yields itself an easy prey.
+
+In Southern Africa, snares are used for taking the Ostrich. They
+are in fact ordinary springes, but of strength suitable to the size
+of the bird. The cord is made fast to a sapling, which is bent down
+by main strength, and the other end is then formed into a noose and
+fastened down with a trigger. Sometimes the bird is enticed towards
+the snare by means of a bait, and sometimes it is driven over it
+by the huntsmen. In either case, as soon as the Ostrich puts its
+foot within the fatal noose, the trigger is loosed, the sapling is
+released, and, with a violent jerk, the Ostrich is caught by the leg
+and suspended in the air.
+
+Why the flesh of the Ostrich should have been prohibited to the
+Jews is rather a mystery. It is much valued by most natives, though
+some of the Arab tribes still adhere to the Jewish prohibition, and
+those Europeans who have tried it pronounce it to be excellent when
+the bird is young and tender, but to be unpleasantly tough when it
+is old. Mr. Andersson says that its flesh resembles that of the
+zebra, and mentions that the fat and blood are in great request,
+being mixed together by cutting the throat of the bird, passing a
+ligature round the neck just below the incision, and then shaking
+and dragging the bird about for some time. Nearly twenty pounds of
+this substance are obtained from a single Ostrich.
+
+[Illustration: ARABS HUNTING THE OSTRICH.]
+
+The ancient Romans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird. We
+are told that Heliogabalus once had a dish served at his table
+containing six hundred Ostrich brains, and that another emperor ate
+a whole Ostrich at a meal. As an adult Ostrich weighs some three
+hundred and fifty pounds, we may presume that the bird in question
+was a young one.
+
+The eggs are most valuable articles of food, both on account of
+their excellent flavour and their enormous size. It is calculated
+that one Ostrich egg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary hen's
+eggs. Cooking the Ostrich egg is easily performed. A hole is made
+in the upper part of the egg, and the lower end is set on the fire.
+A forked stick is then introduced into the egg, and twirled between
+the hands, so as to beat up the whole of the interior. Europeans
+usually add pepper and salt, and say that this simple mode of
+cooking produces an excellent omelette.
+
+The ordinary food of the Ostrich consists of the seeds, buds, and
+tops of various plants. It seems strange, however, that in the
+deserts, where there is so little vegetation, the bird should be
+able to procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body. Each
+of the specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens eats
+on an average a pint of barley, the same quantity of oats, four
+pounds' weight of cabbage, and half a gallon of chaff, beside the
+buns, bread, and other articles of food which are given to them by
+visitors.
+
+Although the Ostrich, like many other inhabitants of the desert,
+can live for a long time without water, yet it is forced to drink,
+and like the camel, which it resembles in so many of its ways,
+drinks enormously, taking in the water by a succession of gulps.
+When the weather has been exceptionally hot, the Ostrich visits the
+water-springs daily, and is so occupied in quenching its thirst that
+it will allow the hunter to come within a very short distance. It
+appears, indeed, to be almost intoxicated with its draught, and,
+even when it does take the alarm, it only retreats step by step,
+instead of scudding off with its usually rapid strides.
+
+The camel-like appearance of the Ostrich has already been mentioned.
+In the Arabic language the Ostrich is called by a name which
+signifies camel-bird, and many of the people have an idea that it
+was originally a cross between a bird and a camel.
+
+The cry of the Ostrich is a deep bellow, which, according to
+travellers in Southern Africa, so resembles the roar of the lion
+that even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distinguish
+the roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. The resemblance is
+increased by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich utter their
+cry by night. It is evidently to this cry that the prophet Micah
+alludes: "Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and
+naked: I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as
+the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading). The cry of the variety
+of Ostrich which inhabits Northern Africa is said to bear more
+resemblance to the lowing of an ox than the roar of the lion; but as
+the bird is smaller than its southern relative, the difference is
+probably accounted for.
+
+It has been mentioned that the Ostrich has no weapons wherewith
+to fight for its young; still, though it be destitute of actual
+weapons, such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak and talons of
+the eagle, it is not entirely defenceless. Its long and powerful
+legs can be employed as weapons, and it can kick with such force
+that a man would go down before the blow, and probably, if struck on
+the leg or arm, have the limb broken. The blow is never delivered
+backward, as is the kick of the horse, but forward, like that of the
+kangaroo. The natives of the countries where it resides say that it
+is able to kill by its kick the jackal that comes to steal its eggs,
+and that even the hyæna and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic
+bird.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: peaceful scene]
+
+
+
+
+THE BITTERN.
+
+ The Bittern and its general appearance--The bird of
+ solitude--Difficulty of detecting the Bittern in its
+ haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and its home--Nest of
+ the Bittern--Scarcity of the bird at the present day--Food of
+ the Bittern.
+
+
+The Bittern belongs to the same family as the herons, the cranes,
+and the storks, and has many of the habits common to them all. It
+is, however, essentially a bird of solitude, hating the vicinity
+of man, and living in the most retired spots of marshy ground. As
+it sits among the reeds and rushes, though it is a large bird, it
+is scarcely visible even to a practised eye, its mottled plumage
+harmonizing with surrounding objects in such a way that the feathers
+of the bird can scarcely be distinguished from the sticks, stones,
+and grass tufts among which it sits. The ground colour of the
+plumage is dark buff, upon which are sprinkled mottlings and streaks
+of black, chestnut, grey, and brown. These mottled marks harmonize
+with the stones and tufts of withered grass, while the longitudinal
+dashes of buff and black on the neck and breast correspond with the
+sticks and reeds.
+
+In a similar manner the tiger, though so large an animal, can lie in
+a very small covert of reeds without being detected, its striped fur
+corresponding with the reeds themselves and the shadows thrown by
+them; and the leopard can remain hidden among the boughs of a tree,
+its spotted coat harmonizing with the broken light and shade of the
+foliage.
+
+[Illustration: THE BITTERN.]
+
+The following powerful description of the Bittern's home is given
+by Mudie: "It is a bird of rude nature, where the land knows no
+character save that which the untrained, working of the elements
+impresses upon it; so that when any locality is in the course of
+being won to usefulness, the bittern is the first to depart, and
+when any one is abandoned, it is the last to return. 'The bittern
+shall dwell there' is the final curse, and implies that the place is
+to become uninhabited and uninhabitable. It hears not the whistle of
+the ploughman, nor the sound of the mattock; and the tinkle of the
+sheep-bell, or the lowing of the ox (although the latter bears so
+much resemblance to its own hollow and dismal voice, that it has
+given foundation to the name), is a signal for it to be gone.
+
+"Extensive and dingy pools--if moderately upland, so much the
+better--which lie in the hollows, catching, like so many traps, the
+lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash and the winds
+blow from the naked heights around, and converting it into harsh and
+dingy vegetation, and the pasture of those loathsome things which
+wriggle in the ooze, or crawl and swim in the putrid and mantling
+waters, are the habitation of the bittern.
+
+"Places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb which
+is more delicate than a sedge, a carex, or a rush, and consume
+every wooded plant that is taller than the sapless and tasteless
+cranberry or the weeping upland willow; which shed murrain over the
+quadrupeds, chills which eat the flesh off their bones, and which,
+if man ventures there, consume him by putrid fever in the hot and
+dry season, and shake him to pieces with ague when the weather is
+cold and humid.
+
+"Places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof, and where
+even the raven, lover of disease, and battener upon all that expires
+miserably and exhausted, comes rarely and with more than wonted
+caution, lest that death which he comes to seal and riot upon in
+others should unawares come upon himself. The raven loves carrion
+on the dry and unpoisoning moor, scents it from afar, and hastens
+to it upon his best and boldest wing; but 'the reek o' the rotten
+fen' is loathsome to the sense of even the raven, and it is hunger's
+last pinch ere he come nigh to the chosen habitation, the only loved
+abode, of the bittern."
+
+Secure in its retreat, the Bittern keeps its place even if a
+sportsman should pass by the spot on which it crouches. It will not
+be tempted to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone throwing,
+for it knows instinctively that the quaking bogland which it selects
+as its home is unsafe for the step of man.
+
+The very cry of the Bittern adds to this atmosphere of desolation.
+By day the bird is silent, but after the sun has gone down it utters
+its strange wild cry, a sound which exactly suits the localities in
+which it loves to make its habitation. During part of the year it
+only emits a sharp, harsh cry as it rises on the wing, but during
+the breeding season it utters the cry by which it summons its mate,
+one of the strangest love-calls that can be imagined. It is
+something between the neighing of a horse, the bellow of a bull, and
+a shriek of savage laughter. It is very loud and deep, so that it
+seems to shake the loose and marshy ground. There was formerly an
+idea that, when the Bittern uttered this booming cry, it thrust its
+bill into the soft ground, and so caused it to shake. In reality,
+the cry is uttered on the wing, the bird wheeling in a spiral
+flight, and modulating its voice in accordance with the curves which
+it describes in the air. This strange sound is only uttered by the
+male bird.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ BITTERN. CORMORANT.
+]
+
+Like most of the long-legged wading birds, the Bittern is able
+to change its shape, and apparently to alter its size, in an
+astonishing manner. When it is walking over the ground, with head
+erect and eye glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects, it looks
+a large, bold, vigorous, and active bird. Next minute it will sink
+its head in its shoulders, so that the long beak seems to project
+from them, and the neck totally disappears, the feathers enveloping
+each other as perfectly and smoothly as if it never had had a neck.
+In this attitude it will stand for an hour at a time on one leg,
+with the other drawn close to its body, looking as dull, inert, and
+sluggish a bird as can well be imagined, and reduced apparently
+to one half of its former size. The Bittern is represented in one
+of its extraordinary attitudes on the plate which illustrates the
+cormorant.
+
+The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, and near the
+water, though the bird always takes care to build it on an elevated
+spot which will not be flooded if the water should rise by reason
+of a severe rain. There is, however, but little reason for the
+Bittern to fear a flood, as at the time of year which is chosen
+for nest-building the floods are generally out, and the water
+higher than is likely to be the case for the rest of the year. The
+materials of the nest are found in marshes, and consist of leaves,
+reeds, and rushes.
+
+As if to add to the general effect of its character, it is
+essentially a solitary bird, and in this characteristic entirely
+unlike its relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly
+sociable, and love to gather themselves together in multitudes. But
+the Bittern is never found except alone, or at the most accompanied
+for a time by its mate and one or two young ones.
+
+The localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of the
+nature of its food. Frogs appear to be its favourite diet, but it
+also feeds on various fish, insects, molluscs, worms, and similar
+creatures. Dull and apathetic as it appears to be, it can display
+sufficient energy to capture tolerably large fish. Though the
+Bittern is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds
+was killed, in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd
+eight inches in length and two in depth, together with the remains
+of another fish, of a full-grown frog, and of an aquatic insect.
+In another instance, a Bittern had contrived to swallow an eel as
+long as itself; while in many cases the remains of five or six
+full-grown frogs have been found in the interior of the bird, some
+just swallowed, and others in various stages of digestion.
+
+[Illustration: wetland]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE HERON.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HERON.
+
+ The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--Nesting of the
+ Heron--The papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the
+ papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes.
+
+
+The name of the Heron is only mentioned twice in the
+Scriptures--namely, in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and
+Deut. xiv. 18; in both of which places the Heron is ranked among the
+unclean birds that might not be eaten.
+
+In some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as food,
+the prohibition seems scarcely needed. To us of the present day
+this seems to be the case with the Heron, as it is never brought to
+table. The reason for this disuse of the Heron as food is not that
+it is unfit for the table, but that it has become so scarce by the
+spread of cultivation and housebuilding, that it has been gradually
+abandoned as a practically unattainable article of diet. The flesh
+of the Heron, like that of the bittern, is remarkably excellent,
+and in the former days, when it was comparatively plentiful, and
+falconry was the ordinary amusement of the rich, the Heron formed a
+very important dish at every great banquet.
+
+[Illustration: THE HERON.]
+
+The bird, however, must be eaten when young. A gentleman who liked
+to try experiments for himself in the matter of food, found that,
+if young Herons were properly cooked, they formed a most excellent
+dish, equal, in his opinion, to grouse. Wishing to have his own
+judgment confirmed by that of others, he had several of them trussed
+and dressed like wild geese, and served up at table under that name.
+The guests approved greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare,
+the resemblance being further increased by the dark colour of the
+flesh. There was not the slighest fishy flavour about the bird.
+This, however, is apt to be found in the older birds, but can be
+removed by burying them in the earth for several days, just as is
+done with the solan goose and one or two other sea-birds.
+
+The abundance of birds belonging to the Heron tribe is well shown by
+some of the paintings and carvings on Egyptian monuments, in which
+various species of Herons and other water-birds are depicted as
+living among the papyrus reeds, exactly the locality in which they
+are most plentiful at the present day.
+
+Unlike the bittern, the Heron is a most sociable bird, and loves not
+only to live, but even to feed, in company with others of its own
+species.
+
+I have watched the Herons feeding in close proximity to each other.
+The birds were fond of wading stealthily along the edge of the
+lake until they came to a suitable spot, where they would stand
+immersed in the water up to the thighs, waiting patiently for their
+prey. They stood as still as if they were carved out of wood, the
+ripples of the lake reflected on their plumage as the breeze ruffled
+the surface of the water. Suddenly there would be a quick dive of
+the beak, either among the reeds or in the water, and each stroke
+signified that the Heron had caught its prey.
+
+Frogs and small fishes are the usual food of the Heron, though it
+often grapples with larger prey, having been seen to capture an
+eel of considerable size in its beak. Under such circumstances
+it leaves the water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats it
+violently against a stone so as to kill it. Now and then the bird
+is vanquished in the struggle by the fish, several instances being
+known in which an eel, in its endeavours to escape, has twisted
+itself so tightly round the neck of the bird that both have been
+found lying dead on the shore.
+
+In one such case the Heron's beak had struck through the eyes of the
+eel, so that the bird could not disengage itself. In another the
+Heron had tried to swallow an eel which was much too large for it,
+and had been nearly choked by its meal. The eel must necessarily
+have been a very large one, as the Heron has a wonderful capacity
+for devouring fish. Even when quite young, it can swallow a fish as
+large as a herring, and when it is full grown it will eat four or
+five large herrings at a meal.
+
+Now when we remember that a man of average appetite finds one
+herring to form a very sufficient breakfast, we can easily imagine
+what must be the digestive power of a bird which, though very
+inferior to man in point of bulk, can eat four times as much at a
+meal. Even though the fish be much larger in diameter than the neck
+of the bird, the Heron can swallow it as easily as a small snake
+swallows a large frog. The neck merely seems to expand as if it were
+made of Indiarubber, the fish slips down, and the bird is ready for
+another.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOME OF THE HERON.]
+
+Generally the Herons feed after sunset, but I have frequently
+seen them busily engaged in catching their prey in full daylight,
+when the sunbeams were playing in the water so as to produce the
+beautiful rippling effect on the Heron's plumage which has already
+been mentioned.
+
+The Heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles, but, like
+the bittern, feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal which comes
+within its reach. When it lives near tidal rivers, it feeds largely
+on the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and various other crustacea;
+and when it lives far inland, it still makes prey of the fresh-water
+shrimps, the water-beetles, and the boat-flies, and similar aquatic
+creatures. In fact, it acts much after the fashion of the lions,
+tigers, and leopards, which put up with locusts and beetles when
+they can find no larger prey.
+
+The long beak of the Heron is not merely an instrument by which it
+can obtain food, but is also a weapon of considerable power. When
+attacked, it aims a blow at the eye of its opponent, and makes the
+stroke with such rapidity that the foe is generally blinded before
+perceiving the danger. When domesticated, it has been known to keep
+possession of the enclosure in which it lived, and soon to drive
+away dogs by the power of its beak. When it is young, it is quite
+helpless, its very long legs being unable to support its body,
+which is entirely bare of plumage, and has a very unprepossessing
+appearance.
+
+The flight of the Heron is very powerful, its wings being very large
+in proportion to its slender body. Sometimes the bird takes to
+ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as beautiful as
+it is strong. When chased by the falcon it mostly ascends in this
+manner, each of the two birds trying to rise above the other.
+
+The nest of the Heron is always made on the top of some lofty tree,
+whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be found; and as
+the bird is an eminently sociable one, a single nest is very seldom
+found, the Heron being as fond of society as the rook. In some parts
+of Palestine, however, where trees are very scarce, the Heron is
+obliged to choose some other locality for its nest, and in that case
+prefers the great thickets of papyrus reeds which are found in the
+marshes, and which are even more inaccessible than the tops of trees.
+
+One of these marshes is well described by Mr. Tristram in his "Land
+of Israel." "The whole marsh is marked in the map as impassable; and
+most truly it is so. I never anywhere have met with a swamp so vast
+and utterly impenetrable.
+
+"The papyrus extends right across to the east side. A false step off
+its roots will take the intruder over head in suffocating peat-mud.
+We spent a long time in attempting to effect an entrance, and at
+last gave it up, satisfied that the marsh birds were not to be had.
+In fact, the whole is simply a floating bog of several miles square;
+a very thin crust of vegetation covers an unknown depth of water;
+and, if the explorer breaks through this, suffocation is imminent.
+Some of the Arabs, who were tilling the plain for cotton, assured us
+that even a wild boar never got through it. We shot two bitterns,
+but in endeavouring to retrieve them I slipped from the root on
+which I was standing, and was drawn down in a moment, only saving
+myself from drowning by my gun, which had providentially caught
+across a papyrus stem."
+
+It may here be mentioned that the bulrush of Scripture is
+undoubtedly the papyrus. The ark or basket of bulrushes, lined with
+slime and pitch, in which Moses was laid, was made of the papyrus,
+which at the present day is used for the manufacture of baskets,
+mats, sandals, and for the thatching of houses. Many tribes which
+inhabit the banks of the Nile make simple boats, or rather rafts,
+of the papyrus, which they cut and tie in bundles; and it is worthy
+of notice that the Australian native makes a reed boat in almost
+exactly the same manner.
+
+Compare Is. xviii. 1, 2: "Woe to the land shadowing with wings,
+which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia.
+
+"That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes."
+Did we not know that vessels are actually made of bulrushes at the
+present day, a custom which has survived from very ancient times,
+we might find a difficulty in understanding this passage, while the
+meaning is intelligible enough when it is viewed by the light of
+the knowledge that the Ethiopian of the present day takes gold, and
+ivory, and other merchandise down the Nile in his boat of papyrus
+(or bulrush) reeds tied together.
+
+[Illustration: THE PAPYRUS PLANT.]
+
+The papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, so
+that the Herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to place
+their nests. From the name "papyrus" our word paper is derived. The
+stems of the plant, after having been split into thin slices, joined
+together, and brought to a smooth surface, formed the paper upon
+which the ancient Egyptians wrote.
+
+The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic title
+of Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season are
+plentiful in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble the heron
+in general form, and in general habits both birds are very much
+alike, haunting the marshes and edges of lakes and streams, and
+feeding upon the frogs and other inhabitants of the water. In
+countries where rice is cultivated, the Egret may generally be seen
+in the artificial swamps in which that plant is sown. The colour
+of the Egret is pure white, with the exception of the train. This
+consists of a great number of long slender feathers of a delicate
+straw colour. Like those which form the train of the peacock, they
+fall over the feathers of the tail, and entirely conceal them.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: jungle scene]
+
+
+
+
+THE CRANE.
+
+ Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory
+ habits, and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--Its
+ favourite roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of
+ the wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and
+ their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the
+ Crane.
+
+
+In the description of the dove and the swallow two passages have
+been quoted in which the name of the CRANE is mentioned, one
+referring to its voice, and the other to its migratory instinct. The
+first passage occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14: "Like a crane or swallow,
+so did I chatter;" and the other in Jer. viii. 7: "The turtle and
+the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming."
+
+[Illustration: THE CRANE.]
+
+It is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word "Crane" is
+used in connexion with the swallow, or rather the swift, and that in
+both instances the names of the birds should have been interchanged.
+If we refer to the original of these passages, we shall find that
+the former of them would run thus, "Like a _sis_ or an _agur_," and
+the latter thus, "The turtle and the _sis_ and the _agur_." That in
+these passages the interpretation of the words _sis_ and _agur_ have
+been interchanged has already been mentioned, and, as the former
+has been described under the name of swallow or swift, we shall now
+treat of the latter under the title of Crane.
+
+The species here mentioned is the common Crane, a bird which has a
+very wide range, and which seeks a warm climate on the approach of
+winter.
+
+The Crane performs its annual migrations in company, vast flocks of
+many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at an immense
+height, whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for a great
+distance round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to them. Thus we
+have at a glance both the characteristics to which reference is made
+in the Scriptures, namely, the noisy cry and the habit of migration.
+
+It is a very gregarious bird, associating with its comrades in
+flocks, just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country,
+and, like these birds, has favourite roosting-places in which it
+passes the night. When evening approaches, the Cranes may be seen in
+large flocks passing to their roosting-places, and, on account of
+their great size, having a very strange effect. A fair-sized Crane
+will measure seven feet across the expanded wings, so that even a
+solitary bird has a very imposing effect when flying, while that of
+a large flock of Cranes on the wing is simply magnificent.
+
+The spots which the Crane selects for its roosting-places are
+generally of the same character. Being in some respects a wary bird,
+though it is curiously indifferent in others, it will not roost
+in any place near bushes, rocks, or other spots which might serve
+to conceal an enemy. The locality most favoured by the Crane is a
+large, smooth, sloping bank, far from any spot wherein an enemy
+may be concealed. The birds keep a careful watch during the night,
+and it is impossible for any foe to approach them without being
+discovered. The Crane is noisy on the wing, and, whether it be
+soaring high over head on its long migratory journeys, or be merely
+flying at dusk to its roosting-place, it continually utters its
+loud, clangorous cry.
+
+The food of the Crane is much like that of the heron, but in
+addition to the frogs, fish, worms, and insects, it eats vegetable
+substances. Sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds,
+and then does much damage to the crops, pecking up the ground with
+its long beak, partly for the sake of the worms, grubs, and other
+creatures, and partly for the sake of the sprouting seeds.
+
+Although by reason of its scarcity the Crane has been abandoned as
+food, its flesh is really excellent, and in former days was valued
+very highly.
+
+Like the egret, the Crane is remarkable for the flowing plumes of
+the back, which fall over the tail feathers, and form a train. These
+feathers are much used as plumes, both for purposes of dress and as
+brushes or flappers wherewith to drive off the flies. By reason of
+this conformation, some systematic zoologists have thought that it
+has some affinity to the ostrich, the rhœa, and similar birds,
+and that the resemblance is strengthened by the structure of the
+digestive organs, which are suited to vegetable as well as animal
+substances, the stomach being strong and muscular.
+
+The peculiar voice of the Crane, which it is so fond of using,
+and to which reference is made in the Scriptures, is caused by a
+peculiar structure of the windpipe, which is exceedingly long,
+and, instead of going straight to the lungs, undergoes several
+convolutions about the breast-bone, and then proceeds to the lungs.
+
+The Crane makes its nest on low ground, generally among osiers or
+reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive in colour, dashed
+profusely with black and brown streaks.
+
+[Illustration: water side]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: stork]
+
+
+
+
+THE STORK.
+
+ Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages
+ in which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large,
+ wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the
+ Stork--The Stork always protected.
+
+
+In the Old Testament there are several passages wherein is mentioned
+the word _Chasidah_.
+
+The Authorized Version invariably renders the word _Chasidah_ as
+"Stork" and is undoubtedly right.
+
+In Buxtorf's Lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word. He
+says that the word _Chasidah_ is derived from _chesed_, a word that
+signifies benevolence.
+
+According to some writers, the name was given to the Stork because
+it was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial piety;
+"for the storks in their turn support their parents in their old
+age: they allow them to rest their necks on their bodies during
+migration, and, if the elders are tired, the young ones take them
+on their backs." According to others, the name is given to the
+Stork because it exercises kindness towards its companions in
+bringing them food; but in all cases the derivation of the word is
+acknowledged to be the same.
+
+Partly in consequence of this idea, which is a very old and almost
+universal one, and partly on account of the great services rendered
+by the bird in clearing the ground of snakes, insects, and garbage,
+the Stork has always been protected through the East, as it is to
+the present day in several parts of Europe. The slaughter of a
+Stork, or even the destruction of its eggs, would be punished with a
+heavy fine; and in consequence of the immunity which it enjoys, it
+loves to haunt the habitations of mankind.
+
+In many of the Continental towns, where sanitary regulations are not
+enforced, the Stork serves the purpose of a scavenger, and may be
+seen walking about the market-place, waiting for the offal of fish,
+fowls, and the like, which are simply thrown on the ground for the
+Storks to eat. In Eastern lands the Stork enjoys similar privileges,
+and we may infer that the bird was perfectly familiar both to the
+writers of the various Scriptural books in which it was mentioned,
+and to the people for whom these books were intended.
+
+When they settle upon a tract of ground, the Storks divide it among
+themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of system in it,
+spreading themselves over it with wonderful regularity, each bird
+appearing to take possession of a definite amount of ground. By this
+mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly cleared of all vermin; the
+Storks examining their allotted space with the keenest scrutiny,
+and devouring every reptile, mouse, worm, grub, or insect that they
+can find on it. Sometimes they will spread themselves in this
+manner over a vast extent of country, arriving suddenly, remaining
+for several months, and departing without giving any sign of their
+intention to move.
+
+[Illustration: STORKS AND THEIR NESTS.]
+
+The wings of the Stork, which are mentioned in Holy Writ, are very
+conspicuous, and are well calculated to strike an imaginative mind.
+The general colour of the bird is white, while the quill feathers
+of the wings are black; so that the effect of the spread wings is
+very striking, an adult bird measuring about seven feet across,
+when flying. As the body, large though it may be, is comparatively
+light when compared with the extent of wing, the flight is both
+lofty and sustained, the bird flying at very great height, and, when
+migrating, is literally the "stork in the heavens."
+
+Next we come to the migratory habits of the Stork.
+
+Like the swallow, the Stork resorts year after year to the same
+spots; and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest, that
+place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season
+comes round. The same pair are sure to return to their well-known
+home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which they pass, and
+the many lands in which they sojourn. Should one of the pair die,
+the other finds a mate in a very short time, and thus the same home
+is kept up by successive generations of Storks, much as among men
+one ancestral mansion is inhabited by a series of members of the
+same family.
+
+So well is this known, that when a pair of Storks have made their
+nest in a human habitation their return is always expected, and
+when they arrive the absentees are welcomed on all sides. In many
+countries breeding-places are specially provided for the Storks; and
+when one of them is occupied for the first time, the owner of the
+house looks upon it as a fortunate omen.
+
+The localities chosen by the Stork for its nest vary according to
+the surrounding conditions. The foundation which a Stork requires is
+a firm platform, the more elevated the better, but the bird seems to
+care little whether this platform be on rocks, buildings, or trees.
+If, for example, it builds its nest in craggy places, far from the
+habitations of man, it selects some flat ledge for the purpose,
+preferring those that are at the extreme tops of the rocks. The
+summit of a natural pinnacle is a favourite spot with the Stork.
+
+In many cases the Stork breeds among old ruins, and under such
+circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of
+pillars or towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities.
+When it takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects the
+breeding-places which have been built for it by those who know its
+taste, but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney, or some such
+locality.
+
+Sometimes, however, it is obliged to build in spots where it can
+find neither rocks nor buildings, and in such cases it builds on
+trees, and, like the heron, is sociable in its nesting, a whole
+community residing in a clump of trees. It is not very particular
+about the kind of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall, and
+strong enough to bear the weight of its enormous nest; and the
+reader will at once see that the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted to
+be the houses for the Stork.
+
+As may be expected from the localities chosen by the Stork for its
+breeding-place, its nest is very large and heavy. It is constructed
+with very little skill, and is scarcely more than a huge quantity of
+sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped together, and having
+in the middle a slight depression in which the eggs are laid. These
+eggs are usually three, or perhaps four in number, and now and then
+a fifth is seen, and are of a very pale buff or cream colour.
+
+As is the case with the heron, the young of the Stork are quite
+helpless when hatched, and are most ungainly little beings, with
+their long legs doubled under them, unable to sustain their round
+and almost naked bodies, while their large beaks are ever gaping for
+food. Those of my readers who have had young birds of any kind must
+have noticed the extremely grotesque appearance which they possess
+when they hold up their heads and cry for food, with their bills
+open to an almost incredible extent. In such birds as the Stork,
+the heron, and others of the tribe, the grotesque appearance is
+exaggerated in proportion to the length and gape of the bill.
+
+The Stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving parent
+to its young, in that point fully deserving the derivation of its
+Hebrew name, though its love manifests itself towards the young, and
+not towards the parent.
+
+The Rev. H. B. Tristram mentions from personal experience an
+instance of the watchful care exercised by the Stork over its young.
+"The writer was once in camp near an old ruined tower in the plains
+of Zana, south of the Atlas, where a pair of storks had their nest.
+The four young might often be seen from a little distance, surveying
+the prospect from their lonely height, but whenever any of the human
+party happened to stroll near the tower, one of the old storks,
+invisible before, would instantly appear, and, lighting on the nest,
+put its feet gently on the necks of all the young, so as to hold
+them down out of sight till the stranger had passed, snapping its
+bill meanwhile, and assuming a grotesque air of indifference, as if
+unconscious of there being anything under its charge."
+
+The snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound
+produced by the Stork, which is an absolutely silent bird, as far as
+voice is concerned.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+There is another species of Stork found in Palestine, to which
+the fir-trees are especially a home. This is the Black Stork
+(_Ciconia nigra_), which in some parts of the country is even more
+plentiful than its white relative, which it resembles in almost
+every particular, except that it has a dark head and back, the
+feathers being glossed with purple and green like those of the
+magpie. This species, which is undoubtedly included in the Hebrew
+word _chasidah_, always makes its nest on trees whenever it can find
+them, and in some of the more densely wooded parts of Palestine is
+in consequence plentiful, placing its nest in the deepest parts of
+the forests. When it cannot obtain trees, it will build its nest on
+rocky ledges. It lays two or three eggs of a greenish white colour.
+
+Like the preceding species, the Black Stork is easily domesticated.
+Colonel Montague kept one which was very tame, and would follow
+its keeper like a dog. Its tameness enabled its proceedings to be
+closely watched, and its mode of feeding was thereby investigated.
+It was fond of examining the rank grass and mud for food, and while
+doing so always kept its bill a little open, so as to pounce down at
+once on any insect or reptile that it might disturb.
+
+Eels were its favourite food, and it was such an adept at catching
+them that it was never seen to miss one, no matter how small or
+quick it might be. As soon as it had caught one of these active
+fish, it went to some dry place, and then disabled its prey by
+shaking and beating it against the ground before swallowing it,
+whereas many birds that feed on fish swallow their prey as soon
+as it is caught. The Stork was never seen to swim as the heron
+sometimes does, but it would wade as long as it could place its feet
+on the bed of the stream, and would strain its head and the whole of
+its neck under water in searching for fish.
+
+[Illustration: A NEST OF THE WHITE STORK.]
+
+It was of a mild and peaceable disposition, and, even if angered,
+did not attempt to bite or strike with its beak, but only denoted
+its displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its lungs, and
+nodding its head repeatedly. After the manner of Storks, it always
+chose an elevated spot on which to repose, and took its rest
+standing on one leg, with its head so sunk among the feathers of its
+shoulders that scarcely any part of it was visible, the hinder part
+of the head resting on the back, and the bill lying on the fore-part
+of the neck.
+
+Though the bird is so capable of domestication, it does not of its
+own accord haunt the dwellings of men, like the White Stork, but
+avoids the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the most retired
+places it can find.
+
+
+
+
+THE SWAN.
+
+ Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the
+ Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A
+ strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis.
+
+
+In the two parallel chapters of Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 16, the
+Hebrew word _tinshemeth_ is found, and evidently signifies some
+kind of bird which was forbidden as food. After stating (Lev. xi.
+13) that "these are they which ye shall have in abomination among
+the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination," the
+sacred lawgiver proceeds to enumerate a number of birds, nearly all
+of which have already been described. Among them occurs the name of
+_tinshemeth_, between the great owl and the pelican.
+
+What was the precise species of bird which was signified by this
+name it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that it could
+not have been the Swan, according to the rendering of the Authorized
+Version. The Swan is far too rare a bird in Palestine to have been
+specially mentioned in the law of Moses, and in all probability it
+was totally unknown to the generality of the Israelites. Even had
+it been known to them, and tolerably common, there seems to be no
+reason why it should have been reckoned among the list of unclean
+birds.
+
+On turning to the Hebrew Bible, we find that the word is left
+untranslated, and simply given in its Hebrew form, thereby
+signifying that the translators could form no opinion whatever of
+the proper rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the
+Tinshemeth as the Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the
+same rendering. Later naturalists have agreed that the Septuagint
+and Vulgate have the far more probable reading; and, as two birds
+are there mentioned, they will be both described.
+
+[Illustration: IBIS AND GALLINULE (SWAN OF SCRIPTURE).]
+
+The first is the Porphyrio, by which we may understand the
+HYACINTHINE GALLINULE (_Porphyrio veterum_). All the birds of this
+group are remarkable for the enormous length of their toes, by means
+of which they are enabled to walk upon the loose herbage that floats
+on the surface of the water as firmly as if they were treading
+on land. Their feet are also used, like those of the parrots, in
+conveying food to the mouth. We have in England a very familiar
+example of the Gallinules in the common water-hen, or moor-hen,
+the toes of which are of great proportionate length, though not so
+long as those of the Purple Gallinule, which almost rivals in this
+respect the jacanas of South America and China. The water-rail, and
+corncrake or land-rail, are also allied to the Gallinules.
+
+The Hyacinthine Gallinule derives its name from its colour, which is
+a rich and variable blue, taking a turquoise hue on the head, neck,
+throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back. The large bill and
+the legs are red. Like many other birds, however, it varies much in
+colour according to age.
+
+It has a very wide geographical range, being found in many parts of
+Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is common in the marshy districts of
+Palestine, where its rich blue plumage and its large size, equalling
+that of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The large and powerful
+bill of this bird betokens the nature of its food, which consists
+almost entirely of hard vegetable substances, the seeds of aquatic
+herbage forming a large portion of its diet. When it searches for
+food on the seashore, it eats the marine vegetation, mixing with
+this diet other articles of an animal nature, such as molluscs and
+small reptiles.
+
+Though apparently a clumsy bird, it moves with wonderful speed,
+running not only swiftly but gracefully, its large feet being no
+hindrance to the rapidity of its movements. It is mostly found in
+shallow marshes, where the construction of its feet enables it to
+traverse both the soft muddy ground and the patches of firm earth
+with equal ease. Its wings, however, are by no means equal to its
+legs either in power or activity; and, like most of the rail tribe,
+it never takes to the air unless absolutely obliged to do so.
+
+The nest of the Hyacinthine Gallinule is made on the sedge-patches
+which dot the marshes, much like that of the coot. The nest, too,
+resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds, sedges, and
+other aquatic plants. The eggs are three or four in number, white in
+colour, and nearly spherical in form.
+
+As the Ibis has an equal claim to the title of Tinshemeth we will
+devote a few lines to a description of the bird. The particular
+species which would be signified by the word _tinshemeth_ would
+undoubtedly be the WHITE or SACRED IBIS (_Ibis religiosa_), a bird
+which derives its name of Sacred from the reverence with which it
+was held by the ancient Egyptians, and the frequency with which its
+figure occurs in the monumental sculptures. It was also thought
+worthy of being embalmed, and many mummies of the Ibis have been
+found in the old Egyptian burial-places, having been preserved for
+some three thousand years.
+
+It is about as large as an ordinary hen, and, as its name imports,
+has the greater part of its plumage white, the ends of the
+wing-feathers and the coverts being black, with violet reflections.
+The long neck is black and bare, and has a most curious aspect,
+looking as if it were made of an old black kid glove, very much
+crumpled, but still retaining its gloss.
+
+The reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird was
+regarded by the ancient Egyptians seems rather obscure. It is
+probable, however, that the partial migration of the bird was
+connected in their minds with the rise of the Nile, a river as
+sacred to the old Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern Hindoo. As
+soon as the water begins to rise, the Ibis makes its appearance,
+sometimes alone, and sometimes in small troops. It haunts the banks
+of the river, and marshy places in general, diligently searching for
+food by the aid of its long bill. It can fly well and strongly, and
+it utters at intervals a rather loud cry, dipping its head at every
+utterance.
+
+
+
+
+THE CORMORANT.
+
+ The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--Habits of the
+ Cormorant--The bird trained to catch fish--Mode of securing
+ its prey--Nests and eggs of the Cormorant--Nesting in
+ fir-trees--Flesh of the bird.
+
+
+Although in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures the word
+Cormorant occurs three times, there is no doubt that in two of the
+passages the Hebrew word ought to have been rendered as Pelican, as
+we shall see when we come presently to the description of that bird.
+
+In the two parallel passages, Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17, a
+creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited
+meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the context,
+and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may
+be. On looking at the etymology of the word we find that it is
+derived from a root which signifies hurling or casting down, and we
+may therefore presume that the bird is one which plunges or sweeps
+down upon its prey.
+
+Weighing, carefully, the opinions of the various Hebraists and
+naturalists, we may safely determine that the word _shâlâk_ has been
+rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew Bible gives
+the same reading, and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word,
+though there are very few of the long list of animals in Lev. xi.
+and Deut. xiv. which are not either distinguished by the mark of
+doubt, or, like the Tinshemeth, are left untranslated.
+
+The Cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans, the
+relationship between them being evident to the most unpractised eye;
+and the whole structure of the bird shows its admirable adaptation
+for the life which it leads.
+
+Its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish, while the
+hook at the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping. The
+long snake-like neck gives the bird the power of darting its beak
+with great rapidity, and at the same time allows it to seize
+prey immediately to the right or left of its course. Its strong,
+closely-feathered wings enable it to fly with tolerable speed,
+while at the same time they can be closed so tightly to the body
+that they do not hinder the progress of the bird through the water;
+while the tail serves equally when spread to direct its course
+through the air, and when partially or entirely closed to act as a
+rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful legs, with their
+broadly-webbed feet, act as paddles, by which the bird urges itself
+through the water with such wonderful speed that it can overtake and
+secure the fishes even in their own element. Besides these outward
+characteristics, we find that the bird is able to make a very
+long stay under water, the lungs being adapted so as to contain a
+wonderful amount of air.
+
+The Cormorant has been trained to play the same part in the water
+as the falcon in the air, and has been taught to catch fish, and
+bring them ashore for its master. So adroit are they, that if one
+of them should catch a fish which is too heavy for it, another bird
+will come to its assistance, and the two together will bring the
+struggling prey to land. Trained birds of this description have been
+employed in China from time immemorial.
+
+In order to prevent it from swallowing the fish which it takes, each
+bird has a ring or ligature passed round its neck.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The Cormorant is a most voracious bird, swallowing a considerable
+weight of fish at a meal, and digesting them so rapidly that it is
+soon ready for another supply. Although it is essentially a marine
+bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to places where there
+are lakes or large rivers.
+
+While the ducks and teal and widgeons may be stationary on the
+pool, the cormorant is seen swimming to and fro, as if in quest of
+something. First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down he
+plunges into the deep, and, after staying there a considerable time,
+he is sure to bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows head
+foremost. Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can manage to
+accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach.
+
+You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp it;
+and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully
+disposed of, all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards from its
+dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape. The cormorant
+swallows it again, and up again it comes, and shows its tail a foot
+or more out of its destroyer's mouth. At length, worn out with
+ineffectual writhings and slidings, the eel is gulped down into the
+cormorant's stomach for the last time, there to meet its dreaded and
+inevitable fate.
+
+Mr. Fortune gives a very interesting account of the feeding of tame
+Cormorants in China. The birds preferred eels to all other food,
+and, in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the slippery and
+active creature, would not touch another fish as long as an eel
+was left. The bird is so completely at home in the water that it
+does not need, like the heron and other aquatic birds, to bring its
+prey ashore in order to swallow it, but can eat fish in the water
+as well as catch them. It always seizes the fish crosswise, and is
+therefore obliged to turn it before it can swallow the prey with the
+head downwards. Sometimes it contrives to turn the fish while still
+under water, but, if it should fail in so doing, it brings its prey
+to the surface, and shifts it about in its bill, making a series of
+little snatches at it until the head is in the right direction. When
+it seizes a very large fish, the bird shakes its prey just as a dog
+shakes a rat, and so disables it. It is said to eat its own weight
+of fish in a single day.
+
+Sometimes, when it has been very successful or exceptionally hungry,
+it loads itself with food to such an extent that it becomes almost
+insensible during the process of digestion, and, although naturally
+a keen-eyed and wary bird, allows itself to be captured by hand.
+
+The nest of the Cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge, and generally
+on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised climbers
+furnished with ropes, poles, hooks, and other appurtenances. Mr.
+Waterton mentions that when he descended the Raincliff, a precipice
+some four hundred feet in height, he saw numbers of the nests and
+eggs, but could not get at them except by swinging himself boldly
+off the face of the cliff, so as to be brought by the return swing
+into the recesses chosen by the birds.
+
+The nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other, and
+are made of sticks and seaweeds, and, as is usual with such nests,
+are very inartificially constructed. The eggs are of a greenish
+white on the outside, and green on the inside. When found in the
+nest, they are covered with a sort of chalky crust, so that the
+true colour is not perceptible until the crust is scraped off. Two
+to four eggs are generally laid in, or rather on, each nest. As may
+be imagined from the character of the birds' food, the odour of the
+nesting-place is most horrible.
+
+Sometimes, when rocks cannot be found, the Cormorant is obliged to
+select other spots for its nest. It is mentioned in the "Proceedings
+of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in the midst of
+a large lake there were a number of Scotch fir-trees, upon the
+branches of which were about eighty nests of the Cormorant.
+
+The flesh of the Cormorant is very seldom eaten, as it has a fishy
+flavour which is far from agreeable. To eat an old Cormorant is
+indeed almost impossible, but the young birds may be rendered edible
+by taking them as soon as killed, skinning them, removing the whole
+of the interior, wrapping them in cloths, and burying them for some
+time in the ground.
+
+
+
+
+THE PELICAN.
+
+ The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love
+ of solitude--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the
+ Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide
+ wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican.
+
+
+It has been mentioned that in two passages of Scripture, the word
+which is translated in the Authorized Version as Cormorant, ought
+to have been rendered as PELICAN. These, however, are not the first
+passages in which we meet with the word _kaath_. The name occurs in
+the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. among the list
+of birds which are proscribed as food. Passing over them, we next
+come to Ps. cii. 6. In this passage, the sacred writer is lamenting
+his misery: "By reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave
+to my skin.
+
+"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the
+desert."
+
+In these sentences, we see that the Kaath was a bird of solitude
+that was to be found in the "wilderness," _i.e._ far from the
+habitations of man. This is one of the characteristics of the
+Pelican, which loves not the neighbourhood of human beings, and is
+fond of resorting to broad, uncultivated lands, where it will not be
+disturbed.
+
+In them it makes its nest and hatches its young, and to them it
+retires after feeding, in order to digest in quiet the ample meal
+which it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor of
+the Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican and its
+kin, of sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged itself with
+food, its head sunk on its shoulders, and its bill resting on its
+breast.
+
+This is but one of the singular, and often grotesque, attitudes in
+which the Pelican is in the habit of indulging.
+
+[Illustration: THE PELICAN.]
+
+There are before me a number of sketches made of the Pelicans at the
+Zoological Gardens, and in no two cases does one attitude in the
+least resemble another. In one sketch the bird is sitting in the
+attitude which has just been described. In another it is walking, or
+rather staggering, along, with its head on one side, and its beak
+so closed that hardly a vestige of its enormous pouch can be seen.
+Another sketch shows the same bird as it appeared when angry with
+a companion, and scolding its foe in impotent rage; while another
+shows it basking in the sun, with its magnificent wings spread and
+shaking in the warm beams, and its pouch hanging in folds from its
+chin.
+
+One of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird squatting
+on the ground, with its head drawn back as far as possible, and
+sunk so far among the feathers of the back and shoulders that only
+a portion of the head itself can be seen, while the long beak is
+hidden, except an inch or two of the end. In this attitude it might
+easily be mistaken at a little distance for an oval white stone.
+
+The derivation of the Hebrew word _kaath_ is a very curious one. It
+is taken from a verb signifying "to vomit," and this derivation has
+been explained in different ways.
+
+The early writers, who were comparatively ignorant of natural
+history, thought that the Pelican lived chiefly on molluscs, and
+that, after digesting the animals, it rejected their shells, just as
+the owl and the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their
+prey.
+
+They thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament, and
+that the molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the stomach.
+
+At the present day, however, knowing as we do the habits of the
+Pelican, we find that, although the reasons just given are faulty,
+and that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on molluscs,
+the derivation of the word is really a good one, and that those
+who gave the bird the name of Kaath, or the vomiter, were well
+acquainted with its habits.
+
+The bird certainly does eat molluscs, but the principal part of its
+diet is composed of fish, which it catches dexterously by a sort
+of sidelong snatch of its enormous bill. The skin under the lower
+part of the beak is so modified that it can form, when distended,
+an enormous pouch, capable of holding a great quantity of fish,
+though, as long as it is not wanted, the pouch is so contracted into
+longitudinal folds as to be scarcely perceptible. When it has filled
+the pouch, it usually retires from the water, and flies to a retired
+spot, often many miles inland, where it can sit and digest at its
+ease the enormous meal which it has made.
+
+As it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots, far from
+the water, it has to carry the food with which it nourishes its
+young for many miles. For this purpose it is furnished, not only
+with the pouch which has been just mentioned, but with long, wide,
+and very powerful wings, often measuring from twelve to thirteen
+feet from tip to tip. No one, on looking at a Pelican as it waddles
+about or sits at rest, would imagine the gigantic dimensions of
+the wings, which seem, as the bird spreads them, to have almost as
+unlimited a power of expansion as the pouch.
+
+In these two points the true Pelicans present a strong contrast to
+the cormorants, though birds closely allied. The cormorant has its
+home close by the sea, and therefore needs not to carry its food
+for any distance. Consequently, it needs no pouch, and has none.
+Neither does it require the great expanse of wing which is needful
+for the Pelican, that has to carry such a weight of fish through
+the air. Accordingly, the wings, though strong enough to enable the
+bird to carry for a short distance a single fish of somewhat large
+size, are comparatively short and closely feathered, and the flight
+of the cormorant possesses neither the grace nor the power which
+distinguishes that of the Pelican.
+
+When the Pelican feeds its young, it does so by pressing its beak
+against its breast, so as to force out of it the enclosed fish.
+Now the tip of the beak is armed, like that of the cormorant, with
+a sharply-curved hook, only, in the case of the Pelican, the hook
+is of a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses the
+beak against the white feathers of the breast, like a large drop of
+blood. Hence arose the curious legend respecting the Pelican, which
+represented it as feeding its young with its own blood, and tearing
+open its breast with its hooked bill. We find that this legend is
+exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the "Pelican feeding its
+young" in ecclesiastical art, as an emblem of Divine love.
+
+This is one of the many instances in which the inventive, poetical,
+inaccurate Oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of form, and
+based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends. As long as they
+restricted themselves to the appearance and habits of the animals
+with which they were familiarly acquainted, the old writers were
+curiously full, exact, and precise in their details. But as soon as
+they came to any creature of whose mode of life they were entirely
+or partially ignorant, they allowed their inventive faculties full
+scope, and put forward as zoological facts statements which were
+the mere creation of their own fancy. We have already seen several
+examples of this propensity, and shall find more as we proceed with
+the zoology of the Scriptures.
+
+The fabulous legends of the Pelican are too numerous to be even
+mentioned, but there is one which deserves notice, because it is
+made the basis of an old Persian fable.
+
+The writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge of the
+bird. He knew that it had a large pouch which could hold fish and
+water; that it had large and powerful wings; and that it was in the
+habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose of digesting its
+food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the Pelican is in the
+habit of choosing solitary spots in which it may bring up its young
+in safety, but not knowing the precise mode of its nesting, the
+writer in question has trusted to his imagination, and put forward
+his theories as facts.
+
+Knowing that the bird dwells in "the wilderness," he has assumed
+that the wilderness in question is a sandy, arid desert, far from
+water, and consequently from vegetation. Such being the case, the
+nurture of the Pelican's young is evidently a difficult question.
+Being aquatic birds, the young must needs require water for drink
+and bathing, as well as fish for food; and, though a supply of
+both these necessaries could be brought in the ample pouches of
+the parents, they would be wasted unless some mode of storing were
+employed.
+
+Accordingly, the parent birds were said to make their nest in a
+hollow tree, and to line it with clay, or to build it altogether of
+clay, so as to leave a deep basin. This basin the parent birds were
+said to use as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies of fish
+and water in their pouches, and pouring them into the pond. The wild
+beasts who lived in the desert were said to be acquainted with these
+nests, and to resort to them daily in order to quench their thirst,
+repaying their entertainers by protecting their homes.
+
+In real fact, the Pelican mostly breeds near water, and is fond of
+selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached without
+danger. The nest is made on the ground, and is formed in a most
+inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass of the
+nest being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed of grass.
+The eggs are white, of nearly the same shape at both ends, and are
+from two to five in number. On an average, however, each nest will
+contain about two eggs.
+
+The parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs or
+young, and, according to Le Vaillant, when approached they are "like
+furious harpies let loose against us, and their cries rendered us
+almost deaf. They often flew so near us that they flapped their
+wings in our faces, and, though we fired our pieces repeatedly, we
+were not able to frighten them." When the well-known naturalist
+Sonnerat tried to drive a female Pelican from her nest, she appeared
+not to be frightened, but angry. She would not move from her nest,
+and when he tried to push her off, she struck at him with her long
+bill and uttered cries of rage.
+
+In order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with which
+it loads itself, the whole skeleton is permeated with air, and is
+exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system of the
+bird is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of the bird
+can be greatly increased, while its weight remains practically
+unaltered, and the Pelican becomes a sort of living balloon.
+
+The habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so
+characteristic of the Pelican that other birds take advantage of
+it. In some countries there is a large hawk which robs the Pelican,
+just as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the osprey. Knowing
+instinctively that when a Pelican is flying inland slowly and
+heavily and with a distended pouch it is carrying a supply of food
+to its home, the hawk dashes at it, and frightens it so that the
+poor bird opens its beak, and gives up to the assailant the fish
+which it was bearing homewards.
+
+It is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting such
+weights, and which, as we have seen, exceed twelve feet in length
+from tip to tip, would be useless in the water, and would hinder
+rather than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the close-winged
+cormorant does. Accordingly, we find that the Pelican is not a
+diver, and, instead of chasing its finny prey under water, after
+the manner of the cormorant, it contents itself with scooping up
+in its beak the fishes which come to the surface of the water. The
+very buoyancy of its body would prevent it from diving as does the
+cormorant, and, although it often plunges into the water so fairly
+as to be for a moment submerged, it almost immediately rises, and
+pursues its course on the surface of the water, and not beneath it.
+Like the cormorant, the Pelican can perch on trees, though it does
+not select such spots for its roosting-places, and prefers rocks to
+branches. In one case, however, when some young Pelicans had been
+captured and tied to a stake, their mother used to bring them food
+during the day, and at night was accustomed to roost in the branches
+of a tree above them.
+
+Though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it is yet
+fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume at
+peace the prey that it has captured; and, as it sits motionless and
+alone for hours, more like a white stone than a bird, it may well be
+accepted as a type of solitude and desolation.
+
+The colour of the common Pelican is white, with a very slight
+pinky tinge, which is most conspicuous in the breeding season. The
+feathers of the crest are yellow, and the quill feathers of the
+wings are jetty black, contrasting well with the white plumage of
+the body. The pouch is yellow, and the upper part of the beak bluish
+grey, with a red line running across the middle, and a bright red
+hook at the tip. This plumage belongs only to the adult bird, that
+of the young being ashen grey, and four or five years are required
+before the bird puts on its full beauty. There is no difference in
+the appearance of the sexes. The illustration represents a fine old
+male Crested Pelican. The general colour is a greyish white, with a
+slight yellowish tint on the breast. The pouch is bright orange, and
+the crest is formed of curling feathers.
+
+[Illustration: scene]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: reptile]
+
+
+
+
+REPTILES.
+
+[Illustration: scene]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: tortoise]
+
+
+
+
+THE TORTOISE.
+
+ The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as Tortoise--Flesh
+ and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow movements--Hibernation
+ dependent on temperature--The Water-Tortoises--Their food and
+ voracity--Their eggs--Their odour terrifying the horses--The
+ Dhubb lizard and its legends--Its food, and localities which it
+ prefers.
+
+
+We now come to a different class of animated beings. In Levit. xi.
+29, there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word which is
+translated in the Authorized Version as "tortoise." The word is
+_Tzab_, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but with
+the mark of doubt affixed to it. As the correct translation of the
+word is very dubious, we shall examine it in both these senses.
+
+The common Tortoise is very common in Palestine, and is so plentiful
+that it would certainly have been used by the Israelites as food,
+had it not been prohibited by law. At the present day it is cooked
+and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who are not Jews, and
+its eggs are in as great request as those of the fowl.
+
+These eggs are hard, nearly spherical, thick-shelled, and covered
+with minute punctures, giving them a roughness like that of a file.
+In captivity the Tortoise is very careless about the mode in which
+they are deposited, and I have seen a large yard almost covered
+with eggs laid by Tortoises and abandoned. The white or albumen of
+the egg is so stiff and gelatinous that to empty one of them without
+breaking the shell is a difficult task, and the yolk is very dark,
+and covered with minute spots of black. When fresh the eggs are as
+good as those of the fowl, and many persons even think them better;
+the only drawback being that their small size and thick shell cause
+considerable trouble in eating them.
+
+[Illustration: THE DHUBB OR LIZARD AND THE TORTOISE].
+
+The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings, but by
+birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the flesh of the
+Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so
+as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile fall on a stone
+or rock. If, as is not often the case in such a rocky land as that
+of Palestine, it should fall on a soft spot, the bird picks it up,
+soars aloft, and drops it again.
+
+The Tortoises have no teeth, but yet are able to crop the herbage
+with perfect ease. In lieu of teeth the edges of the jaws are
+sharp-edged and very hard, so that they cut anything that comes
+between them like a pair of shears. Leaves that are pulpy and
+crisp are bitten through at once, but those that are thin, tough,
+and fibrous are rather torn than bitten, the Tortoise placing its
+feet upon them, and dragging them to pieces with its jaws. The
+carnivorous Tortoises have a similar habit, as we shall presently
+see.
+
+[Illustration: WATER TORTOISE.]
+
+This is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements the
+familiar metaphor of "slow as a Tortoise" was derived, and it is
+this species which is the hero of the popular fable of the "Hare and
+the Tortoise." Many of the reptiles are very slow in some things and
+astonishingly quick in others. Some of the lizards, for example,
+will at one time remain motionless for many hours together, or creep
+about with a slow and snail-like progress, while at others they
+dart from spot to spot with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely
+follow their movements. This however is not the case with the
+Tortoise, which is always slow, and, but for the defensive armour in
+which it is encased, would long ago have been extirpated.
+
+During the whole of the summer months it may be seen crawling
+deliberately among the herbage, eating in the same deliberate style
+which characterises all its movements, and occasionally resting in
+the same spot for many hours together, apparently enjoying the warm
+beams of the sunshine.
+
+As winter approaches, it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the ground,
+and buries itself until the following spring awakes it once more to
+active life. The depth of its burrow depends on the severity of the
+winter, for, as the cold increases, the Tortoise sinks itself more
+deeply into the earth.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Mention has been made of a species of Tortoise that inhabits the
+water. This is the CASPIAN EMYS (_Emys caspica_), a small species,
+measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the large family
+of the Terrapins, several of which are so well known in America, and
+has a long, retractile neck, very sharp jaws, and webbed feet, and a
+well-developed tail.
+
+The body is flattish, and the colour is olive, with lines of yellow
+edged with black, and the head is marked with longitudinal streaks
+of bright yellow. After the death of the creature these yellow
+streaks fade away gradually, and at last become nearly black. The
+skin of the head is thin, but very hard. In general appearance it
+is not unlike the chicken Tortoise of America, a species which is
+often brought to England and kept in captivity, on account of its
+hardy nature and the little trouble which is needed for keeping it
+in health.
+
+I have kept specimens of the Caspian Emys for some time, and found
+them to be more interesting animals than they at first promised
+to be. They were active, swimming with considerable speed, and
+snatching quickly at anything which they fancied might be food.
+
+They were exceedingly voracious, consuming daily a quantity of meat
+apparently disproportioned to their size, and eating it in a manner
+that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged on a piece of
+meat or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise would plant its
+fore-paws firmly at each side of the meat, seize a mouthful in its
+jaws, and, by retracting its head violently, would tear away the
+piece which it had grasped.
+
+They are most destructive among fish, and are apt to rise quietly
+underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the water,
+grasp it beneath with its sharp-edged jaws, and tear away the
+piece, leaving the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that the
+Lepidosiren, or mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a precisely
+similar manner, though, as its jaws are much sharper than those of
+the Emys, it does not need the aid of fore-paws in biting out its
+mouthful of flesh.
+
+Like the land Tortoise, it is one of the hibernators, and during the
+winter months buries itself deeply in the earth, choosing for this
+purpose the soft, muddy bed or bank of the pond in which it lives.
+
+Its eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than those
+of the land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In fact, its
+egg might well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon. The shell
+has a porcelain-like look, and is very liable to crack, so that the
+resemblance is increased.
+
+There is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets. They
+give out a very unpleasant odour, which is disagreeable to human
+nostrils, but is absolutely terrifying to many animals. The monkey
+tribe have the strongest objection to these aquatic Tortoises. I
+once held one of them towards a very tame chimpanzee, much to his
+discomfiture. He muttered and remonstrated, and retreated as far as
+he could, pushing out his lips in a funnel-like form, and showing
+his repugnance to the reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken.
+
+Horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror, not only by the
+sight, but by the odour of these Tortoises. In Southern Africa there
+are Tortoises closely allied to the Caspian Emys, and having the
+same power of frightening horses.
+
+I have read an account of an adventure there with one of those
+Tortoises, which I will give. This variety is described as being of
+an olive colour. When adult, there is a slight depression on either
+side of the vertebral line.
+
+"Some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from the
+terror caused by the fresh-water turtle (_Pelamedusa subrufa_).
+Carts have been smashed to fragments, riders thrown, and the utmost
+confusion caused by them. It is their smell, and it is certainly
+very disagreeable.
+
+"My first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise. I was out
+shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered as markers; and,
+as you know, all our shooting is done from horseback. I had jumped
+off for a shot at some francolins near a knill, or water-hole, and,
+after picking up my birds, was coming round the knoll to windward
+of the horses. In my path scrambled a turtle. I called out to my
+young friends, and told them of my find, on which one of them, in
+a hasty voice, said, 'Oh, please, Mr. L., don't touch it; you will
+frighten the horses!'
+
+"Of course I laughed at the idea, and picked up the reptile, which
+instantly emitted its pungent odour--its means of defence. Though
+a long way off, the moment the horses caught the scent, away they
+flew, showing terror in every action. The girls, luckily splendid
+riders, tugged in vain at the reins; away they went over the Veldt,
+leaving me in mortal fear that the yawning 'aard-vark' holes
+(_Orycteropus capensis_) would break their necks. My own horse,
+which I had hitched to a bush, tore away his bridle, and with the
+ends streaming in the wind and the stirrups clashing about him,
+sped off home at full gallop, and was only recovered after a severe
+chase by my gallant young Amazons, who, after a race of some miles,
+succeeded in checking their affrighted steeds and in securing my
+runaway. But for some hours after, if I ventured to windward, there
+were wild-looking eyes and cocked ears--the smell of the reptile
+clung to me."
+
+Should any of my readers keep any of those water Tortoises, they
+will do well to supply them plentifully with food, to give them an
+elevated rocky perch on which they can scramble, and on which they
+will sit for hours so motionless that at a little distance they can
+scarcely be distinguished from the stone on which they rest. They
+should also be weighed at regular intervals, as decrease of weight
+is a sure sign that something is wrong, and, as a general rule, is
+an almost certain precursor of death.
+
+This little reptile is not without its legends. According to the old
+writers on natural history, it is of exceeding use to vine-growers
+in the season when there is excess of rain or hail. Whenever the
+owner of a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching, all he has to do
+is, to take one of these Tortoises, lay it on its back, and carry it
+round the vineyard. He must then go into the middle of the ground
+and lay the reptile on the earth, still on its back; and the effect
+of this proceeding would be that the cloud would pass aside from a
+place so well protected.
+
+"But," proceeds the narrator, not wishing to be responsible for
+the statement, "such diabolical and foolish observations were not
+so muche to be remembered in this place, were it not for their
+sillinesse, that by knowing them men might learn the weaknesse
+of human wisdom when it erreth from the fountain of all science
+and true knowledge (which is Divinity), and the most approved
+assertions of nature. And so I will say no more in this place of the
+sweet-water tortoise."
+
+
+
+
+THE DHUBB.
+
+
+We now come to the second animal, which may probably be the Tzab of
+the Old Testament.
+
+This creature is one of the lizards, and is a very odd-looking
+creature. It is certainly not so attractive in appearance that the
+Jews might be supposed to desire it as food; but it often happens
+that, as is the case with the turtle and iguana, from the most
+ungainly, in the latter animal even repulsive, forms are produced
+the most delicate meats.
+
+The DHUBB, or EGYPTIAN MASTIGURE, as the lizard is indifferently
+called, grows to a considerable size, measuring when adult three
+feet in length. Its colour is green, variegated with brown, and is
+slightly changeable, though not to the extent that distinguishes
+the chameleon. The chief peculiarity of this lizard consists in its
+tail, which is covered with a series of whorls or circles of long,
+sharply-pointed, hard-edged scales. The very appearance of this tail
+suggests its use as a weapon of defence, and it is said that even
+the dreaded cerastes is conquered by it, when the lizard and the
+snake happen to find themselves occupants of the same hole.
+
+The ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of the
+spiny tail possessed by the Dhubb and its kin. They had an idea
+that, comparatively small though it was, it fed upon cattle, and
+that it was able to take them from the herd and drive them to its
+home. For this purpose, when it had selected an ox, it jumped on
+its back, and by the pricking of its sharp claws drove the animal
+to gallop in hope of ridding himself of his tormentor. In order to
+guide him in the direction of its home, it made use of its tail,
+lashing the ox "to make him go with his rider to the place of his
+most fit execution, free from all rescue of his herdsman, or
+pastor, or the annoyance of passengers, where, in most cruel and
+savage manner, he teareth the limbs and parts one from another till
+he be devoured."
+
+This very absurd account is headed by an illustration, which, though
+bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and truthful
+that there is no doubt that it was sketched from the living animal.
+
+As it haunts sandy downs, rocky spots, and similar localities, it
+is well adapted for the Holy Land, which is the home of a vast
+number of reptiles, especially of those belonging to the lizards. In
+the summer time they have the full enjoyment of the hot sunbeams,
+in which they delight, and which seem to rouse these cold-blooded
+creatures to action, while they deprive the higher animals of all
+spirit and energy. In the winter time these very spots afford
+localities wherein the lizards can hibernate until the following
+spring, and in such a case they furnish the reptiles with secure
+hiding-places.
+
+Although the Dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen and
+other cattle, it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile, and will kill
+and devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. Usually, however,
+its food consists of beetles and other insects, which it takes
+deliberately.
+
+[Illustration: rocks and water]
+
+
+
+
+THE LEVIATHAN OR CROCODILE.
+
+ Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book
+ of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The
+ throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of
+ the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends
+ respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning
+ of the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of
+ the reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their
+ enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of
+ capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The
+ Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod
+ changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word
+ occurs--Use of the word by the prophet Jeremiah.
+
+
+The word _Leviathan_ is used in a rather loose manner in the Old
+Testament, in some places representing a mammalian of the sea, and
+in others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in the most
+important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently signified, we
+will accept that rendering, and consider the Crocodile as being the
+Leviathan of Scripture. The Jewish Bible accepts the word Crocodile,
+and does not add the mark of doubt.
+
+The fullest account of the Leviathan occurs in Job xli., the whole
+of which chapter is given to the description of the terrible
+reptile. As the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some
+points from that of the Authorized Version, I shall here give the
+former, so that the reader may be able to compare them with each
+other.
+
+ "Canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook, or his tongue with a
+ cord which thou lettest down?
+
+ "Canst thou put a reed into his nose, or bore his jaw through with
+ a thorn?
+
+ "Will he make many supplications unto thee? will he speak soft words
+ unto thee?
+
+ "Will he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him as a servant
+ for ever?
+
+ "Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt thou bind him for
+ thy maidens?
+
+ "Shall the companions make a banquet of him? shall they part him
+ among the merchants?
+
+ "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with
+ fish-spears?
+
+ "Lay thine hand upon him, thou wilt no more remember the battle.
+
+ "Behold, the hope of him is in vain; shall not one be cast down at
+ the sight of him?
+
+ "None is so fierce that dare stir him up; who then is able to stand
+ before Me?
+
+ "Who hath forestalled Me that I should repay him? whatsoever is
+ under the whole heaven is Mine.
+
+ "I will not be silent of his parts, nor of the matter of his power,
+ nor of his comely proportion.
+
+ "Who can uncover the face of his garment? who would enter the double
+ row in his jaw?
+
+ "Who can open the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round
+ about.
+
+ "The strength of his shields are his pride, shut up together as
+ with a close seal.
+
+ "One is so near to another that no air can come between them.
+
+ "They are joined one to another, they stick together that they
+ cannot be sundered.
+
+ "His snortings make light to shine, and his eyes are like the
+ eyelids of the morning dawn.
+
+ "Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or
+ caldron.
+
+ "His breath kindleth live coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth.
+
+ "In his neck abideth strength, and before him danceth terror.
+
+ "The flakes of his flesh are joined together, they are firm in
+ themselves; yea, as hard as nether millstone.
+
+ "When he raiseth himself up, the mighty are afraid; by reason of
+ breakings they lose themselves.
+
+ "The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the
+ dart, nor the habergeon.
+
+ "He esteemeth iron as straw, and copper as rotten wood.
+
+ "The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him
+ into stubble.
+
+ "Clubs are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear.
+
+ [Illustration: CROCODILE ATTACKING HORSES.]
+
+ "His under parts are like sharp points of potsherd; he speaketh
+ sharp points upon the mire.
+
+ "He maketh the deep to boil like a pot; he maketh the sea like a pot
+ of ointment.
+
+ "He maketh a path to shine after him; one would think the deep to be
+ hoary.
+
+ "Upon earth there is not his like, who is made without fear.
+
+ "He beholdeth all high things; he is a king over all the children
+ of pride."
+
+This splendid description points as clearly to the Crocodile as the
+description of the Behemoth which immediately precedes it does to
+the hippopotamus, and it is tolerably evident that the sacred poet
+who wrote these passages must have been personally acquainted with
+both the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In both descriptions there
+are a few exaggerations, or rather, poetical licences. For example,
+the bones of the hippopotamus are said to be iron and copper, and
+the Crocodile is said to kindle live coals with his breath. These,
+however, are but the natural imagery of an Oriental poet, and,
+considering the subject, we may rather wonder that the writer has
+not introduced even more fanciful metaphors.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE CROCODILE.
+
+There are several species of Crocodile in different parts of the
+world, ten species at least being known to science.
+
+Some inhabit India, some tropical America, some Asia, and some
+Africa, so that the genus is represented in nearly all the warmer
+parts of the world.
+
+They are all known by the formation of the teeth, the lower canines
+fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw. The feet are
+webbed to the tips, and though the reptile mostly propels itself
+through the water by means of its tail, it can also paddle itself
+gently along by means of its feet.
+
+The teeth are all made for snatching and tearing, but not for
+masticating, the Crocodile swallowing its prey entire when possible;
+and when the animal is too large to be eaten entire, the reptile
+tears it to pieces, and swallows the fragments without attempting to
+masticate them.
+
+In order to enable it to open its mouth under water, the back
+of its throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful
+contrivance, whereby the water is received on a membranous valve
+and, in proportion to its pressure, closes the orifice of the
+throat. As the Crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws
+and hold it under water until drowned, it is evident that without
+such a structure as has been described the Crocodile would be as
+likely to drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve enables
+it to keep its mouth open while the water is effectually prevented
+from running down its throat, and the nostrils, placed at the end of
+the snout, enable it to breathe at its ease, while the unfortunate
+animal which it has captured is being drowned beneath the surface of
+the water.
+
+This position of the nostrils serves another purpose, and enables
+the Crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is under the
+water, and only an inch or two of the very end of the snout is
+above the surface. As, moreover, the Crocodile, as is the case with
+most reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable time without
+breathing, it only needs to protrude its nostrils for a few moments,
+and can then sink entirely beneath the water. In this way the
+reptile is able to conceal itself in case it should suspect danger;
+and as, in such instances, it dives under the herbage of the river,
+and merely thrusts its nose into the air among the reeds and rushes,
+it is evident that, in spite of its enormous size, it baffles the
+observation of almost every foe.
+
+Among reptiles, the mailed Crocodiles may be mentioned as most
+formidable foes to man. Vast in bulk, yet grovelling with the belly
+on the earth; clad in bony plates with sharp ridges; green eyes with
+a peculiar fiery stare, gleaming out from below projecting orbits;
+lips altogether wanting, displaying the long rows of interlocking
+teeth even when the mouth is closed, so that, even when quiet, the
+monster seems to be grinning with rage,--it is no wonder that the
+Crocodile should be, in all the countries which it inhabits, viewed
+with dread.
+
+Nor is this terror groundless. The Crocodiles, both of the Nile
+and of the Indian rivers, are well known to make man their victim,
+and scarcely can a more terrible fate be imagined than that of
+falling into the jaws of this gigantic reptile. Strange as it may
+appear, the Crocodile is one of the many animals to which divine
+honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians. This we learn from
+several sources. Herodotus, for example, in "Euterpe," chapter
+69, writes as follows: "Those who dwell about Thebes and Lake
+Mœris, consider them to be very sacred; and they each of them
+train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and they put
+crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets on their
+fore-paws; and they give them appointed and sacred food, and treat
+them as well as possible while alive and when dead, they embalm
+them, and bury them in sacred vaults."
+
+[Illustration: A CROCODILE POOL OF ANCIENT EGYPT.]
+
+The reasons for this worship are several. At the root of them all
+lies the tendency of man to respect that which he fears rather
+than that which he loves; and the nearer the man approaches the
+savage state, the more is this feeling developed. By this tendency
+his worship is regulated, and it will be found that when man is
+sufficiently advanced to be capable of worship at all, his reverence
+is invariably paid to the object which has the greatest terrors
+for him. The Crocodile, therefore, being the animal that was most
+dreaded by the ancient Egyptians, was accepted as the natural type
+of divinity.
+
+[Illustration: CROCODILES OF THE UPPER NILE.]
+
+Owing to the accuracy of the description in the Book of Job, which
+is evidently written by one who was personally acquainted with
+the Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the writer
+must have been acquainted with the Nile, in which river both the
+Crocodile and hippopotamus are found at the present day.
+
+It is possible, however, that the hippopotamus and the Crocodile
+have had at one time a much wider range than they at present enjoy.
+Even within the memory of man the hippopotamus has been driven
+further and further up the Nile by the encroachments of man. It has
+long been said that even at the present day the Crocodile exists in
+Palestine in the river which is called "Nhar Zurka," which flows
+from Samaria through the plains of Sharon. Several of the older
+writers have mentioned its existence in this river, and, since this
+work was commenced, the long-vexed question has been set at rest; a
+Crocodile, eight feet in length, having been captured in the Nhar
+Zurka.
+
+No description of the Crocodile would be complete without allusion
+to the mode in which it seizes its prey. It does not attack it
+openly, neither, as some have said, does it go on shore for that
+purpose. It watches to see whether any animal comes to drink, and
+then, sinking beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly,
+rises unexpectedly beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it with
+a sudden snap of its huge jaws, and drags it beneath the water.
+Should the intended prey be too far from the water to be reached by
+the mouth, or so large that it may offer a successful resistance,
+the Crocodile strikes it a tremendous blow with its tail, and knocks
+it into the water. The dwellers on the Nile bank say that a large
+Crocodile will with a single blow of its tail break all the four
+legs of an ox or a horse.
+
+These cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they come for
+water. On the banks of the Nile the smaller birds drink in a very
+peculiar manner. They settle in numbers on the flexible branches
+that overhang the stream, and when, by their weight, the branch
+bends downwards, they dip their beaks in the water. The Crocodile
+sees afar off a branch thus loaded, swims as near as possible, and
+then dives until it can see the birds immediately above it, when it
+rises suddenly, and with a snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful
+of the unsuspecting birds.
+
+Sir S. Baker, in his travels on the Nile, gave much attention to
+the Crocodile, and has collected a great amount of interesting
+information about the reptile, much of which is peculiarly valuable,
+inasmuch as it illustrates the Scriptural notices of the creature.
+He states that it is a very crafty animal, and that its usual mode
+of attack is by first showing itself, then swimming slowly away to a
+considerable distance, so as to make its intended victim think that
+danger is over, and then returning under water. It is by means of
+this manœuvre that it captures the little birds. It first makes
+a dash at them, open-mouthed, causing them to take to flight in
+terror. It then sails slowly away as if it were so baffled that it
+did not intend to renew the attack. When it is at a considerable
+distance, the birds think that their enemy has departed, and return
+to the branch, which they crowd more than ever, and in a minute
+or two several dozen of them are engulfed in the mouth of the
+Crocodile, which has swiftly dived under them.
+
+On one occasion, Sir S. Baker was walking near the edge of the
+river, when he heard a great shrieking of women on the opposite
+bank. It turned out that a number of women had been filling their
+"gerbas" (water-skins), when one of them was suddenly attacked by
+a large Crocodile. She sprang back, and the reptile, mistaking the
+filled gerba for a woman, seized it, and gave the owner time to
+escape. It then dashed at the rest of the women, but only succeeded
+in seizing another gerba.
+
+A short time previously a Crocodile, thought by the natives to be
+the same individual, had seized a woman and carried her off; and
+another had made an attack on a man in a very curious manner. A
+number of men were swimming across the river, supported, after
+their custom, on gerbas inflated with air, when one of them felt
+himself seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which tried to drag him
+under water. He, however, retained his hold on the skin, and his
+companions also grasped his arms and hair with one hand, while
+with the other they struck with their spears at the Crocodile. At
+last they succeeded in driving the reptile away, and got their
+unfortunate companion to land, where they found that the whole of
+the flesh was stripped from the leg from the knee downwards. The
+poor man died shortly afterwards.
+
+Another traveller relates that three young men who were obliged to
+cross a branch of a river in their route, being unable to procure
+a boat, endeavoured to swim their horses to the opposite shore.
+Two of them had reached the bank in safety, but the third loitered
+so long on the brink as only to have just entered the water at the
+moment his comrades had reached the opposite side. When he was
+nearly half-way across, they saw a large Crocodile, which was known
+to infest this pass, issuing from under the reeds. They instantly
+warned their companion of his danger; but it was too late for him
+to turn back. When the Crocodile was so close as to be on the point
+of seizing him, he threw his saddle-bag to it. The ravenous animal
+immediately caught the whole bundle in its jaws, and disappeared for
+a few moments, but soon discovered its mistake, and rose in front
+of the horse, which, then seeing it for the first time, reared and
+threw its rider. He was an excellent swimmer, and had nearly escaped
+by diving towards the bank; but, on rising for breath, his pursuer
+also rose, and seized him by the middle. This dreadful scene,
+which passed before the eyes of his companions, without the least
+possibility of their rendering any assistance, was terminated by the
+Crocodile, having previously drowned the unfortunate man, appearing
+on an opposite sand-bank with the body, and there devouring it.
+
+The crafty Crocodile tries to catch the baboons by lying in wait for
+them at their drinking places; but the baboons are generally more
+than a match for the Crocodile in point of cunning and quickness of
+sight. Sir S. Baker witnessed an amusing example of such an attempt
+and its failure.
+
+"The large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally full
+of the dog-faced baboons (_Cynocephalus_) at their drinking hour.
+I watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water and lie
+in waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place before they
+arrived, but the baboons were too wide awake to be taken in so
+easily.
+
+"A young fellow was the first to discover the enemy. He had
+accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to the extremity
+of a bough that at a considerable height overhung the river; from
+this post they had a bird's eye view, and reconnoitred before one of
+the numerous party descended to drink. The sharp eyes of the young
+one at once detected the Crocodile, who matched in colour so well
+with the rocks that most probably a man would not have noticed it
+until too late.
+
+"At once the young one commenced shaking the bough and screaming
+with all his might, to attract the attention of the Crocodile and to
+induce it to move. In this he was immediately joined by the whole
+party, who yelled in chorus, while the large old males bellowed
+defiance, and descended to the lowest branches within eight or
+ten feet of the Crocodile. It was of no use--the pretender never
+stirred, and I watched it until dark. It remained still in the
+same place, waiting for some unfortunate baboon whose thirst might
+provoke his fate, but not one was sufficiently foolish, although
+the perpendicular bank prevented them from drinking except at that
+particular spot."
+
+It may be imagined that if the Crocodile were to depend entirely
+for its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank or in
+the river, it would run a risk of starving. The fact is, that its
+principal food consists of fish, which it can chase in the water.
+The great speed at which the Crocodile darts through the water is
+not owing to its webbed feet, but to its powerful tail, which is
+swept from side to side, and thus propels the reptile after the
+manner of a man "sculling" a boat with a single oar in the stern.
+The whales and the fishes have a similar mode of propulsion.
+
+On land, the tail is the Crocodile's most formidable weapon. It is
+one mass of muscle and sinew, and the force of its lateral stroke
+is terrible, sweeping away every living thing that it may meet.
+Fortunately for its antagonists, the Crocodile can turn but very
+slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a much faster
+pace than its appearance indicates, there is no great difficulty
+in escaping, provided that the sweep of its tail be avoided. As
+the Crocodile of the Nile attains when adult a length of thirty
+feet, one moiety of which is taken up by the tail, it may easily be
+imagined that the power of this weapon can scarcely be exaggerated.
+
+As if to add to the terrors of the animal, its head, back, and tail
+are shielded by a series of horny scales, which are set so closely
+together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way through
+them, and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes them
+obliquely. Like many other reptiles, the Crocodile is hatched from
+eggs which are laid on shore and vivified by the warmth of the sun.
+
+These eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the gigantic
+lizard which deposited them, scarcely equalling in dimensions those
+of the goose. There is now before me an egg of the cayman of South
+America, a fresh-water lizard but little smaller than the Crocodile
+of the Nile, and this is barely equal in size to an ordinary hen's
+egg. It is longer in proportion to its width, but the contents of
+the two eggs would be as nearly as possible of the same bulk. On
+the exterior it is very rough, having a granulated appearance, not
+unlike that of dried sharkskin, and the shell is exceedingly thin
+and brittle. The lining membrane, however, is singularly thick and
+tough, so that the egg is tolerably well defended against fracture.
+
+When first hatched, the young Crocodile is scarcely larger than a
+common newt, but it attains most formidable dimensions in a very
+short time. Twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one spot, and, were
+they not destroyed by sundry enemies, the Crocodiles would destroy
+every living creature in the rivers. Fortunately, the eggs and young
+have many enemies, chiefly among which is the well-known ichneumon,
+which discovers the place where the eggs are laid and destroys them,
+and eats any young Crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed
+in making their way to the water.
+
+The old writers were aware of the services rendered by the
+ichneumon, but, after their wont, exaggerated them by additions of
+their own, saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth of the
+Crocodile as it lies asleep, and eats its way through the body,
+"putting the Crocodile to exquisite and intolerable torment, while
+the Crocodile tumbleth to and fro, sighing and weeping, now in
+the depth of water, now on the land, never resting till strength
+of nature faileth. For the incessant gnawing of the ichneumon so
+provoketh her to seek her rest in the unrest of every part, herb,
+element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all in vain, for the enemy
+within her breatheth through her breath, and sporteth herself in
+the consumption of those vital parts which waste and wear away by
+yielding to unpacificable teeth, one after another, till she that
+crept in by stealth at the mouth, like a puny thief, comes out at
+the belly like a conqueror, through a passage opened by her own
+labour and industry."
+
+The author has in the long passage, a part of which is here quoted,
+mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of entering the
+jaws of the Crocodile as it lies with its mouth open against the
+beams of the sun. It is very true that the Crocodile does sleep
+with its mouth open; and, in all probability, the older observers,
+knowing that the ichneumon did really destroy the eggs and young
+of the Crocodile, only added a little amplification, and made up
+their minds that it also destroyed the parents. The same writer
+who has lately been quoted ranks the ibis among the enemies of the
+Crocodile, and says that the bird affects the reptile with such
+terror that, if but an ibis's feather be laid on its back, the
+Crocodile becomes rigid and unable to move. The Arabs of the
+present time say that the water-tortoises are enemies to the eggs,
+scratching them out of the sand and eating them.
+
+[Illustration: ICHNEUMON DEVOURING THE EGGS OF THE CROCODILE.]
+
+As this reptile is so dangerous a neighbour to the inhabitants of
+the river-banks, many means have been adopted for its destruction.
+
+One such method, where a kind of harpoon is employed, is described
+by a traveller in the East as follows:--
+
+"The most favourable season for thus hunting the Crocodile is
+either the winter, when the animal usually sleeps on sand-banks,
+luxuriating in the rays of the sun, or the spring, after the pairing
+time, when the female regularly watches the sand islands where she
+has buried her eggs.
+
+"The native hunter finds out the place and conceals himself by
+digging a hole in the sand near the spot where the animal usually
+lies. On its arrival at the accustomed spot the hunter darts his
+harpoon or spear with all his force, for, in order that its stroke
+may be successful, the iron should penetrate to a depth of at least
+four inches, in order that the barb may be fixed firmly in the flesh.
+
+"The Crocodile, on being wounded, rushes into the water, and the
+huntsman retreats into a canoe, with which a companion has hastened
+to his assistance.
+
+"A piece of wood attached to the harpoon by a long cord swims on the
+water and shows the direction in which the Crocodile is moving. The
+hunters pull on this rope and drag the beast to the surface of the
+water, where it is again pierced by a second harpoon.
+
+"When the animal is struck it by no means remains inactive; on the
+contrary, it lashes instantly with its tail, and endeavours to bite
+the rope asunder. To prevent this, the rope is made of about thirty
+separate slender lines, not twisted together, but merely placed in
+juxtaposition, and bound around at intervals of every two feet. The
+thin strands get between the Crocodile's teeth, and it is unable to
+sever them.
+
+"In spite of the great strength of the reptile, two men can drag a
+tolerably large one out of the water, tie up his mouth, twist his
+legs over his back, and kill him by driving a sharp steel spike into
+the spinal cord just at the back of the skull.
+
+"There are many other modes of capturing the Crocodile, one of which
+is the snare portrayed in the illustration.
+
+[Illustration: A CROCODILE TRAP]
+
+"Two elastic saplings are bent down and kept in position by stout
+cords, one of which, bears a baited hook, while the other is
+fashioned into a noose. These cords are so arranged as to release
+the bent saplings as soon as the Crocodile pulls upon the baited
+hook. If all works properly, the animal suddenly finds himself
+suspended in the air, where he remains helpless and at the mercy of
+the hunter, who soon arrives and despatches him.
+
+"The extreme tenacity of life possessed by the Crocodile is well
+exemplified by an incident which occurred in Ceylon. A fine specimen
+had been caught, and to all appearance killed, its interior parts
+removed, and the aperture kept open by a stick placed across it.
+A few hours afterwards the captors returned to their victim with
+the intention of cutting off the head, but were surprised to find
+the spot vacant. On examining the locality it was evident that the
+creature had retained sufficient life to crawl back into the water.
+From this it may be imagined that it is no easy matter to drive the
+breath out of a Crocodile. Its life seems to take a separate hold
+of every fibre in the creature's body, and though pierced through
+and through with bullets, crushed by heavy blows, and its body
+converted into a very pincushion for spears, it writhes and twists
+and struggles with wondrous strength, snapping savagely with its
+huge jaws, and lashing its muscular tail from side to side with such
+vigour that it requires a bold man to venture within range of that
+terrible weapon."
+
+Sometimes combats occur between this creature and the tiger, one of
+the fiercest and most terrible of all quadrupeds. Tigers frequently
+go down to the rivers to drink, and, upon these occasions, the
+Crocodile, if near, may attempt to seize them. The ferocious beast,
+however, seldom falls unrevenged; for the instant he finds himself
+seized, he turns with great agility and fierceness on his enemy, and
+endeavours to strike his claws into the Crocodile's eyes, while the
+latter drags him into the water, where they continue to struggle
+until the tiger be drowned, and his triumphant antagonist feasts
+upon his carcass. Such a combat is depicted in the illustration
+which appears on an accompanying page.
+
+[Illustration: A FIGHT FOR LIFE.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.
+
+ Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that
+ it is a collective and not a specific term--Various
+ Lizards of Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The
+ Cyprius, its appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or
+ Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _chomet_--Probability that
+ it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps
+ tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its
+ habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel.
+
+
+In Leviticus xi. 30, the word LIZARD is used as the rendering of the
+Hebrew word _letââh_ (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are one or two
+difficulties about the word, but, without going into the question
+of etymology, which is beside the object of this work, it will be
+sufficient to state that the best authorities accept the rendering,
+and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is retained, but with
+the mark of doubt appended to it.
+
+A very common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be one
+of those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh,
+is the CYPRIUS (_Plestiodon auratum_). This handsome Lizard is
+golden-yellow in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and
+scarlet, and may be distinguished, even when the colours have fled
+after death, by the curiously formed ears, which are strongly
+toothed in front. It is very plentiful in Palestine, and, like
+others of its kin, avoids cultivated tracts, and is generally found
+on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be tilled. It is active, and,
+if alarmed, hides itself quickly in the sand or under stones.
+
+It belongs to the great family of the Skinks, many of which, like
+the familiar blind-worm of our own country, are without external
+legs, and, though true Lizards, progress in a snake-like manner, and
+are generally mistaken for snakes. One of these is the GLASS SNAKE
+or SCHELTOPUSIC (_Pseudopus pallasii_), which has two very tiny hind
+legs, but which is altogether so snake-like that it is considered
+by the natives to be really a serpent. They may well be excused for
+their error, as the only external indications of limbs are a pair of
+slightly-projecting scales at the place where the hind legs would be
+in a fully-developed Lizard.
+
+Though tolerably plentiful, the Scheltopusic is not very often seen,
+as it is timid and wary, and, when it suspects danger, glides away
+silently into some place of safety. When adult, the colour of this
+Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black or deep
+brown, the edge of each scale being of the darker colour. It feeds
+upon insects and small reptiles, and has been known to devour a nest
+full of young birds.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+In Levit. xi. 30 is a Hebrew word, _chomet_, which is given in the
+Authorized Version as SNAIL. There is, however, no doubt that the
+word is wrongly translated, and that by it some species of Lizard
+is signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized Version,
+but affixes the mark of doubt to the word. There is another word,
+_shablul_, which undoubtedly does signify the snail, and will be
+mentioned in its proper place.
+
+It is most probable that the word _chomet_ includes, among other
+Lizards, many of the smaller Skinks which inhabit Palestine.
+Among them we may take as an example the COMMON SKINK (_Scincus
+officinalis_), a reptile which derives its specific name from the
+fact that it was formerly used in medicine, together with mummy, and
+the other disgusting ingredients which formed the greater part of
+the old Pharmacopœia.
+
+Even at the present day, it is used for similar purposes in the
+East, and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians,
+the body being simply dried in the sun, and then sent to market
+for sale. It is principally employed for the cure of sunstroke,
+nettle-rash, sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and
+physician have the greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by
+some European physicians that the flesh of the Skink really does
+possess medicinal powers, and that it has fallen into disrepute
+chiefly because those powers have been exaggerated. In former days,
+the head and feet were thought to possess the greatest efficacy, and
+were valued accordingly.
+
+Like all its tribe, the Skink loves sandy localities, the soil
+exactly suiting its peculiar habits. Although tolerably active,
+it does not run so fast or so far as many other Lizards, and,
+when alarmed, it has a peculiar faculty for sinking itself almost
+instantaneously under the sand, much after the fashion of the
+shore-crabs of our own country. Indeed, it is even more expeditious
+than the crab, which occupies some little time in burrowing under
+the wet and yielding sand, whereas the Skink slips beneath the dry
+and comparatively hard sand with such rapidity that it seems rather
+to be diving into a nearly excavated burrow than to be scooping a
+hollow for itself.
+
+The sand is therefore a place of safety to the Skink, which does
+not, like the crab, content itself with merely burying its body just
+below the surface, but continues to burrow, sinking itself in a few
+seconds to the depth of nearly a yard.
+
+The length of the Skink is about eight inches, and its very variable
+colour is generally yellowish brown, crossed with several dark
+bands. Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of banded
+with brown, while some are banded with white, and others are spotted
+with white. In all, however, the under-surface is silver grey.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE CHAMELEON.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO.
+
+ Demeanour of the Chameleon on the ground--The independent
+ eyes--Its frequent change of colour--The Nilotic Monitor.
+
+
+In Levit. xi. 30 there occurs a word which has caused great trouble
+to commentators. The word is _koach_.
+
+There are two lizards to which the term may possibly be
+applied--namely, the Chameleon and the Monitor; and, as the
+Authorized Version of the Scriptures accepts the former
+interpretation, we will first describe the Chameleon.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+This reptile is very plentiful in the Holy Land, as well as in
+Egypt, so that the Israelites would be perfectly familiar with
+it, both during their captivity and after their escape. It is but
+a small reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting
+strength should be given to it. I think that we may find the reason
+for its name in the extraordinary power of its grasp, as it is able,
+by means of its peculiarly-formed feet and prehensile tail, to grasp
+the branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed without
+damage.
+
+I once saw six or seven Chameleons huddled up together, all having
+clasped each other's legs and tails so firmly that they formed a
+bundle that might be rolled along the ground without being broken
+up. In order to show the extraordinary power of the Chameleon's
+grasp, I have had a figure drawn from a sketch taken by myself from
+a specimen which I kept for several months.
+
+[Illustration: GECKO AND CHAMELEON.]
+
+When the Chameleon wished to pass from one branch to another, it
+used to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one hind-foot, and
+stretch out its body nearly horizontally, feeling about with the
+other three feet, as if in search of a convenient resting-place.
+In this curious attitude it would remain for a considerable time,
+apparently suffering no inconvenience, though even the spider-monkey
+would have been unable to maintain such an attitude for half the
+length of time.
+
+The strength of the grasp is really astonishing when contrasted
+with the size of the reptile, as any one will find who allows the
+Chameleon to grasp his finger, or who tries to detach it from the
+branch to which it is clinging. The feet are most curiously made.
+They are furnished with five toes, which are arranged like those of
+parrots and other climbing birds, so as to close upon each other
+like the thumb and finger of a human hand. They are armed with
+little yellow claws, slightly curved and very sharp, and when they
+grasp the skin of the hand they give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch.
+
+The tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey, to which
+the Chameleon bears a curious resemblance in some of its attitudes,
+though nothing can be more different than the volatile, inquisitive,
+restless disposition of the spider-monkey and the staid, sober
+demeanour of the Chameleon. The reptile has the power of guiding the
+tail to any object as correctly as if there were an eye at the end
+of the tail. When it has been travelling over the branches of trees,
+I have often seen it direct its tail to a projecting bud, and grasp
+it as firmly as if the bud had been before and not behind it.
+
+Sometimes, when it rests on a branch, it allows the tail to
+hang down as a sort of balance, the tip coiling and uncoiling
+unceasingly. But, as soon as the reptile wishes to move, the tail is
+tightened to the branch, and at once coiled round it. There really
+seems to be almost a separate vitality and consciousness on the part
+of the tail, which glides round an object as if it were acting with
+entire independence of its owner.
+
+On the ground the Chameleon fares but poorly. Its walk is absolutely
+ludicrous, and an experienced person might easily fail to identify
+a Chameleon when walking with the same animal on a branch. It
+certainly scrambles along at a tolerable rate, but it is absurdly
+awkward, its legs sprawling widely on either side, and its feet
+grasping futilely at every step. The tail, which is usually so lithe
+and nimble, is then held stiffly from the body, with a slight curve
+upwards.
+
+The eyes are strange objects, projecting far from the head, and each
+acting quite independently of the other, so that one eye may often
+be directed forwards, and the other backwards. The eyeballs are
+covered with a thick wrinkled skin, except a small aperture at the
+tip, which can be opened and closed like our own eyelids.
+
+The changing colour of the Chameleon has been long known, though
+there are many mistaken ideas concerning it.
+
+The reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any object on
+which it is placed, but sometimes takes a totally different colour.
+Thus, if my Chameleon happened to come upon any scarlet substance,
+the colour immediately became black, covered with innumerable
+circular spots of light yellow. The change was so instantaneous
+that, as it crawled on the scarlet cloth, the colour would alter,
+and the fore-part of the body would be covered with yellow spots,
+while the hinder parts retained their dull black. Scarlet always
+annoyed the Chameleon, and it tried to escape whenever it found
+itself near any substance of the obnoxious hue.
+
+The normal colour was undoubtedly black, with a slight tinge of
+grey. But in a short time the whole creature would become a vivid
+verdigris green, and, while the spectator was watching it, the legs
+would become banded with rings of bright yellow, and spats and
+streaks of the same colour would appear on the head and body.
+
+When it was excited either by anger or by expectation--as, for
+example, when it heard a large fly buzzing near it--the colours
+were singularly beautiful, almost exactly resembling in hue and
+arrangement those of the jaguar. Of all the colours, green seemed
+generally to predominate, but the creature would pass so rapidly
+from one colour to another that it was scarcely possible to follow
+the various gradations of hue.
+
+Some persons have imagined that the variation of colour depends on
+the wants and passions of the animal. This is not the case. The
+change is often caused by mental emotion, but is not dependent on
+it; and I believe that the animal has no control whatever over its
+colour. The best proof of this assertion may be found in the fact
+that my own Chameleon changed colour several times after its death;
+and, indeed, as long as I had the dead body before me, changes of
+hue were taking place.
+
+The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies, which
+it catches by means of its tongue, which can be protruded to an
+astonishing distance. The tongue is nearly cylindrical, and is
+furnished at the tip with a slight cavity, which is filled with
+a very glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a fly or
+other insect, it gently protrudes the tongue once or twice, as if
+taking aim, like a billiard-player with his cue, and then, with a
+moderately smart stroke, carries off the insect on the glutinous tip
+of the tongue. The force with which the Chameleon strikes is really
+wonderful. My own specimen used to look for flies from my hand, and
+at first I was as much surprised with the force of the blow struck
+by the tongue as I was with the grasping power of the feet.
+
+[Illustration: THE GECKO.
+
+FOOT OF THE GECKO--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+So much for the Chameleon. We will now take the NILOTIC MONITOR and
+the LAND MONITOR, the other reptiles which have been conjectured to
+be the real representatives of the Koach.
+
+These lizards attain to some size, the former sometimes measuring
+six feet in length, and the latter but a foot or so less. Of the
+two, the Land Monitor, being the more common, both in Palestine and
+Egypt, has perhaps the best claim to be considered as the Koach
+of Scripture. It is sometimes called the Land Crocodile. It is a
+carnivorous animal, feeding upon other reptiles and the smaller
+mammalia, and is very fond of the eggs of the crocodile, which it
+destroys in great numbers, and is in consequence much venerated by
+the inhabitants of the country about the Nile.
+
+The theory that this reptile may be the Koach of Leviticus is
+strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is cooked
+and eaten by the natives, whereas the chameleon is so small and bony
+that scarcely any one would take the trouble of cooking it.
+
+The Gecko takes its name from the sound which it utters, resembling
+the word "geck-o." It is exceedingly plentiful, and inhabits the
+interior of houses, where it can find the flies and other insects
+on which it lives. On account of the structure of the toes, each
+of which is flattened into a disk-like form, and furnished on the
+under surface with a series of plates like those on the back of
+the sucking-fish, it can walk up a smooth, perpendicular wall with
+perfect ease, and can even cling to the ceiling like the flies on
+which it feeds.
+
+In the illustration the reader will observe the flat, fan-like
+expansions at the ends of the toes, by which the Gecko is able to
+adhere to flat surfaces, and to dart with silent rapidity from place
+to place.
+
+[Illustration: serpent]
+
+[Illustration: serpents]
+
+
+
+
+SERPENTS.
+
+ Serpents in general--The fiery Serpents of the
+ wilderness--Explanation of the words "flying" and "fiery" as
+ applied to Serpents--Haunts of the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp
+ of Scripture--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance and
+ habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path."
+
+
+As we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature prevailed
+among the Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia, birds, and
+lizards, we can but expect that the names of the Serpents will be
+equally difficult to identify.
+
+No less than seven names are employed in the Old Testament to
+denote some species of Serpent; but there are only two which can
+be identified with any certainty, four others being left to mere
+conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like our snake or
+serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular species, but
+signifying Serpents in general. This word is _nâchâsh_ (pronounced
+nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so variously
+translated in different passages of Scripture, and we cannot do
+better than to follow it through the Ola Testament, so as to bring
+all the passages under our glance.
+
+The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the
+well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle than
+all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the Serpent
+having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical signification.
+We find the same symbolism employed in the New Testament, the
+disciples of our Lord being told to be "wise as serpents, and
+harmless as doves."
+
+Allusion is made to the gliding movement of the Serpent tribe in
+Prov. xxx. 19. On this part of the subject little need be said,
+except that the movements of the Serpent are owing to the mobility
+of the ribs, which are pushed forward in succession and drawn back
+again, so as to catch against any inequality of the ground. This
+power is increased by the structure of the scales. Those of the
+upper part of the body, which are not used for locomotion, are
+shaped something like the scales of a fish; but those of the lower
+part of the body, which come in contact with the ground, are broad
+belts, each overlapping the other, and each connected with one pair
+of ribs.
+
+When, therefore, the Serpent pushes forward the ribs, the edges of
+the scaly belts will catch against the slightest projection, and are
+able to give a very powerful impetus to the body. It is scarcely
+possible to drag a snake backwards over rough ground; while on a
+smooth surface, such as glass, the Serpent would be totally unable
+to proceed. This, however, was not likely to have been studied by
+the ancient Hebrews, who were among the most unobservant of mankind
+with regard to details of natural history: it is, therefore, no
+wonder that the gliding of the Serpent should strike the writer of
+the proverb in question as a mystery which he could not explain.
+
+The poisonous nature of some of the Serpents is mentioned in several
+passages of Scripture; and it will be seen that the ancient Hebrews,
+like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison lay in the
+forked tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their poison is
+like the poison of a serpent" (_nâchâsh_). Also Prov. xxiii. 32, in
+which the sacred writer says of wine that it brings woe, sorrow,
+contentions, wounds without cause, redness of eyes, and that "at the
+last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder."
+
+[Illustration: COBRA AND CERASTES, THE ASP AND ADDER OF SCRIPTURE.]
+
+The idea that the poison of the Serpent lies in the tongue is seen
+in several passages of Scripture. "They have sharpened their tongues
+like a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips" (Ps. cxl. 3).
+Also in Job xx. 16, the sacred writer says of the hypocrite, that
+"he shall suck the poison of asps: the viper's tongue shall slay
+him."
+
+As to the fiery Serpents of the wilderness, it is scarcely needful
+to mention that the epithet of "fiery" does not signify that the
+Serpents in question produced real fire from their mouths, but that
+allusion is made to the power and virulence of their poison, and
+to the pain caused by their bite. We ourselves naturally employ a
+similar metaphor, and speak of a "burning pain," of a "fiery trial,"
+of "hot anger," and the like.
+
+[Illustration: THE ISRAELITES ARE BITTEN BY SERPENTS IN THE
+WILDERNESS, AND MOSES LIFTS UP THE SERPENT OF BRASS.]
+
+The epithet of "flying" which is applied to these Serpents is
+explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a
+Serpent which they called the Dart Snake, and which they believed
+to lie in wait for men and to spring at them from a distance. They
+thought that this snake hid itself either in hollows of the ground
+or in trees, and sprang through the air for thirty feet upon any man
+or beast that happened to pass by.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We will now take the various species of Serpents mentioned in the
+Bible, as nearly as they can be identified.
+
+Of one species there is no doubt whatever. This is the Cobra di
+Capello, a serpent which is evidently signified by the Hebrew word
+_pethen_.
+
+This celebrated Serpent has long been famous, not only for the
+deadly power of its venom, but for the singular performances in
+which it takes part. The Cobra inhabits many parts of Asia, and
+in almost every place where it is found, certain daring men take
+upon themselves the profession of serpent-charmers, and handle
+these fearful reptiles with impunity, cause them to move in time to
+certain musical sounds, and assert that they bear a life charmed
+against the bite of these deadly playmates.
+
+One of these men will take a Cobra in his bare hands, toss it about
+with perfect indifference, allow it to twine about his naked breast,
+tie it around his neck, and treat it with as little ceremony as
+if it were an earth-worm. He will then take the same Serpent--or
+apparently the same--make it bite a fowl, which soon dies from the
+poison, and will then renew his performance.
+
+Some persons say that the whole affair is but an exhibition of that
+jugglery in which the natives of the East Indies are such wondrous
+adepts; that the Serpents with which the man plays are harmless,
+having been deprived of their fangs, and that a really venomous
+specimen is adroitly substituted for the purpose of killing the
+fowl. It is, moreover, said, and truly, that a snake thought to have
+been rendered harmless by the deprivation of its fangs, has bitten
+one of its masters and killed him, thus proving the imposture.
+
+Still, neither of these explanations will entirely disprove the
+mastery of man over a venomous Serpent.
+
+In the first instance, it is surely as perilous an action to
+substitute a venomous Serpent as to play with it. Where was it
+hidden, why did it not bite the man instead of the fowl, and how did
+the juggler prevent it from using its teeth while he was conveying
+it away?
+
+And, in the second instance, the detection of one impostor is by no
+means a proof that all who pretend to the same powers are likewise
+impostors.
+
+The following narrative by a traveller in the East seems to prove
+that the serpent-charmer possessed sufficient power to induce a
+truly poisonous Serpent to leave its hole, and to perform certain
+antics at his command:
+
+"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow, requesting me to allow him
+to show his snakes. As I had frequently seen his performance, I
+declined to witness a repetition of it, but told him that if he
+would accompany me to the jungle and catch a Cobra, that I knew
+frequented the place, I would give him a present of money. He was
+quite willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of the charm
+he claimed to possess, I carefully counted his tame snakes, and put
+a guard over them until we should return.
+
+"Before starting I also examined his clothing, and satisfied myself
+that he had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot,
+he commenced playing upon a small pipe, and, after persevering for
+some time, out crawled a large Cobra from an ant-hill which I knew
+it occupied.
+
+"On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he quickly caught it by
+the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bungalow.
+He then laid it upon the ground and made it raise and lower its head
+to the sound of his pipe.
+
+"Before long, however, it bit him above the knee. He immediately
+bandaged the leg tightly above the wound, and applied a piece of
+porous stone, called a snake-stone, to extract the poison. He was in
+great pain for a few minutes, but afterwards it gradually subsided,
+the stone falling from the wound just before he was relieved.
+
+"When he recovered he held up a cloth, at which the snake flew and
+hung by its fangs. While in this position the man passed his hand up
+its back, and having seized it tightly by the throat, he pulled out
+the fangs and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the poison, from
+the glands in the Serpent's mouth, upon a leaf. It was a clear, oily
+substance, which when rubbed with the hand produced a fine lather.
+
+"The whole operation was carefully watched by me, and was also
+witnessed by several other persons."
+
+How the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very
+intelligible. That they handle the most venomous Serpents with
+perfect impunity is evident enough, and it is also clear that they
+are able to produce certain effects upon the Serpents by means of
+musical (or unmusical) sounds. But these two items are entirely
+distinct, and one does not depend upon the other.
+
+In the first place, the handling of venomous snakes has been
+performed by ordinary men without the least recourse to any arts
+except that of acquaintance with the habits of Serpents. The late
+Mr. Waterton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake in his bare
+hand without feeling the least uneasy as to the behaviour of his
+prisoner. He once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box,
+carried them into another room, put them into a large glass case,
+and afterwards replaced them in the box. He described to me the
+manner in which he did it, using my wrist as the representative of
+the Serpent.
+
+[Illustration: THE SERPENT-CHARMER.]
+
+The nature of all Serpents is rather peculiar, and is probably
+owing to the mode in which the blood circulates. They are extremely
+unwilling to move, except when urged by the wants of nature, and
+will lie coiled up for many hours together when not pressed by
+hunger. Consequently, when touched, their feeling is evidently like
+that of a drowsy man, who only tries to shake off the object which
+may rouse him, and composes himself afresh to sleep.
+
+A quick and sudden movement would, however, alarm the reptile, which
+would strike in self-defence, and, sluggish as are its general
+movements, its stroke is delivered with such lightning rapidity that
+it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound before it was seized.
+
+If, therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to
+catch, he would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle,
+slow movement place his fingers round its neck just behind the
+head. If it happened to be coiled up in such a manner that he could
+not get at its neck, he had only to touch it gently until it moved
+sufficiently for his purpose.
+
+When he had once placed his hand on the Serpent, it was in his
+power. He would then grasp it very lightly indeed, and raise it
+gently from the ground, trusting that the reptile would be more
+inclined to be carried quietly than to summon up sufficient energy
+to bite. Even if it had tried to use its fangs, it could not have
+done so as long as its captor's fingers were round its neck.
+
+As a rule, a great amount of provocation is needed before a venomous
+Serpent will use its teeth. One of my friends, when a boy, caught a
+viper, mistaking it for a common snake. He tied it round his neck,
+coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet, and so took it home,
+playing many similar tricks with it as he went. After arrival in the
+house, he produced the viper for the amusement of his brothers and
+sisters, and, after repeating his performances, tried to tie the
+snake in a double knot. This, however, was enough to provoke the
+most pacific of creatures, and in consequence he received a bite on
+his finger.
+
+The poison was not slow to take effect; first, the wound looked
+and felt like a nettle sting, then like a wasp sting, and in the
+course of a few minutes the whole finger was swollen. At this
+juncture his father, a medical man, fortunately arrived, and set the
+approved antidotes, ammonia, oil, and lunar caustic, to the wound,
+having previously made incisions about the punctured spot, and with
+paternal affection attempted to suck out the poison. In spite of
+these remedies a serious illness was the result of the bite, from
+which the boy did not recover for several weeks.
+
+[Illustration: snake]
+
+There is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to this
+sluggish nature of the reptile, but they certainly go through
+some ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be rendered
+impervious to snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round their
+naked bodies, they will irritate the reptile until it is in a state
+of fury; they will even allow it to bite them, and yet be none the
+worse for the wound. Then, as if to show that the venomous teeth
+have not been abstracted, as is possibly supposed to be the case,
+they will make the cobra bite a fowl, which speedily dies from the
+effects of the poison.
+
+Even if the fangs were extracted, the Serpents would lose little
+of their venomous power. These reptiles are furnished with a whole
+series of fangs in different stages of development, so that when the
+one in use is broken or shed in the course of nature, another comes
+forward and fills its place. There is now before me a row of four
+fangs, which I took from the right upper jawbone of a viper which I
+recently caught.
+
+In her interesting "Letters from Egypt," Lady Duff-Gordon gives an
+amusing account of the manner in which she was formally initiated
+into the mysteries of snake-charming, and made ever afterwards
+impervious to the bite of venomous Serpents:--
+
+"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his basket of tame
+snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to initiate me: and so we
+sat down and held hands like people marrying. Omar [her attendant]
+sat behind me, and repeated the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the
+Rifáee twisted a cobra round our joined hands, and requested me to
+spit on it; he did the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped
+in snakes. My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put
+out their tongues; the darweesh and I smiled at each other like
+Roman augurs."
+
+She believed that the snakes were toothless; and perhaps on this
+occasion they may have been so. Extracting the teeth of the Serpent
+is an easy business in experienced hands, and is conducted in two
+ways. Those snake-charmers who are confident of their own powers
+merely grasp the reptile by the neck, force open its jaws with a
+piece of stick, and break off the fangs, which are but loosely
+attached to the jaw. Those who are not so sure of themselves
+irritate the snake, and offer it a piece of cloth, generally the
+corner of their mantle, to bite. The snake darts at it, and, as it
+seizes the garment, the man gives the cloth a sudden jerk, and so
+tears away the fangs.
+
+Still, although some of the performers employ mutilated snakes,
+there is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves to remove
+the fangs of the Serpents, but handle with impunity the cobra or the
+cerastes with all its venomous apparatus in good order.
+
+We now come to the second branch of the subject, namely, the
+influence of sound upon the cobra and other Serpents. The charmers
+are always provided with musical instruments, of which a sort of
+flute with a loud shrill sound is the one which is mostly used in
+the performances. Having ascertained, from slight marks which their
+practised eyes easily discover, that a Serpent is hidden in some
+crevice, the charmer plays upon his flute, and in a short time the
+snake is sure to make its appearance.
+
+As soon as it is fairly out, the man seizes it by the end of the
+tail, and holds it up in the air at arm's length. In this position
+it is helpless, having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in
+fruitless struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its
+strength by its efforts, the man lowers it into a basket, where
+it is only too glad to find a refuge, and closes the lid. After a
+while, he raises the lid and begins to play the flute.
+
+[Illustration: TEACHING COBRAS TO DANCE.]
+
+The Serpent tries to glide out of the basket, but, as soon as it
+does so, the lid is shut down again, and in a very short time the
+reptile finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears
+the sound of the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporting
+itself on the lower portion of its tail, and continues to wave its
+head from side to side as long as it hears the sound of the music.
+
+The rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extraordinary,
+the charmers being as willing to show their mastery over
+newly-caught Serpents as over those which have been long in their
+possession.
+
+The colour of the Cobra is in most cases a brownish olive. The most
+noted peculiarity is the expansion of the neck, popularly called
+the hood. This phenomenon is attributable not only to the skin and
+muscles, but to the skeleton. About twenty pairs of the ribs of
+the neck and fore part of the back are flat instead of curved, and
+increase gradually from the head to the eleventh or twelfth pair,
+from which they decrease until they are merged into the ordinary
+curved ribs of the body. When the snake is excited, it brings these
+ribs forward so as to spread the skin, and then displays the oval
+hood to best advantage.
+
+In the Cobra di Capello the back of the hood is ornamented by two
+large eye-like spots, united by a curved black stripe, so formed
+that the whole mark bears a singular resemblance to a pair of
+spectacles.
+
+
+
+
+THE CERASTES, OR SHEPHIPHON OF SCRIPTURE.
+
+
+The word _shephiphon_, which evidently signifies some species of
+snake, only occurs once in the Scriptures, but fortunately that
+single passage contains an allusion to the habits of the serpent
+which makes identification nearly certain. The passage in question
+occurs in Gen. xlix. 17, and forms part of the prophecy of Jacob
+respecting his children: "Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an
+adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider
+shall fall backward."
+
+Putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy, there is here an
+evident allusion to the habits of the CERASTES, or HORNED VIPER, a
+species of venomous serpent, which is plentiful in Northern Africa,
+and is found also in Palestine and Syria. It is a very conspicuous
+reptile, and is easily recognised by the two horn-like projections
+over the eyes. The name Cerastes, or horned, has been given to it
+on account of these projections.
+
+This snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand, awaiting
+the approach of some animal on which it can feed. Its usual diet
+consists of the jerboas and other small mammalia, and as they are
+exceedingly active, while the Cerastes is slow and sluggish, its
+only chance of obtaining food is to lie in wait. It will always take
+advantage of any small depression, such as the print of a camel's
+foot, and, as it finds many of these depressions in the line of the
+caravans, it is literally "a serpent by the way, an adder in the
+path."
+
+[Illustration: HORNED VIPER.]
+
+According to the accounts of travellers, the Cerastes is much more
+irritable than the cobra, and is very apt to strike at any object
+which may disturb it. Therefore, whenever a horseman passes along
+the usual route, his steed is very likely to disturb a Cerastes
+lying in the path, and to be liable to the attack of the irritated
+reptile. Horses are instinctively aware of the presence of the
+snake, and mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke. Its
+small dimensions, the snake rarely exceeding two feet in length,
+enable it to conceal itself in a very small hollow, and its
+brownish-white colour, diversified with darker spots, causes it to
+harmonize so thoroughly with the loose sand in which it lies buried,
+that, even when it is pointed out, an unpractised eye does not
+readily perceive it.
+
+Even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake, whose
+bite is so deadly, and whose habits are such as to cause travellers
+considerable risk of being bitten.
+
+The head of the Viper affords a very good example of the venomous
+apparatus of the poisonous serpents, and is well worthy of
+description. The poison fangs or teeth lie on the sides of the upper
+jaw, folded back, and almost undistinguishable until lifted with a
+needle. They are singularly fine and delicate, hardly larger than a
+lady's needle, and are covered almost to their tips with a muscular
+envelope, through which the points just peer.
+
+The poison bags or glands, and the reservoir in which the venom is
+stored, are found at the back and sides of the head, and give to the
+venomous serpents that peculiar width of head which is so unfailing
+a characteristic.
+
+On examining carefully the poison fangs, the structure by which the
+venom is injected into the wound will be easily understood. Under a
+magnifying glass they will be seen to be hollow, thus affording a
+passage for the poison.
+
+When the creature draws back its head and opens its mouth to strike,
+the deadly fangs spring up with their points ready for action, and
+fully charged with their poisonous distillment.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: viper]
+
+
+
+
+THE VIPER, OR EPHEH.
+
+ The Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa--Its appearance and habits--Adder's
+ poison--The Cockatrice, or Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient
+ ideas concerning the Cockatrice--Power of its venom.
+
+
+We now come to the species of snake which cannot be identified with
+any certainty, and will first take the word _epheh_.
+
+Mr. Tristram believes that he has identified the Epheh of the Old
+Testament with the Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa. This reptile, though very
+small, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, is a dangerous one,
+but its bite is not so deadly as that of the cobra or cerastes. It
+is variable in colour, and has angular white streaks on its body,
+with a row of whitish spots along the back. The top of the head is
+dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped white marks.
+
+The Toxicoa is very plentiful in Northern Africa, Palestine, Syria,
+and the neighbouring countries, and, as it is exceedingly active, is
+held in some dread by the natives.
+
+Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in the Old
+Testament. The word is _tsepha_, or _tsiphôni_, and it is sometimes
+translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The word is
+rendered as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that wine
+"biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even in this
+case, however, the word is rendered as Cockatrice in the marginal
+translation.
+
+[Illustration: THE TOXICOA. (Supposed to be the viper of Scripture.)]
+
+It is found three times in the Book of Isaiah. Ch. xi. 8: "The
+weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." Also, ch.
+xiv. 29: "Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him
+that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent's (_nachash_) nest
+shall come forth a cockatrice (_tsepha_), and his fruit shall be a
+fiery flying serpent." The same word occurs again in ch. lix. 5:
+"They hatch cockatrice' eggs." In the prophet Jeremiah we again find
+the word: "For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices among you,
+which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord."
+
+Around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been
+accumulated. The Cockatrice was said to kill by its very look,
+"because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the visible
+spirit of a man, which visible spirit corrupted all the other
+spirits coming from the brain and life of the heart, are thereby
+corrupted, and so the man dyeth."
+
+The subtle poison of the Cockatrice infected everything near it, so
+that a man who killed a Cockatrice with a spear fell dead himself,
+by reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear and
+passing into his hand. Any living thing near which the Cockatrice
+passed was instantly slain by the fiery heat of its venom, which was
+exhaled not only from its mouth, but its sides. For the old writers,
+whose statements are here summarized, contrived to jumble together a
+number of miscellaneous facts in natural history, and so to produce
+a most extraordinary series of legends.
+
+I should not have given even this limited space to such puerile
+legends, but for the fact that such stories as these were fully
+believed in the days when the Authorized Version of the Bible was
+translated. The translators of the Bible believed most heartily in
+the mysterious and baleful reptile, and, as they saw that the Tsepha
+of Scripture was an exceptionally venomous serpent, they naturally
+rendered it by the word Cockatrice.
+
+[Illustration: viper]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: frog]
+
+
+
+
+THE FROG.
+
+ The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with
+ the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The
+ Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its
+ numbers--Description of the species.
+
+
+Plentiful as is the FROG throughout Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, it
+is very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books of the
+Old Testament the word is only mentioned thrice, and each case in
+connexion with the same event.
+
+In Exod. viii. we find that the second of the plagues which visited
+Egypt came out of the Nile, the sacred river, in the form of
+innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on perusing the
+consecutive account of these plagues, that the two first plagues
+were connected with that river, and that they were foreshadowed by
+the transformation of Aaron's rod.
+
+When Moses and Aaron appeared before Pharaoh to ask him to let
+the people go, Pharaoh demanded a miracle from them, as had been
+foretold. Following the divine command, Aaron threw down his rod,
+which was changed into a serpent.
+
+Next, as was most appropriate, came a transformation wrought on
+the river by means of the same rod which had been transformed into
+a Serpent, the whole of the fresh-water throughout the land being
+turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting the venerated
+river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a partially rainless
+country, such a calamity as this was doubly terrible, as it at the
+same time desecrated the object of their worship, and menaced them
+with perishing by thirst.
+
+The next plague had also its origin in the river, but extended far
+beyond the limits of its banks. The frogs, being unable to return to
+the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread themselves
+in all directions, so as to fulfil the words of the prediction: "If
+thou refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all thy borders
+with frogs:
+
+"And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up
+and come into thine house, and into thy bed-chamber, and upon thy
+bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and
+into thine ovens, and into thy kneading-troughs" (or dough).
+
+Supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the present
+day, we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance, yet scarcely
+worthy of the name of plague, and certainly not to be classed with
+the turning of a river into blood, with the hail and lightning that
+destroyed the crops and cattle, and with the simultaneous death of
+the first-born. But the Egyptians suffered most keenly from the
+infliction. They were a singularly fastidious people, and abhorred
+the contact of anything that they held to be unclean. We may well
+realize, therefore, the effect of a visitation of Frogs, which
+rendered their houses unclean by entering them, and themselves
+unclean by leaping upon them; which deprived them of rest by getting
+on their beds, and of food by crawling into their ovens and upon the
+dough in the kneading-troughs.
+
+And, as if to make the visitation still worse, when the plague was
+removed, the Frogs died in the places into which they had intruded,
+so that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses of the dead
+carcases, and to pile them up in heaps, to be dried by the sun or
+eaten by birds and other scavengers of the East.
+
+As to the species of Frog which thus invaded the houses of the
+Egyptians, there is no doubt whatever. It can be but the GREEN,
+or EDIBLE FROG (_Rana esculenta_), which is so well known for the
+delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to be the only aquatic Frog
+of Egypt, and therefore must be the species which came out of the
+river into the houses.
+
+Both in Egypt and Palestine it exists in very great numbers,
+swarming in every marshy place, and inhabiting the pools in such
+numbers that the water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs. Thus the
+multitudes of the Frogs which invaded the Egyptians was no matter
+of wonder, the only miraculous element being that the reptiles were
+simultaneously directed to the houses, and their simultaneous death
+when the plague was taken away.
+
+Frogs are also mentioned in Rev. xvi. 13: "And I saw three unclean
+spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of
+the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet."
+With the exception of this passage, which is a purely symbolical
+one, there is no mention of Frogs in the New Testament. It is
+rather remarkable that the Toad, which might be thought to afford
+an excellent symbol for various forms of evil, is entirely ignored,
+both in the Old and New Testaments. Probably the Frogs and Toads
+were all classed together under the same title.
+
+[Illustration: creek]
+
+[Illustration: waterfall]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: birds over water]
+
+
+
+
+FISHES.
+
+ Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of
+ Fishes--The fishermen Apostles--Fish used for food--The miracle
+ of the loaves and Fishes--The Fish broiled on the coals--Clean
+ and unclean Fishes--The Sheat-fish, or Silurus--The Eel and the
+ Muræna--The Long-headed Barbel--Fish-ponds and preserves--The
+ Fish-ponds of Heshbon--The Sucking-fish--The Lump-sucker--The
+ Tunny--The Coryphene.
+
+
+We now come to the FISHES, a class of animals which are repeatedly
+mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, but only in general
+terms, no one species being described so as to give the slightest
+indication of its identity.
+
+This is the more remarkable because, although the Jews were, like
+all Orientals, utterly unobservant of those characteristics by which
+the various species are distinguished from each other, we might
+expect that St. Peter and other of the fisher Apostles would have
+given the names of some of the Fish which they were in the habit of
+catching, and by the sale of which they gained their living.
+
+It is true that the Jews, as a nation, would not distinguish between
+the various species of Fishes, except, perhaps, by comparative
+size. But professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish one
+species from another, if only for the fact that they would sell the
+best-flavoured Fish at the highest price.
+
+We might have expected, for example, that the Apostles and disciples
+who were present when the miraculous draught of Fishes took place
+would have mentioned the technical names by which they were
+accustomed to distinguish the different degrees of the saleable and
+unsaleable kinds.
+
+[Illustration: PETER CATCHES THE FISH.]
+
+Or we might have expected that on the occasion when St. Peter cast
+his line and hook into the sea, and drew out a Fish holding the
+tribute-money in his mouth, we might have learned the particular
+species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves would
+assuredly have done so. It would not have been thought sufficient
+merely to say that a Fish was caught with money in its mouth, but it
+would have been considered necessary to mention the particular fish
+as well as the particular coin.
+
+But it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought differs in
+Orientals and Europeans, and that the exactness required by the one
+has no place in the mind of the other. The whole of the Scriptural
+narratives are essentially Oriental in their character, bringing
+out the salient points in strong relief, but entirely regardless of
+minute detail.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We find from many passages both in the Old and New Testaments that
+Fish were largely used as food by the Israelites, both when captives
+in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised Land. Take, for
+example, Numb. xi. 4, 5: "And the children of Israel also wept
+again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?
+
+"We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely." Then, in
+the Old Testament, although we do not find many such categorical
+statements, there are many passages which allude to professional
+fishermen, showing that there was a demand for the Fish which they
+caught, sufficient to yield them a maintenance.
+
+In the New Testament, however, there are several passages in which
+the Fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food. Take, for
+example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the loaves and the
+Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage in John xxi. 9: "As
+soon then as they were come to land, they saw a fire of coals there,
+and fish laid thereon, and bread."
+
+We find in all these examples that bread and Fish were eaten
+together. Indeed, Fish was eaten with bread just as we eat cheese
+or butter; and St. John, in his account of the multiplication of
+the loaves and Fishes, does not use the word "fish," but another
+word which rather signifies sauce, and was generally employed to
+designate the little Fish that were salted down and dried in the
+sunbeams for future use.
+
+As to the various species which were used for different purposes, we
+know really nothing, the Jews merely dividing their Fish into clean
+and unclean.
+
+Some of the species to which the prohibition would extend are
+evident enough. There are, for example, the Sheat-fishes, which have
+the body naked, and which are therefore taken out of the list of
+permitted Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers in many parts of
+the world, and often grow to a very considerable size. They may be
+at once recognised by their peculiar shape, and by the long, fleshy
+tentacles that hang from the mouth. The object of these tentacles
+is rather dubious, but as the fish have been seen to direct them at
+will to various objects, it is likely that they may answer as organs
+of touch.
+
+[Illustration: 1. MURÆNA. 2. LONG-HEADED BARBEL. 3. SHEAT-FISH.]
+
+As might be conjectured from its general appearance, it is one of
+the Fishes that love muddy banks, in which it is fond of burrowing
+so deeply that, although the river may swarm with Sheat-fishes, a
+practised eye is required to see them.
+
+As far as the Sheat-fishes are concerned, there is little need for
+the prohibition, inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable
+in flavour, and is difficult of digestion, being very fat and
+gelatinous. The swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is used in some
+countries for making a kind of isinglass, similar in character to
+that of the sturgeon, but of coarser quality.
+
+The lowermost figure in the above illustration represents a species
+which is exceedingly plentiful in the Sea of Galilee.
+
+On account of the mode in which their body is covered, the whole of
+the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of permitted Fish,
+as, although they have fins, they have no scales, their place being
+taken by shields varying greatly in size. The same rule excludes the
+whole of the lamprey tribe, although the excellence of their flesh
+is well known.
+
+Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the Muræna and
+Eel tribe are also unclean, because, although it has been proved
+that these Fishes really possess scales as well as fins, and are
+therefore legally permissible, the scales are hidden under a slimy
+covering, and are so minute as to be practically absent.
+
+The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated
+Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which sea it is
+tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman empire, the Muræna
+was very highly valued for the table. The wealthier citizens built
+ponds in which the Murænæ were kept alive until they were wanted.
+This Fish sometimes reaches four feet in length.
+
+The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illustrations
+belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as food.
+The figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish is the
+Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form.
+
+The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily known
+by the barbs or beards which hang from their lips. Like the
+sheat-fishes, the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud, for the
+purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of aquatic insects
+that are always to be found in such places. The Barbels are rather
+long in proportion to their depth, a peculiarity which, owing to the
+length of the head, is rather exaggerated in this species.
+
+The Long-headed Barbel is extremely common in Palestine, and may be
+taken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in some places,
+the fish are so numerous that a common sack answers nearly as well
+as a net.
+
+It has been mentioned that the ancient Romans were in the habit of
+forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is evident, from
+several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were accustomed to
+preserve fish in a similar manner, though they would not restrict
+their tanks or ponds to one species.
+
+The accompanying illustration represents Fishes of the Mediterranean
+Sea, and it is probable that one of them may be identified, though
+the passage in which it is mentioned is only an inferential one. In
+the prophecy against Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel
+writes as follows: "I will put hooks in thy jaws, and I will cause
+the fish of thy rivers to stick unto thy scales, and I will bring
+thee up out of the midst of thy rivers, and all the fish of thy
+rivers shall stick unto thy scales" (xxix. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FISHES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
+
+1. SUCKING-FISH. 2. TUNNY. 3. CORYPHENE.]
+
+Some believe that the prophet made allusion to the Sucking-fish,
+which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious apparatus
+of adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at will to any
+smooth object, and hold so tightly to it that it can scarcely be
+torn away without injury.
+
+The common Sucking-fish is shown in the upper part of the
+illustration.
+
+There are, however, other fish which have powers of adhesion which,
+although not so remarkable as those of the Sucking-fish, are yet
+very strong. There is, for example, the well-known Lump-sucker, or
+Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modified into a sucker so
+powerful that, when one of these fishes has been put into a pail of
+water, it has attached itself so firmly to the bottom of the vessel
+that when lifted by the tail it raised the pail, together with
+several gallons of water.
+
+The Gobies, again, have their ventral fins united and modified into
+a single sucker, by means of which the fish is able to secure itself
+to a stone, rock, or indeed any tolerably smooth surface. These
+fishes are popularly known as Bull-routs.
+
+The centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the
+Mediterranean fishes. This is the well-known Tunny, which furnishes
+food to the inhabitants of the coasts of this inland sea, and indeed
+constitutes one of their principal sources of wealth. This fine fish
+is on an average four or five feet in length, and sometimes attains
+the length of six or seven feet.
+
+The flesh of the Tunny is excellent, and the fish is so conspicuous,
+that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence shows
+the utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed among the
+various writers.
+
+The other figure represents the Coryphene, popularly, though very
+wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, under that name, for
+the beautiful colours which fly over the surface of the body as it
+dies.
+
+The flesh of the Coryphene is excellent, and in the times of classic
+Rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish alive, and at
+the beginning of a feast to lay them before the guests, so that they
+might, in the first place, witness the magnificent colours of the
+dying fish, and, in the second place, might be assured that when it
+was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even during life, the Coryphene
+is a most lovely fish, and those who have witnessed it playing round
+a ship, or dashing off in chase of a shoal of flying-fishes, can
+scarcely find words to express their admiration of its beauty.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: fishermen]
+
+
+
+
+FISHES.
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military
+ use of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing
+ spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence
+ of this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing
+ by night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the
+ miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish
+ killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the
+ fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of
+ Egypt and Palestine.
+
+
+As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take the
+simplest plan, that of the hook and line.
+
+Sundry references are made to angling, both in the Old and New
+Testaments. See, for example, the well-known passage respecting the
+leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst thou draw out leviathan with an
+hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down?
+
+"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with
+a thorn?"
+
+It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to
+the actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they were
+kept in the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook and line, so
+that it might be taken when wanted.
+
+On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher Apostles
+used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27: "Go thou to the
+sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up."
+Now this passage explains one or two points.
+
+In the first place, it is one among others which shows that,
+although the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not
+throw away their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, nor
+exist ever afterwards on the earnings of others. On the contrary,
+they retained their fisher equipment, whether boats, nets, or hooks;
+and here we find St. Peter, after the way of fishermen, carrying
+about with him the more portable implements of his craft.
+
+Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly
+expressive of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and
+large pieces of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The fisherman
+does not require a rod, but takes his line, which has a weight just
+above the hook, coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion, baits the
+hook, and then, with a peculiar swing, throws it into the water as
+far as it will reach. The hook is allowed to sink for a short time,
+and is then drawn towards the shore in a series of jerks, in order
+to attract the Fish, so that, although the fisherman does not employ
+a rod, he manages his line very much as does an angler of our own
+day when "spinning" for pike or trout.
+
+Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, and in this
+case he acts in a slightly different manner. After throwing out the
+loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a short stick, notched at
+one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts the sharp end into the
+ground at the margin of the water, and hitches the line on the notch.
+
+He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession,
+and when he has flung the last hook into the water, he sits down
+on a heap of leaves and grass which he has gathered together, and
+watches the lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar
+jerking manner which is characteristic of a "bite." After a while,
+he hauls them in successively, removes the Fish that may have been
+caught, and throws the lines into the water afresh.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a custom
+to which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, sometimes
+in course of historical narrative, and sometimes by way of allegory
+or metaphor. The reader will remember that the net was also used on
+land for the purpose of catching wild animals, and that many of the
+allusions to the net which occur in the Old Testament refer to the
+land and not to the water.
+
+The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden times as it
+is now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is circular, and is
+loaded all round its edge with weights, and suspended by the middle
+to a cord. When the fisherman throws this net, he gathers it up in
+folds in his arms, and, with a peculiar swing of the arms, only to
+be learned by long practice, flings it so that it spreads out and
+falls in its circular form upon the surface of the water. It rapidly
+sinks to the bottom, the loaded circumference causing it to assume
+a cup-like form, enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that
+happen to be under it as it falls. When it has reached the bottom,
+the fisherman cautiously hauls in the rope, so that the loaded
+edges gradually approach each other, and by their own weight cling
+together and prevent the Fish from escaping as the net is slowly
+drawn ashore.
+
+This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in nearly
+all parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme in their
+management of it. They have a net of extraordinary size, and cast it
+by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle spreading itself
+out in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water.
+
+At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they wade into
+the sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In consequence of this
+custom, the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work,
+wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from
+sun-stroke. It is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned
+by St. John, in chap. xxi., all the fishermen were absolutely,
+and not relatively naked, wearing no clothes at all, not even the
+ordinary tunic.
+
+That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is
+evident from the fact that there are no less than ten words to
+signify different kinds of net. At the present day we have very
+great difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these
+technical terms, especially as in very few cases are we assisted
+either by the context or by the etymology of the words. It is the
+same in all trades or pursuits, and we can easily understand how our
+own names of drag-net, seine, trawl, and keer-drag would perplex
+any commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after
+English had ceased to be a living language.
+
+[Illustration: MODE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE-NET.]
+
+The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of which
+could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of water.
+The upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats, and
+the lower edge sunk by weights.
+
+This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when "shot" the
+various lengths were joined together, and the net extended in a
+line, with a boat at each end. The boats then gradually approached
+each other, so as to bring the net into a semicircle, and finally
+met, enclosing thereby a vast number of Fishes in their meshen
+walls. The water was then beaten, so as to frighten the Fishes
+and drive them into the meshes, and the net was then either taken
+ashore, or lifted by degrees on board the boats, and the Fish
+removed from it.
+
+As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the
+contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for
+eating are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is taken
+in the selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen were still
+more cautious, every Fish having to be separately examined in order
+that the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before
+the captors could send it to the market.
+
+It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known parable
+of the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that
+was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind;
+
+"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and
+gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, part
+played by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians employed
+Fish as material symbols of Divine attributes we learn from secular
+writers, such as Herodotus and Strabo.
+
+The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to
+idolatry, and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom
+they came in contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of Egypt as soon
+as they found themselves among the Philistines. We might naturally
+imagine that as the Israelites were bitterly opposed to their
+persistent enemy, who trod them under foot and crushed every attempt
+at rebellion for more than three hundred years, they would repudiate
+the worship as well as the rule of their conquerors. But, on the
+contrary, they adopted the worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was
+the principal deity of the Philistines, and erected temples in his
+honour.
+
+We find precisely the same worship at the present day in Siam, where
+Dagon has exactly the same form as among the Philistines of old.
+There is now before me a photograph of a great temple at Ayutia, the
+entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the Fish-god.
+They are about sixty feet in height, and have both legs and feet
+like man, but in addition the lower part of the body is modified
+into the tail of a Fish, which, in common with the whole of the
+body, is covered with gilded scales.
+
+In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish which
+are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added three more
+species, which are represented in the following illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FISHES OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE.
+
+1. NILE PERCH. 2. SURMULLET. 3. STAR-GAZER.]
+
+The uppermost figure represents the NILE PERCH. This Fish is
+plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic rivers. It
+is brown above, silvery white below, and may be distinguished by the
+armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of the anal fin. The
+tongue is smooth.
+
+Immediately below the Nile Perch is the STAR-GAZER.
+
+This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name from
+the singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, so that it
+looks upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the mud-lovers,
+a fact which accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes. It
+is said to feed after the fashion of the fishing-frog--_i.e._ by
+burying itself in the mud and attracting other Fishes by a worm-like
+appendage of its mouth, and pouncing on them before they are aware
+of their danger.
+
+This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not pleasant
+to the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much valued by
+those who can obtain it.
+
+The last Fish to be noticed is the SURMULLET, a Fish that is equally
+remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the excellence of its
+flesh.
+
+[Illustration: man]
+
+
+
+
+MOLLUSCS.
+
+ The purple of Scripture--The sac containing the purple
+ dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the dye--The
+ Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the purple
+ robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words expressive of
+ different shades of purple.
+
+
+Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the
+Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture.
+
+As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature
+which prevails among the higher animals, the species which can be
+identified are comparatively few, and of them but a very few details
+are given in the Scriptures.
+
+Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the
+MOLLUSCS.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients
+upon the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of Imperial
+Purple. In the first place, it was exceedingly costly, not only
+for its richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which
+a sufficient quantity could be procured for staining a dress.
+Purple was exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a
+subject. Among the ancient Romans, during the times of the Cæsars,
+any one who ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at
+the peril of his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of
+the consuls was white, striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced
+another step in luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue.
+
+The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term
+"purple," _i.e._ a mixture of blue and red. It has but very little
+blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to the colour
+of newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several Shell Fish
+belonging to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the
+_Murex brandaris_.
+
+The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is very
+smooth and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented with
+several coloured bands. It is, however, one of the most variable of
+shells, differing not only in colour but in form. It always inhabits
+the belt of the shore between tide-marks, and preys upon other
+Molluscs, such as the mussel and periwinkle, literally licking them
+to pieces with its long riband tongue.
+
+This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like the
+shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, and with
+it the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels
+and similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. It is very
+destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through the mouth
+of the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is
+closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate.
+
+Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between two shells,
+fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping a hole in the
+hard shell in eight-and-forty hours.
+
+In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with a
+sharp blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the colouring
+matter can then be seen behind the head, and recognised by its
+lighter hue.
+
+When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is yellowish,
+and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. There is only
+one drop of this matter in each animal, and it is about sufficient
+in quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a dime.
+
+The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a
+number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as possible.
+The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun,
+when it will go through a most curious series of colours. The yellow
+begins to turn green, and, after a while, the stained portions of
+the linen will be entirely green, the yellow having been vanquished
+by the blue. By degrees the blue predominates more and more over the
+yellow, until the linen is no more green, but blue. Then, just as
+the yellow yielded to the blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes
+first violet, then purple, and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of
+royalty.
+
+The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time, seems
+rather to brighten.
+
+In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves
+with the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the
+shell, opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents on the
+fabric to be dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the Mollusc,
+so as to set the colouring matter free, and steeped the cloth
+in the pulp. Tyre was one of the most celebrated spots for this
+manufacture, the "Tyrian dye" being celebrated for its richness.
+Heaps of broken shells remain to the present day as memorials of the
+long-perished manufacture.
+
+The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many
+passages in various books. Among others we may refer to Herodotus.
+
+Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three
+nations, the Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. He
+determined to invade the first by land, and the second by sea;
+but, being ignorant of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians,
+he dispatched messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors, but
+practically as spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia valuable
+presents--namely, a purple mantle, a golden necklace and bracelet,
+an elaborate box of perfumed ointment, and a cask of palm-wine,
+these evidently being considered a proof of imperial magnificence.
+
+The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, and
+asked curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle
+was stained. On being told the mode of preparation, he refused
+to believe the visitors, and, referring to the changing hues of
+the mantle and to the perfume of the ointment, he showed his
+appreciation of their real character by saying that the goods were
+deceptive, and so were the bearers.
+
+The Hebrew word _argaman_, which signifies the regal purple, occurs
+several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different form
+according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom.
+
+For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering which
+ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass,
+
+"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c.
+
+It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a man
+cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron,
+and in purple, and crimson, and blue."
+
+
+
+
+THE SNAIL.
+
+ The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory
+ respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word
+ _Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine.
+
+
+There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in Ps.
+lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass
+away." The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way which explains
+the idea which evidently prevailed at the time when the Psalms were
+composed: "As a snail let him melt as he passeth on."
+
+The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a Snail as it
+crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body, and
+that in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller it became,
+until at last it wasted entirely away. The commentators on the
+Talmud took this view of the case. The Hebrew word _shablul_, which
+undoubtedly does signify a Snail of some kind, is thus explained:
+"The Shablul is a creeping thing: when it comes out of its shell,
+saliva pours from itself, until it becomes liquid, and so dies."
+
+Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but there is
+no doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct
+one, and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the terrible series of
+denunciations in which the passage in question occurs, had in his
+mind the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the
+Snail as it "passeth on."
+
+It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is
+mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine there
+are many species of Snails, to any or all of which these words are
+equally applicable.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PEARL OYSTER.]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEARL.
+
+ The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Metaphorical
+ uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls
+ before swine.
+
+
+There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can be found
+the word which is translated as PEARL, and it is certain that the
+word in question may have another interpretation.
+
+The word in question is _gabish_, and occurs in Job xxviii.
+18. Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning,
+"But where shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of
+understanding?" the sacred writer uses these words, "No mention
+shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for the price of wisdom is
+above rubies."
+
+In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking
+wisdom, it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense
+we must understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls
+before swine. The "pearl of great price" is another form of the same
+metaphor.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The substance of Pearls is essentially the same as that which lines
+many shells, and is known as "mother of pearl."
+
+Although a large number of shell-fish secrete "mother of pearl,"
+only a few of them yield true Pearls. The finest are obtained from
+the so-called Pearl oyster, an illustration of which is given on the
+preceding page.
+
+The Ancients obtained their Pearls chiefly from India and the
+Persian Gulf, where to this day the industry of Pearl-fishing is
+still carried on by the natives.
+
+The oysters containing the Pearls are brought up from the bottom of
+the sea by divers, who go out in boats to the fishing-grounds, which
+are some distance from the shore.
+
+Leaping naked into the water, carrying a heavy stone to enable him
+to sink quickly to the bottom, the diver descends to where the
+oysters lie, and secures as many of them as possible during the
+limited time that his breath lasts. On an average the divers remain
+under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though some can endure a
+much longer period.
+
+Sharks are the special dread of Pearl-divers, and many are carried
+off by this fierce monster of the deep. To arm himself against their
+attack the diver carries a sharp knife, and instances are known of
+his having attacked and fairly defeated the dread destroyer in its
+own element.
+
+Not only is the diver exposed to the danger of attack from sharks,
+but his hazardous calling is necessarily exhausting, and, as a rule,
+he is a short-lived man.
+
+There are some kinds of fresh-water mussels which contain Pearls of
+an inferior quality; perhaps the most celebrated of these is the
+Pearl Mussel of the Chinese, who make a singular use of it. They
+string a number of globular pellets, and introduce them between
+the valves of the mussel, so that in course of time the creature
+deposits a coating of pearly substance upon them, and forms a very
+good imitation of real Pearls.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: insects]
+
+[Illustration: butterfly]
+
+
+
+
+INSECTS.
+
+
+
+
+THE LOCUST.
+
+ Insects--The Locust-The two migratory Locusts at rest and on
+ the wing--The Locust swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress
+ of the insect hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and
+ down as a Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east
+ and the west winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern
+ travellers--The food of John the Baptist.
+
+
+Of the LOCUSTS there are several species in Palestine, two of which
+are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the ground are
+the common Migratory Locusts, while those on the wing, which have
+long heads, are a species of _Truxalis_.
+
+The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or
+straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, four
+wings, the two front being thick and membraneous, while the
+two hinder wings are large, delicate, translucent, and folded
+longitudinally under the front pair of wings when the insect is at
+rest. In the Locusts these characteristics are admirably shown. The
+appearance of a Locust when at rest and when flying is so different
+that the creature is at first sight scarcely recognisable as the
+same creature. When at rest, it is a compact and tolerably stout
+insect, with a dull though delicately coloured body; but when it
+takes flight it appears to attain twice its previous dimensions.
+
+The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they were
+expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the hinder
+pair, which were before invisible, became the most prominent part
+of the insect, their translucent folds being coloured with the most
+brilliant hues, according to the species. The body seems to have
+shrunk as the wings have increased, and to have diminished to half
+its previous size, while the long legs that previously were so
+conspicuous are stretched out like the legs of a flying heron.
+
+All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm wherever
+they happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws severing even the
+thick grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it is only when they
+invade a country that their real power is felt. They come flying
+with the wind in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as
+if by thunder-clouds; and when they settle, every vestige of green
+disappears off the face of the earth.
+
+Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. They flew
+about three hundred feet from the ground, and came on in thick,
+solid masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all sides nothing was
+to be seen but Locusts. The air was full of them, and the plain was
+covered with them, and for more than an hour the insect army flew
+past him. When the Locusts settle, they eat with such voracity that
+the sound caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be
+heard at a great distance; and even the young Locusts, which have no
+wings, and are graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern
+Africa "voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power
+of jaw to the fully-developed insect.
+
+As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the progress
+of the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast herds of
+antelopes that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that once
+blackened the prairies of America, and the progress of even the
+wingless young is as irresistible as that of the adult insects.
+Regiments of soldiers have in vain attempted to stop them. Trenches
+have been dug across their path, only to be filled up in a few
+minutes with the advancing hosts, over whose bodies the millions of
+survivors continued their march. When the trenches were filled with
+water, the result was the same; and even when fire was substituted
+for water, the flames were quenched by the masses of Locusts that
+fell into them. When they come to a tree, they climb up it in
+swarms, and devour every particle of foliage, not even sparing the
+bark of the smaller branches. They ascend the walls of houses that
+come in the line of their march, swarming in at the windows, and
+gnawing in their hunger the very woodwork of the furniture.
+
+We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of
+Joel. "A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of
+thick darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains: a great
+people and a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither
+shall be any more after it, even to the years of many generations.
+
+[Illustration: LOCUSTS.]
+
+"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth:
+the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a
+desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them.
+
+"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His camp is
+very great" (Joel ii. 2-11).
+
+Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description
+of the Locust armies. First we have the darkness caused by them as
+they fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth. Then comes
+the contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land
+before they settle on it, and its utter desolation when they leave
+it.
+
+There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight seems
+rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand the character
+of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like the shadow when it
+declineth: I am tossed up and down as the locust" (Ps. cix. 23).
+
+Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain
+on the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over great
+distances, they have little or no command over the direction of
+their flight, and always travel with the wind, just as has been
+mentioned regarding the quail. So entirely are they at the mercy
+of the wind, that if a sudden gust arises the Locusts are tossed
+about in the most helpless manner; and if they should happen to come
+across one of the circular air-currents that are so frequently found
+in the countries which they inhabit, they are whirled round and
+round without the least power of extricating themselves.
+
+In the account of the great plague of Locusts, the wind is mentioned
+as the proximate cause both of their arrival and their departure.
+See, for example, Exod. x. 12, 13:
+
+"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land
+of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of
+Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath
+left.
+
+"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the
+Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that
+night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts."
+
+Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and entreated to
+remove the plague which had been brought upon the land, the west
+wind was employed to take the Locusts away, just as the east wind
+had brought them.
+
+"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord.
+
+"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the
+locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one
+locust in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19).
+
+Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, which
+exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller mentions
+that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were destroyed in such
+multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort of wall, varying from
+three to four feet in height, fifty miles in length, and almost
+unapproachable, on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now come to the use of Locusts as food.
+
+Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, even
+among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that the
+Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should have
+been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, however,
+eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, and in some
+places form an important article of diet, thus compensating in some
+way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume.
+
+When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage
+to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize them between
+two stones, and keep the meal for future use, mixing it with water,
+or, if they can get it, with milk.
+
+We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present
+day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, in his
+"Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description of the custom of
+eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a short distance in front, we
+discerned certain large black patches, in strong contrast with the
+white glisten of the soil around, and at the same time our attention
+was attracted by a strange whizzing, like that of a flight of
+hornets, close along the ground, while our dromedaries capered and
+started as though struck with sudden insanity.
+
+"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here alighted
+in their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the Dahna;
+their camp extended far and wide, and we had already disturbed their
+outposts. These insects are wont to settle on the ground after
+sunset, and there, half-stupified by the night chill, await the
+morning rays, which warm them once more into life and movement.
+
+"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it would be
+hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, they or the
+locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits
+for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless insect, for, of all
+timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice.
+
+"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. I really
+thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts are here an
+article of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of them is begged
+of Heaven in Arabia....
+
+"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and
+boiled and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent.
+However, I never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever
+invitations the inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over
+large dishes full of entomological 'delicatesses,' would make me to
+join them. Barakàt ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it
+oily and disgusting, nor added a second to the first: it is caviare
+to unaccustomed palates.
+
+"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our Arabs, on no
+account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all were forgotten, and
+down the riders leaped from their starting camels. This one spread
+out a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a third his shirt, over the
+unlucky creatures, destined for the morning meal. Some flew away,
+whizzing across our feet; others were caught, and tied up in sacks."
+
+Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions that the
+true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the negroes and
+Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being something between
+the burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake. The flavour,
+however, depends much on the mode of cooking, and, as some say, on
+the nature of the Locusts' food.
+
+Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of
+Palestine," that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he was
+accustomed to eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, and
+compares their flavour to that of shrimps.
+
+Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, Locusts
+are eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, when
+preserved for future use, they are dried in the sun, their heads,
+wings, and legs picked off, and their bodies ground into dust. This
+dust has naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is corrected by
+mixing it with camel's milk or honey, the latter being the favourite
+substance.
+
+We may now see that the food of John the Baptist was, like his
+dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and
+that there was no more hardship in the one than in the other.
+Some commentators have tried to prove that he fed on the fruit of
+the locust or carob tree--the same that is used in some countries
+for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for such
+an explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires no
+explanation; Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary
+article of food even at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: locust]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: flowers]
+
+
+
+
+THE BEE.
+
+ The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance of Bees in the
+ Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--The honey of
+ Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild
+ honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the honey.
+
+
+Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the Hebrew
+word _debôrah,_ which has always been acknowledged to be rightly
+translated as "Bee."
+
+The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in some
+parts of the country multiplying to such an extent that the
+precipitous ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost
+impassable by human beings, so jealous are the Bees of their
+domains. Although the Bee is not exactly the same species as that
+of our own country, being the Banded Bee _(Apis fasciata),_ and not
+the _Apis mellifica,_ the two insects very much resemble each other
+in shape, colour, and habits. Both of them share the instinctive
+dislike of strangers and jealousy of intrusion, and the Banded Bee
+of Palestine has as great an objection to intrusion as its congener
+in this country.
+
+Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in the
+character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And the
+Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you,
+and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto
+Hormah." All those who have had the misfortune to offend Bees will
+recognise the truth of this metaphor, the Amorites swarming out of
+the mountain like wild Bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them
+as hives, and chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains.
+
+[Illustration: THE BEE]
+
+A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed me
+about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the name of the Lord I
+will destroy them.
+
+"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as the fire of
+thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy them."
+
+The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of
+Scripture. The reader will remember that, after Samson had killed
+the lion which met him on the way, he left the carcase alone.
+The various carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a
+banquet, and in a very short time the body of a dead animal is
+reduced to a hollow skeleton, partially or entirely covered with
+skin, the rays of the sun drying and hardening the skin until it is
+like horn.
+
+In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in this
+country. Some years before this account was written there was a
+very hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took place among the
+sheep. So many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed
+them, and left their bodies to perish. One of the dead sheep had
+been thrown into a rather thick copse, and had fallen in a spot
+where it was sheltered from the wind, and yet exposed to the fierce
+heat of the summer's sun. The consequence was that in a few days
+it was reduced to a mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the
+external layer of flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles
+could penetrate it, while the whole of the interior dissolved into
+a semi-putrescent state, and was rapidly devoured by myriads of
+blue-bottles and other larvæ.
+
+It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to
+it, and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson received a
+simple elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the whole process
+would have been more rapid and more complete, and the skeleton of
+the lion, with the hard and horny skin strained over it, would
+afford exactly the habitation of which a wandering swarm of Bees
+would take advantage. At the present day swarms of wild Bees often
+make their habitations within the desiccated bodies of dead camels
+that have perished on the way.
+
+As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must bear in
+mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in Palestine,
+when one person desires to attract the attention of another. A
+similar sound, which may perhaps be expressed by the letters _tst_,
+prevails on the Continent at the present day. Signor Pierotti
+remarks that the inhabitants of Palestine are even now accustomed to
+summon Bees by a sort of hissing sound.
+
+Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained from wild
+or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the manners of the
+East are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago,
+it is probable that Bees were kept then as they are now. The hives
+are not in the least like ours, but are cylindrical vases of coarse
+earthenware, laid horizontally, much like the bark hives employed in
+many parts of Southern Africa.
+
+In some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the
+houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior,
+while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, so that the
+insects have no business in the house. When the inhabitants wish to
+take the honey, they resort to the operation which is technically
+termed "driving" by bee-masters.
+
+They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the tapping
+until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. They then
+take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive, remove
+as much comb as they want, carefully put back those portions which
+contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace the door, when the Bees
+soon return and fill up the gaps in the combs. As to the wasteful,
+cruel, and foolish custom of "burning" the Bees, the Orientals never
+think of practising it.
+
+In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very great
+extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one
+another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend
+them from the rays of the sun, which would soon melt the wax of the
+combs.
+
+In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy Land,
+which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees in the
+rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast stores of
+bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no small part of
+the wealth of the people.
+
+The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events
+recorded in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the people
+from eating until the evening. Jonathan, who had not heard the
+prohibition, was faint and weary, and, seeing honey dripping on the
+ground from the abundance and weight of the comb, he took it up on
+the end of his staff, and ate sufficient to restore his strength.
+
+Thus, if we refer again to the history of John the Baptist and his
+food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want
+of nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the desert places
+he frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply of the very
+material which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried
+locusts which he used instead of bread.
+
+The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has become
+proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to whom the
+words were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor.
+In the work to which reference has already been made Signor Pierotti
+writes as follows:--"Let us now see how far the land could be said
+to flow with milk and honey during the latter part of its history
+and at the present day.
+
+"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades, for
+the English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine, died in great
+numbers from the excessive heat, and from eating too much fruit and
+honey.
+
+"At the present day, after traversing the country in every
+direction, I am able to affirm that in the south-east and
+north-east, where the ancient customs of the patriarchs are most
+fully preserved, and the effects of civilization have been felt
+least, milk and honey may still be said to flow, as they form a
+portion of every meal, and may even be more abundant than water,
+which fails occasionally in the heat of summer.... I have often
+eaten of the comb, which I found very good and of delicious
+fragrance."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The Bee represented in the illustration is the common Bee of
+Palestine, _Apis fasciata_. The lowest figure in the corner, with
+a long body and shut wings, is the queen. The central figure
+represents the drone, conspicuous by means of his large eyes, that
+almost join each other at the top of the head, and for his thicker
+and stouter body, while the third figure represents the worker Bee.
+Near them is shown the entrance to one of the natural hives which
+are so plentiful in the Holy Land, and are made in the "clefts of
+the rocks." A number of Bees are shown issuing from the hole.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE HORNET AND ITS NEST.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HORNET.
+
+ The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven
+ away by Hornets--The Hornet used as a metaphor--Oriental
+ symbolism--Sting of the Hornet.
+
+
+Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the Hornet.
+There are three passages in which occurs the word _tzirah_, which
+has been translated as Hornet. In every case when the word is
+mentioned the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense. See, for
+example, Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will send my fear before thee, and
+will destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come; and I will make
+all thine enemies turn their backs unto thee.
+
+"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the
+Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee."
+
+The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise
+as was made to the Israelites, and was one which they must
+have thoroughly comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine and the
+neighbouring countries are far more common than our own Hornets
+here, and they evidently infested some parts to such an extent that
+they gave their name to those spots. Thus the word _Zoreah_, which
+is mentioned in Josh. xv. 33, signifies the "place of Hornets."
+
+They make their nests in various ways; some species placing them
+underground, and others disposing them as shown in the illustration,
+and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover.
+Such nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which
+accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, even if the people
+were careful to avoid them. In such a case, the irritated insects
+rush out at the intruders; and so great is the terror of their
+stings, that men and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction,
+each only anxious to escape from the winged foes.
+
+The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the
+memory of those who had taken part in them, and cause the metaphor
+to impress itself strongly upon them.
+
+It is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal
+statements of facts, and that the various nations were actually
+driven out of their countries by Hornets. Let the insects be brought
+upon the land in sufficient numbers, and neither man nor beast
+could stay in it. It is not likely, however, that such a series of
+miracles, far exceeding the insect-plagues of Egypt, would have been
+worked without frequent references to them in the subsequent books
+of the Scriptures; and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong
+flight of the attack of Hornets is a very different thing from
+the emigration which is mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long
+journeys which such a proceeding involved.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ANTS ON THE MARCH.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ANT.
+
+ The Ant of Scripture--Habit of laying up stores of food--The
+ Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or
+ Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping,
+ and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--The winged Ants.
+
+
+One of the best-known and most frequently quoted passages of
+Scripture is found in Proverbs, chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant, thou
+sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise:
+
+"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler,
+
+"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the
+harvest."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous.
+Among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their
+subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy
+rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring them to the
+outer air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry them in the
+sun.
+
+The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he
+alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only spoke
+the truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding wise. Any
+one who wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by
+watching the first Ants' nest which he finds, the species of the Ant
+not being of much consequence. The nests of the Wood-Ant are perhaps
+the best suited for investigation, partly because the insect and its
+habitation are comparatively large, and, secondly, because so much
+of the work is done above-ground.
+
+The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto is only
+known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is _Atta
+malefaciens_, and it has been called by various popular names, such
+as the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural Ant on account of its
+habits, and the Stinging Ant on account of the pungency of its
+venom. This characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of
+_malefaciens_, or villanous.
+
+The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for
+the space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations was
+communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. It is so
+extraordinary an account that it must be given the narrator's own
+words:--
+
+"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large brownish
+ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, and, like a
+thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and timely
+arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, endowed
+with skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to enable
+it successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may
+have to encounter in the life-conflict.
+
+"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on ordinary
+dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the surface
+three and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular mound having
+a very gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border, which
+on an average is three or four feet from the entrance. But if the
+location is chosen on low, flat, wet land liable to inundation,
+though the ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to
+work, it nevertheless elevates the mound, in the form of a pretty
+sharp cone, to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more, and
+makes the entrance near the summit. Around the mound in either case
+the ant clears the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths
+the surface to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of
+the city, giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as
+it really is.
+
+"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to
+grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. Having planted
+this crop in a circle around, and two or three feet from, the centre
+of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care,
+cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst
+it and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or
+two feet more.
+
+"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy
+crop of small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope
+very closely resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully
+harvested, and carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the
+granary cells, where it is divested of the chaff and packed away.
+The chaff is taken out and thrown beyond the limits of the paved
+area.
+
+"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that the
+provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and spoil.
+In this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and
+damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, when they
+carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, leaving those that
+had sprouted to waste.
+
+"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable
+elevation, on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds
+overlying portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural
+ants, evidently very ancient. My observations on their manners
+and customs have been limited to the last twelve years, during
+which time the enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the
+approach of cattle to the ant-farms. The cities which are outside
+of the enclosure as well as those protected in it are, at the
+proper season, invariably planted with the ant-rice. The crop may
+accordingly always be seen springing up within the circle about the
+1st of November every year.
+
+"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle has
+greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much
+closer than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I
+notice that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the
+turn-rows in the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates,
+&c., where they can cultivate their farms without molestation from
+the cattle.
+
+"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species of
+grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. In
+farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully
+divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is
+growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry stubble
+cut away and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered
+until the ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within
+the same circle, and receives the same agricultural attention as was
+bestowed upon the previous crop; and so on year after year, as I
+_know_ to be the case, in all situations where the ants' settlements
+are protected from graminivorous animals."
+
+In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr.
+Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for the
+ensuing crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. And
+my conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or careless
+observation, nor from seeing the ants do something that looked a
+little like it, and then guessing at the results. I have at all
+seasons watched the same ant-cities during the last twelve years,
+and I know that what I stated in my former letter is true. I visited
+the same cities yesterday, and found the crop of ant-rice growing
+finely, and exhibiting also the signs of high cultivation, and not
+a blade of any other kind of grass or weed was to be seen within
+twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice."
+
+The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything
+that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too much to say
+that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an
+Ant that not only laid up stores of grain, but actually prepared
+the soil for the crop, planted the seed, kept the ground free from
+weeds, and finally reaped the harvest, the statement would have been
+utterly disbelieved, and the credibility not only of that particular
+writer but of the rest of Scripture severely endangered.
+
+As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of Ants
+vary greatly according to their species and the climate in which
+they live. All, however, are wonderful creatures; and whether we
+look at their varied architecture, their mode of procuring food,
+the system of slave-catching adopted by some, the "milking" of
+aphides practised by others, their astonishing mode of communicating
+thought to each other, and their perfect system of discipline, we
+feel how true were the words of the royal naturalist, that the Ants
+are "little upon earth, but are exceeding wise."
+
+[Illustration: ANT OF PALESTINE.]
+
+There is one point of their economy in which all known species
+agree. Only those which are destined to become perfectly developed
+males and females attain the winged state. Before they assume the
+transitional or pupal condition, each spins around itself a slight
+but tough silken cocoon, in which it lies secure during the time
+which is consumed in developing its full perfection of form.
+
+When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it
+from the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions of
+these winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, as
+they are not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed about
+by every gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. Whole armies of
+them fall into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish, while
+the insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply
+of food. As soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward,
+snap them off, and pass the rest of their lives on the ground.
+
+In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged
+Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are
+over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction of an ant, He
+permits wings to grow upon her."
+
+
+
+
+THE CRIMSON WORM.
+
+ The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--The Coccus or Cochineal of
+ Palestine compared with that of Mexico--Difference between the
+ sexes--Mode of preparing the insect.
+
+
+We now come to another order of insects.
+
+Just as the purple dye was obtained from a shell-fish, the scarcely
+less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect. This
+is an insect popularly known as the Crimson Worm. It is closely
+allied to the cochineal insect of Mexico, which gives a more
+brilliant dye, and has at the present day nearly superseded the
+native insect. It is, however, still employed as a dye in some parts
+of the country.
+
+Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much larger
+than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured. At
+the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees
+and carefully dried, the mode of drying having some effect upon the
+quality of the dye. During the process of drying the insect alters
+greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking to less than half its
+original dimensions, and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of
+a deep red. When placed in water it soon gives out its colouring
+matter, and communicates to the water the rich colour with which
+we are familiar under the name of carmine, or crimson. This latter
+name, by the way, is only a corruption of the Arabic _kermes_, which
+is the name of the insect.
+
+[Illustration: THE CRIMSON WORM.]
+
+The reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred
+colours--scarlet, purple, and blue--used in the vestments of the
+priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking
+rank as a colour.
+
+
+
+
+THE CLOTHES MOTH.
+
+ The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--Moths and
+ garments--Accumulation of clothes in the East--Various uses of
+ the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, and the thief.
+
+
+One of the insects mentioned by name in the Scriptures is the MOTH,
+by which we must always understand some species of Clothes Moth.
+These are as plentiful and destructive in Palestine as in this
+country.
+
+Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and
+nearly all have reference to its destructive habits. The solitary
+exceptions occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put no trust in His
+servants; and His angels He charged with folly: how much less in
+them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust,
+which are crushed before the moth?"
+
+In the New Testament reference is made several times to the Moth.
+"Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust
+doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal" (Matt. vi.
+19).
+
+Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but to the
+Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a force which
+we can hardly realize in this country. In the East large stores of
+clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for their own use, but
+as presents to others. At a marriage feast, for example, the host
+presents each of the guests with a wedding garment. Clothes are also
+given as marks of favour, and a present of "changes of raiment,"
+_i.e._ suits of clothing, is one of the most common gifts. As at the
+present day, there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for
+the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing, and when
+that robe happened to be an official one, the gift included the rank
+which it symbolized. Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as
+well as with the royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in
+the king's robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king
+useth to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown
+royal which is set upon his head.
+
+[Illustration: MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPON THE KING'S
+HORSE.]
+
+"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of
+the king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal
+whom the king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback
+through the street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall
+it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour." (Esther
+vi. 8, 9.)
+
+The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the case
+with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits any man: so
+that the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing,
+knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given. An
+allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is
+made in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he heap up silver as the dust, and
+prepare raiment as the clay;
+
+"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the innocent
+shall divide the silver."
+
+So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, that
+special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer,
+called the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was
+appointed to take charge of them.
+
+Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression was a
+synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a man shall
+take hold of his brother of the house of his father, saying, Thou
+hast clothing, be thou our ruler."
+
+The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the Moth and
+the garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. The Moth
+would not meddle with garments actually in use, so that a poor man
+would not be troubled with it. Only those who were rich enough to
+keep stores of clothing in their houses need fear the Moth.
+
+
+
+
+THE SILKWORM MOTH.
+
+ Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk--Present
+ cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms of the
+ Lebanon--Silkworms and thunder.
+
+
+In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk
+is mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be
+correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the
+merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man
+buyeth their merchandise any more:
+
+"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of
+pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.)
+
+That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is
+nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late
+years they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant
+of the source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk
+was introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is
+most likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together
+with the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that
+monarch.
+
+At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers
+of the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is
+annually produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms.
+An excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud
+in his "Druses of the Lebanon:"--
+
+"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's
+rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually
+encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the
+Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms'
+eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series
+of anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that
+the smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and
+the peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until
+the cocoon is fairly set."
+
+After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and
+ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the
+armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the
+writer proceeds as follows:--
+
+"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching
+operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread
+of the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the
+worm, it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either
+the cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So,
+first clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on
+the door, and, locking the _khlook_ (room in which the silkworms are
+kept), deposits the key in his _zinnar,_ or waistband.
+
+"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating
+them from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding
+purposes, and all the rest are handed over to the women of his
+family. These first of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and
+fibrous web with which it is enveloped, and which constitutes an
+article of trade by itself. The cocoons are then either reeled off
+by the peasant himself or else sold to some of the silk factories
+of the neighbourhood, where they are immediately reeled off, or are
+suffocated in an oven, and afterwards, being well aired and dried,
+piled up in the magazines of the factory.
+
+"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we
+were continually encountering horseload after horseload.
+
+"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in
+the head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most
+agreeable; but this arises partly from the neglect and want of
+care of the peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after
+basketful of cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown
+about and accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit
+noxious vapours."
+
+[Illustration: BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE.
+
+ SYRIAN GRAYLING.
+ SYRIAN ORANGE-TIP.
+ SYRIAN SWALLOW-TAIL.
+]
+
+Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the
+Silkworm to be described more fully, it may here be added that all
+silk-growers are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the
+caterpillars, and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will
+die of fear. The noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation,
+fatal to Silkworms; and the breeders were therefore accustomed to
+beat drums within the hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the
+loudness of the sound, and imitating as nearly as possible the crash
+and roll of thunder, so that the caterpillars might be familiar with
+the sound if the thunderstorm should happen to break near them.
+
+
+
+
+FLIES.
+
+ Flies of Scripture--Annoyance caused by the House-fly--Flies
+ and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of the Flies--The
+ sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their prevalence.
+
+
+There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is
+_zebub_, and the other is _arob_, the latter being applied to the
+flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is
+probable that some different species is here signified, but there
+is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would be a
+sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which infest
+Egypt, and which at first make the life of a foreigner a burden to
+him. They swarm in such myriads, that he eats flies, drinks flies,
+and breathes flies.
+
+Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes
+of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so
+fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them.
+A stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who
+have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet
+seem perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive
+a European mad.
+
+Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:--
+
+"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as
+I can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small
+they may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make
+themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and
+place, in the house and in the field, by day and by night.
+
+"While I was encamped near the tents of the Bedawîn, in the
+neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies were
+brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts and men,
+were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept into our
+ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant and I
+were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over
+like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn
+themselves were not slow to follow our example.
+
+"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old,
+except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of
+the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and
+Joshua) to evacuate the country before them.
+
+"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these
+pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron.
+The reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient
+country of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I
+experienced to my cost.
+
+"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm
+ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring
+with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection
+against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious
+remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable,
+very cheap, and equally useful in all climates.
+
+"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they
+are found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in
+the dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies
+about, the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage
+of cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy
+clothing worn by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though
+the country of Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are
+still abundant and free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked
+assistants in the kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves
+in their gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in
+every dish."
+
+
+
+
+GNATS.
+
+ The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the
+ camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and
+ the mosquito.
+
+
+It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned
+by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which
+occurs in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a
+gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24).
+
+[Illustration: NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE.
+
+MOSQUITO. CAMEL FLY. ]
+
+I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have
+been printed "strain out," the substitution of one for the other
+being only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom
+which is explained by reference to the preceding article on the
+fly. In order to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth
+while drinking, a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup,
+so that if any insects, as was usually the case, had got into the
+liquid, they would be "strained out" by the linen.
+
+Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the
+word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is
+only used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects
+and the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which
+are popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in
+many parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and
+are as annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit.
+
+
+
+
+THE LOUSE.
+
+ Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the
+ magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability
+ that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their
+ dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast.
+
+
+We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two
+parasites of a singularly disagreeable character.
+
+With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the
+account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the
+waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians,
+i.e. the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the
+magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall
+presently see:--
+
+"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod,
+and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout
+all the land of Egypt.
+
+"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod,
+and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in
+beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land
+of Egypt.
+
+"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth
+lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon
+beast."
+
+Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have
+told with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah
+had resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron.
+
+Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were
+infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the
+laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single
+noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The
+clothing, being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing,
+while the possibility of the body being infested by parasites was
+prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the
+crown of the head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every
+three days.
+
+It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation
+must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh
+of cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the
+Egyptian priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in
+that of his fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that,
+in fact, all the idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this
+particular plague had been withdrawn.
+
+We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by
+the Hebrew word _chinnim_. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the
+word ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following
+reasons:--
+
+After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's
+rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds
+as follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has
+no connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours'
+exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and
+die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect,
+without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot
+sand and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until
+some wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become
+covered with these horrible vermin.
+
+"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks
+that the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have
+been impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the
+passage in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference
+to these vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast.
+It is well known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their
+natural state, they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after
+having preyed for some days on the body of an animal."
+
+Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly
+is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of
+Holy Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would,
+if anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from
+them can appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these
+ticks, which cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed
+without being torn in pieces, and without leaving some portion of
+their head beneath the skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer
+equally from them, as is implied in the words of Scripture, and,
+unless they are very cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is
+the result of their bites.
+
+
+
+
+THE FLEA.
+
+Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by
+them to travellers-Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's bedfellows--The
+Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture.
+
+
+This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The
+inhabitants are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not
+touch them, or by long custom they become so inured to their attack
+that the bites are not felt.
+
+But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about the
+Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of
+the country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. Miss
+Rogers, for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine," mentions
+how she was obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the
+reach of a large company of Fleas that were hopping about on the
+floor!
+
+Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one
+occasion that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten
+his curtain, and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that marched
+steadily up the bed and took possession of their prey. The people
+were quite amused at his complaints, and said that their Bey could
+not sleep without a couple of hundred of them in his bosom. Mr.
+Urquhart suggests that these little creatures act as a wholesome
+irritant to the skin, and says that the last two mouthfuls of every
+meal are for the benefit of the Fleas.
+
+In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of
+these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from Mr. Farley's
+"Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish bath, and was much
+amused at a scene which presented itself.
+
+"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was occupying
+himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great
+eagerness something that, from the movement of his hands, seemed
+continually to elude him, jumping about and taking refuge in the
+creases and folds of his shirt, that was spread out over his lap as
+he sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board. This
+oddity was no less a dignitary than a Pasha."
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SCORPION.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SCORPION.
+
+mud walls--Venom of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion
+whip, and its use--The Scorpion Pass.
+
+
+Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice
+are a constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed
+to them. The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to need
+description, every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of
+spider that has the venom claw at the end of its body, and not in
+its jaw. As to the rendering of the word _akrabbim_ as "Scorpions,"
+there has never been any doubt.
+
+These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in
+some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious where the
+Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in the country
+until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are beneath the stones
+on or near which he is sitting. Holes in walls are favourite places
+of refuge for the Scorpion, and are very plentiful, the mud walls
+always tumbling down in parts, and affording homes for Scorpions,
+spiders, snakes, and other visitors.
+
+The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according to the
+species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions being
+able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and even to kill
+him if he should be a sensitive subject. So much feared were the
+Scorpions that one of the chief privileges of the Apostles and their
+immediate followers was their immunity from the stings of Scorpions
+and the bite of venomous serpents.
+
+It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by a
+Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and that
+if he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he suffers
+arises from the puncture. Sailors also say that after a week at
+sea the poison of the Scorpion loses its power, and that they care
+nothing for the Scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the
+bundles of firewood.
+
+Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are numerous,
+though most, if not all, of them occur in the New Testament. See
+Rev. ix. 5: "And to them it was given that they should not kill
+them, but that they should be tormented five months, and their
+torment was as the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man."
+Also ver. 10 of the same chapter: "And they had tails like unto
+scorpions: and there were stings in their tails: and their power was
+to hurt men five months."
+
+There is, also, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son shall
+ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And in the
+preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are classed with
+serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give unto you power
+to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the
+enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament,
+which requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash counsel
+given to Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made your yoke heavy,
+and I will add to your yoke; my father also chastised you with
+whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions."
+
+The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, that
+he intended to be far more severe than his father had been. But his
+words assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of
+whip called a Scorpion. This terrible instrument was made for the
+express purpose of punishing slaves, so that the mere mention of it
+was an insult. It consisted of several thongs, each of which was
+loaded with knobs of metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so that it
+resembled the jointed and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful
+instrument of torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was
+even used in combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a
+Scorpion being matched against one armed with a spear.
+
+
+
+
+THE SPIDER.
+
+Spiders of Palestine.
+
+
+There are very many species of Spider in Palestine; some which spin
+webs, like the common Garden Spider, some which dig subterranean
+cells and make doors in them, like the well-known Trap-door Spider
+of Southern Europe, and some which have no webs, but chase their
+prey upon the ground, like the Wolf and Hunting Spiders.
+
+
+
+
+THE HORSE LEECH.
+
+ Signification of the word Alukah--Leeches in Palestine--The
+ horse and the Leech.
+
+
+In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the
+Scriptures. This is _alukah,_ which is translated as horse-leech.
+"The horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give."
+
+The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the rivers to
+such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to
+drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. The following
+anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy Land," gives us a
+good idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, and the tenacity with
+which they retain their hold:--
+
+"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the wheel and
+well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs. To slip
+from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a
+second; but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water, than
+one sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is
+dabbled and red. Opening her mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling
+from her gum. But the reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose
+dipt into the cooling stream, the blood still flows from between her
+teeth, and, forcing them open, I find two other leeches lodged in
+the roof of her mouth.
+
+"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how gay,
+how gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, and
+soused the water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip yearns
+to descend upon the shoulders of that laughing and careless Nubian
+slave!"
+
+Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, and, if
+they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: CORAL.]
+
+
+
+
+SPONGE AND CORAL.
+
+ Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient
+ Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The
+ Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_.
+
+
+There is little to be said on either of these subjects.
+
+Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the
+Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon
+hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (_i.e._ the acid wine issued to the
+Roman soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is little
+doubt that the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the value of the
+Sponge, which they could obtain from the Mediterranean which skirted
+all their western coasts.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No mention
+shall be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18). The second
+occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They occupied in thy
+fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and
+coral, and agate."
+
+This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, was
+probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and where it
+attains the greatest perfection.
+
+[Illustration: roses]
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+ A. PAGE
+
+ Addax, 171-173
+
+ Adder, 628
+
+ Ant, 671
+ agricultural, 672
+ habits of, 674
+ cocoon, 675
+
+ Aoudad, 212-215
+
+ Ape, 387
+ brought by Solomon, 389
+ worshipped in India, 390-395
+
+ Apis, 145
+
+ Ass, 315
+ domesticated, 315
+ royal, 316
+ treatment of, 319
+ saddle, 321
+ in Cairo, 323
+ uses of, 326
+ wild, 328
+
+
+ B.
+
+ Badger, 96
+ skins for tabernacle, 96-112
+ skins for robes and sandals, 97
+ nocturnal in habits, 100
+
+ Barbel, long-headed, 639
+
+ Bat, 401
+
+ Bear, Syrian, 103
+ omnivorous, 106
+ a dangerous enemy, 108
+ robbed of whelps, 110
+ mode of fighting, 110
+
+ Beden, 233-237
+
+ Bee, 664
+ banded, 664
+ hives, 667
+ honey, 667
+
+ Behemoth, 372
+ food, 376
+ hunted, 380
+
+ Bison, 160
+
+ Bittern, 536
+ haunts waste places, 538
+ cry, 538
+ nest, 540
+
+ Blue thrush, 481
+
+ Boer hunting the lion, 36-41
+
+ Bottles, skin, 221-225
+
+ Bubale, 173-175
+
+ Buffalo, 149
+
+ Bull, 142
+ wild, 152
+ hunted with nets, 153
+
+
+ C.
+
+ Calf, 134
+ fatted, 135
+ worshipped, 146, 148
+
+ Camel, 248
+ Arabian, 248
+ Bactrian, 248, 286-290
+ milk of, 251
+ power of carrying water, 252
+ flesh, 254
+ as beast of burden, 255-258
+ riding, 259-268
+ speed, 269
+ malice of, 273
+ food, 277-280
+ foot, 280
+ hair and skin, 283
+ needle's eye, 284
+
+ Caspian emys, 580
+ hibernates, 581
+ terror to horses, 581
+ legends, 582
+
+ Cattle, 132
+
+ Cerastes, 624
+
+ Chameleon, 602
+ strength of grasp, 607
+ eyes, 607
+ change of color, 608
+
+ Chamois, 211
+
+ Chariots, 300-311
+
+ Chetah, 42
+
+ Cobra di capello, 616
+
+ Cockatrice, 628
+
+ Coney, 366
+ ruminant, 368
+ watchful, 370
+
+ Coral, 695
+
+ Cormorant, 563
+ fishing, 564
+ voracious, 565
+ in China, 565
+ nests, 566
+
+ Coryphene, 641
+
+ Crane, 549
+
+ Crocodile, 585
+ description in Job, 586
+ worshipped by Egyptians, 589
+ seizing its prey, 592
+ eggs, 595
+ hunting, 598
+
+ Cuckoo, 487
+ great spotted, 488
+
+ Cyprius, 602
+
+
+ D.
+
+ Deer, 238
+ hunted, 244
+ watchfulness of, 244-246
+
+ Deloul, 268
+
+ Dhubb, 583
+
+ Dishon, 171
+
+ Dove, 489
+ turtle, 489, 496
+ Noah's, 490
+ in sacrifice, 491
+ carrier, 493
+ blue rock, 495
+ collared turtle, 497
+ palm, 497
+ Barbary, 497
+
+
+ E.
+
+ Eagle, 430
+ golden, 433
+ short-toed, 434
+
+ Egret, 548
+
+ Egyptian mastigure, 583
+
+ Elephant, 349
+ ivory, 349
+ in war, 352
+ in hunting, 362
+
+
+ F.
+
+ Falcon, peregrine, 445
+ lanner, 445
+
+ Fallow deer, 173-175
+
+ Field-mouse, 121-124
+
+ Fishes, 635-648
+ apostolic fishermen, 635
+ as food, 637
+ manner of catching, 643
+ as symbols, 646
+
+ Flea, 688
+
+ Flies, 683
+ god of, 684
+
+ Frogs, 630
+ plague of, 631
+ green, 632
+ edible, 632
+
+ Fox, 76
+ plentiful in Palestine, 77
+ feeds upon the slain, 78
+ Samson's foxes, 78-85
+
+
+ G.
+
+ Gazelle, 163
+ mode of defence, 165
+ manner of capture, 166
+ chase of, 166-170
+
+ Gecko, 605
+
+ Gier-eagle, 419
+
+ Gnats, 685
+
+ Goad, 137
+
+ Goat, 217
+ as food, 217-219
+ milking-scene, 220
+ hair for clothing, 220
+ skin bottles, 221-225
+ kneading-troughs, 225
+ scapegoat, 226
+ intractable, 227
+ separated from sheep, 227-229
+
+
+ H.
+
+ Hamster, 124
+
+ Hare, 126
+ not a ruminant, 127
+ two species in Palestine, 131
+
+ Hart, 255
+
+ Hawk, 447
+ sparrow, 448
+ harrier, 451
+ white, 453
+ dove, 453
+ blue, 453
+ ring-tailed, 453
+ night, 462
+
+ Herdsmen, 144
+ Arab, 177
+
+ Heron, 542
+ as food, 542
+ sociable, 544
+ flight, 546
+ nest, 547
+
+ Hind, 255
+
+ Hippopotamus, 374
+
+ Honey, 667
+
+ Hoopoe, 476
+ legend of, 477
+
+ Hornet, 669
+
+ Horse, 291
+ Arab, 291
+ hoofs, 295
+ sale of Arab, 296-300
+ chariots, 300
+
+ Horse-leech, 693
+
+ House-top, 480
+
+ Hyacinthine gallinule, 560
+
+ Hyæna, 85
+ as scavenger, 86-88
+ haunting graves, 88
+ odour of, 89
+ superstitions concerning, 90
+
+ Hyrax, 366
+
+
+ I.
+
+ Ibex, 233-236
+
+ Ibis, white or sacred, 562
+
+ Ichneumon, 596
+
+ Insects, 657
+
+ Ivory, 349-352
+
+
+ J.
+
+ Jackal, 76
+
+ Jerboa, 125
+
+
+ K.
+
+ Kestrel, 449
+
+ Kite, 440
+ red, 441
+ black, 442
+
+ Kneading-troughs, 225
+
+
+ L.
+
+ Lämmergeier, 411
+ food, 414
+ bone-breaker, 414
+
+ Lapwing, 476
+
+ Leviathan, 585
+
+ Lizard, 602
+
+ Locust, 657
+ swarms, 658
+ plague of, 660
+ as food, 661
+
+ Louse, 686
+
+ Lump-fish, 641
+
+
+ M.
+
+ Mole, 114
+ hard to capture, 116
+ frequents ruins, 117
+ food, 118
+
+ Molluscs, 648
+
+ Monitor, 605
+ Nilotic, 610
+ land, 610
+
+ Monkey, 387
+
+ Mosquito, 686
+
+ Mouflon, 215
+
+ Mouse, 119
+ voracity, 119
+
+ Mule, 333
+ ridden by kings, 335
+ perverse, 336
+
+ Muræna, 639
+
+ Moth, clothes, 678
+ silkworm, 680
+
+
+ N.
+
+ Night-hawk, 462
+
+ Nightjar, 462
+ cry, 464
+
+ Nile-perch, 647
+
+ Nineveh, sculptures of, 34
+
+
+ O.
+
+ Oryx, 154-156
+
+ Osprey, 436
+ fishing, 436
+ flight, 438
+
+ Ossifrage, 411
+
+ Ostrich, 523
+ neglect of young, 526-528
+ nest in sand, 526
+ chase, 529
+ scent, 530
+ speed, 531
+ as food, 532
+ eggs, 534
+ cry, 531
+
+ Ounce, 42
+
+ Owl, 454
+ use in bird-catching, 455
+ little, 455
+ barn, 455
+ screech, 456
+ great, 456
+ Egyptian eagle, 458
+ European eagle, 458
+ Virginian eared, 458
+
+ Ox, 133
+ stalled, 133
+ yoke, 136
+ plough, 136
+ goad, 137
+ threshing, 138
+ cart, 139
+ pasturage, 141
+ worshipped, 148
+
+
+ P.
+
+ Palestine, 470
+
+ Partridge, 505
+ desert, 507
+
+ Passover, 204
+ Samaritan, 205-210
+
+ Peacock, 501
+
+ Pearl, 653
+
+ Pelican, 567
+ pouch, 569
+ feeding young, 570
+ legends, 570
+ flight, 572
+ crested, 573
+
+ Pigeon, 489
+
+ Plough, 136
+
+ Porcupine, 113
+
+ Poultry, 498
+
+ Purple dye, 649
+
+ Pygarg, 171
+
+
+ Q.
+
+ Quail, 509
+ sent to Israelites, 510
+ flight, 511
+ as food, 511
+ mode of capture, 512
+
+
+ R.
+
+ Rams' horns, 201-203
+
+ Raven, 516
+ in ark, 516
+ sent to Elijah, 518
+ notices of, in Talmud, 519
+ ashy-necked, 520
+ in Jerusalem, 520
+
+
+ S.
+
+ Scheltopusic, 603
+
+ Scorpion, 690
+
+ Serpents, 613
+ motion, 614
+ poison, 615
+ sluggish, 620
+ anecdotes of, 620
+
+ Sheat-fishes, 637
+
+ Sheep, 177
+ pasturage, 177
+ watering, 180
+ names, 186
+ folds, 189-191
+ dogs, 191
+ broad-tailed, 194
+ uses of, 197
+ in sacrifice, 203
+
+ Shepherds, 185
+ sling, 185
+ care of flock, 188
+
+ Shephiphon, 624
+
+ Silkworm, 681
+
+ Skink, 603
+
+ Snail, 652
+
+ Snake, glass, 603
+ dart, 616
+ charmer, 617
+
+ Sparrow, 479
+ on house-tops, 480
+ value of, 483
+ caught with nets, 484
+ nests, 485
+ tree, 486
+
+ Spider, 692
+
+ Sponge, 694
+
+ Star-gazer, 647
+
+ Stork, 553
+ sacred, 554
+ migratory, 556
+ care of young, 557
+ black, 558
+
+ Sucking-fish, 640
+
+ Surmullet, 648
+
+ Swallow, 466
+ swift, 470, 474
+
+ Swan, 560
+
+ Swine, 337
+ prohibited to Jews, 337
+ hated, 338
+ wild, 334
+
+
+ T.
+
+ Threshing, 138
+
+ Tortoise, 577
+ as food, 577
+ slow-motioned, 579
+
+ Toxicoa, 627
+
+ Tunny, 641
+
+
+ U.
+
+ Unicorn, 158
+ a real animal, 159
+
+
+ V.
+
+ Viper, horned, 624
+ sand, 627
+
+ Vulture, Egyptian, 419
+ scavengers, 421
+ griffon, 423
+
+
+ W.
+
+ Wanderoo, 395-400
+
+ Weasel, 92
+ fond of eggs, 94
+ story of owl and weasel, 94
+
+ Wild bull, 152
+ goat, 233
+ ass, 328
+ boar, 344
+
+ Wind-hover, 449
+
+ Wolf, 69
+ only mentioned symbolically, 69
+ hunting in packs, 71
+ fierceness of, 71
+ special enemy of sheep, 72
+ tamed by a monk, 75
+
+ Wool, 199
+
+ Worm, crimson, 676
+
+
+ Y.
+
+ Yoke, 136
+
+
+
+
+ =THE
+ HOME EDITION
+ OF THE
+ Story of the Bible=
+
+ =Surpasses in Value and Completeness All Former Editions
+ of this Standard Work.=
+
+ It contains fine Colored Illustrations.
+
+ It contains a Map of the Bible Lands.
+
+ It contains a Steel Plate Engraving after Rembrandt (engraved
+ expressly for the Frontispiece).
+
+ It is printed on extra heavy paper, and bound in rich and
+ attractive style.
+
+=THE HOME EDITION of the Story of the Bible.=
+
+Gives admirers of the book an opportunity to procure it in a
+handsomer form, either for presentation to friends or for use at
+home.
+
+The COVER of this edition bears an appropriate and ornamental
+design in gold and color. The INSIDE is no less attractive than
+the outside. On opening it, the ILLUMINATED PRESENTATION PAGE
+first meets the eye. This is followed by the beautiful STEEL PLATE
+ENGRAVING OF JACOB'S DREAM, as a Frontispiece. A double page COLORED
+MAP comes next, showing countries and places mentioned in the Bible.
+SIX RICHLY COLORED PLATES, with 300 ENGRAVINGS, illustrating the
+principal scenes and events narrated in the book, are distributed
+throughout its pages, from beginning to end.
+
+ =FOR SALE
+ by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=
+
+
+=The Story of the Gospel.=
+
+=By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."=
+
+=360 Pages. 16mo. With 150 Illustrations, and a Frontispiece in
+Colors.=
+
+ =The New Testament in simple form for Children. Written in
+ Language easy to understand. Printed in large, plain type, and
+ filled with Pictures.=
+
+=100th THOUSAND NOW SELLING.=
+
+The Author of the "STORY OF THE BIBLE," after publishing that work,
+found that a smaller and still simpler book on the New Testament
+alone, was needed.
+
+He therefore prepared the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL," which contains the
+Life of Christ written in a style easily understood by children, and
+illustrated by a large number of excellent wood engravings.
+
+ =_From Rev. M. A. GOODELL, Northwood, Iowa._=
+
+ I am much pleased with the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL." The
+ illustrations are excellent. The Story is told in beautiful
+ language, and in such a way that very difficult points are made
+ plain even to children. It is also a good commentary on the Word
+ for older persons, and should be in every family.
+
+ I lent my copy of the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL" to the teacher of
+ the Primary Department in our public school, who used it instead
+ of the Bible in opening school, and after a few days said she
+ could not do without it.
+
+ =FOR SALE
+ by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=
+
+
+ =FIRST STEPS
+ FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL PATHS.=
+
+ =328 Pages. 16mo. With Colored Frontispiece and
+ 140 Illustrations.=
+
+ By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."
+
+There still remained one class of learners whose wants were not
+supplied by either the STORY OF THE BIBLE or the STORY OF THE
+GOSPEL. These were the little ones in the Nursery, the Infant
+School, and the Kinder-Garten. For their instruction the author
+has prepared a third book, FIRST STEPS FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL
+PATHS. This book is arranged on a different plan from either of the
+preceding. Instead of being divided into Chapters, it consists of
+separate passages or Lessons, most of them quite short, and each one
+complete in itself. Each Lesson is followed by Questions so simple
+that the little hearers, if attentive when the passage is read, may
+readily answer them.
+
+ =From Robert W. Fenwick, President of the Washington Fröebel
+ Society, Washington, D. C.=
+
+ TO THE PUBLISHER: I am the grateful recipient of a nicely-bound,
+ well-printed and illustrated work entitled "First Steps." Upon
+ an examination of it, I feel that every Kinder-Garten teacher
+ should possess this gem of a book for little children. Its
+ simple presentation of great truths and facts, in words as well
+ as in pictures, should be brought home to the heart of every
+ child by the parent or teacher; and, this done, the coming
+ generation will be wiser and better than the past. I am thankful
+ (as President of the Washington Fröebel Society, having under
+ its care the Bethany Free Kinder-Garten) that this book has
+ reached me.
+
+ =FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=
+
+
+ =NEW LIGHTS=
+ --ON--
+ OLD PATHS.
+
+ By Charles Foster, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.
+
+ =QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.=
+
+The author of the stories contained in this beautiful book has given
+life and power of speech to many of the inanimate objects which we
+meet in every-day life.
+
+The Well in the Yard, the Gate and Gate-Post, the Brook and
+Water-Wheel, with other familiar things, give their impressions, in
+these charming and original tales, of what takes place around them,
+and speak to one another with audible voice.
+
+If the reader will listen to what they say, he will learn some
+valuable lessons, and perhaps receive advice that will help him in
+days to come.
+
+Many familiar places and oft-trodden paths will be given a new
+interest by reading some of the stories contained in this book.
+
+Objects that have been familiar for years, and which have never
+caused a moment's reflection as they were carelessly passed by,
+will now have a new significance, and whenever seen will connect
+themselves with the imaginary parts they play in this volume.
+
+In appearance the book is an unusually handsome one, being
+TASTEFULLY BOUND AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. It contains =350=
+PICTURES which in artistic merit, interest, and faithful portrayal
+of the scenes described in the text, are unsurpassed by any book of
+its class.
+
+ Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,
+ Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+[Illustration: cover New Lights on Old Paths]
+
+ NEW LIGHTS
+ --ON--
+ OLD PATHS.
+
+ By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.
+
+ =QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.=
+
+ Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,
+ Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+ =BIBLE PICTURES
+ --AND--
+ WHAT THEY TEACH US.=
+
+ Containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,
+ WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS
+
+ By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."
+
+ =Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered
+ paper, and bound in English cloth, black side stamp, gilt
+ title on back.=
+
+The Collection of Bible Pictures contained in this book is probably
+one of the most complete that has ever been brought together in one
+volume.
+
+In preparing the work, the greatest care has been observed to use
+only such designs as will adequately illustrate the Bible scenes and
+fittingly portray the principal events in Bible history.
+
+It has been a matter of great difficulty to obtain so large a
+number of pictures of the necessary merit, as illustrations of
+Bible subjects present peculiar difficulties to the artist. While
+preserving the freedom of style and vigor of treatment necessary
+to give life to his designs and reality to the varied scenes of
+the Scripture narrative, he must preserve for them a feeling of
+reverence and endow them with a dignity worthy of their sacred
+character.
+
+A large number of the pictures in this book are reproduced from
+designs by foreign artists who have been celebrated for their skill
+in this branch of art. Others are by artists in this country. All
+the pictures have been personally selected by, or else drawn under
+the direction of, the author, who has spent years of labor and
+thousands of dollars in forming this collection.
+
+Many of the engravings in "BIBLE PICTURES" were first obtained and
+used for illustrating the "Story of the Bible" and the "Story of the
+Gospel," two former books by the same author. Other new engravings
+have been added, and the whole set, THREE HUNDRED AND TWELVE in
+number, are now brought together in this one volume, in which the
+broad pages (8 × 9-3/4 inches), fine, heavy paper and careful
+printing, display their artistic excellence to the best advantage.
+
+The book forms a complete pictorial history of the main portion of
+the Bible. Many parts are so fully illustrated that the narrative
+can be followed and understood by merely looking at the series of
+pictures which illustrate them, so that children unable to read may
+obtain a fair idea of the nature and sequence of Bible events, by
+simply turning over the pages. The book, however, is by no means
+merely a picture book. A lucid and brief explanation, written by the
+author of the "Story of the Bible," accompanies each picture, on the
+same page, or on the page immediately facing it, so that the picture
+and the explanation appear simultaneously to the eye.
+
+ =FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=
+
+
+[Illustration: cover Bible Pictures]
+
+ =BIBLE PICTURES,=
+ AND
+ WHAT THEY TEACH US.
+
+ A Book containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,
+ with brief descriptions.
+
+ By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," etc.
+
+ Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered
+ paper and bound in English cloth, ornamental side and back
+ stamp.
+
+ Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+ =--THE--
+ STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.=
+
+ =704 Pages. 300 Illustrations.=
+
+This book contains a description of each animal mentioned in the
+Bible, and tells of its appearance, its habits and the use to which
+it was put by mankind.
+
+The importance of understanding the nature of these animals, as a
+means of making clear the Scriptures, will be readily seen when
+it is remembered how frequently they are mentioned in the Bible,
+and how different many of them must be from those which we are
+accustomed to see.
+
+Some passages in the Bible which have formerly possessed little
+or no meaning to the ordinary reader will have a new significance
+after the "=Story of the Bible Animals=" has been read, and the
+descriptions which it contains of the animals of the East, and the
+habits of Eastern people, have become familiar.
+
+The book is not only interesting and instructive from the stories
+which it contains on the ever-popular subject of Natural History,
+but it also presents a vivid description of life in the Bible lands.
+
+It describes the appearance at the present time of many of the
+places mentioned in the Bible, as well as the manners and customs of
+the people who dwell there.
+
+Adventures of modern travellers in these unfamiliar and
+seldom-trodden paths form an important part of the book and are of
+absorbing interest, presenting to the reader a graphic picture of
+life in the Holy Land as it is to-day.
+
+In the never-changing East this is in many respects a counterpart
+of the times in which the Bible was written. The Arab as he speeds
+across the desert upon his swift dromedary, or sits at the door of
+his tent watching his flocks and herds, retains many of the customs
+which prevailed in the time of Abraham.
+
+The wild animals of these countries still roam through the forests
+and are hunted and slain by mankind. The crocodile and hippopotamus
+of the Nile are yet found in that mighty river, and yield their
+lives to the courage and skill of modern hunters as did those of old.
+
+These scenes are vividly portrayed in the "=Story of the Bible
+Animals=" by travellers who have taken an active part in the
+adventures which they narrate, and who are thus able to adequately
+describe incidents that will be new and strange to most readers.
+
+The book is also a valuable commentary on many portions of the
+Bible, for without some knowledge of the matters upon which it
+treats, the point of many passages of Scripture must either be
+entirely missed or else wrongly interpreted.
+
+ =Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,
+ Philadelphia, Pa.=
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.
+Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as
+printed.
+
+The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+paragraphs, thus the page number of the illustration might not match
+the page number in the List of Illustrations.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Story of the Bible Animals, by J. G. Wood
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44685-0.txt or 44685-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+ http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/6/8/44685/
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