initial commit of ebook 44685HEAD main

author: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:55:11 -0700
committer: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:55:11 -0700
commit: 91ed10a42bf9c7a822035773edbba816634e4abd (patch)
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Story of the Bible Animals by J. G. Wood.
+    </title>
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44685 ***</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 411px;">
+<img src="images/coverpage.jpg" width="411" height="650" alt="cover" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 336px;"><a name="ark" id="ark"></a>
+<img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="336" height="600" alt="ark" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ANIMALS ENTER THE ARK.</p>
+
+<p><small>FRONTISPIECE&mdash;"STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS."</small></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h1>
+<span class="smcap harrington">Story</span><br />
+<small>OF THE</small><br />
+<span class="smcap harrington">Bible Animals</span></h1>
+<p class="center"><span class="oldenglish">A Description of the<br />
+Habits and Uses of every living<br />
+Creature mentioned in the Scriptures,</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+WITH</small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Explanation of Passages in the Old and New Testament in<br />
+which reference is made to them.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<h2><small>BY</small><br />
+J. G. WOOD,</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><small>AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,"<br />
+"THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY," ETC.</small></p>
+
+<p class="center">300 ILLUSTRATIONS.</p>
+
+<p class="center space-above">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF<br />
+<big><i>CHARLES FOSTER'S PUBLICATIONS</i>,</big><br />
+No. 118 South Seventh Street,<br />
+PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 335px;"><a name="war_horses" id="war_horses"></a>
+<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="335" height="600" alt="war horses" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WAR-HORSES AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHARIOT.</p>
+
+<p>See page 307.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1888, by W. A. Foster.</span>
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Owing to the different conditions of time, language, country,
+and race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures
+were written, it is impossible that they should be rightly understood
+at the present day without some study of the customs and
+manners of Eastern peoples, as well as of the countries in which
+they lived.</p>
+
+<p>The Oriental character of the scriptural writings causes them to
+abound with metaphors and symbols taken from the common life
+of the time.</p>
+
+<p>They contain allusions to the trees, flowers, and herbage, the
+creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the
+deserts and forests.</p>
+
+<p>Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood
+them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall
+misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them.</p>
+
+<p>The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department
+of Natural History&mdash;namely, Zoology&mdash;can be treated in
+this work, although it is illustrated by many references to other
+branches of Natural History, to the physical geography of Palestine,
+Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and
+historical parallels.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of understanding the nature, habits, and uses of
+the animals which are constantly mentioned in the Bible, cannot be
+overrated as a means of elucidating the Scriptures, and without
+this knowledge we shall not only miss the point of innumerable
+passages of the Old and New Testaments, but the words of our
+Lord Himself will often be totally misinterpreted, or at least lose
+part of their significance.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the present work is therefore, to take in its proper
+succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures,
+and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to
+understand all the passages in which it is mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 337px;"><a name="shepherd" id="shepherd"></a>
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="337" height="600" alt="shepherd" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SHEPHERD LEADING SHEEP AND GOATS TO THEIR FOLD IN THE ROCK.</p>
+
+<p>See page 191.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE AUTHOR.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Rev. J. G. Wood is a native of London, England. He was
+educated at Oxford University, and has long been known, both in
+England and America, as not only a learned and accurate writer
+on Natural History, but a popular one as well, having the happy
+faculty of making the results of scientific study and painstaking
+observation, interesting and instructive to all classes of readers.</p>
+
+<p>He has published a number of works on the most familiar
+departments of the history of animals, designed to awaken popular
+interest in the study. Their titles are "Sketches and Anecdotes
+of Animal Life;" "Common Objects of the Seashore and Country;"
+"My Feathered Friends;" "Homes Without Hands"&mdash;being
+a description of the habitations of animals,&mdash;and the
+"Illustrated Natural History," a book which is widely known
+both in England and America as a standard work of great value.
+It has given the author celebrity, and has caused him to be considered
+an eminent authority on the subject which it treats.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, from these facts, that it would be difficult to find
+a man better qualified than Mr. Wood, to write a book describing
+the animals mentioned in the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Profoundly impressed with the ignorance which prevails towards
+so important a feature of the Scriptural Narrative, he has devoted
+his ripe powers and special knowledge to the work of dissipating
+it, and in this volume, not only fully describes the nature and
+habits of all the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, but tells the
+story of their relations to mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wood is a clergyman of the Church of England, and was
+for a time connected with Christ Church, Oxford. He has devoted
+himself mainly, however, to authorship in the field which he has
+chosen, and in which he has become so well known. In his works
+he usually employs a popular style of writing, and does not make
+scientific terms prominent. This is especially true of the "Story
+of the Bible Animals," which from its easy and interesting character
+is adapted to the comprehension of young and old.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 361px;"><a name="desert" id="desert"></a>
+<img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="361" height="600" alt="desert" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the pictures in this
+book are taken from the living
+animals, or from photographs
+and sketches by Eastern travellers.</p>
+
+<p>Others represent imaginary
+scenes, or ancient historical
+events, and have been designed
+by skilful artists after careful study of the subjects.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">[A complete Index of Subjects will be found at the end of this Volume.]</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align="center"><small>NO.</small></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Animals Enter the Ark</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ark">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">War-Horses and Ancient Egyptian Chariot</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#war_horses">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shepherd Leading Sheep and Goats to their Fold in the Rock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#shepherd">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Desert-Scene</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#desert">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Garden of Eden</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#eden">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lion Drinking at a Pool</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lion">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Lion Kills the Prophet from Judah</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#prophet">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lion and Tiger</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#tiger">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lion Replies to the Thunder</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#thunder">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lioness and Young</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lioness">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lion Carrying Home Supplies</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#supplies">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">African Lions</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#african">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lion Attacks the Herd</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#attacks">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lair of the Lion</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lair">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lion Listens to the Approach of the Hunter</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#listens">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Leopard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#leopard">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Leopard Attacking a Herd of Deer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#attacking">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Leopard Leaps upon his Prey</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#leaps">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Waiting</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#waiting">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Leopard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#leo">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cat and Kittens</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#kittens">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cat</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cat">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dogs in an Eastern City at Night</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dog">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shimei Exulting over King David</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#shimei">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lazarus Lying at the Rich Man's Door</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lazarus">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Death of Jezebel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#jezebel">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>27.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Syrian Dog</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Water-Seller</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#water">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">29.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wolves Attacking a Flock of Sheep</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#attack">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wolves Chasing Deer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chasing">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">31.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Wolf</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wolf">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">32.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wolves Attacking Wild Goats</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#goats">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">33.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Jackal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#jackal">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">34.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Foxes or Jackals Devouring the Carcase of a Goat</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#jackals">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">35.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Feast in Prospect</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#prospect">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">36.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Feast Secured</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#secured">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">37.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Trespasser</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#trespasser">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">38.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Leopard Robbed of its Prey by Hyænas</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#robbed">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">39.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hyænas Devouring Bones</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#devouring">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">40.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Weasels</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#weasels">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">41.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Biter Bit</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#biter">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">42.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Badgers</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#badgers">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">43.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Supposed Form and Arrangement of the Tabernacle</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#supposed">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">44.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bears Descending the Mountains</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#descending">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">45.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">On the Watch</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#watch">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">46.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Seeking an Outlook</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#seeking">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">47.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Family Party</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#party">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">48.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bear</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bear">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">49.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Porcupine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#porcupine">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">50.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mole-Rat</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mole">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">51.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mouse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mice">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">52.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dagon Fallen Down before the Ark</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dagon">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">53.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mouse and Nest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#nest">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">54.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jerboa or Leaping-Mouse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#jerboa">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">55.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Field-Mouse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#field">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">56.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Syrian Hare</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hare">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">57.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Timid Group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#timid">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">58.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Altar of Burnt-Offering</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#altar">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">59.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Prodigal Son Returns</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#prodigal">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">60.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Abraham Offers Food to the Three Strangers</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#abraham">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">61.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Oxen Treading Out Grain</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#oxen">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">62.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Ox-Cart</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#eastern">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>63.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Ark of the Covenant being Drawn by Cows</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#covenant">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">64.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ploughing with Oxen</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ploughing">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">65.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mummy of a Sacred Bull taken from an Egyptian Tomb</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mummy">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">66.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Animals being Sold for Sacrifice in the Porch of the Temple</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sacrifice">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">67.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jeroboam Sets up a Golden Calf at Bethel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#golden">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">68.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Buffalo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#buffalo">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">69.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bhainsa, or Domestic Buffalo, and Camel Drawing the Plough</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#domestic">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">70.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wild Bull or Oryx</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wild">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">71.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Oryx</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#oryx">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">72.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Unicorn</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#unicorn">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">73.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bison</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bison">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">74.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bison Killing Wolf</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#killing">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">75.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Gazelle or Roe of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#roe">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">76.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Gazelles</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#gazelles">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">77.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Falcon Used in Our Hunt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#falcon">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">78.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Arab is Delighted at the Success of the Hunt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#arab">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">79.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Gazelle</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#gaze">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">80.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Addax</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#addax">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">81.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bubale or Fallow Deer of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#scripture">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">82.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sheep</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sheep">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">83.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Arabs Journeying to Fresh Pastures</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fresh">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">84.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">View of the Pyramids</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#pyramids">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">85.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jacob Meets Rachel at the Well</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rachel">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">86.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Shepherd Watching his Flock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#western">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">87.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">David Gathers Stones from the Brook to Cast at Goliath</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#david">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">88.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Eastern Shepherd</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#west">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">89.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sheep Following their Shepherd</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#following">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">90.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ancient Sheep-Pen</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#pen">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">91.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Poor Man's Lamb</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#poor">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">92.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rich Man's Feast</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rich">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">93.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Flocks of Sheep being taken into Jerusalem</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#flocks">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">94.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sounding the Trumpets in the Year of Jubilee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sounding">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">95.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ram's Horn Trumpet</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#horn">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>96.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Lamb upon the Altar of Burnt Offering</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#burnt">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">97.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Place of Sacrifice</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#place">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">98.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chamois</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chamois">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">99.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chamois Defending its Young</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#defending">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chasing the Aoudad</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chase">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">101.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mouflon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mouflon">216</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">102.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jacob Deceives his Father and Takes Esau's Blessing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#deceives">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">103.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Angel Appears to Gideon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#gideon">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">104.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Water-Carriers with Bottles made of Goat-Skin</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#carriers">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">105.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Goats on the March</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#march">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">106.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Herd of Goats Attacked by a Lion</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#attacked">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">107.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Arabian Ibex, the Wild Goat of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ibex">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">108.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Deer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#deer">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">109.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Red Deer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#red">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">110.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fallow Deer or Hind of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hind">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">111.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Quiet Spot</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#quiet">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">112.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Red Deer and Fawn</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#blue">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">113.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Leader of the Herd</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#leader">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">114.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Watchful Doe</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#watchful">247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">115.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Kneeling Camel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#kneeling">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">116.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jacob Leaves Laban and Returns to Canaan</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#returns">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">117.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Camp in the Desert</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#camp">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">118.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Grateful Shade</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#shade">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">119.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Camels Laden with Boughs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#laden">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">120.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Morning in the Desert: Starting of the Caravan</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#morning">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">121.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Camel Post</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#post">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">122.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Runaway</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#runaway">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">123.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Arab Sheik Mounted Upon his Camel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sheik">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">124.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Aaron's Rod bears Almonds</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rod">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">125.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Camel Riding</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#riding">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">126.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Deloul, or Swift Camel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swift">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">127.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Another Mode of Riding the Camel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mode">270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">128.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Passing a Camel in a Narrow Street of an Eastern City</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#passing">277</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">129.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Moses at the Burning Bush</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bush">278</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>130.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Arab Encampment</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#encampment">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">131.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">On the March</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#marches">281</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">132.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hair of the Camel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hair">283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">133.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Camel Going through a "Needle's Eye"</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#needle">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">134.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Rest in the Desert</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rest">287</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">135.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bactrian Camels Drawing Cart</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bactrian">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">136.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Trial of Arab Horses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#trial">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">137.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Arab Horse of the Kochlani Breed</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#breed">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">138.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The War-Horse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#war">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">139.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Arab Horses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#horses">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">140.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Buying an Arab Horse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#buying">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">141.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Arab's Favorite Steeds</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#steed">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">142.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites with Chariots and Horses, and the Sea covers them</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#pursues">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">143.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Elijah is Carried Up</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#carried">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">144.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Israelites, led by Joshua, take Jericho</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#joshua">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">145.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ancient Battlefield</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ancient">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">146.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chariot of State</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chariot">311</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">147.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ancient Egyptian Sculpture Representing a Victorious King in his Chariot Slaying his Enemies</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sculpture">313</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">148.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mummy of an Egyptian King over Three Thousand Years Old</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#egyptian">314</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">149.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ass and Driver</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ass">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">150.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Entering Jerusalem</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#entering">317</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">151.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Syrian Asses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#asses">319</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">152.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Street in Cairo, Egypt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cairo">322</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">153.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Beggar in the Streets of Cairo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#beggar">324</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">154.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Night-Watch in Cairo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#night">325</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">155.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hunting Wild Asses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hunt">331</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">156.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mules of the East</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mules">334</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">157.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Absalom is Caught in the Boughs of an Oak Tree</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#absalom">335</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">158.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Daniel Refuses to Eat the King's Meat</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#refuses">337</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">159.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Prodigal Son</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#prodigals">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">160.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eleazar Refuses to Eat Swine's Flesh</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swine">341</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">161.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Mother and her Seven Sons Tortured for Refusing to Eat Swine's Flesh</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#seven">342</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">162.</td><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span><span class="smcap">The Evil Spirits enter a Herd or Swine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#evil">343</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">163.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wild Boars Devouring the Carcase of a Deer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#carcase">344</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">164.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wild Boars</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wilder">345</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">165.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wild Boars Destroying a Vineyard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#vineyard">347</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">166.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Indian Elephant</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#indian">349</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">167.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">King Solomon, Seated upon his Throne, Receives the Queen of Sheba</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sheba">350</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">168.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Indian Elephants</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#elephants">351</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">169.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The War-Elephant</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ward">355</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">170.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">African Elephants</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#afric">359</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">171.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Elephants' Watering-Place</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swatter">361</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">172.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tiger</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#tigers">363</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">173.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tiger in the Reeds</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#reeds">364</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">174.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head of Tiger</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#tigger">365</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">175.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hyrax</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hyrax">367</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">176.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hippo">372</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">177.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hippopotamus Pool</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hip">375</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">178.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Great Jaws of the Hippopotamus</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#jaws">376</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">179.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hippopotamus Emerging from the River</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hipp">377</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">180.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hippopotamus Eating Grass</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#grass">379</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">181.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Hippopotamus-Hunt in Egypt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hippohunt">381</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">182.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hippopotamus and Trap</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#trap">384</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">183.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Baboon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#baboon">387</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">184.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rhesus Monkey</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rhesus">389</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">185.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Feeding the Monkeys in India</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#india">390</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">186.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Troublesome Neighbors</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#trouble">391</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">187.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Monkeys Entering a Plantation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#centering">392</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">188.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Slothful Monkeys</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#slothful">393</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">189.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Privileged Race</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#privileged">394</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">190.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Wanderoo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wanderoo">396</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">191.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Enemy Discovered</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#discovered">397</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">192.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bonnet Monkeys</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bonnet">399</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">193.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bat</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bat">401</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">194.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bats' Resting-Place</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rests">403</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">195.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Great Fox-Headed Bat, or Flying Fox</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#great">405</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">196.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cave Near the Site of Ancient Jericho</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cave">406</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>197.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Night in the Tropics</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#tropics">407</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">198.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Leopards</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#leopards">408</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">199.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Home of the Vulture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#vulture">411</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">200.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lämmergeier</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lammer">412</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">201.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Successful Defence</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#defence">415</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">202.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Struck from a Dizzy Height</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dizzy">417</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">203.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Vulture's Nest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#vultures">418</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">204.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Egyptian Vulture, or Gier Eagle</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#gier">420</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">205.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Vultures</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#vult">425</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">206.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Eagle and the Hare</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hares">430</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">207.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eagles</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#eagles">432</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">208.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eagle Returning to the Nest with her Prey</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#prey">435</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">209.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Osprey Searching for Fish</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#osprey">437</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">210.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Snatched from the Deep: The Osprey Rises with his Prey</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#snatched">439</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">211.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Kite, or Vulture of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#kite">441</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">212.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Peregrine Falcon, or Glede</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#peregrine">444</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">213.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lanner Falcon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lanner">446</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">214.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hawk</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hawk">447</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">215.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Kestrel Hovering Over a Field in Search of Prey</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#kestrel">449</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">216.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Wind-hover, or Kestrel</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hover">450</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">217.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Barn Owl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#barn">454</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">218.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Little Owl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#little">456</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">219.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Caught Napping</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#napping">457</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">220.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Raven.&mdash;Barn Owl.&mdash;Eagle Owl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#group">459</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">221.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Family Council</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#council">460</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">222.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Night Hawk on the Wing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swing">462</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">223.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Night Hawk</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#nacht">463</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">224.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Swallow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swallow">466</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">225.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lost from the Flock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lost">469</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">226.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Swallow and Swift</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swifter">471</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">227.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">View of the Sea of Galilee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#galilee">472</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">228.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Swallow's Favorite Haunt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#haunt">473</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">229.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Swallows at Home</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#home">475</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">230.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hoopoe</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lapwing">478</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">231.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Housetops</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#housetop">479</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>232.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Reading the Law to the People after the Return from Captivity</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#reading">482</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">233.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Blue Thrush, or Sparrow of Scripture</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#thrush">483</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">234.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Tree Sparrow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#treesparrow">485</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">235.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sparrows</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sparrows">486</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">236.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Forest Scene</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#forest">487</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">237.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Great Spotted Cuckoo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cuckoo">488</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">238.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Noah Receives the Dove</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#noah">489</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">239.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jesus Drives Out of the Temple the Moneychangers and Those who Sold Doves</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#changers">493</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">240.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rock Dove</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#rockdove">494</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">241.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Blue Rock Pigeons</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bluerock">495</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">242.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Turtle Dove</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#turtledove">497</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">243.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hen and her Brood</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#brood">498</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">244.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Domestic Fowl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fowl">499</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">245.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Poultry</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#poultry">500</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">246.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Peacock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#peacock">501</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">247.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Peafowl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#peacocks">503</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">248.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Feathers of the Peacock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#feathers">504</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">249.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Partridges</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#partridge">505</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">250.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Greek Partridge</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#greek">507</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">251.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Partridge and their Young</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#young">508</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">252.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eastern Quail</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#easternquail">509</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">253.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Quail</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#quail">510</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">254.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Flight of Quail</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#flight">515</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">255.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Raven</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#raven">517</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">256.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Elijah Fed by Ravens</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#elijah">518</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">257.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ravens' Roosting-Place</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#roostingplace">521</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">258.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ravens' Nest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ravennest">522</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">259.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ostrich and Nest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ostrich">527</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">260.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Arabs Hunting the Ostrich</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#arabs">533</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">261.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bittern</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bittern">537</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">262.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Bittern and Cormorant</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cormorant">539</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">263.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Home of the Bittern</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wetland">541</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">264.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Heron</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sharon">543</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">265.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Home of the Heron</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#homerun">545</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>266.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Papyrus Plant</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#papyrus">548</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">267.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Home of the Crane</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chrome">549</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">268.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Crane</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#crane">550</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">269.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Stork</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#stork">553</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">270.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Storks and their Nests</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#storker">555</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">271.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Nest of the White Stork</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#white">559</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">272.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ibis and Gallinule</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ibis">561</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">273.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pelican</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#pelican">568</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">274.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lizards</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#lizards">575</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">275.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tortoises</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#tortoises">577</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">276.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Dhubb and the Tortoise</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dhubb">578</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">277.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Water Tortoise</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#wasser">579</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">278.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Crocodile Attacking Horses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#crocodile">587</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">279.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Crocodile Pool of Ancient Egypt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#crocpool">590</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">280.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Crocodiles of the Upper Nile</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#nile">591</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">281.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ichneumon Devouring the Eggs of the Crocodile</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ich">597</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">282.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Crocodile Trap</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#croctrap">599</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">283.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Fight for Life</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#life">601</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">284.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cyprius, or Lizard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#cyprius">602</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">285.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chameleon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#chameleon">605</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">286.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Gecko and Chameleon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#gecko">606</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">287.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Gecko</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#under">609</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">288.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Serpents</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#serpents">611</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">289.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Boa Constrictor and Tiger</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#constrictor">613</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">290.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cobra and Cerastes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#asp">615</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">291.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Israelites are Bitten by Serpents in the Wilderness, and Moses Lifts Up the Serpent of Brass</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#brass">616</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">292.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Serpent-Charmer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#charmer">619</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">293.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Viper</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#viper">621</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">294.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Teaching Cobras to Dance</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dance">623</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">295.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Horned Viper</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#horned">625</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">296.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Viper, or Epheh</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#epheh">627</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">297.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Toxicoa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#toxicoa">628</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">298.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Frog</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#frog">630</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">299.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fishes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fishes">633</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">300.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A River Scene</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#river">635</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>301.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Peter Catches the Fish</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#peter">636</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">302.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Muræna, Long-Headed Barbel, and Sheat Fish</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#barbel">638</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">303.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sucking Fish, Tunny, and Coryphene</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#sucking">640</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">304.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fishing Scene on the Sea of Galilee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#galilees">642</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">305.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mode of Dragging the Seine Net</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#dragging">645</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">306.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Nile Perch, Surmullet, and Star-gazer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#perch">647</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">307.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#oyster">653</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">308.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Insects</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#insects">655</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">309.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Swarm of Locusts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#swarm">659</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">310.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Locust</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#locust">663</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">311.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#bee">665</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">312.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hornet and its Nest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#hornet">669</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">313.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ants on the March</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ants">671</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">314.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ant of Palestine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#ant">675</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">315.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Crimson Worm</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#crimson">677</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">316.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mordecai is Led through the City upon the King's Horse</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#mordecai">679</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">317.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Butterflies of Palestine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#butterflies">682</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">318.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Noxious Flies of Palestine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#flies">685</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">319.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Scorpion</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#scorpion">690</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">320.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coral</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#coral">694</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="eden" id="eden"></a>
+<img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="450" height="418" alt="eden" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE LION.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures&mdash;The Lion employed as an emblem
+in the Bible&mdash;Similarity of the African and Asiatic species&mdash;The chief characteristics
+of the Lion&mdash;its strength, activity, and mode of seizing its prey&mdash;The
+Lion hunt.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned
+so frequently as the <span class="smcap">Lion</span>. This may appear the more
+remarkable, because for many years the Lion has been extinct
+in Palestine. The leopard, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna,
+still retain their place in the land, although their numbers are
+comparatively few; but the Lion has vanished completely out of
+the land. The reason for this disappearance is twofold, first,
+the thicker population; and second, the introduction of
+firearms.</p>
+
+<p>No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In
+the first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+whenever it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There
+are, of course, exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a Lion
+becomes so old and stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance
+so slight, that he is unable to chase his usual prey, and is
+obliged to seek for other means of subsistence. In an unpopulated
+district, he would simply be starved to death, but when
+his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human beings, he is perforce
+obliged to become a "man-eater." Even in that case, a
+Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do so
+unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women
+as they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children
+as they stray from their parents, and continually shifting his
+quarters lest he should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion
+requires a very large tract of country for his maintenance, and
+the consequence is, that in proportion as the land is populated
+does the number of Lions decrease.</p>
+
+<p>Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. In the first place,
+the Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of
+the gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpassing
+even his roar in resonance; and lastly, there is the unseen
+bullet, which seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to
+furious anger by the pain of his wound, yet which he does not
+dread nearly so much as the harmless flash and report. There is
+another cause of the Lion's banishment from the Holy Land.
+It is well known that to attract any wild beast or bird to some
+definite spot, all that is required is to provide them with a suitable
+and undisturbed home, and a certainty of food. Consequently,
+the surest method of driving them away is to deprive
+them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in
+forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but
+which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of
+its home, while the thick population and the general use of firearms
+have deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been
+driven out of Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated
+from England.</p>
+
+<p>But, in the olden times, Lions must have been very plentiful.
+There is scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or
+New Testaments, whether historical or prophetical, that does not
+contain some mention of this terrible animal; sometimes describing
+the actions of individual Lions, but mostly using the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a><br /><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+word as an emblem of strength and force, whether used for a
+good purpose or abused for a bad one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lion" id="lion"></a>
+<img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="600" height="408" alt="lion" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LION DRINKING AT A POOL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="prophet" id="prophet"></a>
+<img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="450" height="388" alt="prophet" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A LION KILLS THE PROPHET FROM JUDAH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to
+two, namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost
+certain, however, that these animals really are one and the same
+species, and that the trifling differences which exist between an
+African and an Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a
+naturalist in considering them to be distinct species. The habits
+of both are identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the
+difference of locality; but then, such variations in habit are continually
+seen in animals confessedly of the same species, which
+happen to be placed in different conditions of climate and
+locality.</p>
+
+<p>That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident,
+from a very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is
+every where mentioned as a well-known animal, equally familiar
+and dreaded. When the disobedient prophet was killed by the
+Lion near Bethel, the fact seemed not to have caused any surprise
+in the neighbourhood. When the people came out to
+rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered much because the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, and
+had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a
+man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently
+rare to be surprising.</p>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion
+which bear especial reference to the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest
+of beasts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="tiger" id="tiger"></a>
+<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="450" height="378" alt="tiger" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LION AND TIGER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Moreover, the strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the
+body and limbs, giving to the animal an easy grace of movement
+which is rare except with such a structure. A full-grown Lion
+cannot only knock down and kill, but can carry away in its
+mouth, an ordinary ox; and one of these terrible animals has been
+known to pick up a heifer in its mouth, and to leap over a wide
+ditch still carrying its burden. Another Lion carried a two-year
+old heifer, and was chased for five hours by mounted farmers, so
+that it must have traversed a very considerable distance. Yet, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the whole of this long journey, the legs of the heifer had only
+two or three times touched the ground.</p>
+
+<p>It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deer
+and antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw; and often needs
+to give no second blow to cause the death of its victim. The
+sharp talons are not needed to cause death, for the weight of the
+blow is sufficient for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion,
+there is often a great slaughter among them, especially among
+those that are inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by
+their instinctive antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot
+where the Lion awaits them, and old hounds bay at him from a
+safe distance, while the young and inexperienced among them
+are apt to convert the sham attack into a real one. Their valour
+meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from the Lion's terrible
+paws send his assailants flying in all directions, their bodies
+streaming with blood, and in most cases a fatal damage inflicted,
+while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by the
+weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body.
+There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals
+shot by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Cumming. Although
+the skin lies flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but
+the skin and talons, the weight of each paw is very considerable,
+and always surprises those who hear it fall on the floor.</p>
+
+<p>There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion,
+but that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived
+from an Arabic word signifying strength; and therefore the
+Lion is called the Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night-flier.
+No epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to
+be a very incarnation of strength, and, even when dead, gives as
+vivid an idea of concentrated power as when it was living.
+And, when the skin is stripped from the body, the tremendous
+muscular development never fails to create a sensation of awe.
+The muscles of the limbs, themselves so hard as to blunt the
+keen-edged knives employed by a dissecter, are enveloped in
+their glittering sheaths, playing upon each other like well-oiled
+machinery, and terminating in tendons seemingly strong as steel,
+and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not until the skin is removed
+can any one form a conception of the enormously powerful
+muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a><br /><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of
+security.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 328px;"><a name="thunder" id="thunder"></a>
+<img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="328" height="600" alt="thunder" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LION REPLIES TO THE THUNDER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one
+of the most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to
+fight, and if its anger is excited, it cares little for the number of
+its foes, or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the
+dreaded firearms lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a
+Lioness, who fears for the safety of her young, is simply the
+most terrible animal in existence. We know how even a hen
+will fight for her chickens, and how she has been known to beat
+off the fox and the hawk by the reckless fury of her attack.
+It may be easily imagined, therefore, that a Lioness actuated by
+equal courage, and possessed of the terrible weapons given to
+her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too formidable
+for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed the
+scene of a Lioness defending her little ones.</p>
+
+<p>The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which
+it is celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that
+could for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The
+Lion has a habit of stooping his head towards the ground when
+he roars, so that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and
+reverberates in many an echo in the far distance. Owing to this
+curious habit, the roar can be heard at a very great distance, but its
+locality is rendered uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite
+sure whether the Lion is to the right or the left of the hearer.</p>
+
+<p>There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's
+roar. Even at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows
+that he is in perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a
+small cage faced with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible
+roar always has a curious effect upon the nerves. It is not
+exactly fear, because the hearer knows that he is safe; but it is
+somewhat akin to the feeling of mixed awe and admiration with
+which one listens to the crashing thunder after the lightning has
+sped its course. If such be the case when the Lion is safely
+housed in a cage, and is moreover so tame that even if he did
+escape, he would be led back by the keeper without doing any
+harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when the
+Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the
+shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short
+distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="lioness" id="lioness"></a>
+<img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="lioness" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LIONESS AND YOUNG.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost
+every hunter has told a similar story&mdash;of the Lion's approach at
+night, of the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew
+near, and of the utter inability to see him, though he was so
+close that they could hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he
+has crept near an encampment, or close to a cattle inclosure, he
+does not proceed any farther lest he should venture within the
+radius illumined by the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely
+to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks so like a large
+stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass close to it
+without perceiving its real nature. This gives the opportunity
+for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he
+strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to
+the den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies
+the charge with a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey
+in silence.</p>
+
+<p>The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere outburst
+of sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No description
+of the Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as
+that of Gordon Cumming: "One of the most striking things
+connected with the Lion is his voice, which is extremely grand
+and peculiarly striking. It consists at times of a low, deep
+moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly audible
+sighs. At other times he startles the forest with loud, deep-toned,
+solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succession,
+each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his
+voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much
+resembling distant thunder. As a general rule, Lions roar during
+the night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of
+evening envelop the forest, and continuing at intervals throughout
+the night. In distant and secluded regions, however, I have
+constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten
+o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather
+they are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is
+subdued."</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This
+animal always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest,
+through which it threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty.
+No fox knows every hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert
+better than the Lion knows the whole country around his den.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Each Lion seems to have his peculiar district, in which only
+himself and his family will be found. These animals seem to
+parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a tacit law
+like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed upon
+themselves, and which forbids them to go out of the district in
+which they were born. During the night he traverses his
+dominions; and, as a rule, he retires to his den as soon as the
+sun is fairly above the horizon. Sometimes he will be in wait
+for prey in the broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are
+nocturnal, and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his secret
+dwelling-place.</p>
+
+<p>We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the
+Lion is mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which
+treat of its various characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated
+reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by
+Jacob on his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah
+is predicted under the metaphor of a Lion&mdash;the beginning of its
+power as a Lion's whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult
+Lion, and its matured establishment in power as the old Lion
+that couches himself and none dares to disturb him. Then
+Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the Lion as the "strongest
+among beasts, and that turneth not away for any."</p>
+
+<p>Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Prov.
+xxviii. 1, in the well-known passage, "The wicked fleeth when
+no man pursueth: but the righteous are bold as a lion." And,
+in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, the courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty
+three of David's army, is specially honoured, because he fought
+and killed a Lion single-handed, and because he conquered
+"two lion-like men of Moab." David, their leader, had also distinguished
+himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, by pursuing
+and killing a Lion that had come to plunder his herd. In the
+same book of Samuel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10),
+the valiant men are metaphorically described as having the
+hearts of Lions.</p>
+
+<p>The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned,
+and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and
+anger of enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion.</p>
+
+<p>Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable
+that the Hebrew language contains several words by which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+different kind of roar is described. One word, for example,
+represents the low, deep, thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking
+its prey, and which has already been mentioned. This is the
+word which is used in Amos iii. 4, "Will a lion roar in the
+forest when he hath no prey?" and in this passage the word
+which is translated as Lion signifies the animal when full grown
+and in the prime of life. Another word is used to signify the
+sudden exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A
+third is used for the angry growl with which a Lion resents any
+endeavour to deprive it of its prey, a sound with which we are
+all familiar, on a miniature scale, when we hear a cat growling
+over a mouse which she has just caught. The fourth term signifies
+the peculiar roar uttered by the young Lion after it has ceased
+to be a cub and before it has attained maturity. This last term
+is employed in Jer. li. 38, "They shall <em>roar</em> together like lions;
+they shall <em>yell</em> as lions' whelps," in which passage two distinct
+words are used, one signifying the roar of the Lion when searching
+after prey, and the other the cry of the young Lions.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was
+familiar with the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his
+cattle, makes frequent mention of the Lion, and does so with a force
+and vigour that betoken practical experience. How powerful is
+this imagery, "The lion hath roared; who will not fear? The Lord
+God hath spoken; who can but prophesy?" Here we have the
+picture of the man himself, the herdsman and prophet, who had
+trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer and nearer;
+and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his lips poured out
+prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel
+which he has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and
+may bear comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its
+simple grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the
+spirit of the world around them, and how closely they observed
+the minutest details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There
+is a powerful passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old
+lion perisheth for lack of prey," in which the writer betrays his
+thorough knowledge of the habits of the animal, and is aware
+that the usual mode of a Lion's death is through hunger, in consequence
+of his increasing inability to catch prey.</p>
+
+<p>The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+wait for prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former
+habit is spoken of in that familiar and beautiful passage in
+the Psalms (civ. 20), "Thou makest darkness, and it is night;
+wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young
+Lions roar after their prey; and seek their meat from God. The
+sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down
+in their dens."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="supplies" id="supplies"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="450" height="435" alt="supplies" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LION CARRYING HOME SUPPLIES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could
+not be allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as
+we have already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so
+successful, that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in
+Palestine. The usual method of capturing or killing the Lion
+was by pitfalls or nets, to both of which there are many references
+in the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with
+that which is practised in India at the present time. The precise
+locality of the Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered,
+a circular wall of net is arranged round it, or if only a few nets
+can be obtained, they are set in a curved form, the concave side
+being towards the Lion. They then send dogs into the thicket,
+hurl stones and sticks at the den, shoot arrows into it, fling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a><br /><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+burning torches at it, and so irritate and alarm the animal that it
+rushes against the net, which is so made that it falls down and
+envelopes the animal in its folds. If the nets be few, the drivers
+go to the opposite side of the den, and induce the Lion to escape
+in the direction where he sees no foes, but where he is sure to run
+against the treacherous net. Other large and dangerous animals
+were also captured by the same means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="african" id="african"></a>
+<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="450" height="346" alt="african" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AFRICAN LIONS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper
+method was, by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a
+slight covering of sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon
+the treacherous covering. It is an easier method than the net,
+because after the pit is once dug, the only trouble lies in throwing
+the covering over its mouth. But, it is not so well adapted
+for taking beasts alive, as they are likely to be damaged, either
+by the fall into the pit, or by the means used in getting them
+out again. Animals, therefore, that are caught in pits are
+generally, though not always, killed before they are taken out.
+The net, however, envelops the animal so perfectly, and renders
+it so helpless, that it can be easily bound and taken away. The
+hunting net is very expensive, and requires a large staff of men to
+work it, so that none but a rich man could use it in hunting.</p>
+
+<p>The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall
+in hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be sufficient
+to mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the
+Psalmist laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net
+in a pit, and that the proud have digged pits for him.</p>
+
+<p>Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive
+in dens, either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal
+vengeance. Such seems to have been the object of the Lions
+which were kept by Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown,
+by royal command, and which afterwards killed his accusers
+when thrown into the same den. It is plain that the Lions kept
+by Darius must have been exceedingly numerous, because they
+killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who were many in number,
+together with their wives and children, who, in accordance with
+the cruel custom of that age and country, were partakers of
+the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole of the
+first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking Lions alive
+and keeping them in durance afterwards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amusement
+seems to have been restricted to the great men, on account
+of its expensive nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically
+depicted in the famous Nineveh sculptures, which represent the
+hunters pursuing their mighty game in chariots, and destroying
+them with arrows. Rude, and even conventional as are these
+sculptures, they have a spirit, a force, and a truthfulness, that
+prove them to have been designed by artists to whom the scene
+was a familiar one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="attacks" id="attacks"></a>
+<img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="450" height="418" alt="attacks" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LION ATTACKS THE HERD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Upon the African Continent the Lion reigns supreme, monarch
+of the feline race.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be said of the distinction between the Asiatic
+and African Lion, there seems to be scarcely sufficient grounds for
+considering the very slight differences a sufficient warrant for constituting
+separate species. From all accounts, it seems that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a><br /><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+habits of all Lions are very similar, and that a Lion acts like a
+Lion whether found in Africa or Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lair" id="lair"></a>
+<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="600" height="334" alt="lair" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LAIR OF THE LION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An old Boer, as the Dutch settlers of Southern Africa are called,
+gave me a most interesting account of an adventure with a Lion.</p>
+
+<p>The man was a well-known hunter, and lived principally by the
+sale of ivory and skins. He was accustomed each year to make a
+trip into the game country, and traded with the Kaffirs, or native
+blacks, under very favorable auspices. His stock in trade consisted
+of guns and ammunition, several spans of fine oxen, some horses,
+and about a dozen dogs.</p>
+
+<p>A Lion which appeared to have been roaming about the country
+happened to pass near this hunter's camp, and scenting the horses
+and oxen, evidently thought that the location would suit him for a
+short period. A dense wood situated about a mile from the camp
+afforded shelter, and this spot the Lion selected as a favorable position
+for his headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>The hunter had not to wait for more than a day, before the suspicions
+which had been aroused by some broad footmarks, which he
+saw imprinted in the soil, were confirmed into a certainty that a
+large Lion was concealed near his residence.</p>
+
+<p>It now became a question of policy whether the Boer should
+attack the Lion, or wait for the Lion to attack him. He thought
+it possible that the savage beast, having been warned off by the
+dogs, whose barking had been continued and furious during the
+night on which the Lion was supposed to have passed, might think
+discretion the better part of valor, and consequently would move
+farther on, in search of a less carefully guarded locality upon
+which to quarter himself. He determined, therefore, to wait, but
+to use every precaution against a night-surprise.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion, however, was more than a match for the man; for
+during the second night a strong ox from his best span was quietly
+carried off, and, although there was some commotion among the
+dogs and cattle, it was then thought that the alarm had scared the
+Lion away.</p>
+
+<p>The morning light, however, showed that the beast had leaped
+the fence which surrounded the camp, and, having killed the ox,
+had evidently endeavored to scramble over it again with the ox in
+his possession. The weight of the Lion and the ox had caused the
+stakes to give way, and the Lion had easily carried off his prey
+through the aperture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The track of the Lion was immediately followed by the Boer,
+who took with him a negro and half a dozen of his best dogs. The
+tracks were easily seen, and the hunter had no difficulty in deciding
+that the Lion was in the wood previously mentioned. But this
+in itself was no great advance, for the place was overgrown with a
+dense thicket of thorn-bushes, creepers, and long grass, forming a
+jungle so thick and impenetrable that for a man to enter seemed
+almost impossible.</p>
+
+<p>It was therefore agreed that the Boer should station himself on
+one side, while the negro went to the other side of the jungle, the
+dogs meanwhile being sent into the thicket.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement, it was hoped, would enable either the hunter
+or the negro to obtain a shot; for they concluded that the dogs,
+which were very courageous animals, would drive the Lion out of
+the bushes.</p>
+
+<p>The excited barking of the dogs soon indicated that they had
+discovered the Lion, but they appeared to be unable to drive him
+from his stronghold; for, although they would scamper away every
+now and then, as though the enraged monster was chasing them,
+still they returned to bark at the same spot.</p>
+
+<p>Both of the hunters fired several shots, with the hope that a
+stray bullet might find its way through the underwood to the heart
+of the savage beast, but a great quantity of ammunition was expended
+and no result achieved.</p>
+
+<p>At length, as the dogs had almost ceased to bark, it was considered
+advisable to call them off. But all the whistling and
+shouting failed to recall more than two out of the six, and one of
+these was fearfully wounded. The others, it was afterwards found,
+had been killed by the Lion: a blow from his paw had sufficed to
+break the back or smash the skull of all which had come within
+his reach.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the first attempt on the Lion was a total failure, and the
+hunter returned home lamenting the loss of his dogs, and during
+the night watched beside his enclosure; but the Lion did not pay
+him a second visit.</p>
+
+<p>Early on the following evening, accompanied by the negro, he
+started afresh for the wood; and, having marked the spot from
+which the Lion had on the former occasion quitted the dense
+thorny jungle, the two hunters ascended a tree and watched during
+the whole night in the hope of obtaining a shot at the hated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+marauder. But while they were paying the residence of the Lion
+a visit <em>he</em> favored the camp with a call, and this time, by way of
+variety, carried away a very valuable horse, which he conveyed to
+the wood, being wise enough to walk out and to return by a different
+path from that he had previously used, consequently avoiding
+the ambush prepared for him.</p>
+
+<p>When the hunter returned to his camp, he was furious at this
+new loss, and determined upon a plan which, though dangerous,
+still appeared the most likely to insure the destruction of the
+ravenous monster.</p>
+
+<p>This plan was to enter the wood alone, without attendant or
+dogs, and with noiseless, stealthy movements creep near enough
+to the Lion to obtain a shot.</p>
+
+<p>Now, when we consider the difficulty of moving through thick
+bushes without making a noise, and remember the watchful habits
+of every member of the cat tribe, we may be certain that to surprise
+the Lion was a matter of extreme difficulty, and that the
+probability was that the hunter would meet with disaster.</p>
+
+<p>At about ten o'clock on the morning after the horse-slaughter,
+the hunter started for the wood armed with a double-barrelled
+smooth-bore gun, and prepared to put forth his utmost skill in
+stalking his dangerous enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Now, it is the nature of the Lion, when gorged, to sleep during
+the day; and if the animal has carried off any prey, it usually
+conceals itself near the remnants of its feast, to watch them until
+ready for another meal.</p>
+
+<p>The hunter was aware of this, and laid his plans very judiciously.
+He approached the wood slowly and silently, found the track of
+the Lion, and began tracing it to find the spot where the remains
+of the horse could be seen.</p>
+
+<p>He moved forward very slowly and with great caution, being
+soon surrounded by the thick bushes, the brightness of the plain
+also being succeeded by the deep gloom of the wood. Being an
+experienced hand at bush-craft, he was able to walk or crawl without
+causing either a dried stick to crack or a leaf to rustle, and he
+was aware that his progress was without noise; for the small birds,
+usually so watchful and alert, flew away only when he approached
+close to them, thus showing that their eyes, and not their ears, had
+made them conscious of the presence of man.</p>
+
+<p>Birds and monkeys are the great obstacles in the bush to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a><br /><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+success of a surprise, for the birds fly from tree to tree and whistle
+or twitter, whilst the monkeys chatter and grimace, expressing by
+all sorts of actions that a strange creature is approaching. When,
+therefore, the bushranger finds that birds and monkeys are unconscious
+of his presence until they see him, he may be satisfied that
+he has traversed the bush with tolerable silence, and has vanquished
+such dangerous betrayers of his presence as dried sticks
+and dead leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="listens" id="listens"></a>
+<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="600" height="429" alt="listens" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LION LISTENS TO THE APPROACH OF THE HUNTER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hunter had not proceeded thus more than fifty yards into
+the jungle, before he found indications that he was close upon the
+lair of the Lion: a strong leonine scent was noticeable, and part of
+the carcase of his horse was visible between the bushes. Instead,
+therefore, of advancing farther, as an incautious or inexperienced
+bushranger would have done, he crouched down behind a bush and
+remained motionless.</p>
+
+<p>All animals are aware of the advantages of a surprise, and the
+cat tribe especially practise the ambuscading system. The hunter,
+therefore, determined, if possible, to turn the tables on the Lion,
+and to surprise, rather than to be surprised.</p>
+
+<p>He concluded that the Lion, even when gorged with horseflesh,
+would not be so neglectful of his safety as to sleep with more than
+one eye closed, and that, although he had crept with great care
+through the bush, he had probably, from some slight sound, caused
+the Lion to be on the alert; if, therefore, he should approach the
+carcase of the horse, he might be pounced upon at once.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining silent and watchful for several minutes, the
+hunter at length saw that an indistinctly-outlined object was moving
+behind some large broad-leafed plants at about twenty paces
+from him.</p>
+
+<p>This object was the Lion. It was crouched behind some shrubs,
+attentively watching the bushes where the hunter was concealed.
+Its head only was clearly visible, the body being hidden by the
+foliage.</p>
+
+<p>It was evident that the Lion was suspicious of something, but
+was not certain that anything had approached.</p>
+
+<p>The hunter, knowing that this was a critical period for him,
+remained perfectly quiet. He did not like to risk a shot at the
+forehead of the Lion, for it would require a very sure aim to
+insure a death-wound, and the number of twigs and branches
+would be almost certain to deflect the bullet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Lion, after a careful inspection, appeared to be satisfied, and
+laid down behind the shrubs. The hunter then cocked both barrels
+of his heavy gun and turned the muzzle slowly around, so that
+he covered the spot on which the Lion lay, and shifted his position
+so as to be well placed for a shot.</p>
+
+<p>The slight noise he made in moving, attracted the attention of
+the Lion, who immediately rose to his feet. A broadside shot,
+which was the most sure, could not be obtained, so the hunter fired
+at the head of the animal, aiming for a spot between the eyes.
+The ball struck high, as is usually the case when the distance is
+short, and the charge of powder heavy, but the Lion fell over on
+its back, rising, however, almost immediately and uttering a terrific
+roar.</p>
+
+<p>In regaining its feet it turned its side to the hunter, giving him
+the opportunity he had so anxiously waited for. Aiming at a
+spot behind the shoulder, he fired again, and had the satisfaction
+of seeing the savage beast, maddened by the pain of a mortal
+wound, tearing up the ground in its fury within a very few paces
+of his hiding-place.</p>
+
+<p>By degrees its fierce roars subsided into angry growls, and the
+growls into heavy moans, until the terrible voice was hushed and
+silence reigned throughout the wood.</p>
+
+<p>The hunter immediately started off home, and brought his
+negroes and dogs to the spot, where they found stretched dead
+upon the ground a Lion of the largest size.</p>
+
+<p>Before sunset that evening its skin was pegged down at the
+hunter's camp, and all were filled with delight, knowing that they
+would be no more disturbed by the fierce marauder.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE LEOPARD.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures&mdash;its attributes exactly
+described&mdash;Probability that several animals were classed under the name&mdash;How
+the Leopard takes its prey&mdash;Craft of the Leopard&mdash;its ravages among the
+flocks&mdash;The empire of man over the beast&mdash;The Leopard at Bay&mdash;Localities
+wherein the Leopard lives&mdash;The skin of the Leopard&mdash;Various passages of
+Scripture explained.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Of the <span class="smcap">Leopard</span> but little is said in the Holy Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once,
+and then in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the
+Old Testament it is casually mentioned seven times, and only in
+two places is the word Leopard used in the strictly literal sense.
+Yet, in those brief passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes
+of the animal are delineated with such fidelity, that no one
+could doubt that the Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine.
+Its colour, its swiftness, its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of
+its dwelling-place, are all touched upon in a few short sentences
+scattered throughout the Old Testament, and even its peculiar
+habits are alluded to in a manner that proves it to have been well
+known at the time when the words were written.</p>
+
+<p>It is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account
+of the Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the
+qualities to which allusion is made, and then to explain the
+passages in which the name of the animal occurs.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard
+are comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were
+thought to be one species until the time of Cuvier. These three
+animals are the <span class="smcap">Leopard</span> proper (<em>Leopardus varius</em>), the <span class="smcap">Ounce</span>
+(<em>Leopardus uncia</em>), and the <span class="smcap">Chetah</span>, or <span class="smcap">Hunting Leopard</span> (<em>Gueparda
+jubata</em>). All these three species belong to the same family
+of animals; all are spotted and similar in colour, all are nearly
+alike in shape, and all are inhabitants of Asia, while two of
+them, the Leopard and the Chetah, are also found in Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to mention that the Leopard is a beast
+of prey belonging to the cat tribe, that its colour is tawny,
+variegated with rich black spots, and that it is a fierce and
+voracious animal, almost equally dreaded by man and beast. It
+inhabits many parts of Africa and Asia, and in those portions of
+the country which are untenanted by mankind, it derives all its
+sustenance from the herb-eating animals of the same tracts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="leopard" id="leopard"></a>
+<img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="450" height="448" alt="leopard" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LEOPARD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy, and in spite of
+their active limbs, seldom fails in obtaining its prey. Swift as
+is the Leopard, for a short distance, and wonderful as its spring,
+it has not the enduring speed of the deer or antelope, animals
+which are specially formed for running, and which, if a limb is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+shattered, can run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs
+as they can when all four limbs are uninjured. Instinctively
+knowing its inferiority in the race, the Leopard supplies by
+cunning the want of enduring speed.</p>
+
+<p>It conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around
+without being seen, and thence surveys the country. A tree is
+the usual spot selected for this purpose, and the Leopard, after
+climbing the trunk by means of its curved talons, settles itself
+in the fork of the branches, so that its body is hidden by the
+boughs, and only its head is shown between them. With such
+scrupulous care does it conceal itself, that none but a practised
+hunter can discover it, while any one who is unaccustomed to
+the woods cannot see the animal even when the tree is pointed
+out to him.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the Leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance, he
+slips down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction.
+He has many difficulties to overcome, because the deer are
+among the most watchful of animals, and if the Leopard were
+to approach to the windward, they would scent him while he
+was yet a mile away from them. If he were to show himself
+but for one moment in the open ground he would be seen, and
+if he were but to shake a branch or snap a dry twig he would
+be heard. So, he is obliged to approach them against the wind,
+to keep himself under cover, and yet to glide so carefully along
+that the heavy foliage of the underwood shall not be shaken, and
+the dry sticks and leaves which strew the ground shall not be
+broken. He has also to escape the observation of certain birds
+and beasts which inhabit the woods, and which would certainly
+set up their alarm-cry as soon as they saw him, and so give
+warning to the wary deer, which can perfectly understand a cry
+of alarm, from whatever animal it may happen to proceed.</p>
+
+<p>Still, he proceeds steadily on his course, gliding from one
+covert to another, and often expending several hours before he
+can proceed for a mile. By degrees he contrives to come tolerably
+close to them, and generally manages to conceal himself in
+some spot towards which the deer are gradually feeding their
+way. As soon as they are near enough, he collects himself for
+a spring, just as a cat does when she leaps on a bird, and dashes
+towards the deer in a series of mighty bounds. For a moment
+or two they are startled and paralysed with fear at the sudden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a><br /><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+appearance of their enemy, and thus give him time to get among
+them. Singling out some particular animal, he leaps upon it,
+strikes it down with one blow of his paw, and then, couching
+on the fallen animal, he tears open its throat, and laps the
+flowing blood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 336px;"><a name="attacking" id="attacking"></a>
+<img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="336" height="600" alt="attacking" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LEOPARD ATTACKING A HERD OF DEER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives in the
+desert, but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of
+human habitations, it acts in a different manner. Whenever man
+settles himself in any place, his presence is a signal for the
+beasts of the desert and forest to fly. The more timid, such as
+the deer and antelope, are afraid of him, and betake themselves
+as far away as possible. The more savage inhabitants of the
+land, such as the lion, leopard, and other animals, wage an unequal
+war against him for a time, but are continually driven
+farther and farther away, until at last they are completely expelled
+from the country. The predaceous beasts are, however, loth
+to retire, and do so by very slow degrees. They can no longer
+support themselves on the deer and antelopes, but find a simple
+substitute for them in the flocks and herds which man introduces,
+and in the seizing of which there is as much craft required
+as in the catching of the fleeter and wilder animals.
+Sheep and goats cannot run away like the antelopes, but they
+are penned so carefully within inclosures, and guarded so
+watchfully by herdsmen and dogs, that the Leopard is obliged to
+exert no small amount of cunning before it can obtain a meal.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold, and escapes the notice
+of the dogs, seizes upon a sheep, and makes off with it before
+the alarm is given. Sometimes it hides by the wayside, and as
+the flock pass by it dashes into the midst of them, snatches up a
+sheep, and disappears among the underwood on the opposite
+side of the road. Sometimes it is crafty enough to deprive the
+fold of its watchful guardian. Dogs which are used to Leopard-hunting
+never attack the animal, though they are rendered
+furious by the sound of its voice. They dash at it as if they
+meant to devour it, but take very good care to keep out of reach
+of its terrible paws. By continually keeping the animal at bay,
+they give time for their master to come up, and generally contrive
+to drive it into a tree, where it can be shot.</p>
+
+<p>But instances have been known where the Leopard has taken
+advantage of the dogs, and carried them off in a very cunning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a><br /><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+manner. It hides itself tolerably near the fold, and then begins
+to growl in a low voice. The dogs think that they hear a
+Leopard at a distance, and dash towards the sound with
+furious barks and yells. In so doing, they are sure to pass by
+the hiding-place of the Leopard, which springs upon them
+unawares, knocks one of them over, and bounds away to its den
+in the woods. It does not content itself with taking sheep or
+goats from the fold, but is also a terrible despoiler of the hen-roosts,
+destroying great numbers in a single night when once it
+contrives to find its way into the house.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="leaps" id="leaps"></a>
+<img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="600" height="339" alt="leaps" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LEOPARD LEAPS UPON HIS PREY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the
+Leopard, I may mention that whenever it takes up its abode
+near a village, it does not meddle with the flocks and herds of
+its neighbours, but prefers to go to some other village at a distance
+for food, thus remaining unsuspected almost at the very
+doors of the houses.</p>
+
+<p>In general, it does not willingly attack mankind, and at all
+events seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man.
+But, when wounded or irritated, all sense of fear is lost in an
+overpowering rush of fury, and it then becomes as terrible a foe
+as the lion himself. It is not so large nor so strong, but it is
+more agile and quicker in its movements; and when it is seized
+with one of these paroxysms of anger, the eye can scarcely
+follow it as it darts here and there, striking with lightning
+rapidity, and dashing at any foe within reach. Its whole shape
+seems to be transformed, and absolutely to swell with anger; its
+eyes flash with fiery lustre, its ears are thrown back on the
+head, and it continually utters alternate snarls and yells of rage.
+It is hardly possible to recognise the graceful, lithe glossy
+creature, whose walk is so noiseless, and whose every movement
+is so easy, in the furious passion-swollen animal that flies at
+every foe with blind fury, and pours out sounds so fierce and
+menacing that few men, however well armed, will care to face it.</p>
+
+<p>As is the case with most of the cat tribe, the Leopard is an
+excellent climber, and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs
+without the least difficulty. It is so fond of trees, that it is
+seldom to be seen except in a well-wooded district. Its
+favourite residence is a forest where there is plenty of underwood,
+at least six or seven feet in height, among which trees are
+sparingly interspersed. When crouched in this cover it is practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a><br /><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+invisible, even though its body may be within arm's
+length of a passenger. The spotted body harmonizes so perfectly
+with the broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage
+that even a practised hunter will not enter a covert in search of
+a Leopard unless he is accompanied by dogs. The instinct which
+teaches the Leopard to choose such localities is truly wonderful,
+and may be compared with that of the tiger, which cares little
+for underwood, but haunts the grass jungles, where the long,
+narrow blades harmonize with the stripes which decorate
+its body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 346px;"><a name="waiting" id="waiting"></a>
+<img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="346" height="600" alt="waiting" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WAITING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The skin of the Leopard has always been highly valued on
+account of its beauty, and in Africa, at the present day, a robe
+made of its spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is
+the ermine the emblem of judicial dignity in England. In more
+ancient times, a leopard skin was the official costume of a priest,
+the skin being sometimes shaped into a garment, and sometimes
+thrown over the shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a general history of the Leopard. We will now proceed
+to the various passages in which it is mentioned, beginning
+with its outward aspect.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the Hebrew word Namer signifies "spotted,"
+and is given to the animal in allusion to its colours. The reader
+will now see how forcible is the lament of Jeremiah, "Can the
+Ethiopian change his skin, or the Leopard his spots?" Literally,
+"Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the spotted one his
+spots?"</p>
+
+<p>The agility and swiftness of the Leopard are alluded to in
+the prediction by the prophet Habakkuk of the vengeance that
+would come upon Israel through the Chaldeans. In chap. i. 5,
+we read: "I will work a work in your days, which ye will not
+believe though it be told you. For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans,
+that bitter and hasty nation, which shall march through the
+breadth of the land, to possess the dwelling-places that are not
+theirs. They are terrible and dreadful; their judgment and
+their dignity shall proceed of themselves. Their horses also are
+swifter than the Leopards, and are more fierce than the evening
+wolves."</p>
+
+<p>The craftiness of the Leopard, and the manner in which it
+lies in wait for its prey, are alluded to in more than one passage
+of Holy Writ. Hosea the prophet alludes to the Leopard in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+few simple words which display an intimate acquaintance with
+the habits of this formidable animal, and in this part of his
+prophecies he displays that peculiar local tone which distinguishes
+his writings. Speaking of the Israelites under the
+metaphor of a flock, or a herd, he proceeds to say: "According
+to their pasture so were they filled; they were filled, and their
+heart was exalted; therefore have they forgotten me. Therefore
+I will be unto them as a lion, as a Leopard by the way will I
+observe them." The reader will note the peculiar force of this
+sentence, whereby God signifies that He will destroy them
+openly, as a lion rushes on its prey, and that he will chastise
+them unexpectedly, as if it were a Leopard crouching by the
+wayside, and watching for the flock to pass, that it may spring
+on its prey unexpectedly. The same habit of the Leopard
+is also alluded to by Jeremiah, who employs precisely the same
+imagery as is used by Habakkuk. See Jer. v. 5, 6, "These have
+altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore
+a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the
+evenings shall spoil them, a leopard shall watch over their
+cities." It is evident from the employment of this image by
+two prophets, the one being nearly a hundred years before the
+other, that the crafty, insidious habits of the Leopard were well
+known in Palestine, and that the metaphor would tell with full
+force among those to whom it was addressed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="leo" id="leo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="450" height="354" alt="leopard" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="kittens" id="kittens"></a>
+<img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="450" height="442" alt="kittens" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CAT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and only once in
+the Apocrypha&mdash;The Cat domesticated among the Egyptians, and trained in
+bird-catching&mdash;Neglected capabilities of the Cat&mdash;Anecdote of an English
+Cat that caught fish for her master&mdash;Presumed reason why the Scriptures are
+silent about the Cat&mdash;The Cat mentioned by Baruch.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It is a very remarkable circumstance that the word <span class="smcap">Cat</span> is not
+once mentioned in the whole of the canonical Scriptures, and
+only once in the Apocrypha.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians, as is well known, kept Cats domesticated in
+their houses, a fact which is mentioned by Herodotus, in his
+second book, and the 66th and 67th chapters. After describing
+the various animals which were kept and fed by this nation, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+proceeds to narrate the habits of the Cat, and writes as follows:
+"When a fire takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes the
+cats. For the Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of
+the cats and neglect to quench the fire; but the cats make
+their escape, and leaping over the men, cast themselves into the
+fire, and when this occurs, great lamentations are made among
+the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat dies of a natural death,
+all the family shave their eyebrows. All cats that die are
+carried to certain sacred houses, where, after being embalmed,
+they are buried in the city of Bubastis."</p>
+
+<p>Now, as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in
+good preservation, the species has been identified with the
+Egyptian Cat of the present day, which is scientifically termed
+<em>Felis maniculatus</em>. Not only did the Egyptians keep Cats at
+their houses, but, as is shown by certain sculptures, took the
+animals with them when they went bird-catching, and employed
+them in securing their prey. Some persons have doubted this
+statement, saying, that in the first place, the Cat is not possessed
+of sufficient intelligence for the purpose; and that in the second
+place, as the hunter is represented as catching wild fowl, the Cat
+would not be able to assist him, because it would not enter the
+water. Neither objection is valid, nor would have been made
+by a naturalist.</p>
+
+<p>There are no grounds whatever for assuming that the Cat has
+not sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting. On the
+contrary, there are many familiar instances where the animal
+has been trained, even in this country, to catch birds and other
+game, and bring its prey home. By nature the Cat is an accomplished
+hunter, and, like other animals of the same disposition,
+can be taught to use its powers for mankind. We all know that
+the chetah, a member of the same tribe, is in constant use at
+the present day, and we learn from ancient sculptures that the
+lion was employed for the same purpose. Passing from land to
+water, mankind has succeeded in teaching the seal and the otter
+to plunge into the water, catch their finny prey, and deliver it to
+their owners. Among predaceous birds, we have trained the
+eagle, the falcon, and various hawks, to assist us in hunting the
+finned and feathered tribes, while we have succeeded in teaching
+the cormorant to catch fish for its master, and not for itself.
+Why, then, should the Cat be excepted from a rule so general?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+The fact is, the Cat has been, although domesticated for so
+many centuries, a comparatively neglected animal; and it is the
+fashion to heap upon it the contumacious epithets of sullen,
+treacherous, selfish, spiteful, and intractable, just as we take as
+our emblems of stupidity the ass and the goose, which are
+really among the most cunning of the lower animals. We have
+never tried to teach the Cat the art of hunting for her owners,
+but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could not be
+taught.</p>
+
+<p>As to entering the water, every one who is familiar with the
+habits of the Cat knows perfectly well that the Cat will voluntarily
+enter water in chase of prey. A Cat does not like to wet
+her feet, and will not enter the water without a very powerful
+reason, but when that motive is supplied, she has no hesitation
+about it. A curious and valuable confirmation of this fact
+appeared some time ago in "The Field" newspaper, in which
+was recorded the history of an old fisherman, whose Cat invariably
+went to sea with him, and as invariably used to leap overboard,
+seize fish in her mouth, and bring them to the side of the
+boat, where her kindly owner could lift her out, together with
+the captured fish.</p>
+
+<p>The Cat, then, having been the favoured companion of the
+Egyptians, among whom the Israelites lived while they multiplied
+from a family into a nation, it does seem very remarkable
+that the sacred writers should not even mention it. There
+is no prohibition of the animal, even indirectly, in the Mosaic
+law; but it may be the case that the Israelites repudiated the
+Cat simply because it was so favoured by their former masters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="cat" id="cat"></a>
+<img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="cat" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE DOG.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested throughout
+the Scriptures&mdash;Contrast between European and Oriental Dogs&mdash;Habits of the
+Dogs of Palestine&mdash;The City Dogs and their singular organization&mdash;The herdsman's
+Dog&mdash;Various passages of Scripture&mdash;Dogs and the crumbs&mdash;their
+numbers&mdash;Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs&mdash;Possibility of their perfect
+domestication&mdash;The peculiar humiliation of Lazarus&mdash;Voracity of the Wild
+Dogs&mdash;The fate of Ahab and Jezebel&mdash;Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog&mdash;Innate
+affection of the Dog towards mankind&mdash;Peculiar local Instinct of the
+Oriental Dog&mdash;Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople&mdash;The
+Dervish and his Dogs&mdash;The Greyhound&mdash;Uncertainty of the word.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries, the Oriental of the
+present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished
+him throughout the long series of years during which the books
+of sacred Scripture were given to the world. In many of these
+characteristics he differs essentially from Europeans of the present
+day, and exhibits a tone of mind which seems to be not
+merely owing to education, but to be innate and inherent in
+the race.</p>
+
+<p>One of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing
+with which he regards the Dog. In all other parts of the
+world, the Dog is one of the most cherished and valued of
+animals, but among those people whom we popularly class under
+the name of Orientals, the Dog is detested and despised. As the
+sacred books were given to the world through the mediumship
+of Orientals, we find that this feeling towards the Dog is manifested
+whenever the animal is mentioned; and whether we turn
+to the books of the Law, the splendid poetry of the Psalms and
+the book of Job, the prophetical or the historical portions of the
+Old Testament, we find the name of the Dog repeatedly mentioned;
+and in every case in connexion with some repulsive
+idea. If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find
+the same idea manifested, whether in the Gospels, the Epistles,
+or the Revelation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To the mind of the true Oriental the very name of the Dog
+carries with it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his
+nature, and he does not particularly like even the thought of the
+animal coming across his mind. And this is the more extraordinary,
+because at the commencement and termination of
+their history the Dog was esteemed by their masters. The
+Egyptians, under whose rule they grew to be a nation, knew
+the value of the Dog, and showed their appreciation in the many
+works of art which have survived to our time. Then the
+Romans, under whose iron grasp the last vestiges of nationality
+crumbled away, honoured and respected the Dog, made it their
+companion, and introduced its portrait into their houses. But,
+true to their early traditions, the Jews of the East have ever held
+the Dog in the same abhorrence as is manifested by their present
+masters, the followers of Mahommed.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the prevalence of this feeling, the Dogs of Oriental
+towns are so unlike their more fortunate European relatives, that
+they can hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species.
+In those lands the traveller finds that there is none of the
+wonderful variety which so distinguishes the Dog of Europe.
+There he will never see the bluff, sturdy, surly, faithful mastiff,
+the slight gazelle-like greyhound, the sharp, intelligent terrier,
+the silent, courageous bulldog, the deep-voiced, tawny bloodhound,
+the noble Newfoundland, the clever, vivacious poodle, or
+the gentle, silken-haired spaniel.</p>
+
+<p>As he traverses the streets, he finds that all the dogs are
+alike, and that all are gaunt, hungry, half starved, savage, and
+cowardly, more like wolves than dogs, and quite as ready as
+wolves to attack when they fancy they can do so with safety.
+They prowl about the streets in great numbers, living, as they
+best can, on any scraps of food that they may happen to find.
+They have no particular masters, and no particular homes.
+Charitable persons will sometimes feed them, but will never
+make companions of them, feeling that the very contact of a dog
+would be a pollution. They are certainly useful animals, because
+they act as scavengers, and will eat almost any animal
+substance that comes in their way.</p>
+
+<p>The strangest part of their character is the organization which
+prevails among them. By some extraordinary means they divide
+the town into districts, and not one dog ever ventures out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a><br /><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+that particular district to which it is attached. The boundaries,
+although invisible, are as effectual as the loftiest walls, and not
+even the daintiest morsel will tempt a dog to pass the mysterious
+line which forms the boundary of his district. Generally,
+these bands of dogs are so savage that any one who is obliged to
+walk in a district where the dogs do not know him is forced to
+carry a stout stick for his protection. Like their European relatives,
+they have great dislike towards persons who are dressed
+after a fashion to which they are unaccustomed, and therefore
+are sure to harass any one who comes from Europe and wears
+the costume of his own country. As is customary among
+animals which unite themselves in troops, each band is under the
+command of a single leader, whose position is recognised and his
+authority acknowledged by all the members.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="dog" id="dog"></a>
+<img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="many dogs" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">DOGS IN AN EASTERN CITY AT NIGHT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the
+dogs which run wild about the towns, because there is abundant
+evidence in the Scriptures that the animal was used in a
+partially domesticated state, certainly for the protection of their
+herds, and possibly for the guardianship of their houses. That
+the Dog was employed for the first of these purposes is shown
+in Job xxx. i: "But now they that are younger than I have me
+in derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to have set
+with the dogs of my flock." And that the animal was used for
+the protection of houses is thought by some commentators to be
+shown by the well-known passage in Is. lvi. 10: "His watchmen
+are blind: they are all ignorant, they are all dumb dogs,
+they cannot bark; sleeping, lying down, loving to slumber."
+Still, it is very probable that in this passage the reference is not
+made to houses, but to the flocks and herds which these watchmen
+ought to have guarded.</p>
+
+<p>The rooted dislike and contempt felt by the Israelites towards
+the Dog is seen in numerous passages. Even in that sentence
+from Job which has just been quoted, wherein the writer passionately
+deplores the low condition into which he has fallen,
+and contrasts it with his former high estate, he complains that
+he is despised by those whose fathers he held even in less esteem
+than the dogs which guarded his herds. There are several references
+to the Dog in the books of Samuel, in all of which the
+name of the animal is mentioned contemptuously. For example,
+when David accepted the challenge of Goliath, and went to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+meet his gigantic enemy without the ordinary protection of
+mail, and armed only with a sling and his shepherd's staff
+Goliath said to him, "Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with
+staves?" (1 Sam. xvii. 43.) And in the same book, chapter
+xxiv. 14, David remonstrates with Saul for pursuing so insignificant
+a person as himself, and said, "After whom is the King
+of Israel come out? after a dead dog, after a flea."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="shimei" id="shimei"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="450" height="386" alt="shimei" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SHIMEI EXULTING OVER KING DAVID.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the
+same writer. Once it was employed by Mephibosheth, the lame
+son of Jonathan, when extolling the generosity of David, then
+King of Israel in the place of his grandfather Saul: "And he
+bowed himself, and said, 'What is thy servant, that thou
+shouldest look upon such a dead dog as I am?'" (2 Sam. ix. 8.)
+In the same book, chapter xvi. 9, Abishai applies this contemptuous
+epithet to Shimei, who was exulting over the troubled
+monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature, "Why
+should this dead dog curse my lord the king?" Abner also
+makes use of a similar expression, "Am I a dog's head?" And
+we may also refer to the familiar passage in 2 Kings viii. 13,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+Elisha had prophesied to Hazael that he would become king on
+the death of Ben-hadad, and that he would work terrible mischief
+in the land. Horrified at these predictions, or at all events
+pretending to be so, he replied, "But what, is thy servant a dog,
+that he should do this great thing?"</p>
+
+<p>If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find the
+same contemptuous feeling displayed towards the Dog. It is
+mentioned as an intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endured
+by Lazarus the beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate, that the
+dogs came and licked his sores. In several passages, the word
+Dog is employed as a metaphor for scoffers, or unclean persons,
+or sometimes for those who did not belong to the Church,
+whether Jewish or Christian. In the Sermon on the Mount
+our Lord himself uses this image, "Give not that which is holy
+unto dogs" (Matt. vii. 6.) In the same book, chapter xv. 26,
+Jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to the
+Canaanitish woman who had come to ask him to heal her
+daughter: "It is not meet to take the children's bread and cast
+it to dogs." And that she understood the meaning of the words
+is evident from her answer, in which faith and humility are so
+admirably blended. Both St. Paul and St. John employ the
+word Dog in the same sense. In his epistle to the Philippians,
+chapter iii. 2, St. Paul writes, "Beware of dogs, beware of evil
+workers." And in the Revelation, chapter xxii. 14, these words
+occur: "Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they
+may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the
+gates to the city; for without are dogs, and sorcerers, ... and
+murderers, and idolaters, and whomsoever loveth and maketh
+a lie."</p>
+
+<p>That the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands
+just as they do at present is evident from many passages of
+Scripture, among which may be mentioned those sentences from
+the Psalms, wherein David is comparing the assaults of his
+enemies to the attacks of the dogs which infested the city.
+"Thou hast brought me into the dust of death; for dogs have
+compassed me, the assembly of the wicked have enclosed me."
+This passage will be better appreciated when the reader has
+perused the following extract from a recent work by Signor
+Pierotti. After giving a general account of the Dogs of Palestine
+and their customs, he proceeds as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"In Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs have an
+organization of their own. They are divided into families and
+districts, especially in the night time, and no one of them
+ventures to quit his proper quarter; for if he does, he is immediately
+attacked by all the denizens of that into which he
+intrudes, and is driven back, with several bites as a reminder.
+Therefore, when an European is walking through Jerusalem by
+night, he is always followed by a number of canine attendants,
+and greeted at every step with growls and howls. These tokens
+of dislike, however, are not intended for him, but for his
+followers, who are availing themselves of his escort to pass
+unmolested from one quarter to another.</p>
+
+<p>"During a very hard winter, I fed many of the dogs who frequented
+the road which I traversed almost every evening, and
+afterwards, each time that I passed, I received the homage not only
+of the individuals, but of the whole band to which they belonged,
+for they accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdictions
+and were ready to follow me to my own house, if I did but
+give them a sign of encouragement, coming at my beck from any
+distance. They even recollected the signal two years afterwards,
+though it was but little that I had given them."</p>
+
+<p>The account which this experienced writer gives of the animal
+presents a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits,
+the latter being attributable to the true nature of the Dog, and
+the former to the utter neglect with which it is treated. He
+remarks that the dogs which run wild in the cities of Palestine
+are ill-favoured, ill-scented, and ill-conditioned beasts, more like
+jackals or wolves than dogs, and covered with scars, which
+betoken their quarrelsome nature. Yet, the same animals lose
+their wild, savage disposition, as soon as any human being
+endeavours to establish that relationship which was evidently
+intended to exist between man and the dog. How readily even
+these despised and neglected animals respond to the slightest
+advance, has been already shown by Sig. Pierotti's experience,
+and there is no doubt that these tawny, short-haired, wolf-like
+animals, could be trained as perfectly as their more favoured
+brethren of the western world.</p>
+
+<p>As in the olden times, so at the present day, the dogs lie
+about in the streets, dependent for their livelihood upon the offal
+that is flung into the roads, or upon the chance morsels that may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+be thrown to them. An allusion to this custom is made in the
+well-known passage in Matt. xv. The reader will remember the
+circumstance that a woman of Canaan, and therefore not an
+Israelite, came to Jesus, and begged him to heal her daughter,
+who was vexed with a devil. Then, to try her faith, He said, "It
+is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to dogs."
+And she said, "Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs
+which fall from their master's table." Now, the "crumbs" which
+are here mentioned are the broken pieces of bread which were
+used at table, much as bread is sometimes used in eating fish.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+The form of the "loaves" being flat, and much like that of the
+oat-cake of this country, adapted them well to the purpose.
+The same use of broken bread is alluded to in the parable of
+Lazarus, who desired to be fed with the crumbs that fell from
+the rich man's table, <em>i. e.</em> to partake of the same food as the dogs
+which swarmed round him and licked his sores.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="lazarus" id="lazarus"></a>
+<img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="350" height="528" alt="lazarus" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LAZARUS LYING AT THE RICH MAN'S DOOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="jezebel" id="jezebel"></a>
+<img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="450" height="389" alt="Jezebel" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE DEATH OF JEZEBEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "crumbs," however liberally distributed, would not nearly
+suffice for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief
+support consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully flung
+into the streets. If the body of any animal, not excluding
+their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will
+assemble round it, and tear it to pieces, and they have no
+scruples even in devouring a human body. Of course, owing
+to the peculiar feeling entertained by the Orientals towards
+the Dog, no fate can be imagined more repulsive to the feelings
+of humanity than to be eaten by dogs; and therein lies the
+terror of the fate which was prophesied of Ahab and Jezebel.
+Moreover, the blood, even of the lower animals, was held in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+great sanctity, and it was in those days hardly possible to invoke
+a more dreadful fate upon any one than that his blood should be
+lapped by dogs.</p>
+
+<p>We lose much of the real force of the Scriptures, if we do not
+possess some notion of the manners and customs of Palestine
+and the neighbouring countries, as well as of the tone of mind
+prevalent among the inhabitants. In our own country, that any
+one should be eaten by dogs would be a fate so contrary to
+usage, that we can hardly conceive its possibility, and such a
+fate would be out of the ordinary course of events. But, if such
+a fate should happen to befall any one, we should have no
+stronger feeling of pity than the natural regret that the dead
+person was not buried with Christian rites.</p>
+
+<p>But, with the inhabitants of Palestine, such an event was by
+no means unlikely. It was, and is still, the custom to bury the
+corpse almost as soon as life has departed, and such would
+ordinarily have been the case with the dead body of Jezebel.
+But, through fear of the merciless Jehu, by whose command she
+had been flung from the window of her own palace, no one
+dared to remove her mangled body. The dogs, therefore, seized
+upon their prey; and, even before Jehu had risen from the
+banquet with which he celebrated his deed, nothing was left of
+the body but the skull, the feet, and the hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="syrian" id="syrian"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="300" height="192" alt="syrian" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SYRIAN DOG.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true
+dog nature, though concealed behind an uninviting form: "Our
+watch-dog, Beirût, attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm,
+though his canine instinct soon taught him to recognise every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+one of our party of fourteen, and to cling to the tents, whether
+in motion or at rest, as his home. Poor Beirût! though the
+veriest pariah in appearance, thy plebeian form encased as noble
+a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy step."</p>
+
+<p>The same author records a very remarkable example of the
+sagacity of the native Dog, and the fidelity with which it will
+keep guard over the property of its master. "The guard-house
+provided us, unasked, with an invaluable and vigilant sentry,
+who was never relieved, nor ever quitted the post of duty. The
+poor Turkish conscript, like every other soldier in the world, is
+fond of pets, and in front of the grim turret that served for a
+guard-house was a collection of old orange-boxes and crates,
+thickly peopled with a garrison of dogs of low degree, whose
+attachment to the spot was certainly not purchased by the
+loaves and fishes which fell to their lot.</p>
+
+<p>"One of the family must indeed have had hard times, for she
+had a family of no less than five dependent on her exertions,
+and on the superfluities of the sentries' mess. With a sagacity
+almost more than canine, the poor gaunt creature had scarcely
+seen our tents pitched before she came over with all her litter
+and deposited them in front of our tent. At once she scanned
+the features of every member of the encampment, and introduced
+herself to our notice. During the week of our stay, she never
+quitted her post, or attempted any depredation on our kitchen-tent,
+which might have led to her banishment. Night and day
+she proved a faithful and vigilant sentry, permitting no stranger,
+human or canine, European or Oriental, to approach the tents
+without permission, but keeping on the most familiar terms with
+ourselves and our servants.</p>
+
+<p>"On the morning of our departure, no sooner had she seen our
+camp struck, than she conveyed her puppies back to their old
+quarters in the orange-box, and no entreaties or bribes could
+induce her to accompany us. On three subsequent visits to
+Jerusalem, the same dog acted in a similar way, though no
+longer embarrassed by family cares, and would on no account
+permit any strange dog, nor even her companions at the guard-house,
+to approach within the tent ropes."</p>
+
+<p>After perusing this account of the Dog of Palestine, two
+points strike the reader. The first is the manner in which the
+Dog, in spite of all the social disadvantages under which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+labours, displays one of the chief characteristics of canine
+nature, namely, the yearning after human society. The animal
+in question had already attached herself to the guard-house,
+where she could meet with some sort of human converse, though
+the inborn prejudices of the Moslem would prevent the soldiers
+from inviting her to associate with them, as would certainly
+have been done by European soldiers. She nestled undisturbed
+in the orange-box, and, safe under the protection of the guard,
+brought up her young family in their immediate neighbourhood.
+But, as soon as Europeans arrived, her instinct told her
+that they would be closer associates than the Turkish soldiers
+who were quartered in the guard-house, and accordingly she
+removed herself and her family to the shelter of their tents.</p>
+
+<p>Herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature.
+A dog <em>must</em> have a master, or at all events a mistress, and just
+in proportion as he is free from human control, does he become
+less dog-like and more wolf-like. In fact, familiar intercourse
+with mankind is an essential part of a dog's true character, and
+the animal seems to be so well aware of this fact, that he will
+always contrive to find a master of some sort, and will endure a
+life of cruel treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather
+than have no master at all.</p>
+
+<p>The second point in this account is the singular local instinct
+which characterises the Dogs of Palestine and other eastern
+countries, and which is as much inbred in them as the faculty
+of marking game in the pointer, the combative nature in the
+bulldog, the exquisite scent in the bloodhound, and the love of
+water in the Newfoundland dog. In this country, we fancy that
+the love of locality belongs especially to the cat, and that the
+Dog cares little for place, and much for man. But, in this case,
+we find that the local instinct overpowered the yearning for
+human society. Fond as was this dog of her newly-found
+friends, and faithful as she was in her self-imposed service, she
+would not follow them away from the spot where she had been
+born, and where she had produced her own young.</p>
+
+<p>This curious love for locality has evidently been derived
+from the traditional custom of successive generations, which has
+passed from the realm of reason into that of instinct. The
+reader will remember that Sig. Pierotti mentions an instance
+where the dogs which he had been accustomed to feed would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+follow him as far as the limits of their particular district, but
+would go no farther. The late Albert Smith, in his "Month at
+Constantinople," gives a similar example of this characteristic.
+He first describes the general habits of the dogs.</p>
+
+<p>On the first night of his arrival, he could not sleep, and went
+to the window to look out in the night. "The noise I heard then
+I shall never forget. To say that if all the sheep-dogs, in going
+to Smithfield on a market-day, had been kept on the constant
+bark, and pitted against the yelping curs upon all the carts
+in London, they could have given any idea of the canine uproar
+that now first astonished me, would be to make the feeblest of
+images. The whole city rang with one vast riot. Down below
+me, at Tophané&mdash;over-about Stamboul&mdash;far away at Scutari&mdash;the
+whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun Constantinople
+appeared engaged in the most active extermination
+of each other, without a moment's cessation. The yelping, howling,
+barking, growling, and snarling, were all merged into one
+uniform and continuous even sound, as the noise of frogs
+becomes when heard at a distance. For hours there was no
+lull. I went to sleep, and woke again, and still, with my windows
+open, I heard the same tumult going on; nor was it until
+daybreak that anything like tranquillity was restored.</p>
+
+<p>"Going out in the daytime, it is not difficult to find traces of
+the fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs.
+There is not one, among their vast number, in the possession of
+a perfect skin. Some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off;
+others have their eyes taken out; from the backs and haunches
+of others perfect steaks of flesh had been torn away; and all
+bear the scars of desperate combats.</p>
+
+<p>"Wild and desperate as is their nature, these poor animals
+are susceptible of kindness. If a scrap of bread is thrown to
+one of them now and then, he does not forget it; for they have,
+at times, a hard matter to live&mdash;not the dogs amongst the shops
+of Galata or Stamboul, but those whose 'parish' lies in the large
+burying-grounds and desert places without the city; for each
+keeps, or rather is kept, to his district, and if he chanced to
+venture into a strange one, the odds against his return would be
+very large. One battered old animal, to whom I used occasionally
+to toss a scrap of food, always followed me from the
+hotel to the cross street in Pera, where the two soldiers stood on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+guard, but would never come beyond this point. He knew the
+fate that awaited him had he done so; and therefore, when I
+left him, he would lie down in the road, and go to sleep until
+I came back.</p>
+
+<p>"When a horse or camel dies, and is left about the roads near
+the city, the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs,
+and they will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances. I was
+told that they will eat their dead fellows&mdash;a curious fact, I
+believe, in canine economy. They are always troublesome, not
+to say dangerous, at night; and are especially irritated by
+Europeans, whom they will single out amongst a crowd of
+Levantines."</p>
+
+<p>In the same work there is a short description of a solitary
+dervish, who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane-tree,
+in front of which he sat, surrounded by a small fence of
+stakes only a foot or so in height. Around him, but not venturing
+within the fence, were a number of gaunt, half-starved
+dogs, who prowled about him in hopes of having an occasional
+morsel of food thrown to them. Solitary as he was, and scanty
+as must have been the nourishment which he could afford to
+them, the innate trustfulness of the dog-nature induced them
+to attach themselves to human society of some sort, though their
+master was one, and they were many&mdash;he was poor, and they
+were hungry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 250px;"><a name="water" id="water"></a>
+<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="250" height="313" alt="water" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN WATER-SELLER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE WOLF.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Identity of the animal indisputable&mdash;its numbers, past and present&mdash;The Wolf
+never mentioned directly&mdash;its general habits&mdash;References in Scripture&mdash;its
+mingled ferocity and cowardice&mdash;its association into packs&mdash;The Wolf's bite&mdash;How
+it takes its prey&mdash;its ravages among the flocks&mdash;Allusions to this habit&mdash;The
+shepherd and his nightly enemies&mdash;Mr. Tristram and the Wolf&mdash;A semi-tamed
+Wolf at Marsaba.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Zeëb</i>, which occurs in
+a few passages of the Old Testament, is rightly translated as
+<span class="smcap">Wolf</span>, and signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned
+in the New Testament.</p>
+
+<p>This fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful
+in Palestine, but is now much less common, owing to the same
+causes which have extirpated the lion from the country. It is a
+rather remarkable fact, that in no passage of Holy Writ is the
+Wolf directly mentioned. Its name is used as a symbol of a
+fierce and treacherous enemy, but neither in the Old nor New
+Testament does any sacred writer mention any act as performed
+by the Wolf. We have already heard of the lion which attacked
+Samson and was killed by him, of the lion which slew the disobedient
+prophet, and of the lions which spared Daniel when
+thrown into their den. We also read of the dogs which licked
+Ahab's blood, and ate the body of Jezebel, also of the bears
+which tore the mocking children.</p>
+
+<p>But in no case is the Wolf mentioned, except in a metaphorical
+sense; and this fact is the more remarkable, because the
+animals were so numerous that they were very likely to have
+exercised some influence on a history extending over such a
+lengthened range of years, and limited to so small a portion of
+the earth. Yet we never hear of the Wolf attacking any of the
+personages mentioned in Scripture; and although we are told of
+the exploit of David, who pursued a lion and a bear that had
+taken a lamb out of his fold, we are never told of any similar
+deed in connexion with the Wolf.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="attack" id="attack"></a>
+<img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="450" height="452" alt="attack" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WOLVES ATTACKING A FLOCK OF SHEEP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This animal was then what it is now. Seldom seen by day,
+it lies hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts, and steals
+out in search of prey in the evening. This custom of the Wolf
+is mentioned in several passages of Holy Scripture, such as that
+in Jer. v. 5, 6: "These have altogether broken the yoke, and
+burst the bonds. Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay
+them, and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them." In this
+passage the reader will see that the rebellious Israelites are
+compared to restive draught cattle which have broken away from
+their harness and run loose, so that they are deprived of the
+protection of their owners, and exposed to the fury of wild
+beasts. A similar reference is made in Hab. i. 8: "Their horses
+also are swifter than the leopards, and are more fierce than the
+evening wolves." The same habit of the Wolf is alluded to in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+Zeph. iii. 3: "Her princes within her are roaring lions; her
+judges are evening wolves."</p>
+
+<p>Individually, the Wolf is rather a timid animal. It will avoid
+a man rather than meet him. It prefers to steal upon its prey
+and take it unawares, rather than to seize it openly and boldly.
+It is ever suspicious of treachery, and is always imagining that a
+trap is laid for it. Even the shallow device of a few yards of
+rope trailing from any object, or a strip of cloth fluttering in the
+breeze, is quite sufficient to keep the Wolf at bay for a considerable
+time. This fact is well known to hunters, who are accustomed
+to secure the body of a slain deer by simply tying a strip
+of cloth to its horn. If taken in a trap of any kind, or even if
+it fancies itself in an enclosure from which it can find no egress,
+it loses all courage, and will submit to be killed without offering
+the least resistance. It will occasionally endeavour to effect its
+escape by feigning death, and has more than once been known to
+succeed in this device.</p>
+
+<p>But, collectively, the Wolf is one of the most dangerous
+animals that can be found. Herding together in droves when
+pressed by hunger, the wolves will openly hunt prey, performing
+this task as perfectly as a pack of trained hounds. Full of wiles
+themselves, they are craftily wise in anticipating the wiles of
+the animals which they pursue; and even in full chase, while the
+body of the pack is following on the footsteps of the flying
+animal, one or two are detached on the flanks, so as to cut it off
+if it should attempt to escape by doubling on its pursuers.</p>
+
+<p>There is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack,
+and very few which they will not ultimately secure. Strength
+avails nothing against the numbers of these savage foes, which
+give no moment of rest, but incessantly assail their antagonist,
+dashing by instinct at those parts of the body which can be
+least protected, and lacerating with their peculiar short, snapping
+bite. Should several of their number be killed or disabled, it
+makes no difference to the wolves, except that a minute or two
+are wasted in devouring their slain or wounded brethren, and
+they only return to the attack the more excited by the taste of
+blood. Swiftness of foot avails nothing against the tireless perseverance
+of the wolves, who press on in their peculiar, long,
+slinging gallop, and in the end are sure to tire out the swifter
+footed but less enduring animal that flees before them. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+stately buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless assaults of the
+wolves; the bear has been forced to succumb to them, and the
+fleet-footed stag finds his swift limbs powerless to escape the
+pursuing band, and his branching horns unable to resist their
+furious onset when once they overtake him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="chasing" id="chasing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="450" height="430" alt="chasing" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WOLVES CHASING DEER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the Wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown
+in many parts of the Scriptures, both in the Old and New Testaments,
+especially in the latter. In John x. 1-16, Jesus compares
+himself to a good shepherd, who watches over the fold,
+and, if the wolves should come to take the sheep, would rather
+give up His life than they should succeed. But the false teachers
+are compared to bad shepherds, hired for money, but having no
+interest in the sheep, and who therefore will not expose themselves
+to danger in defence of their charge.</p>
+
+<p>This metaphor was far more effective in Palestine, and at that
+time, than it is in this country and at the present day. In this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a><br /><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+land, the shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild
+beasts, but in Palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch
+at night lest the wolves should attack the fold, and to drive them
+away himself in case they should do so. Therefore the shepherd's
+life was one which involved no small danger as well as
+anxiety, and the metaphor used by our Lord gains additional
+force from the knowledge of this fact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="wolf" id="wolf"></a>
+<img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="450" height="338" alt="wolf" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WOLF.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A similar metaphor is used when Jesus wished to express in
+forcible terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would
+oft be subjected, and the impossibility that they should be able
+to overcome the many perils with which they would be surrounded.
+"Go your ways: behold, I send you forth as lambs
+among wolves" (Luke x. 3).</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged
+in his travels, and mostly saw solitary specimens. One such
+encounter took place in the wilderness of Judah: "On my way
+back, I met a fine solitary wolf, who watched me very coolly, at
+the distance of sixty yards, while I drew my charge and dropped
+a bullet down the barrel. Though I sent the ball into a rock
+between his legs as he stood looking at me in the wady, he was
+not sufficiently alarmed to do more than move on a little more
+quickly, ever and anon turning to look at me, while gradually
+increasing his distance. Darkness compelled me to desist from
+the chase, when he quietly turned and followed me at a respectful
+distance. He was a magnificent animal, larger than any
+European wolf, and of a much lighter colour."</p>
+
+<p>Those who are acquainted with the character of the animal
+will appreciate the truthfulness of this description. The cautious
+prowl at a distance, the slow trot away when he fancied he
+might be attacked, the reverted look, and the final turning back
+and following at a respectful distance, are all characteristic traits
+of the Wolf, no matter to what species it may belong, nor what
+country it may inhabit.</p>
+
+<p>On another occasion, while riding in the open plain of Gennesaret,
+the horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch, barely
+three feet in depth. After the horse had passed, and not until
+then, a Wolf started out of the ditch, literally from under the
+horses hoofs, and ran off. The animal had been crouching under
+the little bank, evidently watching for some cows and calves
+which were grazing at a short distance, under the charge of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+Bedouin boy. The same author
+mentions that one of the monks
+belonging to the monastery at
+Marsaba had contrived to render
+a Wolf almost tame. Every
+evening at six o'clock the Wolf
+came regularly across the ravine, ate a
+piece of bread, and then went back again.
+With the peculiar jealousy of all tamed animals, the Wolf would
+not suffer any of his companions to partake of his good fortune.
+Several of them would sometimes accompany him, but as soon as they
+came under the wall of the monastery he always drove them away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 415px;"><a name="goats" id="goats"></a>
+<img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="415" height="600" alt="wild goats" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WOLVES ATTACKING WILD GOATS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of Palestine say that the Wolves of that country
+hunt singly, or at most in little packs of few in number. Still
+they dread the animal exceedingly on account of the damage it
+inflicts upon their flocks of sheep and goats.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="jackal" id="jackal"></a>
+<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="450" height="572" alt="jackal" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE JACKAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE FOX OR JACKAL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The two animals comprehended under one name&mdash;The Jackal&mdash;its numbers in
+ancient and modern Palestine&mdash;General habits of the Jackal&mdash;Localities where
+the Jackal is found&mdash;Samson, and the three hundred "foxes"&mdash;Popular
+objections to the narrative&mdash;The required number easily obtained&mdash;Signor
+Pierotti's remarks upon the Jackal&mdash;An unpleasant position&mdash;How the fields
+were set on fire&mdash;The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts&mdash;The truth of the
+narrative proved&mdash;The Fox and Jackal destructive among grapes</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are several passages in the Old Testament in which the
+word Fox occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word
+<i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Shuâl</i>, which is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather
+loosely, and refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+the Fox. We will first take those passages in which the former
+rendering of the word is evidently the right one, and will begin
+by examining those characteristics of the animal which afford
+grounds for such an assertion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="jackals" id="jackals"></a>
+<img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="450" height="457" alt="jackals" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FOXES OR JACKALS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A GOAT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even at the present time, the Jackal is extremely plentiful in
+Palestine; and as the numbers of wild beasts have much decreased
+in modern days, the animals must have been even more
+numerous than they are at present. It is an essentially nocturnal
+and gregarious animal. During the whole of the day the
+Jackals lie concealed in their holes or hiding-places, which are
+usually cavities in the rocks, in tombs, or among ruins. At
+nightfall they issue from their dens, and form themselves into
+packs, often consisting of several hundred individuals, and prowl
+about in search of food. Carrion of various kinds forms their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+chief subsistence, and they perform in the country much the
+same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the cities.</p>
+
+<p>If any animal should be killed, or even severely wounded, the
+Jackals are sure to find it out and to devour it before the daybreak.
+They will scent out the track of the hunter, and feed
+upon the offal of the beasts which he has slain. If the body of
+a human being were to be left on the ground, the Jackals would
+certainly leave but little traces of it; and in the olden times of
+warfare, they must have held high revelry in the battle-field
+after the armies had retired. It is to this propensity of the
+Jackal that David refers&mdash;himself a man of war, who had
+fought on many a battle-field, and must have seen the carcases
+of the slain mangled by these nocturnal prowlers: "Those that
+seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the
+earth. They shall fall by the sword; they shall be a portion for
+foxes" (Ps. lxiii. 9, 10). Being wild beasts, afraid of man, and
+too cowardly to attack him even when rendered furious by
+hunger, and powerful by force of numbers, they keep aloof from
+towns and cities, and live in the uninhabited parts of the
+country. Therefore the prophet Jeremiah, in his Book of
+Lamentations, makes use of the following forcible image, when
+deploring the pitiful state into which Judæa had fallen: "For
+this our heart is faint; for these things our eyes are dim:
+because of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes
+walk upon it" (Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar
+image: "O Israel, thy prophets are like foxes in the desert."</p>
+
+<p>But, by far the most important passage in which the Fox
+is mentioned, is that wherein is recorded the grotesque
+vengeance of Samson upon the Philistines: "And Samson went
+and caught three hundred foxes, and took firebrands, and turned
+tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails.
+And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the
+standing com of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks
+and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives"
+(Judges xv. 4, 5). Now, as this is one of the passages of Holy Writ
+to which great objections have been taken, it will be as well to
+examine these objections, and see whether they have any real
+force. The first of these objections is, that the number of foxes
+is far too great to have been caught at one time, and to this
+objection two answers have been given. The first answer is, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a><br /><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+they need not have been caught at once, but by degrees, and
+kept until wanted. But the general tenor of the narrative is
+undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this act of Samson
+was unpremeditated, and that it was carried into operation at
+once, before his anger had cooled. The second answer is, that
+the requisite number of Foxes might have been miraculously
+sent to Samson for this special purpose. This theory is really
+so foolish and utterly untenable, that I only mention it because
+it has been put forward. It fails on two grounds: the first
+being that a miracle would hardly have been wrought to enable
+Samson to revenge himself in so cruel and unjustifiable a
+manner; and the second, that there was not the least necessity
+for any miracle at all.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="prospect" id="prospect"></a>
+<img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="prospect" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A FEAST IN PROSPECT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we put out of our minds the idea of the English Fox, an
+animal comparatively scarce in this country, and solitary in its
+habits, and substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious
+Jackal, wandering in troops by night, and easily decoyed by
+hunger into a trap, we shall see that double the number might
+have been taken, if needful. Moreover, it is not to be imagined
+that Samson caught them all with his own hand. He was at
+the head of his people, and had many subordinates at his
+command, so that a large number of hunters might have been
+employed simultaneously in the capture. In corroboration of
+this point, I insert an extremely valuable extract from Signor
+Pierotti's work, in which he makes reference to this very portion
+of the sacred history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"It is still very abundant near Gaza, Askalon, Ashdod, Ekron,
+and Ramleh. I have frequently met with it during my wanderings
+by night, and on one occasion had an excellent opportunity
+of appreciating their number and their noise.</p>
+
+<p>"One evening in the month of January, while it was raining
+a perfect deluge, I was obliged, owing to the dangerous illness
+of a friend, to return from Jerusalem to Jaffa. The depth
+of snow on the road over a great part of the mountain, the
+clayey mud in the plain, and the darkness of the night, prevented
+my advancing quickly; so that about half-past three in
+the morning I arrived on the bank of a small torrent, about
+half an hour's journey to the east of Ramleh. I wished to
+cross: my horse at first refused, but, on my spurring it, advanced
+and at once sank up to the breast, followed of course by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a><br /><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+my legs, thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an Arab
+horse for the future.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 325px;"><a name="secured" id="secured"></a>
+<img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="325" height="600" alt="secured" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A FEAST SECURED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"There I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and consoled
+my horse and myself with some provisions that I had in my
+saddle-bags, shouting and singing at intervals, in the hope of
+obtaining succour, and of preventing accidents, as I knew that
+the year before a mule in the same position had been mistaken
+for a wild beast, and killed. The darkness was profound, and
+the wind very high; but, happily, it was not cold; for the only
+things attracted by my calls were numbers of jackals, who
+remained at a certain distance from me, and responded to my
+cries, especially when I tried to imitate them, as though they
+took me for their music-master.</p>
+
+<p>"About five o'clock, one of the guards of the English consulate
+at Jerusalem came from Ramleh and discovered my state.
+He charitably returned thither, and brought some men, who
+extricated me and my horse from our unpleasant bath, which, as
+may be supposed, was not beneficial to our legs.</p>
+
+<p>"During this most uncomfortable night, I had good opportunity
+of ascertaining that, if another Samson had wished to
+burn again the crops in the country of the Philistines, he would
+have had no difficulty in finding more than three hundred
+jackals, and catching as many as he wanted in springs, traps,
+or pitfalls. (See Ps. cxl. 5.)"</p>
+
+<p>The reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty
+in procuring the requisite number of animals, and that consequently
+the first objection to the truth of the story is disposed
+of.</p>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to the second objection, which is, that if
+the animals were tied tail to tail, they would remain on or near
+the same spot, because they would pull in different directions,
+and that, rather than run about, they would turn round and
+fight each other. Now, in the first place, we are nowhere told
+that the tails of the foxes, or jackals, were placed in contact with
+each other, and it is probable that some little space was left
+between them. That animals so tied would not run in a straight
+line is evident enough, and this was exactly the effect which
+Samson wished to produce. Had they been at liberty, and the
+fiery brand fastened to their tails, they would have run straight
+to their dens, and produced but little effect. But their captor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a><br /><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+with cruel ingenuity, had foreseen this contingency, and, by
+the method of securing them which he adopted, forced them to
+pursue a devious course, each animal trying to escape from the
+dreaded firebrand, and struggling in vain endeavours to drag its
+companion towards its own particular den.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="trespasser" id="trespasser"></a>
+<img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="600" height="313" alt="trespasser" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A TRESPASSER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire; and there
+is none, not even the fierce and courageous lion, that dares enter
+within the glare of the bivouac fire. A lion has even been
+struck in the face with a burning brand, and has not ventured
+to attack the man that wielded so dreadful a weapon. Consequently
+it may be imagined that the unfortunate animals that
+were used by Samson for his vindictive purpose, must have been
+filled with terror at the burning brands which they dragged after
+them, and the blaze of the fire which was kindled wherever
+they went. They would have no leisure to fight, and would only
+think of escaping from the dread and unintelligible enemy which
+pursued them.</p>
+
+<p>When a prairie takes fire, all the wild inhabitants flee in
+terror, and never think of attacking each other, so that the bear,
+the wolf, the cougar, the deer, and the wild swine, may all be
+seen huddled together, their natural antagonism quelled in the
+presence of a common foe. So it must have been with the
+miserable animals which were made the unconscious instruments
+of destruction. That they would stand still when a burning
+brand was between them, and when flames sprang up around
+them, is absurd. That they would pull in exactly opposite
+directions with precisely balanced force is equally improbable,
+and it is therefore evident that they would pursue a devious
+path, the stronger of the two dragging the weaker, but being
+jerked out of a straight course and impeded by the resistance
+which it would offer. That they would stand on the same spot
+and fight has been shown to be contrary to the custom of
+animals under similar circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the
+ground, but carries its own refutation, thus vindicating this
+episode in sacred history, and showing, that not only were the
+circumstances possible, but that they were highly probable. Of
+course every one of the wretched animals must have been ultimately
+burned to death, after suffering a prolonged torture from
+the firebrand that was attached to it. Such a consideration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+would, however, have had no effect for deterring Samson from
+employing them. The Orientals are never sparing of pain, even
+when inflicted upon human beings, and in too many cases they
+seem utterly unable even to comprehend the cruelty of which
+they are guilty. And Samson was by no means a favourable
+specimen of his countrymen. He was the very incarnation of
+strength, but was as morally weak as he was corporeally powerful;
+and to that weakness he owed his fall. Neither does he
+seem to possess the least trace of forbearance any more than of
+self-control, but he yields to his own undisciplined nature, places
+himself, and through him the whole Israelitish nation, in
+jeopardy, and then, with a grim humour, scatters destruction on
+every side in revenge for the troubles which he has brought
+upon himself by his own acts.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE HYÆNA.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to&mdash;Signification of
+the word Zabua&mdash;Translated in the Septuagint as Hyæna&mdash;A scene described
+by the prophet Isaiah&mdash;The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day&mdash;its
+well-known cowardice and fear of man&mdash;The uses of the Hyæna and the
+services which it renders&mdash;The particular species of Hyæna&mdash;The Hyæna in
+the burial-grounds&mdash;Hunting the Hyæna&mdash;Curious superstition respecting the
+talismanic properties of its skin&mdash;Precautions adopted in flaying it&mdash;Popular
+legends of the Hyæna and its magical powers&mdash;The cavern home of the Hyæna&mdash;The
+valley of Zeboim.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not
+mentioned by that name, there are two passages in the Old
+Testament which evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it
+is described in these pages. If the reader will refer to the
+prophet Jeremiah, xii. 7-9, he will find these words: "I
+have forsaken mine house, I have left mine heritage; I have
+given the dearly beloved of my soul into the hand of her
+enemies. Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest; it
+crieth out against me: therefore have I hated it. Mine heritage
+is unto me as a speckled bird; the birds round about are against
+her: come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, come to
+devour." Now, the word <em>zabua</em> signifies something that is
+streaked, and in the Authorized Version it is rendered as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+speckled bird. But in the Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna,
+and this translation is thought by many critical writers to be
+the true one. It is certain that the word <em>zabua</em> is one of the
+four names by which the Talmudical writers mention the Hyæna,
+when treating of its character; and it is equally certain that
+such a rendering makes the passage more forcible, and is in
+perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals.</p>
+
+<p>The whole scene which the Prophet thus describes was evidently
+familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted
+country, allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have
+the lion, which has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation,
+and defying any adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion
+having eaten his fill and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures,
+and other carrion-eating creatures, assembling around the
+carcase, and hastening to devour it. This is a scene which has
+been witnessed by many hunters who have pursued their sport
+in lands where lions, hyænas, and vultures are found; and all
+these creatures were inhabitants of Palestine at the time when
+Jeremiah wrote.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine,
+though in the course of the last few years its numbers have
+sensibly diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by
+night from one town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna,
+but need suffer no fear, as it will not attack a human being, and
+prefers to slink out of his way. But dead, and dying, or
+wounded animals are the objects for which it searches; and
+when it finds them, it devours the whole of its prey. The lion
+will strike down an antelope, an ox, or a goat&mdash;will tear off its
+flesh with its long fangs, and lick the bones with its rough
+tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves and jackals
+will follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the dead
+animal, while the vultures will fight with them for the coveted
+morsels. But the Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger
+than lion, wolf, jackal, or vulture; for it will eat the very bones
+themselves, its tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth
+enabling it to crush even the leg-bone of an ox, and its unparalleled
+digestive powers enabling it to assimilate the sharp
+and hard fragments which would kill any creature not constituted
+like itself.</p>
+
+<p>In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a><br /><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+is, therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a
+crippled or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep; but,
+even in that case, no very great harm is done, for it does not
+meddle with any animal that can resist. But these few delinquencies
+are more than compensated by the great services which
+it renders as scavenger, consuming those substances which even
+the lion cannot eat, and thus acting as a scavenger in removing
+objects which would be offensive to sight and injurious to
+health.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 322px;"><a name="robbed" id="robbed"></a>
+<img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="322" height="600" alt="robbed" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LEOPARD ROBBED OF ITS PREY BY HYÆNAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped
+Hyæna (<em>Hyæna striata</em>); but the habits of all the species are
+almost exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain
+towns in different parts of Africa which would be unendurable
+but for the Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which
+prevails throughout all savage portions of that country, the rulers
+of these towns order executions almost daily, the bodies of the
+victims being allowed to lie where they happened to fall. No
+one chooses to touch them, lest they should also be added to the
+list of victims, and the decomposing bodies would soon cause a
+pestilence but for the Hyænas, who assemble at night round
+the bodies, and by the next morning have left scarcely a trace of
+the murdered men.</p>
+
+<p>Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will
+endeavour to rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse.
+The bodies of the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances
+are closed with heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move;
+but those of the poor, which are buried in the ground, must be
+defended by stones heaped over them. Even when this precaution
+is taken, the Hyæna will sometimes find out a weak
+spot, drag out the body, and devour it.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an
+utter detestation of the animal. They catch it whenever they
+can, in pitfalls or snares, using precisely the same means as were
+employed two thousand years ago; or they hunt it to its den,
+and then kill it, stripping off the hide, and carrying it about still
+wet, receiving a small sum of money from those to whom they
+show it. Afterwards the skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime
+and salt, and steeping it in the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then
+made into sandals and leggings, which are thought to be powerful
+charms, and to defend the wearer from the Hyæna's bite.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They always observe certain superstitious precautions in flaying
+the dead animal. Believing that the scent of the flesh
+would corrupt the air, they invariably take the carcase to the
+leeward of the tents before they strip off the skin. Even in the
+animal which has been kept for years in a cage, and has eaten
+nothing but fresh meat, the odour is too powerful to be agreeable,
+as I can testify from practical experience when dissecting a
+Hyæna that had died in the Zoological Gardens; and it is evident
+that the scent of an animal that has lived all its life on carrion
+must be almost unbearable. The skin being removed, the carcase
+is burnt, because the hunters think that by this process the
+other Hyænas are prevented from finding the body of their
+comrade, and either avenging its death or taking warning by
+its fate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 401px;"><a name="devouring" id="devouring"></a>
+<img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="401" height="400" alt="devouring" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HYÆNAS DEVOURING BONES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the
+Hyæna. In Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna
+meets a solitary man at night, it can enchant him in such a
+manner as to make him follow it through thickets and over
+rocks, until he is quite exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey;
+but that over two persons he has no such influence, and therefore
+a solitary traveller is gravely advised to call for help as soon as
+he sees a Hyæna, because the fascination of the beast would be
+neutralized by the presence of a second person. So firmly is
+this idea rooted in the minds of the inhabitants, that they will
+never travel by night, unless they can find at least one companion
+in their journey.</p>
+
+<p>In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions connected
+with this animal, one of the most curious of which is
+founded on its well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that
+any weapon which has killed a Hyæna, whether it be gun,
+sword, spear, or dagger, is thenceforth unfit to be used in warfare.
+"Throw away that sword," said an Arab to a French
+officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has slain the Hyæna, and it
+will be treacherous to you."</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in
+Palestine as they used to be, and are decreasing annually. The
+cause of this diminution lies, according to Signor Pierotti, more
+in the destruction of forests than in the increase of population
+and the use of fire-arms, though the two latter causes have
+undoubtedly considerable influence.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the
+haunt of these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries
+of Es Sumrah, between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a
+wonderful mass of hyænine relics. The quarries in which were
+lying the half-hewn blocks, scored with the marks of wedges,
+had evidently formed the resort of Hyænas for a long series of
+years. "Vast heaps of bones of camels, oxen, and sheep had
+been collected by these animals, in some places to the depth of
+two or three feet, and on one spot I counted the skulls of seven
+camels. There were no traces whatever of any human remains.
+We had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of
+foundation of the old bone caverns, so valuable to the geologist.
+These bones must all have been brought in by the Hyænas, as
+no camel or sheep could possibly have entered the caverns alive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+nor could any floods have washed them in. Near the entrance
+where the water percolates, they were already forming a soft
+breccia."</p>
+
+<p>The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18,
+"Another company turned to the way of the border that looketh
+to the Valley of Zeboim towards the wilderness," <em>i.e.</em> to the
+Valley of Hyænas.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age.
+When young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well
+as mammals, the stripes from which it derives its name are
+much more strongly marked than in the adult specimen. The
+general hue of the fur is a pale grey-brown, over which are
+drawn a number of dark stripes, extending along the ribs and
+across the limbs.</p>
+
+<p>In the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark
+and twice as wide as in the adult, and they likewise appear on
+the face and on other parts of the body, whence they afterwards
+vanish. The fur is always rough; and along the spine, and especially
+over the neck and shoulders, it is developed into a kind
+of mane, which gives a very fierce aspect to the animal. The
+illustration shows a group of Hyænas coming to feed on the
+relics of a dead animal. The jackals and vultures have eaten as
+much of the flesh as they can manage, and the vultures are
+sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyænas are now
+coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have already
+begun to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE WEASEL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture&mdash;The Weasel of Palestine&mdash;Suggested
+identity with the Ichneumon.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The word Weasel occurs once in the Holy Scriptures, and
+therefore it is necessary that the animal should be mentioned.
+There is a great controversy respecting the identification of the
+animal, inasmuch as there is nothing in the context which gives
+the slightest indication of its appearance or habits.</p>
+
+<p>The passage in question is that which prohibits the Weasel and
+the mouse as unclean animals (see Lev. xi. 29). Now the word
+which is here translated Weasel is <em>Choled</em>, or <em>Chol'd</em>; and, I
+believe, never occurs again in the whole of the Old Testament.
+Mr. W. Houghton conjectures that the Hebrew word Choled is
+identical with the Arabic <i lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">Chuld</i> and the Syriac <em>Chuldo</em>, both
+words signifying a mole; and therefore infers that the unclean
+animal in question is not a Weasel, but a kind of mole.</p>
+
+<p>The Weasel does exist in Palestine, and seems to be as plentiful
+there as in our own country. Indeed, the whole tribe of Weasels
+is well represented, and the polecat is seen there as well as the
+Weasel.</p>
+
+<p>There is hardly any animal which, for its size, is so much dreaded
+by the creatures on which it preys as the common Weasel.</p>
+
+<p>Although its small proportions render a single Weasel an insignificant
+opponent to man or dog, yet it can wage a sharp battle
+even with such powerful foes, and refuses to yield except at the
+last necessity.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of the Weasel are extremely small, a full-grown
+male not exceeding ten inches in length. The color of its fur is
+bright reddish-brown on the upper parts of the body, and the
+under-portions are pure white. The audacity and courage of this
+little animal are really remarkable. It seems to hold every being
+except itself in the most sovereign contempt, and, to all appearances,
+is as ready to match itself against a man as against a mouse.</p>
+
+<p>It is a terrible foe to many of the smaller animals, such as rats<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a><br /><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+and mice, and performs a really good service to the farmer in destroying
+many of these farmyard pests. The Weasel is specially
+dreaded by rats and mice, because there is no hole through which
+they can pass that will not also admit the passage of their enemy;
+and, as the Weasel is most persevering and determined in pursuit,
+it seldom happens that rats or mice escape when their little foe has
+set itself fairly on their track.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="weasels" id="weasels"></a>
+<img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="weasels" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WEASELS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not only does the Weasel pursue its prey through the windings
+of the burrows, but it will even cross water in the chase. When
+it has at last reached its victim, it leaps upon the devoted creature
+and endeavours to fix its teeth in the back of the neck, where it
+retains its deadly hold in spite of every struggle on the part of the
+wounded animal. If the attack be rightly made and the animal a
+small one, the Weasel can drive its teeth into the brain and cause
+instantaneous death.</p>
+
+<p>The Weasel is very fond of eggs, and young birds of all kinds.
+It is said that an egg that has been broken by a Weasel, can always
+be recognized, by the peculiar mode which the little creature employs
+for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of breaking the egg to pieces or biting a large hole in
+the shell, the Weasel contents itself with making quite a small
+aperture at one end, through which it abstracts the liquid contents.</p>
+
+<p>A curious example of the courage of the Weasel, is related by a
+gentleman who while crossing a field at dusk, saw an owl pounce
+upon some object on the ground, and carry it in the air.</p>
+
+<p>In a short time the bird showed signs of distress, trying to free
+itself from some annoying object by means of its talons, and flapping
+about in a very bewildered manner.</p>
+
+<p>Soon afterwards the owl fell dead to the earth; and when the
+spectator of the aërial combat approached, a weasel ran away from
+the dead body of the bird, itself being apparently uninjured. On
+examination of the owl's body, it was found that the Weasel, which
+had been marked out for the owl's repast, had in its turn become
+the assailant, and had attacked the unprotected parts which lie
+beneath the wings. A considerable wound had been made in that
+spot, and the large blood-vessels torn through.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 346px;"><a name="biter" id="biter"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="346" height="600" alt="biter" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BITER BIT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="400" height="293" alt="scene" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BADGER.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Difficulty in identifying the <em>Tachash</em> of Scripture&mdash;References to "Badgers'
+skins"&mdash;The Dugong thought to be the Badger&mdash;The Bedouin sandals&mdash;Nature
+of the materials for the Tabernacle&mdash;Habits of the Badger&mdash;The species
+found in Palestine&mdash;Uses of the Badgers' skins&mdash;Looseness of zoological
+terms.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Until very lately, there was much difficulty in ascertaining
+whether the word <em>Tachash</em> has been rightly translated as
+Badger. It occurs in several parts of the Scriptures, and almost
+invariably is used in relation to a skin or fur of some sort. We
+will first examine the passages in which the Badger is mentioned,
+and then proceed to identify the animal.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the references to the Badger occur in the book of
+Exodus, and form part of the directions for constructing the
+Tabernacle and its contents. The first notice of the word occurs
+in Exodus xxv. 5, where the people of Israel are ordered to
+bring their offerings for the sanctuary, among which offerings are
+gold, silver, and brass, blue, purple, and scarlet, fine linen, goats'
+hair, rams' skins dyed red, badgers' skins, and shittim wood&mdash;all
+these to be used in the construction of the Tabernacle. Then a
+little farther on, in chapter xxvi. 14, we find one of the special
+uses to which the badgers' skins were to be put, namely, to make
+the outer covering or roof of the tabernacle. Another use for
+the badgers' skins was to form an outer covering for the ark, table<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+of shewbread, and other furniture of the Tabernacle, when the
+people were on the march.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases the badger-skin is used as a covering to
+defend a building or costly furniture, but there is one example
+where it is employed for a different purpose. This passage
+occurs in the book of Ezekiel, chapter xvi. 10. The prophet is
+speaking of Jerusalem under the image of a woman, and uses
+these words, "I anointed thee with oil; I clothed thee also with
+broidered work, and shod thee with badger's skin, and I girded
+thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk. I
+decked thee also with ornaments, and I put bracelets upon thy
+hands, and a chain upon thy neck, and I put a jewel on thy
+forehead, and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon
+thine head."</p>
+
+<p>So we have here the fact, that the same material which was
+used for the covering of the Tabernacle, and of the sacred furniture,
+could also be used for the manufacture of shoes. This
+passage is the more valuable because of an inference which may
+be drawn from it. The reader will see that the badger-skin,
+whatever it may have been, must have been something of considerable
+value, and therefore, in all probability, something of
+much rarity.</p>
+
+<p>In the present instance, it is classed with the most luxurious
+robes that were known in those days, and it is worthy of special
+mention among the bracelet, earrings, necklace, and coronal with
+which the symbolized city was adorned. If the reader will now
+refer to the passage in which the children of Israel were commanded
+to bring their offerings, he will see that in those cases
+also the badger-skins were ranked with the costliest articles of
+apparel that could be found, and had evidently been brought
+from Egypt, the peculiar home of all the arts; together with the
+vast quantity of gold and jewels which were used for the same
+sacred purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess
+three qualities: they must be costly, they must be capable of
+forming a defence against the weather, and they must be strong
+enough to be employed in the manufacture of shoes. If we
+accept the word Tachash as signifying a Badger, we shall find
+that these conditions have been fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>But many commentators have thought that badger-skins could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+not have been procured in sufficient numbers for the purpose,
+and have therefore conjectured that some other animal must be
+signified by the word Tachash.</p>
+
+<p>A species of dugong (<em>Halicore hemprichii</em>) is the animal that
+has been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of
+the marine mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it
+can find the various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious
+animal, and, as it frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it
+may be captured in sufficient numbers to make both its flesh
+and skin useful. Moreover, it is of considerable size, fourteen
+or fifteen feet in length being its usual dimensions, so that a
+comparatively small number of the skins would be required for
+the covering of the Tabernacle.</p>
+
+<p>That shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at
+the present day shoes, or rather sandals, are made from its hide,
+and are commonly used by the Bedouins. But the very qualities
+and peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a
+half-naked Bedouin Arab, who has to walk continually over hard,
+hot, sandy, and rough ground, would surely make it unsuitable for
+the delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her
+time in the house, and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen
+and silk, embroidered with gold and jewels. In our own country,
+the hobnailed shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a
+lady are made of very different materials, and it is reasonable
+to conjecture that such was the case when the passage in question
+was written.</p>
+
+<p>Then Dr. Robinson, who admits that the hide of the dugong
+could hardly have been used as the material for a lady's shoe,
+thinks that it would have answered very well for the roof of the
+Tabernacle, because it was large, clumsy, and coarse. It seems
+strange that he did not also perceive that the two latter qualities
+would completely disqualify such skins for that service. Everything
+clumsy and coarse was studiously prohibited, and nothing
+but the very best was considered fit for the Tabernacle of the
+Lord. By special revelation, Moses was instructed to procure,
+not merely the ordinary timber of the country for the framework&mdash;not
+only the fabrics which would keep out rain and
+wind&mdash;not simply the metals in common use, from which
+to make the lamps and other furniture&mdash;not the ordinary
+oils for supplying the lamps; but, on the contrary, the finest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a><br /><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+linen, the most elaborate embroidery, the rarest woods, the
+purest gold, the costliest gems, were demanded, and nothing
+common or inferior was accepted. The commonest material
+that was permitted was the long, soft fleece of rams' wool;
+but, even in that case, the wool had to be dyed of the regal
+scarlet&mdash;a dye so rare and so costly that none but the
+wealthiest rulers could use it. Even the very oil that burned
+in the lamps must be the purest olive-oil, prepared expressly
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="badgers" id="badgers"></a>
+<img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="badgers" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BADGERS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The very fact, therefore, that any article was plentiful and
+could easily be obtained, would be a proof that such article was
+not used for so sacred a purpose; while it is impossible that
+anything coarse and clumsy could have been accepted for the
+construction of that Tabernacle within which the Shekinah ever
+burned over the Mercy-seat&mdash;over which the cloud rested by
+day, and the fire shone by night, visible external proofs of the
+Divine glory within.</p>
+
+<p>We therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accepting
+any material for it which was not exceptionably valuable,
+and which would be employed in the uses of ordinary life. The
+great object of the minutely-elaborate directions which were
+given through Moses to the Israelites was evidently to keep
+continually before their eyes the great truth that they owed all
+to God, and that their costliest offerings were but acknowledgments
+of their dependence.</p>
+
+<p>We will now presume that the Tachash of the Pentateuch and
+Ezekiel is really the animal which we know by the name of
+Badger. It exists throughout the whole of the district traversed
+by the Israelites, though it is not very plentiful, nor is it easily
+taken. Had such been the case, its fur would not have been
+employed in the service of the sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p>It is nocturnal in its habits, and very seldom is seen during
+the hours of daylight, so that it cannot be captured by chase. It
+is not gregarious, so that it cannot be taken in great numbers, as
+is the case with certain wild animals which have been thought
+to be the Tachash of Scripture. It is not a careless animal, so
+that it cannot be captured or killed without the exercise of considerable
+ingenuity, and the expenditure of much time and
+trouble. It is one of the burrowing animals, digging for itself
+a deep subterranean home, and always ready whenever it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a><br /><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+alarmed to escape into the dark recesses of its dwelling, from
+which it can scarcely be dislodged. It is not a large animal, so
+that a considerable number of skins would be required in order
+to make a covering which should overlap a structure forty-five
+feet in length and fifteen in breadth. Were it a solitary animal,
+there might be a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number of
+skins. But it is partly gregarious in its habits, living together
+in small families, seven or eight being sometimes found to inhabit
+a single dwelling-place. It is, therefore, sufficiently rare to make
+its skin valuable, and sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite
+number of skins. All these facts tend to show that the cost of
+such a covering must have been very great, even though it was
+the outermost, and, consequently, the least valuable of the four.
+It has been suggested that these skins were only used to lay over
+the lines where the different sets of coverings overlapped each
+other, and that, in consequence, they need not have been very
+numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="supposed" id="supposed"></a>
+<img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="600" height="370" alt="supposed" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SUPPOSED FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABERNACLE, CAMP, ETC.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But we find that these same skins, which were evidently those
+which formed the external roof, were used, when the Tabernacle
+was taken down, for the purpose of forming distinct coverings
+for the ark of the testimony, the table of shewbread, the seven-branched
+candlestick, the golden altar, the various vessels used in
+the ministrations, and lastly, the altar of sacrifice itself. Thus,
+when we recollect the dimensions of the ark, the table, the candlestick,
+and the two altars, we shall see that, in order to make
+separate covers for them, a quantity of material would be used
+which would be amply sufficient to cover the whole roof of the
+Tabernacle, even if it had, as was most probably the case, a ridged,
+and not a flat roof.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to our next point, namely, the aptitude of the
+Badger's skin to resist weather. Any one who has handled the
+skin of the Badger will acknowledge that a better material could
+hardly be found. The fur is long, thick, and, though light, is
+moderately stiff, the hairs falling over each other in such a
+manner as to throw off rain or snow as off a penthouse. And,
+as to the third point, namely, its possible use as a material for the
+manufacture of shoes, we may call to mind that the skin of the
+Badger is proverbially tough, and that this very quality has
+caused the animal to be subjected to most cruel treatment by a
+class of sporting men which is now almost extinct.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise
+nature of the Tachash, and rather seems to consider the word as
+expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of
+the animal from which it was taken. Still, it must be remembered
+that not only are zoological terms used very loosely in the
+Scriptures, but that in Hebrew, as in all other languages, the
+same combination of letters often expresses two different ideas,
+so that the word Tachash may equally signify a colour and an
+animal. Moreover, it has been well pointed out that the repeated
+use of the word in the plural number shows that it cannot
+refer to colour; while its almost invariable combination with
+the Hebrew word that signifies a skin implies that it does not
+refer to colour, but to an animal.</p>
+
+<p>What that animal may be, is, as I have already mentioned,
+conjectural. But, as the authorized translation renders the word
+as Badger, and as this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to
+its identification, and as no other reading does fulfil them, we
+cannot be very far wrong if we accept that translation as the
+correct one, and assume the Tachash of the Scriptures to be the
+animal which we call by the name of Badger.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BEAR.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Syrian Bear&mdash;Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles&mdash;Its colour variable
+according to age&mdash;Bears once numerous in Palestine, and now only occasionally
+seen&mdash;Reason for their diminution&mdash;Present localities of the Bear, and its
+favourite haunts&mdash;Food of the Bear&mdash;Its general habits&mdash;Its ravages among
+the flocks&mdash;The Bear dangerous to mankind&mdash;The Bear robbed of her whelps&mdash;Illustrative
+passages&mdash;Its mode of fighting&mdash;Various references to the Bear,
+from the time of Samuel to that of St. John.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of
+various animals mentioned in the Scriptures, there is none whatever
+as to the creature which is frequently alluded to under the
+name of Bear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew word is <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Dôb</i>, and it is a remarkable fact that the
+name of this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical
+with the Hebrew term, namely, <i lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">Dubh</i>. The peculiar species of
+Bear which inhabits Palestine is the Syrian Bear (<em>Ursus
+Isabellinus</em>), and, though it has been variously described by
+different eye-witnesses, there is no doubt that the same species
+was seen by them all. As is the case with many animals, the
+Syrian Bear changes its colour as it grows older. When a cub, it is
+of a darkish brown, which becomes a light brown as it approaches
+maturity. But, when it has attained its full growth, it becomes
+cream-coloured, and each succeeding year seems to lighten its
+coat, so that a very old Bear is nearly as white as its relative of
+the Arctic regions. Travellers, therefore, who have met the
+younger specimens, have described them as brown in hue, while
+those who have seen more aged individuals have stated that
+the colour of the Syrian Bear is white.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the destruction of forests, the Bear, which is essentially
+a lover of the woods, has decreased considerably in number. Yet,
+even at the present time, specimens may be seen by the watchful
+traveller, mostly about the range of Lebanon, but sometimes at
+a considerable distance from that locality. Mr. Tristram, for
+example, saw it close to the Lake of Gennesaret. "We never
+met with so many wild animals as on one of those days. First
+of all, a wild boar got out of some scrub close to us, as we were
+ascending the valley. Then a deer was started below, ran up
+the cliff, and wound along the ledge, passing close to us. Then
+a large ichneumon almost crossed my feet and ran into a cleft;
+and, while endeavouring to trace him, I was amazed to see a
+brown Syrian Bear clumsily but rapidly clamber down the
+rocks and cross the ravine. He was, however, far too cautious
+to get within hailing distance of any of the riflemen."</p>
+
+<p>The same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds
+of this Bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm
+through which the river Leontes flows. This river runs into the
+sea a few miles northward of Tyre, and assists in carrying off the
+melted snows from the Lebanon range of mountains. His
+description is so picturesque, that it must be given in his own
+words. "The channel, though a thousand feet deep, was so
+narrow that the opposite ridge was within gunshot. Looking
+down the giddy abyss, we could see the cliff on our side partially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a><br /><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+covered with myrtle, bay, and caper hanging from the fissures,
+while the opposite side was perforated with many shallow caves,
+the inaccessible eyries of vultures, eagles, and lanner falcons, which
+were sailing in multitudes around. The lower part had many
+ledges clad with shrubs, the strongholds of the Syrian Bear,
+though inaccessible even to goats. Far beneath dashed the
+milk-white river, a silver line in a ruby setting of oleanders,
+roaring doubtless fiercely, but too distant to be heard at the
+height on which we stood. This <em>cleft</em> of the Leontes was the only
+true Alpine scenery we had met with in Palestine, and in any
+country, and amidst any mountains, it would attract admiration."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="descending" id="descending"></a>
+<img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="descending" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BEARS DESCENDING THE MOUNTAINS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On those elevated spots the Bear loves to dwell, and throughout
+the summer-time generally remains in such localities. For the
+Bear is one of the omnivorous animals, and is able to feed on
+vegetable as well as animal substances, preferring the former
+when they can be found. There is nothing that a Bear likes better
+than strawberries and similar fruits, among which it will revel
+throughout the whole fruit season, daintily picking the ripest
+berries, and becoming wonderfully fat by the constant banquet.
+Sometimes, when the fruits fail, it makes incursions among the
+cultivated grounds, and is noted for the ravages which it makes
+among a sort of vetch which is much grown in the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<p>But during the colder months of the year the Bear changes
+its diet, and becomes carnivorous. Sometimes it contents itself
+with the various wild animals which it can secure, but sometimes
+it descends to the lower plains, and seizes upon the goats
+and sheep in their pastures. This habit is referred to by David,
+in his well-known speech to Saul, when the king was trying to
+dissuade him from matching himself against the gigantic
+Philistine. "And Saul said to David, Thou art not able to go
+against this Philistine to fight with him: for thou art but a
+youth, and he a man of war from his youth.... Thy servant
+kept his father's sheep, and there came a lion and a bear, and
+took a lamb out of the flock: and I went out after him, and
+smote him, and delivered it out of his hand; and when he arose
+against me, I caught him by the beard, and smote him, and slew
+him. Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear: and this
+uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath
+defied the armies of the living God."&mdash;1 Sam. xvii. 33-36.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="watch" id="watch"></a>
+<img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="watch" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ON THE WATCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Though not generally apt to attack mankind, it will do so if
+first attacked, and then becomes a most dangerous enemy. See,
+for example, that most graphic passage in the book of the
+prophet Amos, whose business as a herdsman must have made
+him conversant with the habits, not only of the flocks and herds
+which he kept, but of the wild beasts which might devour
+them:&mdash;"Woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord! to
+what end is it for you? the day of the Lord is darkness, and
+not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met
+him; or went into a house, and leaned his hand on the wall,
+and a serpent bit him." (v. 19.)</p>
+
+<p>Another reference to the dangerous character of the Bear is
+made in 2 Kings ii. 23, 24, in which is recorded that two she-bears
+came out of the wood near Bethel, and killed forty-two of
+the children that mocked at Elisha.</p>
+
+<p>As the Bear is not swift of foot, but rather clumsy in its
+movements, it cannot hope to take the nimbler animals in open
+chase. It prefers to lie in wait for them in the bushes, and to
+strike them down with a sudden blow of its paw, a terrible
+weapon, which it can wield as effectively as the lion uses its
+claws. An allusion to this habit is made in the Lamentations
+of Jeremiah (iii. 10), "He was unto me as a bear lying in wait,
+and as a lion in secret places."</p>
+
+<p>Harmless to man as it generally is, there are occasions on
+which it becomes a terrible and relentless foe, not seeking to
+avoid his presence, but even searching for him, and attacking
+him as soon as seen. In the proper season of the year, hunters,
+or those who are travelling through those parts of the country
+infested by the Bear, will sometimes find the cubs, generally
+two in number, their mother having left them in the den while
+she has gone to search for food. Although they would not
+venture to take the initiative in an attack upon either of the
+parents, they are glad of an opportunity which enables them to
+destroy one or two Bears without danger to themselves. The
+young Bears are easily killed or carried off, because at a very
+early age they are as confident as they are weak, and do not try
+to escape when they see the hunters approaching.</p>
+
+<p>The only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may
+be discovered by the mother before they can escape from the
+locality, and, if she should happen to return while the robbers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a><br /><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+are still in the neighbourhood, a severe conflict is sure to follow.
+At any time an angry Bear is a terrible antagonist, especially if
+it be wounded with sufficient severity to cause pain, and not
+severely enough to cripple its movements. But, when to this
+easily-roused ferocity is added the fury of maternal feelings, it
+may be imagined that the hunters have good reason to fear its
+attack.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="seeking" id="seeking"></a>
+<img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="seeking" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SEEKING AN OUTLOOK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To all animals that rear their young is given a sublime and
+almost supernatural courage in defending their offspring, and
+from the lioness, that charges a host of armed men when her
+cubs are in danger, to the hen, which defies the soaring kite or
+prowling fox, or to the spider, that will give up her life rather
+than abandon her yet unhatched brood, the same self-sacrificing
+spirit actuates them all. Most terrible therefore is the wrath
+of a creature which possesses, as is the case of the Bear, the
+strongest maternal affections, added to great size, tremendous
+weapons, and gigantic strength. That the sight of a Bear
+bereaved of her young was well known to both writers and
+contemporary readers of the Old Testament, is evident from
+the fact that it is mentioned by several writers, and always
+as a familiar illustration of furious anger. See for example
+2 Sam. xvii. 8, when Hushai is dissuading Absalom from following
+the cautious counsel of Ahithophel, "For thou knowest
+thy father and his men, that they be mighty men of war, and
+they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed of her whelps
+in the field." Solomon also, in the Proverbs (xvii. 12), uses
+the same image, "Let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man,
+rather than a fool in his folly."</p>
+
+<p>When the Bear fights, it delivers rapid strokes with its armed
+paw, tearing and rending away everything that it strikes. A
+blow from a bear's paw has been several times known to strip
+the entire skin, together with the hair, from a man's head, and,
+when fighting with dogs, to tear its enemies open as if each
+claw were a chisel.</p>
+
+<p>Bears are capable of erecting themselves on their hinder limbs,
+and of supporting themselves in an upright position with the greatest
+ease. When attacked in close combat, they have a habit of
+rearing themselves upon their hinder feet&mdash;a position which enables
+them to deliver with the greatest effect the terrific blows with their
+fore paws, upon which they chiefly rely in defending themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With fearful ingenuity, the Bear, when engaged with a human
+foe, directs its attack upon the head of its antagonist, and, as previously
+stated, has been known to strike off the entire scalp with
+a single blow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 397px;"><a name="party" id="party"></a>
+<img src="images/i_110.jpg" width="397" height="600" alt="party" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A FAMILY-PARTY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A hunter who had the misfortune to be struck down by a Bear&mdash;and
+the singular good fortune to afterwards escape from it&mdash;says,
+that when he was lying on the ground at the mercy of the angry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+beast, the animal, after biting him upon the arms and legs, deliberately
+settled itself upon his head and began to scarify it in the
+fiercest manner, leaving wounds eight and nine inches in length.</p>
+
+<p>Bears are the more terrible antagonists from their extreme
+tenacity of life, and the fearful energy which they compress
+into the last moment of existence, when they are suffering from a
+mortal wound. Unless struck in the heart or brain, the mortally-wounded
+Bear is more to be feared than if it had received no
+injury whatever, and contrives to wreak more harm in the few
+minutes that immediately precede its death, than it had achieved
+while still uninjured.</p>
+
+<p>Many a hunter has received mortal hurts by incautiously approaching
+a Bear, which lay apparently dead, but was in reality
+only stunned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="bear" id="bear"></a>
+<img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="450" height="401" alt="bear" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="porcupine" id="porcupine"></a>
+<img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="450" height="351" alt="porcupine" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE PORCUPINE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine&mdash;Habits of the Porcupine&mdash;the
+common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned
+by name in the Scriptures, many commentators think that the
+word Kippôd signifies both the hedgehog and Porcupine.</p>
+
+<p>That the two animals should be thought to be merely two
+varieties of one species is not astonishing, when we remember
+the character of the people among whom the Porcupine lives.
+Not having the least idea of scientific geology, they look only to
+the most conspicuous characteristics, and because the Porcupine
+and hedgehog are both covered with an armature of quills, and
+the quills are far more conspicuous than the teeth, the inhabitants
+of Palestine naturally class the two animals together. In
+reality, they belong to two very different orders, the hedgehog
+being classed with the shrew-mice and moles, while the Porcupine
+is a rodent animal, and is classed with the rats, rabbits,
+beavers, marmots, and other rodents.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite as common in Palestine as the hedgehog, a fact
+which increases the probability that the two animals may have
+been mentioned under a common title. Being a nocturnal
+animal, it retires during the day-time to some crevice in a rock or
+burrow in the ground, and there lies sleeping until the sunset<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+awakens it and calls it to action. And as the hedgehog is also
+a nocturnal animal, the similarity of habit serves to strengthen
+the mutual resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>The Porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and unwatered
+spots, as, like many other animals, of which our
+common rabbit is a familiar example, it can exist without
+water, obtaining the needful moisture from the succulent roots
+on which it feeds.</p>
+
+<p>The sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are
+solid, and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal
+ribs, that run longitudinally through them, exactly like those
+of the hollow iron masts, which are now coming so much into
+use. As they are, in fact, greatly developed hairs, they are continually
+shed and replaced, and when they are about to fall are
+so loosely attached that they fall off if pulled slightly, or even if
+the animal shakes itself. Consequently the shed quills that lie
+about the localities inhabited by the Porcupine indicate its
+whereabouts, and so plentiful are these quills in some places,
+that quite a bundle can be collected in a short time.</p>
+
+<p>There are many species of Porcupines which inhabit different
+parts of the world, but that which has been mentioned is the
+common Porcupine of Europe, Asia, and Africa.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE MOLE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The two Hebrew words which are translated as Mole&mdash;Obscurity of the former
+name&mdash;A parallel case in our own language&mdash;The second name&mdash;The Moles
+and the Bats, why associated together&mdash;The real Mole of Scripture, its different
+names, and its place in zoology&mdash;Description of the Mole-rat and its general
+habits&mdash;Curious superstition&mdash;Discovery of the species by Mr. Tristram&mdash;Scripture
+and science&mdash;How the Mole-rat finds its food&mdash;Distinction between
+the Mole and the present animal.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are two words which are translated as Mole in our
+authorized version of the Bible. One of them is so obscure that
+there seems no possibility of deciding the creature that is represented
+by it. We cannot even tell to what class of the animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+kingdom it refers, because in more than one place it is mentioned
+as one of the unclean birds that might not be eaten (translated
+as <em>swan</em> in our version), whereas, in another place, it is enumerated
+among the unclean creeping things.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="mole" id="mole"></a>
+<img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="450" height="389" alt="mole" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE MOLE-RAT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may conjecture that the same word might be used to
+designate two distinct animals, though we have no clue to their
+identification. It is rather a strange coincidence, in corroboration
+of this theory, that our word Mole signifies three distinct objects&mdash;firstly,
+an animal; secondly, a cutaneous growth; and
+thirdly, a bank of earth. Now, supposing English to be a dead
+language, like the Hebrew, it may well be imagined that a translator
+of an English book would feel extremely perplexed when
+he saw the word Mole used in such widely different senses.</p>
+
+<p>The best Hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture
+founded on the structure of the word <em>Tinshemeth</em>, which is
+thought by some to be the chameleon. Some think that it
+is the Mole, some the ibis, some the salamander, while others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+consider it to be the centipede; and in neither case have any
+decisive arguments been adduced.</p>
+
+<p>We will therefore leave the former of these two names, and
+proceed to the second, <em>Chephor-peroth</em>.</p>
+
+<p>This word occurs in that passage of Isaiah which has already
+been quoted when treating of the bat. "In that day a man shall
+cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made
+each one to himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; to
+go into the clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged
+rocks, for fear of the Lord and for the glory of his majesty, when
+he ariseth to shake terribly the earth."</p>
+
+<p>It is highly probable that the animal in question is the Mole
+of Palestine, which is not the same as our European species, but
+is much larger in size, and belongs to a different order of mammalia.
+The true Mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous
+animals, and is allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs; whereas
+the Mole of Palestine (<em>Spalax typhlus</em>) is one of the rodents,
+and allied to the rabbits, mice, marmots, and jerboas. A better
+term for it is the Mole-rat, by which name it is familiar to
+zoologists. It is also known by the names of Slepez and
+Nenni.</p>
+
+<p>In length it is about eight inches, and its colour is a pale slate.
+As is the case with the true Moles, the eyes are of very minute
+dimensions, and are not visible through the thick soft fur with
+which the whole head and body are covered. Neither are there
+any visible external ears, although the ear is really very large,
+and extremely sensitive to sound. This apparent privation of
+both ears and eyes gives to the animal a most singular and
+featureless appearance, its head being hardly recognisable as such
+but for the mouth, and the enormous projecting teeth, which not
+only look formidable, but really are so. There is a curious
+superstition in the Ukraine, that if a man will dare to grasp a
+Mole-rat in his bare hand, allow it to bite him, and then squeeze
+it to death, the hand that did the deed will ever afterwards
+possess the virtue of healing goitre or scrofula.</p>
+
+<p>This animal is spread over a very large tract of country, and
+is very common in Palestine. Mr. Tristram gives an interesting
+account of its discovery. "We had long tried in vain to capture
+the Mole of Palestine. Its mines and its mounds we had seen
+everywhere, and reproached ourselves with having omitted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+mole-trap among the items of our outfit. From the size of the
+mounds and the shallowness of the subterranean passages, we
+felt satisfied it could not be the European species, and our hopes
+of solving the question were raised when we found that one of
+them had taken up its quarters close to our camp. After several
+vain attempts to trap it, an Arab one night brought a live Mole
+in a jar to the tent. It was no Mole properly so called, but the
+Mole-rat, which takes its place throughout Western Asia. The
+man, having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen, refused
+to part with it for less than a hundred piastres, and scornfully
+rejected the twenty piastres I offered. Ultimately, Dr. Chaplin
+purchased it for five piastres after our departure, and I kept it
+alive for some time in a box, feeding it on sliced onions."</p>
+
+<p>The same gentleman afterwards caught many of the Mole-rats,
+and kept them in earthen vessels, as they soon gnawed their
+way through wood. They fed chiefly on bulbs, but also ate
+sopped bread. Like many other animals, they reposed during
+the day, and were active throughout the night.</p>
+
+<p>The author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appropriate
+character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast
+to the Moles and the bats. Had the European Mole been the
+animal to which reference was made, there would have been
+comparatively little significance in the connexion of the two
+names, because, although both animals are lovers of darkness,
+they do not inhabit similar localities. But the Mole-rat is fond
+of frequenting deserted ruins and burial-places, so that the
+Moles and the bats are really companions, and as such are associated
+together in the sacred narrative. Here, as in many other
+instances, we find that closer study of the Scriptures united to
+more extended knowledge are by no means the enemies of
+religion, as some well-meaning, but narrow-minded persons
+think. On the contrary, the Scriptures were never so well
+understood, and their truth and force so well recognised, as at
+the present day; and science has proved to be, not the destroyer
+of the Bible, but its interpreter. We shall soon cease to hear of
+"Science <em>versus</em> the Bible," and shall substitute "Science and
+the Bible <em>versus</em> Ignorance and Prejudice."</p>
+
+<p>The Mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true
+Moles, because its food does not lie so deep. The Moles live
+chiefly upon earthworms, and are obliged to procure them in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+varying depths to which they burrow. But the Mole-rat lives
+mostly upon roots, preferring those of a bulbous nature. Now
+bulbous roots are, as a rule, situated near the surface of the
+ground, and, therefore, any animal which feeds upon them
+must be careful not to burrow too deeply, lest it should pass
+beneath them. The shallowness of the burrows is thus accounted
+for. Gardens are often damaged by this animal, the root-crops,
+such as carrots and onions, affording plenty of food without
+needing much exertion.</p>
+
+<p>The Mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as
+does our common Mole, but occasionally will come out of the
+burrow and lie on the ground, enjoying the warm sunshine. Still
+it is not easily to be approached; for though its eyes are almost
+useless, the ears are so sharp, and the animal is so wary, that at
+the sound of a footstep it instantly seeks the protection of its
+burrow, where it may bid defiance to its foes.</p>
+
+<p>How it obtains its food is a mystery. There seems to be
+absolutely no method of guiding itself to the precise spot where
+a bulb may be growing. It is not difficult to conjecture the
+method by which the Mole discovers its prey. Its sensitive ears
+may direct it to the spot where a worm is driving its way
+through the earth, and should it come upon its prey, the very
+touch of the worm, writhing in terror at the approach of its
+enemy, would be sufficient to act as a guide. I have kept
+several Moles, and always noticed that, though they would pass
+close to a worm without seeming to detect its presence, either
+by sight or scent, at the slightest touch they would spring
+round, dart on the worm, and in a moment seize it between their
+jaws. But with the Mole-rat the case is different. The root can
+utter no sound, and can make no movement, nor is it likely that
+the odour of the bulb should penetrate through the earth to a
+very great distance.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="mice" id="mice"></a>
+<img src="images/i_118.jpg" width="450" height="242" alt="mice" />
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE MOUSE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Mice which marred the land&mdash;The Field-mouse&mdash;Its destructive habits and
+prolific nature&mdash;The Hamster, and its habits&mdash;The Jerboa, its activity and destructiveness&mdash;Various
+species of Dormice and Sand-rats.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>That the Mouse mentioned in the Old Testament was some
+species of rodent animal is tolerably clear, though it is impossible
+to state any particular species as being signified by the
+Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Akbar</i>. The probable derivation of this name is
+from two words which signify "destruction of corn," and it is
+therefore evident that allusion is made to some animal which
+devours the produce of the fields, and which exists in sufficient
+numbers to make its voracity formidable.</p>
+
+<p>Some commentators on the Old Testament translate the
+word Akbar as jerboa. Now, although the jerboa is common in
+Syria, it is not nearly so plentiful as other rodent animals, and
+would scarcely be selected as the means by which a terrible
+disaster is made to befall a whole country. The student of
+Scripture is well aware that, in those exceptional occurrences
+which are called miracles, a needless development of the
+wonder-working power is never employed. We are not to suppose,
+for example, that the clouds of locusts that devoured the
+harvests of the Egyptians were created for this express purpose,
+but that their already existing hosts were concentrated upon a
+limited area, instead of being spread over a large surface. Nor
+need we fancy that the frogs which rendered their habitations
+unclean, and contaminated their food, were brought into existence
+simply to inflict a severe punishment on the fastidious and
+superstitious Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of course, had such an exercise of creative power been needed,
+it would have been used, but we can all see that a needless
+miracle is never worked. He who would not suffer even a
+crumb of the miraculously multiplied bread to be wasted, is not
+likely to waste that power by which the miracle was wrought.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="dagon" id="dagon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="450" height="491" alt="dagon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">DAGON FALLEN DOWN BEFORE THE ARK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we refer to the early history of the Israelitish nation, as
+told in 1 Sam. iv.-vi., we shall find that the Israelites made an
+unwarrantable use of the ark, by taking it into battle, and that it
+was captured and carried off into the country of the Philistines.
+Then various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark
+back to its rightful possessors. Dagon, their great god, was prostrated
+before it, painful diseases attacked them, so that many
+died, and scarcely any seem to have escaped, while their harvests
+were ravaged by numbers of "mice that marred the land."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="nest" id="nest"></a>
+<img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="350" height="565" alt="nest" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MOUSE AND NEST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The question is now simple enough. If the ordinary translation
+is accepted, and the word Akbar rendered as Mouse, would
+the necessary conditions be fulfilled, <em>i.e.</em> would the creature be
+destructive, and would it exist in very great numbers? Now we
+shall find that both these conditions are fulfilled by the common
+Field-mouse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This little creature is, in proportion to its size, one of the most
+destructive animals in the world. Let its numbers be increased
+from any cause whatever, and it will most effectually "mar
+the land." It will devour every cereal that is sown, and kill
+almost any sapling that is planted. It does not even wait for
+the corn to spring up, but will burrow beneath the surface, and
+dig out the seed before it has had time to sprout. In the early
+part of the year, it will eat the green blade as soon as it springs
+out of the ground, and is an adept at climbing the stalks of corn,
+and plundering the ripe ears in the autumn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="jerboa" id="jerboa"></a>
+<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="450" height="349" alt="jerboa" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JERBOA, OR LEAPING MOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When stacked or laid up in barns, the harvest is by no means
+safe, for the Mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn, and find
+their way into any carelessly-built stack, from which they can
+scarcely be ejected. The rat itself is not so dire a foe to the
+farmer, as the less obtrusive, but equally mischievous Field-mouse.
+The ferret will drive the rats out of their holes, and if
+they have taken possession of a wheat-stack they can be ejected
+by depriving them of access to water. But the burrows of the
+Field-mouse are so small that a ferret cannot make its way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+through them, and the nightly dew that falls on the stack affords
+an ample supply of water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="field" id="field"></a>
+<img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="400" height="466" alt="field" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE FIELD-MOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the Field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves
+best, it finds a subsistence among the trees. Whenever mice can
+discover a newly-planted sapling, they hold great revel upon it,
+eating away the tender young bark as high as they can reach,
+and consequently destroying the tree as effectually as if it were
+cut down. Even when the young trees fail them, and no tender
+bark is to be had, the Field-mice can still exert their destructive
+powers. They will then betake themselves to the earth, burrow
+beneath its surface, and devour the young rootlets of the forest
+trees. All botanists know that a healthy tree is continually
+pushing forward fresh roots below the ground, in order to gain
+sufficient nourishment to supply the increasing growth above.
+If, therefore, these young roots are destroyed, the least harm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+that can happen to the tree is that its further growth is arrested;
+while, in many cases, the tree, which cannot repair the injuries
+it has received, droops gradually, and finally dies. Even in this
+country, the Field-mouse has proved itself a terrible enemy to
+the agriculturist, and has devastated considerable tracts of land.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the destructive powers of the Field-mouse, and
+the next point to be considered is its abundance.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals,
+producing a considerable number at a brood, and having several
+broods in a season. The Field-mouse is by no means an exception
+to the general rule, but produces as many young in a season
+as any of the Mice.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is it formidable from its numbers, but from the insidious
+nature of its attacks. Any one can see a rabbit, a hare,
+or even a rat; but to see a Field-mouse is not easy, even when the
+little creatures are present in thousands. A Field-mouse never
+shows itself except from necessity, its instinct teaching it to
+escape the observation of its many furred and feathered enemies.
+Short-legged and soft-furred, it threads its noiseless way among
+the herbage with such gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass-blade
+is stirred, while, if it should be forced to pass over a spot
+of bare ground, the red-brown hue of its fur prevents it from
+being detected by an inexperienced eye. Generally the Field-mouse
+is safe from human foes, and has only to dread the
+piercing eye and swift wings of the hawk, or the silent flight
+and sharp talons of the owl.</p>
+
+<p>Although there can be no doubt that the Field-mouse is one
+of the animals to which the name of Akbar is given, it is probable
+that many species were grouped under this one name.
+Small rodents of various kinds are very plentiful in Palestine,
+and there are several species closely allied to the Field-mouse
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Among them is the Hamster (<em>Cricetus frumentarius</em>), so
+widely known for the ravages which it makes among the crops.
+This terribly destructive animal not only steals the crops for
+immediate subsistence, but lays up a large stock of provisions
+for the winter, seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly
+passion for collecting and storing away. There seems to be no
+bounds to the quantity of food which a Hamster will carry
+into its subterranean store-house, from seventy to one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+pounds' weight being sometimes taken out of the burrow of a
+single animal. The fact of the existence of these large stores
+shows that the animal must need them, and accordingly we find
+that the Hamster is only a partial hibernator, as it is awake
+during a considerable portion of the winter months, and is consequently
+obliged to live on the stores which it has collected.</p>
+
+<p>It is an exceedingly prolific animal, each pair producing on an
+average twenty-five young in the course of a year. The families
+are unsociable, and, as soon as they are strong enough to feed
+themselves, the young Hamsters leave their home, and make
+separate burrows for themselves. Thus we see that the Hamster,
+as well as the Field-mouse, fulfils the conditions which are
+needed in order to class it under the general title of Akbar.</p>
+
+<p>I have already stated that some translators of the Bible use
+the word Jerboa as a rendering of the Hebrew Akbar. As the
+Jerboa certainly is found in Palestine, there is some foundation
+for this idea, and we may safely conjecture that it also is one of
+the smaller rodents which are grouped together under the appellation
+of Mouse.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Jerboa (<em>Dipus Ægyptiacus</em>) is plentiful in Palestine,
+and several other species inhabit the same country, known
+at once by their long and slender legs, which give them so
+curious a resemblance to the kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas
+pass over the ground with astonishing rapidity. Instead of
+creeping stealthily among the grass-blades, like the short-limbed
+field-mouse, the Jerboa flies along with a succession of wonderful
+leaps, darting here and there with such rapidity that the eye can
+scarcely follow its wayward movements. When quiet and undisturbed,
+it hops along gently enough, but as soon as it takes
+alarm, it darts off in its peculiar manner, which is to the ordinary
+walk of quadrupeds what the devious course of a frightened
+snipe is to the steady flight of birds in general.</p>
+
+<p>It prefers hot and dry situations, its feet being defended by a
+thick coating of stiff hairs, which serve the double purpose of
+protecting it from the heat, and giving it a firm hold on the
+ground. It is rather a destructive animal, its sharp and powerful
+teeth enabling it to bite its way through obstacles which would
+effectually stop an ordinary Mouse. That the Jerboa may be
+one of the Akbarim is rendered likely by the prohibition in
+Lev. xi. 29, forbidding the Mouse to be eaten. It would be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+scarcely probable that such a command need have been issued
+against eating the common Mouse, whereas the Jerboa, a much
+larger and palatable animal, is always eaten by the Arabs. The
+Hamster is at the present day eaten in Northern Syria.</p>
+
+<p>Beside these creatures there are the Dormice, several species
+of which animal inhabit Palestine at the present day. There are
+also the Sand-rats, one species of which is larger than our ordinary
+rats. The Sand-rats live more in the deserts than the
+cultivated lands, making their burrows at the foot of hills, and
+among the roots of bushes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE HARE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The prohibitions of the Mosaic law&mdash;The chewing of the cud, and division of the
+hoof&mdash;Identity of the Hare of Scripture&mdash;Rumination described&mdash;The Hare
+a rodent and not a ruminant&mdash;Cowper and his Hares&mdash;Structure of the rodent
+tooth&mdash;The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients&mdash;The Hares of Palestine
+and their habits.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Among the many provisions of the Mosaic law are several which
+refer to the diet of the Israelites, and which prohibit certain
+kinds of food. Special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals,
+and the list of those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly
+restricted one, all being excluded except those which "divide the
+hoof and chew the cud." And, lest there should be any mistake
+about the matter, examples are given both of those animals
+which may and those which may not be eaten.</p>
+
+<p>The ox, sheep, goat, and antelopes generally are permitted as
+lawful food, because they fulfil both conditions; whereas there is
+a special prohibition of the swine, because it divides the hoof
+but does not chew the cud, and of the camel, coney, and hare
+because they chew the cud, but do not divide the hoof. Our
+business at present is with the last of these animals.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable discussion has been raised concerning this
+animal, because, as is well known to naturalists, the Hare is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+one of the ruminant animals, but belongs to the same order as
+the rat, rabbit, beaver, and other rodents. Neither its teeth nor
+its stomach are constructed for the purpose of enabling it to
+ruminate, <em>i.e.</em> to return into the mouth the partially-digested
+food, and then to masticate it afresh; and therefore it has been
+thought that either there is some mistake in the sacred narrative
+or that the Hebrew word has been mistranslated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="hare" id="hare"></a>
+<img src="images/i_126.jpg" width="450" height="396" alt="hare" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE SYRIAN HARE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Taking the latter point first, as being the simplest of the two,
+we find that the Hebrew word which is rendered as Hare is
+Arnebeth, and that it is rendered in the Septuagint as Dasypus,
+or the Hare,&mdash;a rendering which the Jewish Bible adopts.
+That the Arnebeth is really the Hare may also be conjectured
+from the fact that the Arabic name for that animal is Arneb.
+In consequence of the rather wide sense to which the Greek
+word Dasypus (<em>i.e.</em> hairy-foot) is used, some commentators have
+suggested that the rabbit may have been included in the same
+title. This, however, is not at all likely, inasmuch as the Hare<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+is very plentiful in Palestine, and the rabbit is believed not to
+be indigenous to that part of the world. And, even if the two
+animals had been classed under the same title, the physiological
+difficulty would not be removed.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding further, it will be as well to give a brief
+description of the curious act called rumination, or "chewing
+the cud."</p>
+
+<p>There are certain animals, such as the oxen, antelopes, deer,
+sheep, goats, camels, &amp;c. which have teeth unfitted for the rapid
+mastication of food, and which therefore are supplied with a
+remarkable apparatus by which the food can be returned into
+the mouth when the animal has leisure, and be re-masticated
+before it passes into the true digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p>For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, which
+are arranged in the following order. First comes the paunch or
+"rumen" (whence the word "ruminating"), into which passes the
+food in a very rough state, just as it is torn, rather than bitten,
+from the herbage, and which is analogous to the crop in birds. It
+thence passes into the second stomach, or "honeycomb," the
+walls of which are covered with small angular cells. Into those
+cells the food is received from the first stomach, and compressed
+into little balls, which can be voluntarily returned into the
+mouth for mastication.</p>
+
+<p>After the second mastication has been completed, the food
+passes at once into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth,
+which is the true digesting cavity. By a peculiar structure of
+these organs, the animal is able to convey its food either into
+the first or third stomach, at will, <em>i.e.</em> into the first when the grass
+is eaten, and into the third after rumination. Thus it will be seen
+that an animal which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain
+character, and be possessed of the fourfold stomach which has
+just been described.</p>
+
+<p>Two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irreconcilable
+with each other. The first is that the Mosaic law
+distinctly states that the Hare chews the cud; the second is
+that in point of fact the Hare is not, and cannot be, a ruminating
+animal, possessing neither the teeth nor the digestive
+organs which are indispensable for that process. Yet, totally
+opposed as these statements appear to be, they are in fact, not so
+irreconcilable as they seem.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 391px;"><a name="timid" id="timid"></a>
+<img src="images/i_128.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="timid" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A TIMID GROUP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited, we do not at
+the present time know. That the flesh of swine should be forbidden
+food is likely enough, considering the effects which the
+habitual eating of swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries.
+But it does seem very strange that the Israelites should have
+been forbidden to eat the flesh of the camel, the coney (or hyrax),
+and the Hare, and that these animals should have been specified
+is a proof that the eating or refraining from their flesh was not
+a mere sanitary regulation, but was a matter of importance.
+The flesh of all these three animals is quite as good and
+nutritious as that of the oxen, or goats, which are eaten in
+Palestine, and that of the Hare is far superior to them. Therefore,
+the people of Israel, who were always apt to take liberties
+with the restrictive laws, and were crafty enough to evade them
+on so many occasions, would have been likely to pronounce that
+the flesh of the Hare was lawful meat, because the animal chewed
+the cud, or appeared to do so, and they would discreetly have
+omitted the passage which alluded to the division of the hoof.</p>
+
+<p>To a non-scientific observer the Hare really does appear to
+chew the cud. When it is reposing at its ease, it continually
+moves its jaws about as if eating something, an action which
+may readily be mistaken for true rumination. Even Cowper,
+the poet, who kept some hares for several years, and had them
+always before his eyes, was deceived by this mumbling movement
+of the jaws. Speaking of his favourite hare, "Puss," he
+proceeds as follows: "Finding him exceedingly tractable, I
+made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the
+garden, where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a
+cucumber vine, sleeping, <em>or chewing the cud</em>, till evening."</p>
+
+<p>The real object of this continual grinding or mumbling movement
+is simple enough. The chisel-like incisor teeth of the
+rodent animals need to be rubbed against each other, in order to
+preserve their edge and shape, and if perchance such friction
+should be wanting to a tooth, as, for example, by the breaking of
+the opposite tooth, it becomes greatly elongated, and sometimes
+grows to such a length as to prevent the animal from eating.
+Instinctively, therefore, the Hare, as well as the rabbit and
+other rodents, always likes to be nibbling at something, as any one
+knows who has kept rabbits in wooden hutches, the object of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+this nibbling not being to eat the wood, but to keep the teeth
+in order.</p>
+
+<p>But we may naturally ask ourselves, why the Mosaic law, an
+emanation from heaven, should mention an animal as being a
+ruminant, when its very structure shows that such an act was
+utterly impossible? The answer is clear enough. The law was
+suited to the capacity of those for whom it was intended, and
+was never meant to be a handbook of science, as well as a code
+of religious duties and maxims. The Jews, like other Orientals,
+were indifferent to that branch of knowledge which we designate
+by the name of physical science, and it was necessary that the
+language in which the law was conveyed to them should be
+accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it.</p>
+
+<p>It would have been worse than useless to have interrupted
+the solemn revelation of Divine will with a lesson in comparative
+anatomy; the object of the passage in question being, not to
+teach the Jews the distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a
+ruminant, but to guard against their mistaking the Hare for one
+of the ruminants which were permitted as food. That they
+would in all probability have fallen into that mistake is evident
+from the fact that the Arabs are exceedingly fond of the flesh of
+the Hare, and accept it, as well as the camel, as lawful food,
+because it chews the cud, the division of the hoof not being
+considered by them as an essential.</p>
+
+<p>Hares are very plentiful in Palestine, and at least two species
+are found in that country. One of them, which inhabits the
+more northern and hilly portion of Palestine, closely resembles
+our own species, but has not ears quite so long in proportion,
+while the head is broader. The second species, which lives in
+the south, and in the valley of the Jordan, is very small, is of a
+light dun colour, and has very long ears. In their general
+habits, these Hares resemble the Hare of England.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CATTLE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present day&mdash;Ox-flesh not used
+for food in modern times&mdash;Oxen of the stall, and oxen of the pasture&mdash;The use
+of the ox in agriculture&mdash;The yoke and its structure&mdash;The plough and the goad&mdash;The
+latter capable of being used as a weapon&mdash;Treading out the corn&mdash;The
+cart and its wheels&mdash;The ox used as a beast of burden&mdash;Cattle turned loose to
+graze&mdash;The bulls of Bashan&mdash;Curiosity of the ox-tribe&mdash;A season of drought&mdash;Branding
+the cattle&mdash;An Egyptian field scene&mdash;Cattle-keeping an honourable
+post&mdash;The ox as used for sacrifice&mdash;Ox-worship&mdash;The bull Apis, and his history&mdash;Persistency
+of the bull-worship&mdash;Jeroboam's sin&mdash;Various names of cattle&mdash;The
+Indian buffalo.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of
+Scripture, whether mentioned as Bull, Cow, Ox, Calf, Heifer, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Two distinct species of cattle are found in Palestine, namely,
+the ordinary domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which
+lives in the low-lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. Of this
+species we shall treat presently.</p>
+
+<p>The domesticated cattle are very much like our own, but there
+is not among them that diversity of breed for which this country
+is famous; nor is there even any distinction of long and short
+horned cattle. There are some places where the animals are
+larger than in others, but this difference is occasioned simply by
+the better quality and greater quantity of the food.</p>
+
+<p>As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization
+has made any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are,
+plentiful in Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are
+in common use, though it is evident, from many passages of
+Holy Writ, that in the days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far
+more numerous than they are now, and were treated in a better
+fashion.</p>
+
+<p>To take their most sacred use first, a constant supply of cattle
+was needed for the sacrifices, and, as it was necessary that every
+animal which was brought to the altar should be absolutely
+perfect, it is evident that great care was required in order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+that the breed should not deteriorate, a skill which has long
+been rendered useless by the abandonment of the sacrifices.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="altar" id="altar"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132.jpg" width="450" height="422" alt="altar" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is
+that in those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the
+table, just as is done with ourselves. At the present day, the
+flesh of the cattle is practically unused as food, that of the sheep
+or goat being always employed, even when a man gives a feast
+to his friends. But, in the old times, stalled oxen, <em>i.e.</em> oxen kept
+asunder from those which were used for agricultural purposes,
+and expressly fatted for the table, were in constant use. See for
+example the well-known passage in the Prov. xv. 17, "Better is
+a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred
+therewith." Again, the Prophet Jeremiah makes use of a
+curious simile, "Egypt is like a very fair heifer, but destruction
+cometh; it cometh out of the north. Also her hired men are in
+the midst of her like fatted bullocks [or, bullocks of the stall],<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+for they also are turned back, and are fled away together."
+(Jer. xlvi. 20.) And in 1 Kings iv. 22, 23, when describing the
+glories of Solomon's household, the sacred writer draws a distinction
+between the oxen which were especially fattened for the
+table of the king and the superior officers, and those which were
+consumed by the lower orders of his household: "And Solomon's
+provision for one day was thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore
+measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the
+pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside harts, and roebucks, and
+fallow-deer, and fatted fowl."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="prodigal" id="prodigal"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="450" height="570" alt="prodigal" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PRODIGAL SON RETURNS, AND THE FATTED CALF IS KILLED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Calves&mdash;mostly, if not always, bull-calves&mdash;were largely used
+for food in Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy were
+fatted for the table. See, for example, the familiar parable of
+the prodigal son, in which the rejoicing father is mentioned as
+preparing a great feast in honour of his son's return, and ordering
+the fatted calf to be killed&mdash;the calf in question being evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+one of the animals that were kept in good condition against any
+festive occasion. And, even in the earliest history of the Bible,
+the custom of keeping a fatted calf evidently prevailed, as is
+shown by the conduct of Abraham, who, when he was visited by
+the three heavenly guests, "ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf,
+tender and good," and had it killed and dressed at once, after the
+still existing fashion of the East.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 363px;"><a name="abraham" id="abraham"></a>
+<img src="images/i_134.jpg" width="363" height="550" alt="abraham" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ABRAHAM OFFERS FOOD TO THE THREE STRANGERS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But, even in the times of Israel's greatest prosperity, the chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+use of the ox was as an agricultural labourer, thus reversing the
+custom of this country, where the horse has taken the place of
+the ox as a beast of draught, and where cattle are principally
+fed for food. Ploughing was, and is, always performed by oxen,
+and allusions to this office are scattered plentifully through the
+Old and New Testaments.</p>
+
+<p>When understood in this sense, oxen are almost always
+spoken of in connexion with the word "yoke," and as each yoke
+comprised two oxen, it is evident that the word is used as we
+employ the term "brace," or pair. The yoke, which is the chief
+part of the harness, is a very simple affair. A tolerably stout
+beam of wood is cut of a sufficient length to rest upon the necks
+of the oxen standing side by side, and a couple of hollows are
+scooped out to receive the crest of the neck. In order to hold
+it in its place, two flexible sticks are bent under their necks,
+and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In the middle
+of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart, and this
+is all the harness that is used, not even traces being required.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that so rude an implement as this would
+be very likely to gall the necks of the animals, unless the
+hollows were carefully smoothed, and the heavy beam adapted
+to the necks of the animals. This galling nature of the yoke, so
+familiar to the Israelites, is used repeatedly as a metaphor in
+many passages of the Old and New Testaments. These passages
+are too numerous to be quoted, but I will give one or two of the
+most conspicuous among them. The earliest mention of the
+yoke in the Scriptures is a metaphor.</p>
+
+<p>After Jacob had deceived his father, in procuring for himself
+the blessing which was intended for his elder brother, Isaac
+comforts Esau by the prophecy that, although he must serve his
+brother, yet "it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the
+dominion, that thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck."
+Again, in the next passage where the yoke is mentioned, namely,
+Lev. xxvi. 13, the word is employed in the metaphorical sense:
+"I am the Lord your God, which brought you forth out of the
+land of Egypt, that ye should not be their bondmen, and I have
+broken the bands of your yoke, and made you go upright."</p>
+
+<p>The plough was equally simple, and consisted essentially of a
+bent branch, one end of which was armed with an iron point by
+way of a share, while the other formed the pole or beam, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+was fastened to the middle of the yoke. It was guided by a
+handle, which was usually a smaller branch that grew from the
+principal one. A nearly similar instrument is used in Asia
+Minor to the present day, and is a curious relic of the most
+ancient times of history, for we find on the Egyptian monuments
+figures of the various agricultural processes, in which the plough
+is made after this simple manner.</p>
+
+<p>Of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one, and can
+but scratch, rather than plough the ground, the warmth of the
+climate and fertility of the land rendering needless the deep
+ploughing of our own country, where the object is to turn up
+the earth to the greatest possible depth. One yoke of oxen was
+generally sufficient to draw a plough, but occasionally a much
+greater number were required. We read, for example, of Elisha,
+who, when he received his call from Elijah, was ploughing with
+twelve yoke of oxen, <em>i. e.</em> twenty-four. It has been suggested,
+that the twelve yoke of oxen were not all attached to the same
+plough, but that there were twelve ploughs, each with its single
+yoke of oxen. This was most probably the case.</p>
+
+<p>The instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a
+whip, but a goad. This goad was a long and stout stick, armed
+with a spike at one end, and having a kind of spud at the other,
+with which the earth could be scraped off the share when it
+became clogged. Such an instrument might readily be used as
+a weapon, and, in the hands of a powerful man, might be made
+even more formidable than a spear. As a weapon, it often was
+used, as we see from many passages of the Scriptures. For
+example, it is said in Judges iii. 31, "that Shamgar the son of
+Anath killed six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad."</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards, in the beginning of Saul's reign, when the
+Israelites fairly measured themselves against the Philistines, it
+was found that only Saul and Jonathan were even tolerably
+armed. Fearful of the numbers and spirit of the Israelites, the
+Philistines had disarmed them, and were so cautious that they
+did not even allow them to possess forges wherewith to make or
+sharpen the various agricultural instruments which they possessed,
+lest they should surreptitiously provide themselves with
+weapons. The only smith's tool which they were allowed to
+retain was a file with which each man might trim the edges of the
+ploughshares, mattocks, axes, and sharpen the points of the goad.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+The only weapons which they could muster were made of their
+agricultural implements, and among the most formidable of
+them was the goad.</p>
+
+<p>How the goad came into use in Palestine may easily be seen.
+The Egyptians, from among whom the people of Israel passed
+into the Promised Land, did not use the goad in ploughing, but
+the whip, which, from the representations on the Egyptian
+monuments, was identical with the koorbash, or "cow-hide"
+whip, which is now in use in the same country. But this
+terrible whip, which is capable, when wielded by a skilful hand,
+of cutting deep grooves through the tough hide of the ox, could
+not be obtained by the Jews, because the hippopotamus, of whose
+hide it was made, did not live in or near Palestine. They
+therefore were forced to use some other instrument wherewith
+to urge on the oxen, and the goad was clearly the simplest and
+most effective implement for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>After the land was ploughed and sown, and the harvest was
+ripened, the labours of the oxen were again called into requisition,
+first for threshing out the corn, and next for carrying or
+drawing the grain to the storehouses.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier days, the process of threshing was very simple.
+A circular piece of ground was levelled, and beaten very hard
+and flat, its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet. On
+this ground the corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were
+driven here and there on it, so that the constant trampling of
+their feet shook the ripe grain out of the ears. The corn was
+gathered together in the middle of the floor, and as fast as it
+was scattered by the feet of the oxen, it was thrown back
+towards the centre.</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards, an improvement was introduced in the form of a
+rough sledge, called "moreg," to which the oxen were harnessed
+by a yoke, and on which the driver stood as he guided his team
+round the threshing-floor. This instrument is mentioned in
+Isa. xli. 15: "Behold, I will make thee a new and sharp threshing
+instrument having teeth [or mouths]: thou shalt thresh the mountains,
+and beat them small, and shalt make the hills as chaff."
+Mention is also made of the same implement in 2 Sam. xxiv. 22,
+where it is related that Araunah the Jebusite offered to give
+David the oxen for a burnt-sacrifice, and the moregs and other
+implements as wood with which they could be burned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one
+for the oxen, and it was probably on this account that the kindly
+edict was made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not
+be muzzled. As a rule, the cattle were not fed nearly as carefully
+as is done with us, and so the labours of the threshing-floor
+would find a compensation in the temporary abundance of
+which the animals might take their fill.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="oxen" id="oxen"></a>
+<img src="images/i_138.jpg" width="450" height="458" alt="oxen" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">OXEN TREADING OUT GRAIN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the corn was threshed, or rather trodden out, the oxen
+had to draw it home in carts. These were but slight improvements
+on the threshing-sledge, and were simply trays or shallow
+boxes on a pair of wheels. As the wheels were merely slices cut
+from the trunk of a tree, and were not furnished with iron tires,
+they were not remarkable for roundness, and indeed, after a
+little time, were worn into rather irregular ovals, so that the task<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+of dragging a cart over the rough roads was by no means an
+easy one. And, as the axle was simply a stout pole fastened to
+the bottom of the cart, and having its rounded ends thrust
+through holes in the middle of the wheels, the friction was
+enormous. As, moreover, oil and grease were far too precious
+luxuries to be wasted in lubricating the axles, the creaking
+and groaning of the wheels was a singularly disagreeable and
+ear-piercing sound.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="eastern" id="eastern"></a>
+<img src="images/i_139.jpg" width="450" height="370" alt="eastern" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN OX-CART.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common hackery of India is a good example of the carts
+mentioned in the Scriptures. As with the plough, the cart was
+drawn by a couple of oxen, connected by the yoke. The two
+kinds of cart, namely, the tray and the box, are clearly indicated
+in the Scriptures. The new cart on which the Ark was placed
+when it was sent back by the Philistines (see 1 Sam. vi. 7) was
+evidently one of the former kind, and so was that which was
+made twenty years afterwards, for the purpose of conveying the
+Ark to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden
+times than at present, those animals which were used for agriculture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+seem to have passed rather a rough life, especially in the
+winter time. It is rather curious that the Jews should have
+had no idea of preserving the grass by making it into hay, as is
+done in Europe. Consequently the chief food of the cattle was
+the straw and chaff which remained on the threshing-floor after
+the grain had been separated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="covenant" id="covenant"></a>
+<img src="images/i_140.jpg" width="400" height="532" alt="covenant" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ARK OF THE COVENANT BEING DRAWN BY COWS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This, indeed, was the only use to which the straw could be
+put, for it was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen
+and the threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless.</p>
+
+<p>The want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are
+so irregularly disposed over Palestine, many parts of that
+country being entirely without them, and only those districts
+containing them in which fresh forage may be found throughout
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>Except a few yoke of oxen, which are kept in order to draw
+carts, and act as beasts of burden, the cattle are turned loose
+for a considerable portion of the year, and run about in herds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+from one pasturage to another. Thus they regain many of the
+characteristics of wild animals, and it is to this habit of theirs
+that many of the Scriptural allusions can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>For example, see Ps. xxii. 12, "Many bulls have compassed
+me, strong bulls of Bashan have beset me round. They
+gaped on me with their mouths [or, their mouths opened against
+me] as a ravening and a roaring lion." This passage alludes to
+the curiosity inherent in cattle, which have a habit of following
+objects which they do not understand or dislike, and surrounding
+it with looks of grave wonderment. Even in their domesticated
+state this habit prevails. When I was a boy, I sometimes
+amused myself with going into a field where a number of cows
+and oxen were grazing, and lying down in the middle of it.
+The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their heads about,
+and gradually draw near on every side, until at last they would
+be pressed together closely in a circle, with their heads just
+above the object of their astonishment. Their curious, earnest
+looks have always been present to my mind when reading the
+above quoted passage.</p>
+
+<p>The Psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in
+question were dangerous animals. On the contrary, the bulls
+of Palestine are gentle in comparison with our own animals,
+which are too often made savage by confinement and the harsh
+treatment to which they are subjected by rough and ignorant
+labourers. In Palestine a pair of bulls may constantly be seen
+attached to the same yoke, a thing that never would be seen in
+this country.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find
+pasture for themselves is alluded to in Joel i. 18, "How do
+the beasts groan! the herds of cattle are perplexed because they
+have no pasture." We can easily imagine to ourselves the
+terrible time to which the prophet refers, "when the rivers
+of waters are dried up, and the fire hath devoured the pastures
+of the wilderness," as it is wont to do when a spark
+falls upon grass dried up and withered, by reason of the sun's
+heat and the lack of water. Over such a country, first withered
+by drought, and then desolated by fire, would the cattle wander,
+vainly searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the
+tender young blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture
+as soon as the first rains fall. Moaning and bellowing with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a><br /><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+thirst and disappointment, they would vainly seek for food or
+water in places where the seed lies still under the clods where it
+was sown (v. 17), where the vines are dried up, and the fig, the
+pomegranate and the palm (v. 12) are all withered for want of
+moisture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="ploughing" id="ploughing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="ploughing" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PLOUGHING WITH OXEN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the
+world. Southern Africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for
+them, an exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh
+grass after the old pastures have been burned (the ordinary mode
+of cultivating pasture land). Then the vast herds of cattle,
+whose milk forms the staff of life to the inhabitants, wander to
+and fro, gathering in masses round any spot where a spring still
+yields a little water, and bellowing and moaning with thirst as
+they press their way towards the spot where their owners are
+doling out to each a small measure of the priceless fluid.</p>
+
+<p>The cattle are branded with the mark of their owners, so that
+in these large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguishing
+them when they were re-captured for the plough and the
+cart. On one of the Egyptian monuments there is a very
+interesting group, which has furnished the idea for the plate
+which illustrates this article. It occurs in the tombs of the
+kings at Thebes, and represents a ploughing scene. The simple
+two-handled plough is being dragged by a pair of cows, who
+have the yoke fastened across the horns instead of lying on
+the neck, and a sower is following behind, scattering the grain
+out of a basket into the newly-made furrows. In front of the
+cows is a young calf, which has run to meet its mother, and is
+leaping for joy before her as she steadily plods along her course.</p>
+
+<p>The action of both animals is admirably represented; the
+steady and firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light,
+gambolling step and arched tail of her offspring.</p>
+
+<p>In the olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was
+considered as an honourable occupation, in which men of the
+highest rank might engage without any derogation to their
+dignity. We find, for instance, that Saul himself, even after he
+had been appointed king, was acting as herdsman when the
+people saw the mistake they had made in rejecting him as their
+monarch, and came to fetch their divinely-appointed leader from
+his retirement. (See 1 Sam. xi. 5.) Doeg, too, the faithful companion
+of Saul, was made the chief herdsman of his master's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+cattle, so that for Saul to confer such an office, and Doeg to
+accept it, shows that the post was one of much honour. And
+afterwards, when David was in the zenith of his power, he
+completed the organization of his kingdom, portioning out not
+only his army into battalions, and assigning a commanding
+officer to each battalion, but also appointing a ruler to each
+tribe, and setting officers over his treasury, over the vineyards,
+over the olive-trees, over the storehouses, and over the cattle. And
+these offices were so important that the names of their holders
+are given at length in 1 Chron. xxvii. those of the various herdsmen
+being thought as worthy of mention as those of the
+treasurers, the military commanders, or the headmen of the
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Before concluding this necessarily short account of the domesticated
+oxen of Palestine, it will be needful to give a few lines
+to the animal viewed in a religious aspect. Here we have, in
+bold contrast to each other, the divine appointment of certain
+cattle to be slain as sacrifices, and the reprobation of worship
+paid to those very cattle as living emblems of divinity. This
+false worship was learned by the Israelites during their long
+residence in Egypt, and so deeply had the customs of the Egyptian
+religion sunk into their hearts, that they were not eradicated
+after the lapse of centuries. It may easily be imagined
+that such a superstition, surrounded as it was with every external
+circumstance which could make it more imposing, would
+take a powerful hold of the Jewish mind.</p>
+
+<p>Chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god
+Apis, represented by a bull. Many other animals, specially the
+cat and the ibis, were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyptians,
+as we learn from their own monuments and from the
+works of the old historians. All these creatures were symbols
+as well as idols, symbols to the educated and idols to the
+ignorant.</p>
+
+<p>None of them was held in such universal honour as the bull
+Apis. The particular animal which represented the deity, and
+which was lodged with great state and honour in his temple at
+Memphis, was thought to be divinely selected for the purpose,
+and to be impressed with certain marks. His colour must be
+black, except a square spot on the forehead, a crescent-shaped
+white spot on the right side, and the figure of an eagle on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+back. Under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the sacred
+scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be double.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="mummy" id="mummy"></a>
+<img src="images/i_145.jpg" width="450" height="295" alt="mummy" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MUMMY OF A SACRED BULL TAKEN FROM AN EGYPTIAN TOMB.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This representative animal was only allowed to live for a
+certain time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he
+was taken in solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in
+its sacred waters. His body was then embalmed, and placed
+with great state in the tombs at Memphis.</p>
+
+<p>After his death, whether natural or not, the whole nation
+went into mourning, and exhibited all the conventional signs of
+sorrow, until the priests found another bull which possessed
+the distinctive marks. The people then threw off their mourning
+robes, and appeared in their best attire, and the sacred bull
+was exhibited in state for forty days before he was taken to his
+temple at Memphis. The reader will here remember the analogous
+case of the Indian cattle, some of which are held to be
+little less than incarnations of divinity.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the very beginning of the exodus, when their minds
+must have been filled with the many miracles that had been
+wrought in their behalf, and with the cloud and fire of Sinai
+actually before their eyes, Aaron himself made an image of a
+calf in gold, and set it up as a symbol of the Lord. That the idol
+in question was intended as a symbol by Aaron is evident from
+the words which he used when summoning the people to worship,
+"To-morrow is a feast of the Lord" (Gen. xxxii. 5). The people,
+however, clearly lacked the power of discriminating between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a><br /><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+symbol and that which it represented, and worshipped the image
+just as any other idol might be worshipped. And, in spite of
+the terrible and swift punishment that followed, and which
+showed the profanity of the act, the idea of ox-worship still
+remained among the people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 427px;"><a name="sacrifice" id="sacrifice"></a>
+<img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="427" height="600" alt="sacrifice" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANIMALS BEING SOLD FOR SACRIFICE IN THE PORCH OF THE TEMPLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="golden" id="golden"></a>
+<img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="350" height="333" alt="golden" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JEROBOAM SETS UP A GOLDEN CALF AT BETHEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of
+it in the conduct of Jeroboam, "who made Israel to sin," the
+peculiar crime being the open resuscitation of ox-worship. "The
+king made two calves of gold and said unto them, It is too much
+for you to go up to Jerusalem: behold thy gods, O Israel, which
+brought thee up out of the land of Egypt. And he set the one
+in Bethel, and the other put he in Dan.... And he made an
+house of high places, and made priests of the lowest of the
+people, which were not of the tribe of Levi. And Jeroboam
+ordained a feast ... like unto the feast in Judah, and he
+offered upon the altar. So did he in Bethel, sacrificing unto
+the calves that he had made."</p>
+
+<p>Here we have a singular instance of a king of Israel repeating,
+after a lapse of five hundred years, the very acts which had
+drawn down on the people so severe a punishment, and which
+were so contrary to the law that they had incited Moses to fling
+down and break the sacred tables on which the commandments
+had been divinely inscribed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="buffalo" id="buffalo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_148.jpg" width="450" height="529" alt="buffalo" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BUFFALO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits Palestine
+though commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively
+late importation. This is the true <span class="smcap">Buffalo</span> (<em>Bubalus
+buffelus</em>, Gray), which is spread over a very large portion of the
+earth, and is very plentiful in India. In that country there
+are two distinct breeds of the Buffalo, namely, the Arnee, a wild
+variety, and the Bhainsa, a tamed variety. The former animal
+is much larger than the latter, being sometimes more than ten
+feet in length from the nose to the root of the tail, and measuring
+between six and seven feet in height at the shoulder. Its
+horns are of enormous length, the tail is very short, and tufts of
+hair grow on the forehead and horns. The tamed variety is at
+least one-third smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never seems to
+get into high condition. It is an ugly, ungainly kind of beast,
+and is rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald
+patches which are mostly found upon its hide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Being a water-loving animal, the Buffalo always inhabits the
+low-lying districts, and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes
+in which it remains for hours, submerged all but its head, and
+tranquilly chewing the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. While
+thus engaged the animal depresses its horns so that they are
+scarcely visible, barely allowing more than its eyes, ears, and
+nostrils to remain above the surface, so that the motionless
+heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass and reed tufts
+which stud the marshes. Nothing is more startling to an inexperienced
+traveller than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool
+where the muddy surface is unbroken except by a number of
+black lumps and rushy tufts, and then to see these tufts suddenly
+transformed into twenty or thirty huge beasts rising out of the
+still water as if by magic. Generally, the disturber of their
+peace had better make the best of his way out of their reach, as
+the Buffalo, whether wild or tame, is of a tetchy and irritable
+nature, and resents being startled out of its state of dreamy
+repose.</p>
+
+<p>In the Jordan valley the Buffalo is found, and is used for
+agriculture, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated variety.
+Being much larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, it is
+useful in drawing the plough, but its temper is too uncertain
+to render it a pleasant animal to manage. As is the case with
+all half-wild cattle, its milk is very scanty, but compensates
+by the richness of the quality for the lack of quantity.</p>
+
+<p>In the picture which appears on a following page, one of these
+domesticated Buffaloes is represented, harnessed with a camel, to a
+rude form of plough used in the East.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="domestic" id="domestic"></a>
+<img src="images/i_150.jpg" width="600" height="327" alt="domestic" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BHAINSA, OR DOMESTIC BUFFALO, AND CAMEL, DRAWING THE PLOUGH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE WILD BULL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament&mdash;Passages in which it is mentioned&mdash;The
+Wild Bull in the net&mdash;Hunting with nets in the East&mdash;The Oryx supposed to
+be the Tô of Scripture&mdash;Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and
+habits&mdash;The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô&mdash;The "snare" in
+which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned,
+respecting which the translators and commentators have been
+somewhat perplexed, in one passage being translated as the
+"Wild Ox," and in the other as the "Wild Bull." In the
+Jewish Bible the same rendering is preserved, but the sign of
+doubt is added to the word in both cases, showing that the
+translation is an uncertain one.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these passages occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, where it is
+classed together with the ox, sheep, goats, and other ruminants,
+as one of the beasts which were lawful for food. Now, although
+we cannot identify it by this passage, we can at all events ascertain
+two important points&mdash;the first, that it was a true ruminant,
+and the second, that it was not the ox, the sheep, or the goat.
+It was, therefore, some wild ruminant, and we now have to ask
+how we are to find out the species.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to Isa. li. 20, we shall find a passage which will
+help us considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses
+these words, "By whom shall I comfort thee? Thy sons have
+fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a wild bull in
+a net; they are full of the fury of the Lord, the rebuke of
+thy God." We now see that the Tô or Teô must be an animal
+which is captured by means of nets, and therefore must inhabit
+spots wherein the toils can be used. Moreover, it is evidently
+a powerful animal, or the force of the simile would be lost.
+The prophet evidently refers to some large and strong beast
+which has been entangled in the hunter's nets, and which lies
+helplessly struggling in them. We are, therefore, almost perforce
+driven to recognise it as some large antelope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that
+it needs a short explanation. In this country, and at the present
+day, the use of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing
+and bird-catching; but in the East nets are still employed in the
+capture of very large game.</p>
+
+<p>A brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page 31, but, as
+the passage in Isaiah li. requires a more detailed account of this
+mode of catching large animals, it will be as well to describe
+the sport as at present practised in the East.</p>
+
+<p>When a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game
+without taking much trouble himself, he gives orders to his men
+to prepare their nets, which vary in size or strength according to
+the particular animal for which they are intended. If, for example,
+only the wild boar and similar animals are to be hunted,
+the nets need not be of very great width; but for agile creatures,
+such as the antelope, they must be exceedingly wide, or the
+intended prey will leap over them. As the net is much used in
+India for the purpose of catching game, Captain Williamson's
+description of it will explain many of the passages of Scripture
+wherein it is mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The material of the net is hemp, twisted loosely into a kind
+of rope, and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar.
+The meshes are not knotted together, but only twisted round
+each other, much after the fashion of the South American hammocks,
+so as to obtain considerable elasticity, and to prevent a
+powerful animal from snapping the cord in its struggles. Some
+of these nets are thirteen feet or more in width, and even such
+a net as this has been overleaped by a herd of antelopes. Their
+length is variable, but, as they can be joined in any number when
+set end to end, the length is not so important as the width.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious. When
+a suitable spot has been selected, the first care of the hunters is
+to stretch a rope as tightly as possible along the ground. For
+this purpose stout wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk crosswise
+in the earth, and between these the rope is carefully
+strained. The favourite locality of the net is a ravine, through
+which the animals can be driven so as to run against the net in
+their efforts to escape, and across the ravine a whole row of
+these stakes is sunk. The net is now brought to the spot,
+and its lower edge fastened strongly to the ground rope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The strength of this mode of fastening is astonishing, and,
+although the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface,
+they cannot be torn up by any force which can be applied to
+them; and, however strong the rope may be, it would be broken
+before the stakes could be dragged out of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>A smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the
+net, which is raised upon a series of slight poles. It is not
+stretched quite tightly, but droops between each pair of poles,
+so that a net which is some thirteen feet in width will only give
+nine or ten feet of clear height when the upper edge is supported
+on the poles. These latter are not fixed in the ground,
+but merely held in their places by the weight of the net resting
+upon them.</p>
+
+<p>When the nets have been properly set, the beaters make a
+wide circuit through the country, gradually advancing towards
+the fatal spot, and driving before them all the wild animals that
+inhabit the neighbourhood. As soon as any large beast, such,
+for example, as an antelope, strikes against the net, the supporting
+pole falls, and the net collapses upon the unfortunate animal,
+whose struggles&mdash;especially if he be one of the horned animals&mdash;only
+entangle him more and more in the toils.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall, they run
+to the spot, kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the
+elastic meshes, drag away the body, and set up the net again
+in readiness for the next comer. Sometimes the line of nets
+will extend for half a mile or more, and give employment to a
+large staff of hunters, in killing the entangled animals, and
+raising afresh those portions of the net which had fallen.</p>
+
+<p>Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes
+that inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neighbourhood,
+we may safely conjecture that it may signify the
+beautiful animal known as the <span class="smcap">Oryx</span> (<em>Oryx leucoryx</em>), an animal
+which has a tolerably wide range, and is even now found on the
+borders of the Holy Land. It is a large and powerful antelope,
+and is remarkable for its beautiful horns, which sometimes
+exceed a yard in length, and sweep in a most graceful curve over
+the back.</p>
+
+<p>Sharp as they are, and evidently formidable weapons, the
+manner in which they are set on the head renders them apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+unserviceable for combat. When, however, the Oryx is
+brought to bay, or wishes to fight, it stoops its head until the
+nose is close to the ground, the points of the horns being thus
+brought to the front. As the head is swung from side to side,
+the curved horns sweep through a considerable space, and are so
+formidable that even the lion is chary of attacking their owner.
+Indeed, instances are known where the lion has been transfixed
+and killed by the horns of the Oryx. Sometimes the animal
+is not content with merely standing to repel the attacks of its
+adversaries, but suddenly charges forward with astonishing rapidity,
+and strikes upwards with its horns as it makes the leap.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="wild" id="wild"></a>
+<img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="450" height="516" alt="wild" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WILD BULL, OR ORYX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But these horns, which can be used with such terrible effect
+in battle, are worse than useless when the animal is hampered
+in the net. In vain does the Oryx attempt its usual defence:
+the curved horns get more and more entangled in the elastic
+meshes, and become a source of weakness rather than strength.
+We see now how singularly appropriate is the passage, "Thy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+sons lie at the heads of all the streets, as a wild bull (or Oryx)
+in a net," and how completely the force of the metaphor is lost
+without a knowledge of the precise mode of fixing the nets, of
+driving the animals into them, and of the manner in which they
+render even the large and powerful animals helpless.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the Oryx at the shoulder is between three and
+four feet, and its colour is greyish white, mottled profusely with
+black and brown in bold patches. It is plentiful in Northern
+Africa, and, like many other antelopes, lives in herds, so that it
+is peculiarly suited to that mode of hunting which consists in
+surrounding a number of animals, and driving them into a trap
+of some kind, whether a fenced enclosure, a pitfall, or a net.</p>
+
+<p>There is, by the way, the term "snare," which is specially
+used with especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished
+from the net which enveloped the whole body. For example,
+in Job xviii. 8, "He is cast into a net, he walketh on a snare,"
+where a bold distinction is drawn between the two and their
+mode of action. And in ver. 10, "The snare is laid for him in
+the ground." Though I would not state definitely that such is
+the case, I believe that the snare which is here mentioned is one
+which is still used in several parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>It is simply a hoop, to the inner edge of which are fastened
+a number of elastic spikes, the points being directed towards the
+centre. This is merely laid in the path which the animal will
+take, and is tied by a short cord to a log of wood. As the deer
+or antelope treads on the snare, the foot passes easily through
+the elastic spikes, but, when the foot is raised, the spikes run
+into the joint and hold the hoop upon the limb. Terrified by
+the check and the sudden pang, the animal tries to run away,
+but, by the united influence of sharp spikes and the heavy log,
+it is soon forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey to its
+pursuers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="oryx" id="oryx"></a>
+<img src="images/i_156.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="oryx" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ORYX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="unicorn" id="unicorn"></a>
+<img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="unicorn" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE UNICORN.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Unicorn apparently known to the Jews&mdash;Its
+evident connection with the Ox tribe&mdash;Its
+presumed identity with the now extinct Urus&mdash;Enormous
+size and dangerous character of the Urus.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are many animals mentioned in the Scriptures
+which are identified with difficulty, partly because their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+names occur only once or twice in the sacred writings, and
+partly because, when they are mentioned, the context affords no
+clue to their identity by giving any hint as to their appearance
+or habits. In such cases, although the translators would have
+done better if they had simply given the Hebrew word without
+endeavouring to identify it with any known animal, they may
+be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature. There
+is one animal, however, for which no such excuse can be found,
+and this is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the
+authorized version.</p>
+
+<p>Even in late years the Unicorn has been erroneously supposed
+to be identical with the Rhinoceros of India. It is, however, now
+certain that the Unicorn was not the Rhinoceros, and that it can
+be almost certainly identified with an animal which, at the time
+when the passages in question were written, was plentiful in Palestine,
+although, like the Lion, it is now extinct.</p>
+
+<p>On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm
+is translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering
+is nearly the correct one. At the present day naturalists are
+nearly all agreed that the Unicorn of the Old Testament must
+have been of the Ox tribe. Probably the Urus, a species now
+extinct, was the animal alluded to. A smaller animal, the Bonassus
+or Bison, also existed in Palestine, and even to the present day
+continues to maintain itself in one or two spots, though it will
+probably be as soon completely erased from the surface of the
+earth as its gigantic congener.</p>
+
+<p>That the Unicorn was one of the two animals is certain, and
+that it was the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for deciding
+upon the Urus is, that its horns were of great size and
+strength, and therefore agree with the description of the Unicorn;
+whereas those of the Bonassus, although powerful, are short, and
+not conspicuous enough to deserve the notice which is taken of
+them by the sacred writers.</p>
+
+<p>Of the extinct variety we know but little. We do know, however,
+that it was a huge and most formidable beast, as is evident
+from the skulls and other bones which have been discovered.
+Their character also indicates that the creature was nothing more
+than a very large Ox, probably measuring twelve feet in length,
+and six feet in height. Such a wild animal, armed, as it was, with
+enormous horns, would prove a most formidable antagonist.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="bison" id="bison"></a>
+<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="450" height="299" alt="bison" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BISON.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks&mdash;Its former existence in Palestine&mdash;Its
+general habits&mdash;Origin of its name&mdash;Its musky odour&mdash;Size and speed of
+the Bison&mdash;Its dangerous character when brought to bay&mdash;Its defence against
+the wolf&mdash;Its untameable disposition.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>A few words are now needful respecting the second animal
+which has been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely,
+the Bison, or Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from
+ordinary cattle by the thick and heavy mane which covers the
+neck and shoulders, and which is more conspicuous in the male
+than in the female. The general coating of the body is also
+rather different, being thick and woolly instead of lying closely
+to the skin like that of the other oxen. The Bison certainly
+inhabited Palestine, as its bones have been found in that
+country. It has, however, been extinct in the Holy Land for
+many years, and, not being an animal that is capable of withstanding
+the encroachments of man, it has gradually died out
+from the greater part of Europe and Asia, and is now to be
+found only in a very limited locality, chiefly in a Lithuanian
+forest, where it is strictly preserved, and in some parts of the
+Caucasus. There it still preserves the habits which made its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+ancient and gigantic relative so dangerous an animal. Unlike
+the buffalo, which loves the low-lying and marshy lands, the
+Bison prefers the high wooded localities, where it lives in small
+troops.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="killing" id="killing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_160.jpg" width="450" height="524" alt="killing" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BISON KILLING WOLF.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its name of Bison is a modification of the word Bisam, or
+musk, which was given to it on account of the strong musky
+odour of its flesh, which is especially powerful about the head
+and neck. This odour is not so unpleasant as might be supposed,
+and those who have had personal experience of the
+animal say that it bears some resemblance to the perfume of
+violets. It is developed most strongly in the adult bulls, the
+cows and young male calves only possessing it in a slight
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>It is a tolerably large animal, being about six feet high at the
+shoulder&mdash;a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary
+Asiatic elephant; and, in spite of its great bulk, is a fleet and
+active animal, as indeed is generally the case with those oxen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+which inhabit elevated localities. Still, though it can run with
+considerable speed, it is not able to keep up the pace for any
+great distance, and at the end of a mile or two can be brought
+to bay.</p>
+
+<p>Like most animals, however large and powerful they may be,
+it fears the presence of man, and, if it sees or scents a human
+being, will try to slip quietly away; but when it is baffled in
+this attempt, and forced to fight, it becomes a fierce and dangerous
+antagonist, charging with wonderful quickness, and using
+its short and powerful horns with great effect. A wounded
+Bison, when fairly brought to bay, is perhaps as awkward an
+opponent as can be found, and to kill it without the aid of firearms
+is no easy matter.</p>
+
+<p>Although the countries in which it lives are infested with
+wolves, it seems to have no fear of them when in health; and,
+even when pressed by their winter's hunger, the wolves do not
+venture to attack even a single Bison, much less a herd of them.
+Like other wild cattle, it likes to dabble in muddy pools, and is
+fond of harbouring in thickets near such localities; and those
+who have to travel through the forest keep clear of such spots,
+unless they desire to drive out the animal for the purpose of
+killing it.</p>
+
+<p>Like the extinct Aurochs, the Bison has never been domesticated,
+and, although the calves have been captured while very
+young, and attempts have been made to train them to harness,
+their innate wildness of disposition has always baffled such
+efforts.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="roe" id="roe"></a>
+<img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="400" height="469" alt="roe" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Its swiftness, its beauty, and the quality of its flesh&mdash;Different varieties of the
+Gazelle&mdash;How the Gazelle defends itself against wild beasts&mdash;Chase of the
+Gazelle.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now leave the Ox tribe, and come to the Antelopes, several
+species of which are mentioned in the Scriptures. Four kinds
+of antelope are found in or near the Holy Land, and there is
+little doubt that all of them are mentioned in the sacred volume.</p>
+
+<p>The first that will be described is the <span class="smcap">Gazelle</span>, which is acknowledged
+to be the animal that is represented by the word
+<em>Tsebi</em>, or <em>Tsebiyah</em>. The Jewish Bible accepts the same rendering.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+This word occurs many times, sometimes as a metaphor, and
+sometimes representing some animal which was lawful food, and
+which therefore belonged to the true ruminants. Moreover, its
+flesh was not only legally capable of being eaten, but was held
+in such estimation that it was provided for the table of Solomon
+himself, together with other animals which will be described in
+their turn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="gazelles" id="gazelles"></a>
+<img src="images/i_163.jpg" width="450" height="518" alt="gazelles" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GAZELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is even now considered a great dainty, although it is not at
+all agreeable to European taste, being hard, dry, and without
+flavour. Still, as has been well remarked, tastes differ as well
+as localities, and an article of food which is a costly luxury in
+one land is utterly disdained in another, and will hardly be eaten
+except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation.</p>
+
+<p>The Gazelle is very common in Palestine in the present day,
+and, in the ancient times, must have been even more plentiful.
+There are several varieties of it, which were once thought to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+distinct species, but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties,
+all of which are referable to the single species <em>Gazella Dorcas</em>.
+There is, for example, the Corinna, or Corine Antelope, which is
+a rather boldly-spotted female; the Kevella Antelope, in which
+the horns are slightly flattened; the small variety called the
+Ariel, or Cora; the grey Kevel, which is a rather large variety;
+and the Long-horned Gazelle, which owes its name to a rather
+large development of the horns.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever variety may inhabit any given spot, they all have
+the same habits. They are gregarious animals, associating
+together in herds often of considerable size, and deriving from
+their numbers an element of strength which would otherwise be
+wanting. Against mankind, numbers are of no avail; but when
+the agile though feeble Gazelle has to defend itself against the
+predatory animals of its own land, it can only defend itself
+by the concerted action of the whole herd. Should, for example,
+the wolves prowl round a herd of Gazelles, after their treacherous
+wont, the Gazelles instantly assume a posture of self-defence.
+They form themselves into a compact phalanx, all the males
+coming to the front, and the strongest and boldest taking on
+themselves the honourable duty of facing the foe. The does
+and the young are kept within their ranks, and so formidable is
+the array of sharp, menacing horns, that beasts as voracious as
+the wolf, and far more powerful, have been known to retire
+without attempting to charge.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, however, the Gazelle does not desire to resist, and
+prefers its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety. So
+fleet is the animal, that it seems to fly over the ground as if
+propelled by volition alone, and its light, agile frame is so enduring,
+that a fair chase has hardly any prospect of success.
+Hunters, therefore, prefer a trap of some kind, if they chase
+the animal merely for food or for the sake of its skin, and contrive
+to kill considerable numbers at once. Sometimes they
+dig pitfalls, and drive the Gazelles into them by beating a large
+tract of country, and gradually narrowing the circle. Sometimes
+they use nets, such as have already been described, and sometimes
+they line the sides of a ravine with archers and spearmen,
+and drive the herd of Gazelles through the treacherous defile.</p>
+
+<p>These modes of slaughter are, however, condemned by the
+true hunter, who looks upon those who use them much in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+same light as an English sportsman looks on a man who shoots
+foxes. The greyhound and the falcon are both employed in the
+legitimate capture of the Gazelle, and in some cases both are
+trained to work together. Hunting the Gazelle with the greyhound
+very much resembles coursing in our own country, and
+chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the system of falconry
+that was once so popular an English sport, and which even now
+shows signs of revival.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, when the dog and the bird are trained to work
+together that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting
+to an English spectator.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the Gazelles are fairly in view, the hunter unhoods
+his hawk, and holds it up so that it may see the animals. The
+bird fixes its eye on one Gazelle, and by that glance the animal's
+doom is settled. The falcon darts after the Gazelles, followed by
+the dog, who keeps his eye on the hawk, and holds himself in
+readiness to attack the animal that his feathered ally may select.
+Suddenly the falcon, which has been for some few seconds
+hovering over the herd of Gazelles, makes a stoop upon the
+selected victim, fastening its talons in its forehead, and, as it
+tries to shake off its strange foe, flaps its wings into the Gazelle's
+eyes so as to blind it. Consequently, the rapid course of the
+antelope is arrested, so that the dog is able to come up and
+secure the animal while it is struggling to escape from its
+feathered enemy. Sometimes, though rarely, a young and inexperienced
+hawk swoops down with such reckless force that it
+misses the forehead of the Gazelle, and impales itself upon the
+sharp horns, just as in England the falcon is apt to be spitted
+on the bill of the heron.</p>
+
+<p>The most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the Gazelle is to use
+the falcon alone; but for this sport a bird must possess exceptional
+strength, swiftness, and intelligence. A very spirited
+account of such a chase is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud, in his
+"Druses of the Lebanon:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Whilst reposing here, our old friend with the falcon informs
+us that at a short distance from this spot is a khan called Nebbi
+Youni, from a supposition that the prophet Jonah was here
+landed by the whale; but the old man is very indignant when
+we identify the place with a fable, and declare to him that
+similar sights are to be seen at Gaza and Scanderoon. But his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+good humour is speedily recovered by reverting to the subject
+of the exploits and cleverness of his falcon. This reminds him
+that we have not much time to waste in idle talk, as the greater
+heats will drive the gazelles from the plains to the mountain
+retreats, and lose us the opportunity of enjoying the most
+sportsmanlike amusement in Syria. Accordingly, bestriding our
+animals again, we ford the river at that point where a bridge
+once stood.</p>
+
+<p>"We have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen
+eye of the falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing
+in the distance. Immediately he reins in his horse, and enjoining
+silence, instead of riding at them, as we might have felt inclined
+to do, he skirts along the banks of the river, so as to cut off, if
+possible, the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are
+narrowest, though very deep, but which would be cleared at a
+single leap by the gazelles. Having successfully accomplished
+this man&oelig;uvre, he again removes the hood from the hawk, and
+indicates to us that precaution is no longer necessary. Accordingly,
+first adding a few slugs to the charges in our barrels, we
+balance our guns in an easy posture, and, giving the horses
+their reins, set off at full gallop, and with a loud hurrah, right
+towards the already startled gazelles.</p>
+
+<p>"The timid animals, at first paralysed by our appearance,
+stand and gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach; but
+their pause is only momentary; they perceive in an instant that
+the retreat to their favourite haunts has been secured, and so
+they dash wildly forward with all the fleetness of despair,
+coursing over the plain with no fixed refuge in view, and nothing
+but their fleetness to aid in their delivery. A stern chase is a
+long chase, and so, doubtless, on the present occasion it would
+prove with ourselves, for there is many and many a mile of
+level country before us, and our horses, though swift of foot,
+stand no chance in this respect with the gazelles.</p>
+
+<p>"Now, however, the old man has watched for a good opportunity
+to display the prowess and skill of his falcon: he has
+followed us only at a hand-gallop; but the hawk, long inured to
+such pastime, stretches forth its neck eagerly in the direction of
+the flying prey, and being loosened from its pinions, sweeps up
+into the air like a shot, and passes overhead with incredible
+velocity. Five minutes more, and the bird has outstripped even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+the speed of the light-footed gazelle; we see him through the
+dust and haze that our own speed throws around us, hovering
+but an instant over the terrified herd; he has singled out his
+prey, and, diving with unerring aim, fixes his iron talons into
+the head of the terrified animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="falcon" id="falcon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="400" height="562" alt="falcon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE FALCON USED IN OUR HUNT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"This is the signal for the others to break up their orderly
+retreat, and to speed over the plain in every direction. Some,
+despite the danger that hovers on their track, make straight for
+their old and familiar haunts, and passing within twenty yards
+of where we ride, afford us an opportunity of displaying our
+skill as amateur huntsmen on horseback; nor does it require
+but little nerve and dexterity to fix our aim whilst our horses
+are tearing over the ground. However, the moment presents
+itself, the loud report of barrel after barrel startles the unaccustomed
+inmates of that unfrequented waste; one gazelle leaps
+twice its own height into the air, and then rolls over, shot
+through the heart; another bounds on yet a dozen paces, but,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+wounded mortally, staggering, halts, and then falls to the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>"This is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount
+of damage done, for the falcon, heedless of all surrounding
+incidents, clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim, flapping
+its strong wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified
+eyes, half blinding it and rendering its head dizzy; till, after
+tearing round and round with incredible speed, the poor creature
+stops, panting for breath, and, overcome with excessive terror,
+drops down fainting upon the earth. Now the air resounds with
+the acclamations and hootings of the ruthless victors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="arab" id="arab"></a>
+<img src="images/i_168.jpg" width="450" height="522" alt="arab" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ARAB IS DELIGHTED AT THE SUCCESS OF THE HUNT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The Arab is wild in his transports of delight. More certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+of the prowess of his bird than ourselves, he had stopped
+awhile to gather together the fruits of our booty, and now galloped
+furiously up, waving his long gun, and shouting lustily
+the while the praises of his infallible hawk; then getting down,
+and hoodwinking the bird again, he first of all takes the
+precaution of fastening together the legs of the fallen gazelle,
+and then he humanely blows up into its nostrils. Gradually
+the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed eyes of the gazelle,
+then it struggles valiantly, but vainly, to disentangle itself from
+its fetters.</p>
+
+<p>"Pitying its efforts, the falconer throws a handkerchief over
+its head, and, securing this prize, claims it as his own, declaring
+that he will bear it home to his house in the mountains, where,
+after a few weeks' kind treatment and care, it will become as
+domesticated and affectionate as a spaniel. Meanwhile, Abou
+Shein gathers together the fallen booty, and, tying them securely
+with cords, fastens them behind his own saddle, declaring, with
+a triumphant laugh, that we shall return that evening to the
+city of Beyrout with such game as few sportsmen can boast of
+having carried thither in one day."</p>
+
+<p>The gentle nature of the Gazelle is as proverbial as its grace
+and swiftness, and is well expressed in the large, soft, liquid eye,
+which has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison
+of Oriental poets when describing the eyes of beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="gaze" id="gaze"></a>
+<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="350" height="288" alt="gaze" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GAZELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Dishon or Dyshon&mdash;Signification of the word Pygarg&mdash;Certainty that the
+Dishon is an antelope, and that it must be one of a few species&mdash;Former and
+present range of the Addax&mdash;Description of the Addax.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is a species of animal mentioned once in the Scriptures
+under the name of Dishon which the Jewish Bible leaves
+untranslated, and merely gives as Dyshon, and which is rendered
+in the Septuagint by Pugargos, or <span class="smcap">Pygarg</span>, as one version gives
+it. Now, the meaning of the word Pygarg is white-crouped,
+and for that reason the Pygarg of the Scriptures is usually held
+to be one of the white-crouped antelopes, of which several
+species are known. Perhaps it may be one of them&mdash;it may
+possibly be neither, and it may probably refer to all of them.</p>
+
+<p>But that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word
+Dishon is evident enough, and it is also evident that the Dishon
+must have been one of the antelopes which could be obtained
+by the Jews. Now as the species of antelope which could have
+furnished food for that nation are very few in number, it is clear
+that, even if we do not hit upon the exact species, we may be
+sure of selecting an animal that was closely allied to it. Moreover,
+as the nomenclature is exceedingly loose, it is probable
+that more than one species might have been included in the
+word Dishon.</p>
+
+<p>Modern commentators have agreed that there is every probability
+that the Dishon of the Pentateuch was the antelope
+known by the name of Addax.</p>
+
+<p>This handsome antelope is a native of Northern Africa. It
+has a very wide range, and, even at the present day, is found in
+the vicinity of Palestine, so that it evidently was one of the
+antelopes which could be killed by Jewish hunters. From its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+large size, and long twisted horns, it bears a strong resemblance
+to the Koodoo of Southern Africa. The horns, however, are not
+so long, nor so boldly twisted, the curve being comparatively
+slight, and not possessing the bold spiral shape which distinguishes
+those of the koodoo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="addax" id="addax"></a>
+<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="450" height="496" alt="addax" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ADDAX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ordinary height of the Addax is three feet seven or eight
+inches, and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes.
+Their length, from the head to the tips, is rather more than two
+feet. Its colour is mostly white, but a thick mane of dark black
+hair falls from the throat, a patch of similar hair grows on the
+forehead, and the back and shoulders are greyish brown. There
+is no mane on the back of the neck, as is the case with the
+koodoo.</p>
+
+<p>The Addax is a sand-loving animal, as is shown by the wide
+and spreading hoofs, which afford it a firm footing on the yielding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+soil. In all probability, this is one of the animals which would be
+taken, like the wild bull, in a net, being surrounded and driven
+into the toils by a number of hunters. It is not, however, one of
+the gregarious species, and is not found in those vast herds in
+which some of the antelopes love to assemble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="fallow" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of antelope&mdash;Resemblance of the
+animal to the ox tribe&mdash;Its ox-like horns and mode of attack&mdash;Its capability
+of domestication&mdash;Former and present range of the Bubale&mdash;Its representation
+on the monuments of ancient Egypt&mdash;Delicacy of its flesh&mdash;Size and general
+appearance of the animal.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It has already been mentioned that in the Old Testament
+there occur the names of three or four animals, which clearly
+belong to one or other of three or four antelopes. Only
+one of these names now remains to be identified. This is
+the Jachmur, or Yachmur, a word which has been rendered in
+the Septuagint as Boubalos, and has been translated in our
+Authorized Version as <span class="smcap">Fallow Deer</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We shall presently see that the Fallow Deer is to be identified
+with another animal, and that the word Jachmur must find
+another interpretation. If we follow the Septuagint, and call
+it the <span class="smcap">Bubale</span>, we shall identify it with a well-known antelope
+called by the Arabs the "Bekk'r-el-Wash," and known to
+zoologists as the <span class="smcap">Bubale</span> (<em>Acronotus bubalis</em>).</p>
+
+<p>This fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by
+an unskilled observer, as in its general appearance it much more
+resembles the ox tribe than the antelope. Indeed, the Arabic
+title, "Bekk'r-el-Wash," or Wild Cow, shows how close must be
+the resemblance to the oxen. The Arabs, and indeed all the
+Orientals in whose countries it lives, believe it not to be an antelope,
+but one of the oxen, and class it accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>How much the appearance of the Bubale justifies them in
+this opinion may be judged by reference to the figure on page
+143. The horns are thick, short, and heavy, and are first
+inclined forwards, and then rather suddenly bent backwards.
+This formation of the horns causes the Bubale to use his weapons
+after the manner of the bull, thereby increasing the resemblance
+between them. When it attacks, the Bubale lowers its head to
+the ground, and as soon as its antagonist is within reach, tosses
+its head violently upwards, or swings it with a sidelong upward
+blow. In either case, the sharp curved horns, impelled by the
+powerful neck of the animal, and assisted by the weight of the
+large head, become most formidable weapons.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that in some places, where the Bubales have learned
+to endure the presence of man, they will mix with his herds for
+the sake of feeding with them, and by degrees become so accustomed
+to the companionship of their domesticated friends, that
+they live with the herd as if they had belonged to it all their
+lives. This fact shows that the animal possesses a gentle disposition,
+and it is said to be as easily tamed as the gazelle
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the present day the Bubale has a very wide range,
+and formerly had in all probability a much wider. It is indigenous
+to Barbary, and has continued to spread itself over the
+greater part of Northern Africa, including the borders of the
+Sahara, the edges of the cultivated districts, and up the Nile
+for no small distance. In former days it was evidently a tolerably
+common animal of chase in Upper Egypt as there are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+representations of it on the monuments, drawn with the quaint
+truthfulness which distinguishes the monumental sculpture of
+that period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="scripture" id="scripture"></a>
+<img src="images/i_174.jpg" width="450" height="487" alt="scripture" />
+<div class="caption"><p>THE BUBALE, OR FALLOW-DEER OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is probable that in and about Palestine it was equally
+common, so that there is good reason why it should be specially
+named as one of the animals that were lawful food. Not only was
+its flesh permitted to be eaten, but it was evidently considered
+as a great dainty, inasmuch as the Jachmur is mentioned in
+1 Kings iv. 23 as one of the animals which were brought to
+the royal table. "Harts and Roebucks and Fallow-Deer" are
+the wild animals mentioned in the passage alluded to.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 393px;"><a name="sheep" id="sheep"></a>
+<img src="images/i_175.jpg" width="393" height="550" alt="sheep" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SHEEP.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Importance of Sheep in the Bible&mdash;The
+Sheep the chief wealth of the
+pastoral tribes&mdash;Arab shepherds of the present day&mdash;Wanderings
+of the flocks in search of food&mdash;Value of the wells&mdash;How
+the Sheep are watered&mdash;The shepherd usually a part owner of the flocks&mdash;Structure
+of the sheepfolds&mdash;The rock caverns of Palestine&mdash;David's adventure with
+Saul&mdash;Use of the dogs&mdash;The broad-tailed Sheep, and its peculiarities.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for
+some little time.</p>
+
+<p>There is, perhaps, no animal which occupies a larger space in
+the Scriptures than the <span class="smcap">Sheep</span>. Whether in religious, civil, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+domestic life, we find that the Sheep is bound up with the
+Jewish nation in a way that would seem almost incomprehensible,
+did we not recall the light which the New Testament
+throws upon the Old, and the many allusions to the coming
+Messiah under the figure of the Lamb that taketh away the sins
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of the Sheep, it will be perhaps advisable to
+begin the account by taking the animal simply as one of those
+creatures which have been domesticated from time immemorial,
+dwelling slightly on those points on which the sheep-owners of
+the old days differed from those of our own time.</p>
+
+<p>The only claim to the land seems, in the old times of the
+Scriptures, to have lain in cultivation, or perhaps in the land
+immediately surrounding a well. But any one appears to have
+taken a piece of ground and cultivated it, or to have dug a well
+wherever he chose, and thereby to have acquired a sort of right
+to the soil. The same custom prevails at the present day among
+the cattle-breeding races of Southern Africa. The banks of
+rivers, on account of their superior fertility, were considered as
+the property of the chiefs who lived along their course, but the
+inland soil was free to all.</p>
+
+<p>Had it not been for this freedom of the land, it would have
+been impossible for the great men to have nourished the enormous
+flocks and herds of which their wealth consisted; but, on
+account of the lack of ownership of the soil, a flock could be
+moved to one district after another as fast as it exhausted the
+herbage, the shepherds thus unconsciously imitating the habits
+of the gregarious animals, which are always on the move from
+one spot to another.</p>
+
+<p>Pasturage being thus free to all, Sheep had a higher comparative
+value than is the case with ourselves, who have to pay in
+some way for their keep. There is a proverb in the Talmud
+which may be curtly translated, "Land sell, sheep buy."</p>
+
+<p>The value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great,
+that its possession is well worth a battle, the shepherds being
+saved from a most weary and harassing life, and being moreover
+fewer in number than is needed when the pasturage is scanty
+Sir S. Baker, in his work on Abyssinia, makes some very interesting
+remarks upon the Arab herdsmen, who are placed in
+conditions very similar to those of the Israelitish shepherds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fresh" id="fresh"></a>
+<img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="450" height="391" alt="fresh" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ARABS JOURNEYING TO FRESH PASTURES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The Arabs are creatures of necessity; their nomadic life is
+compulsory, as the existence of their flocks and herds depends
+upon the pasturage. Thus, with the change of seasons they
+must change their localities according to the presence of fodder
+for their cattle.... The Arab cannot halt in one spot longer
+than the pasturage will support his flocks. The object of his
+life being fodder, he must wander in search of the ever-changing
+supply. His wants must be few, as the constant change of encampment
+necessitates the transport of all his household goods;
+thus he reduces to a minimum his domestic furniture and
+utensils....</p>
+
+<p>"This striking similarity to the descriptions of the Old Testament
+is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing
+among these curious and original people. With the Bible in
+one's hand, and these unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a
+thrilling illustration of the sacred record; the past becomes the
+present, the veil of three thousand years is raised, and the living<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+picture is a witness to the exactness of the historical description.
+At the same time there is a light thrown upon many
+obscure passages in the Old Testament by the experience of the
+present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, which are
+precisely those that were practised at the periods described....</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="pyramids" id="pyramids"></a>
+<img src="images/i_178.jpg" width="450" height="406" alt="pyramids" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"Should the present history of the country be written by an
+Arab scribe, the style of the description would be precisely
+that of the Old Testament. There is a fascination in the
+unchangeable features of the Nile regions. There are the vast
+pyramids that have defied time, the river upon which Moses was
+cradled in infancy, the same sandy desert through which he led
+his people, and the watering-places where their flocks were led
+to drink. The wild and wandering Arabs, who thousands of
+years ago dug out the wells in the wilderness, are represented by
+their descendants, unchanged, who now draw water from the
+deep wells of their forefathers, with the skins that have never
+altered their fashion.</p>
+
+<p>"The Arabs, gathering with their goats and sheep around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+wells to-day, recall the recollection of that distant time when
+'Jacob went on his journey, and came into the land of the
+people of the east. And he looked, and behold a well in the
+field, and lo! there were three flocks of sheep lying by it,' &amp;c.
+The picture of that scene would be an illustration of Arab daily
+life in the Nubian deserts, where the present is a mirror of the
+past."</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great number of Sheep which they have to
+tend, and the peculiar state of the country, the life of the shepherd
+in Palestine is even now very different from that of an
+English shepherd, and in the days of the early Scriptures the
+distinction was even more distinctly marked.</p>
+
+<p>Sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we generally
+think. In the first place, a thoughtful shepherd had always
+one idea before his mind,&mdash;namely, the possibility of obtaining
+sufficient water for his flocks. Even pasturage is less important
+than water, and, however tempting a district might be, no shepherd
+would venture to take his charge there if he were not sure
+of obtaining water. In a climate such as ours, this ever-pressing
+anxiety respecting water can scarcely be appreciated, for in hot
+climates not only is water scarce, but it is needed far more than
+in a temperate and moist climate. Thirst does its work with
+terrible quickness, and there are instances recorded where men
+have sat down and died of thirst in sight of the river which
+they had not strength to reach.</p>
+
+<p>In places therefore through which no stream runs, the wells
+are the great centres of pasturage, around which are to be seen
+vast flocks extending far in every direction. These wells are
+kept carefully closed by their owners, and are only opened for
+the use of those who are entitled to water their flocks at
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Noontide is the general time for watering the Sheep, and
+towards that hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards
+their respective wells, the shepherd at the head of each flock, and
+the Sheep following him. See how forcible becomes the imagery
+of David, the shepherd poet, "The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall
+not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures (or, in
+pastures of tender grass): He leadeth me beside the still waters"
+(Ps. xxiii. 1, 2). Here we have two of the principal duties of
+the good shepherd brought prominently before us,&mdash;namely, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+guiding of the Sheep to green pastures and leading them to fresh
+water. Very many references are made in the Scriptures to the
+pasturage of sheep, both in a technical and a metaphorical sense;
+but as our space is limited, and these passages are very numerous,
+only one or two of each will be taken.</p>
+
+<p>In the story of Joseph, we find that when his father and
+brothers were suffering from the famine, they seem to have cared
+as much for their Sheep and cattle as for themselves, inasmuch as
+among a pastoral people the flocks and herds constitute the only
+wealth. So, when Joseph at last discovered himself, and his
+family were admitted to the favour of Pharaoh, the first request
+which they made was for their flocks. "Pharaoh said unto his
+brethren, What is your occupation? And they said unto
+Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds, both we, and also our
+fathers.</p>
+
+<p>"They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land
+are we come; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks;
+for the famine is sore in the land of Canaan: now therefore, we
+pray thee, let thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen."</p>
+
+<p>This one incident, so slightly remarked in the sacred history,
+gives a wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by Jacob
+and his sons. Forming, according to custom, a small tribe of
+their own, of which the father was the chief, they led a pastoral
+life, taking their continually increasing herds and flocks from
+place to place as they could find food for them. For example, at
+the memorable time when the story of Joseph begins, he was
+sent by his father to his brothers, who were feeding the flocks,
+and he wandered about for some time, not knowing where to
+find them. It may seem strange that he should be unable to
+discover such very conspicuous objects as large flocks of sheep
+and goats, but the fact is that they had been driven from one
+pasture-land to another, and had travelled in search of food all
+the way from Shechem to Dothan.</p>
+
+<p>In 1 Chron. iv. 39, 40, we read of the still pastoral Israelites
+that "they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east
+side of the valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they
+found fat pasture and good, and the land was wide, and quiet,
+and peaceable."</p>
+
+<p>How it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context.
+It was peaceable simply because the Israelites were attracted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+the good pasturage, attacked the original inhabitants, and exterminated
+them so effectually that none were left to offer resistance
+to the usurpers. And we find from this passage that the value
+of good pasture-land where the Sheep could feed continually
+without being forced to wander from one spot to another was
+so considerable, that the owners of the flocks engaged in war,
+and exposed their own lives, in order to obtain so valuable a
+possession.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="rachel" id="rachel"></a>
+<img src="images/i_181.jpg" width="450" height="349" alt="rachel" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JACOB MEETS RACHEL AT THE WELL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We will now look at one or two of the passages that mention
+watering the Sheep&mdash;a duty so imperative on an Oriental shepherd,
+and so needless to our own.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place we find that most graphic narrative which
+occurs in Gen. xxix. to which a passing reference has already
+been made. When Jacob was on his way from his parents to
+the home of Laban in Padan-aram, he came upon the very well
+which belonged to his uncle, and there saw three flocks of Sheep
+lying around the well, waiting until the proper hour arrived.
+According to custom, a large stone was laid over the well, so as
+to perform the double office of keeping out the sand and dust,
+and of guarding the precious water against those who had no
+right to it. And when he saw his cousin Rachel arrive with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a><br /><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+the flock of which she had the management, he, according to the
+courtesy of the country and the time, rolled away the ponderous
+barrier, and poured out water into the troughs for the Sheep
+which Rachel tended.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 330px;"><a name="western" id="western"></a>
+<img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="eastern" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN SHEPHERD WATCHING HIS FLOCK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>About two hundred years afterwards, we find Moses performing
+a similar act. When he was obliged to escape into
+Midian on account of his fatal quarrel with a tyrannical
+Egyptian, he sat down by a well, waiting for the time when the
+stone might be rolled away, and the water be distributed. Now
+it happened that this well belonged to Jethro, the chief priest of
+the country, whose wealth consisted principally of Sheep. He
+entrusted his flock to the care of his seven daughters, who led
+their Sheep to the well and drew water as usual into the troughs.
+Presuming on their weakness, other shepherds came and tried
+to drive them away, but were opposed by Moses, who drove
+them away, and with his own hands watered the flock.</p>
+
+<p>Now in both these examples we find that the men who
+performed the courteous office of drawing the water and pouring
+it into the sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose
+charge the flocks had been committed. This brings us to the
+Oriental custom which has been preserved to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the
+meeting-places of the tribe, and it is chiefly at the well that the
+young men and women meet each other. As each successive
+flock arrives at the well, the number of the people increases,
+and while the sheep and goats lie patiently round the water,
+waiting for the time when the last flock shall arrive, and the
+stone be rolled off the mouth of the well, the gossip of the tribe
+is discussed, and the young people have ample opportunity for
+the pleasing business of courtship.</p>
+
+<p>As to the passages in which the wells, rivers, brooks, water-springs,
+are spoken of in a metaphorical sense, they are too
+numerous to be quoted.</p>
+
+<p>And here I may observe, that in reality the whole of Scripture
+has its symbolical as well as its outward signification; and that,
+until we have learned to read the Bible strictly according to the
+spirit, we cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mysteries
+which it conceals behind its veil of language; nor can we
+appreciate one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which
+lie hidden in its pages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another duty of the shepherd of ancient Palestine was to
+guard his flock from depredators, whether man or beast.
+Therefore the shepherd was forced to carry arms; to act as a
+sentry during the night; and, in fact, to be a sort of irregular
+soldier. A fully-armed shepherd had with him his bow, his
+spear, and his sword, and not even a shepherd lad was without
+his sling and the great quarter-staff which is even now universally
+carried by the tribes along the Nile&mdash;a staff as thick as a man's
+wrist, and six or seven feet in length. He was skilled in the
+use of all these weapons, especially in that of the sling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="david" id="david"></a>
+<img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="450" height="356" alt="david" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">DAVID GATHERS STONES FROM THE BROOK TO CAST AT GOLIATH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In these days, the sling is only considered as a mere toy,
+whereas, before the introduction of fire-arms, it was one of the
+most formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops.
+Round and smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were
+the usual projectiles, and, by dint of constant practice from
+childhood, the slingers could aim with a marvellous precision.
+Of this fact we have a notable instance in David, who knew
+that the sling and the five stones in the hand of an active youth
+unencumbered by armour, and wearing merely the shepherd's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+simple tunic, were more than a match for all the ponderous
+weapons of the gigantic Philistine.</p>
+
+<p>It has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful
+aim of David to a special miracle, whereas those who are
+acquainted with ancient weapons know well that no miracle was
+wrought, because none was needed; a good slinger at that time
+being as sure of his aim as a good rifleman of our days.</p>
+
+<p>The sling was in constant requisition, being used both in
+directing the Sheep and in repelling enemies: a stone skilfully
+thrown in front of a straying Sheep being a well-understood
+signal that the animal had better retrace its steps if it did not
+want to feel the next stone on its back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="west" id="west"></a>
+<img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="400" height="439" alt="east" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AN EASTERN SHEPHERD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Passing his whole life with his flock, the shepherd was identified
+with his Sheep far more than is the case in this country.
+He knew all his Sheep by sight, he called them all by their
+names, and they all knew him and recognised his voice. He
+did not drive them, but he led them, walking in their front,
+and they following him. Sometimes he would play with them,
+pretending to run away while they pursued him, exactly as an
+infant-school teacher plays with the children.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Consequently, they looked upon him as their protector as
+well as their feeder, and were sure to follow wherever he led
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="following" id="following"></a>
+<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="400" height="401" alt="following" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must all remember how David, who had passed all his
+early years as a shepherd, speaks of God as the Shepherd of
+Israel, and the people as Sheep; never mentioning the Sheep as
+being driven, but always as being led. "Thou leddest Thy
+people like a flock, by the hands of Moses and Aaron" (Ps.
+lxxvii. 20); "The Lord is my Shepherd.... He leadeth me
+beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1, 2); "Lead me in a plain
+path, because of mine enemies" (Ps. xxvii. 11); together with
+many other passages too numerous to be quoted.</p>
+
+<p>Our Lord Himself makes a familiar use of the same image:
+"He calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out
+And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them,
+and the sheep follow him: for they know his voice."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although the shepherds of our own country know their Sheep
+by sight, and say that there is as much difference in the faces
+of Sheep as of men, they have not, as a rule, attained the art of
+teaching their Sheep to recognise their names. This custom,
+however, is still retained, as may be seen from a well-known
+passage in Hartley's "Researches in Greece and the Levant:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Having had my attention directed last night to the words in
+John x. 3, I asked my man if it were usual in Greece to give
+names to the sheep. He informed me that it was, and that
+the sheep obeyed the shepherd when he called them by their
+names. This morning I had an opportunity of verifying the
+truth of this remark. Passing by a flock of sheep, I asked the
+shepherd the same question which I had put to the servant, and
+he gave me the same answer. I then bade him call one of his
+sheep. He did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its
+companions, and ran up to the hands of the shepherd, with
+signs of pleasure, and with a prompt obedience which I had never
+before observed in any other animal.</p>
+
+<p>"It is also true that in this country, 'a stranger will they not
+follow, but will flee from him.' The shepherd told me that
+many of his sheep were still wild, that they had not learned
+their names, but that by teaching them they would all learn
+them."</p>
+
+<p>Generally, the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock,
+or had at all events a share in it, of which latter arrangement
+we find a well-known example in the bargain which Jacob made
+with Laban, all the white Sheep belonging to his father-in-law,
+and all the dark and spotted Sheep being his wages as shepherd.
+Such a man was far more likely to take care of the Sheep than
+if he were merely a paid labourer; especially in a country where
+the life of a shepherd was a life of actual danger, and he might at
+any time be obliged to fight against armed robbers, or to oppose
+the wolf, the lion, or the bear. The combat of the shepherd
+David with the last-mentioned animals has already been
+noticed.</p>
+
+<p>In allusion to the continual risks run by the Oriental shepherd,
+our Lord makes use of the following well-known words:&mdash;"The
+thief cometh not but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy: I
+am come that they might have life, and have it more abundantly.
+I am the Good Shepherd: the good shepherd giveth his life for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+the sheep. But he that is an hireling, ... whose own the
+sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep,
+and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the
+sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is an hireling, and careth
+not for the sheep."</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the continual moving of the Sheep, the shepherd
+had very hard work during the lambing time, and was obliged
+to carry in his arms the young lambs which were too feeble to
+accompany their parents, and to keep close to him those Sheep
+who were expected soon to become mothers. At that time of
+year the shepherd might constantly be seen at the head of his
+flock, carrying one or two lambs in his arms, accompanied by
+their mothers.</p>
+
+<p>In allusion to this fact Isaiah writes: "His reward is with
+Him, and His work before Him. He shall feed His flock like
+a shepherd; He shall gather the lambs with His arms and carry
+them in His bosom, and shall gently lead them that are with
+young" (or, "that give suck," according to the marginal reading).
+Here we have presented at once before us the good shepherd
+who is no hireling, but owns the Sheep; and who therefore has
+"his reward with him, and his work before him;" who bears
+the tender lambs in his arms, or lays them in the folds of his
+mantle, and so carries them in his bosom, and leads by his side
+their yet feeble mothers.</p>
+
+<p>Frequent mention is made of the folds in which the Sheep are
+penned; and as these folds differed&mdash;and still differ&mdash;materially
+from those of our own land, we shall miss the force of several
+passages of Scripture if we do not understand their form, and the
+materials of which they were built. Our folds consist merely of
+hurdles, moveable at pleasure, and so low that a man can easily
+jump over them, and so fragile that he can easily pull them
+down. Moreover, the Sheep are frequently enclosed within the
+fold while they are at pasture.</p>
+
+<p>If any one should entertain such an idea of the Oriental fold,
+he would not see the force of the well-known passage in which
+our Lord compares the Church to a sheepfold, and Himself to
+the door. "He that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold,
+but climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a
+robber. But he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of
+the sheep. To him the porter openeth, and the sheep hear his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+voice.... All that ever came before me are thieves and robbers:
+but the sheep did not hear them. I am the door: by me if any
+man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and
+find pasture."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="pen" id="pen"></a>
+<img src="images/i_189.jpg" width="400" height="353" alt="pen" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANCIENT SHEEP PEN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of
+hurdles, such an image could not have been used. It is evident
+that the fold to which allusion was made, and which was probably
+in sight at the time when Jesus was disputing with
+the Pharisees, was a structure of some pretensions; that it
+had walls which a thief could only enter by climbing over
+them&mdash;not by "breaking through" them, as in the case of a
+mud-walled private house; and that it had a gate, which was
+guarded by a watchman.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the fold was a solid and enduring building, made of
+stone. Thus in Numbers xxxii. it is related that the tribes of
+Reuben and Gad, who had great quantities of Sheep and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+cattle, asked for the eastward side of Jordan as a pasture-ground,
+promising to go and fight for the people, but previously
+to build fortified cities for their families, and folds for their
+cattle, the folds being evidently, like the cities, buildings of an
+enduring nature.</p>
+
+<p>In some places the folds are simply rock caverns, partly natural
+and partly artificial, often enlarged by a stone wall built outside
+it. It was the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of
+Jordan that compelled the Reubenites and Gadites to build folds
+for themselves, whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were
+comparatively abundant.</p>
+
+<p>See, for example, the well-known history related in 1 Sam.
+xxiii.-xxiv. David and his miscellaneous band of warriors,
+some six hundred in number, were driven out of the cities by
+the fear of Saul, and were obliged to pass their time in the
+wilderness, living in the "strong holds" (xxiii. 14, 19), which we
+find immediately afterwards to be rock caves (ver. 25). These
+caves were of large extent, being able to shelter these six
+hundred warriors, and, on one memorable occasion, to conceal
+them so completely as they stood along the sides, that Saul, who
+had just come out of the open air, was not able to discern them
+in the dim light, and David even managed to approach him
+unseen, and cut off a portion of his outer robe.</p>
+
+<p>That this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from
+xxiv. 2-4: "Then Saul took three thousand chosen men
+out of all Israel, and went to seek David and his men upon the
+rocks of the wild goats. And he came to the sheepcotes by
+the way." Into these strongholds the Sheep are driven towards
+nightfall, and, as the flocks converge towards their resting-place,
+the bleatings of the sheep are almost deafening.</p>
+
+<p>The shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these
+caves, making them their resting-places while they were living
+the strange, wild, pastoral life among the hills; and at the
+present day many of the smaller caves and "holes of the rock"
+exhibit the vestiges of human habitation in the shape of straw,
+hay, and other dried herbage, which has been used for beds, just
+as we now find the rude couches of the coast-guard men in the
+cliff caves of our shores.</p>
+
+<p>The dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were, as they
+are now, the faithful servants of man, although, as has already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+been related, they are not made the companions of man as is
+the case with ourselves. Lean, gaunt, hungry, and treated with
+but scant kindness, they are yet faithful guardians against the
+attack of enemies. They do not, as do our sheepdogs, assist in
+driving the flocks, because the Sheep are not driven, but led, but
+they are invaluable as nocturnal sentries. Crouching together
+outside the fold, in little knots of six or seven together, they
+detect the approach of wild animals, and at the first sign of the
+wolf or the jackal they bark out a defiance, and scare away the
+invaders. It is strange that the old superstitious idea of their
+uncleanness should have held its ground through so many tens
+of centuries; but, down to the present day, the shepherd of
+Palestine, though making use of the dog as a guardian of his
+flock, treats the animal with utter contempt, not to say cruelty,
+beating and kicking the faithful creature on the least provocation,
+and scarcely giving it sufficient food to keep it alive.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Sheep are brought up by hand at home.
+"House-lamb," as we call it, is even now common, and the
+practice of house-feeding peculiar in the old Scriptural times.</p>
+
+<p>We have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable
+of the prophet Nathan: "The poor man had nothing, save one
+little ewe lamb, which he had bought and nourished up: and it
+grew up together with him, and with his children; it did eat of
+his own meat, and drank of his own cup, and lay in his bosom,
+and was unto him as a daughter" (2 Sam. xii. 3). A further,
+though less distinct, allusion is made to this practice in Isaiah
+vii. 21: "It shall come to pass in that day, that a man shall
+nourish a young cow, and two sheep."</p>
+
+<p>How the Sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may
+be conjectured from the following passage in Mr. D. Urquhart's
+valuable work on the Lebanon:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"In the month of June, they buy from the shepherds, when
+pasturage has become scarce and sheep are cheap, two or three
+sheep; these they feed by hand. After they have eaten up the
+old grass and the provender about the doors, they get vine
+leaves, and, after the silkworms have begun to spin, mulberry
+leaves. They purchase them on trial, and the test is appetite.
+If a sheep does not feed well, they return it after three days.
+To increase their appetite they wash them twice a day, morning
+and evening, a care they never bestow on their own bodies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="poor" id="poor"></a>
+<img src="images/i_192a.jpg" width="400" height="372" alt="poor" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE POOR MAN'S LAMB.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="rich" id="rich"></a>
+<img src="images/i_192b.jpg" width="400" height="352" alt="rich" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE RICH MAN'S FEAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"If the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard,
+they use a little gentle violence, folding for them forced leaf-balls
+and introducing them into their mouths. The mulberry has the
+property of making them fat and tender. At the end of four
+months the sheep they had bought at eighty piastres will sell
+for one hundred and forty, or will realize one hundred and fifty.</p>
+
+<p>"The sheep is killed, skinned, and hung up. The fat is then
+removed; the flesh is cut from the bones, and hung up in the
+sun. Meanwhile, the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire,
+and as soon as it has come to boil, the meat is laid on. The
+proportion of the fat to the lean is as four to ten, eight 'okes'
+fat and twenty lean. A little salt is added, it is simmered for
+an hour, and then placed in jars for the use of the family during
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>"The large joints are separated and used first, as not fit for
+keeping long. The fat, with a portion of the lean, chopped fine,
+is what serves for cooking the 'bourgoul,' and is called <em>Dehen</em>.
+The sheep are of the fat-tailed variety, and the tails are the
+great delicacy."</p>
+
+<p>This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of
+Sheep in Palestine. One much resembles the ordinary English
+Sheep, while the other is a very different animal. It is much
+taller on its legs, larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the
+rams have horns, and they are not twisted spirally like those
+of our own Sheep, but come backwards, and then curl round so
+that the point comes under the ear. The great peculiarity of
+this Sheep is the tail, which is simply prodigious in point of size,
+and is an enormous mass of fat. Indeed, the long-legged and
+otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the tail,
+which, as has been well observed, appears to abstract both flesh
+and fat from the rest of the body. So great is this strange
+development, that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth
+as much as the entire animal. A similar breed of Sheep is found
+in Southern Africa and other parts of the world. In some places,
+the tail grows to such an enormous size that, in order to keep
+so valuable a part of the animal from injury, it is fastened to
+a small board, supported by a couple of wheels, so that the Sheep
+literally wheels its own tail in a cart.</p>
+
+<p>Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the
+Authorized Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+would not be understood did we not know that the Sheep
+which is mentioned in those passages is the long-tailed
+Sheep of Syria. See, for example, the history narrated in
+Exod. xxix. 22, where special details are given as to the
+ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were consecrated
+to the priesthood. "Thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the
+rump, and the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above
+the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="flocks" id="flocks"></a>
+<img src="images/i_194.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="flocks" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FLOCKS OF SHEEP BEING TAKEN INTO JERUSALEM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned
+in the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions
+to it. In the Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed
+to leave their folds on the Sabbath-day, because by wheeling
+their little tail-waggons behind them they would break the
+Sabbath. The writers describe the tail very graphically, comparing
+its shape to that of a saddle, and saying that it is fat,
+without bones, heavy and long, and looks as if the whole body
+were continued beyond the hind-legs, and thence hung down in
+place of a tail.</p>
+
+<p>The Rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the Sheep, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+give some very amusing advice respecting their management.
+If the ewes cannot be fattened in the ordinary manner, that end
+may be achieved by tying up the udder so that the milk cannot
+flow, and the elements which would have furnished milk are
+forced to produce fat. If the weather should be chilly at the
+shearing time, and there is danger of taking cold after the wool
+is removed, the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and tie it
+on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal. Or, if he should
+not have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as well. The
+same potent remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should be ill
+in lambing time.</p>
+
+<p>That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which
+deposits its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal,
+was as well known in the ancient as in modern times. It is
+scarcely necessary to mention that the insect in question is
+the <em>Æstrus ovis</em>. Instinctively aware of the presence of this
+insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so apparently
+insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts of
+prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp,
+menacing sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect
+sweeps through the air towards its destination. They congregate
+together, placing their heads almost in contact with each
+other, snort and paw the ground in their terror, and use all means
+in their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly
+deposits an egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them.
+The tiny eggs are soon hatched by the natural heat of the
+animal, and the young larvæ crawl up the nostril towards the
+frontal sinus. There they remain until they are full-grown, when
+they crawl through the nostrils, fall on the ground, burrow
+therein, and in the earth undergo their changes into the pupal
+and perfect stages.</p>
+
+<p>It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would
+devote himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he
+could find, and, as these insects are fond of basking on sunny
+rocks or tree-trunks, this is no very difficult matter.</p>
+
+<p>The Rabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of
+practical entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect
+until it had reached its full larval growth. They say that the
+rams manage to shake the grubs out of their nostrils by butting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+at one another in mimic warfare, and that the ewes, which are
+hornless, and are therefore incapable of relieving themselves
+by such means, ought to be supplied with plants which will
+make them sneeze, so that they may shake out the grubs by
+the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling the
+irritating substance.</p>
+
+<p>The same writers also recommend that the rams should be
+furnished with strong leathern collars.</p>
+
+<p>When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the
+van, and, being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the
+wolf, they continually raise their heads and look about them.
+This line of conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the foremost
+rams and seize them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece
+of stout leather be fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is
+baffled, and runs off in sullen despair.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when
+the flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file after
+the leader, making narrow paths, which are very distinct from a
+distance, but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the
+traveller is actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an
+ancient proverb, "As the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter
+after the mother," a saying which is another form of our own
+familiar proverb, "What is bred in the bone will not come out
+of the flesh."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its
+uses. First and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the
+chief means of subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of
+Palestine what the oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of
+Southern Africa.</p>
+
+<p>To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom-tasted
+luxury; great men might eat it habitually, "faring
+sumptuously every day," and we find that, among the glories of
+Solomon's reign, the sacred chronicler has thought it worth while
+to mention that part of the daily provision for his household
+included one hundred Sheep. No particular pains seem to have
+been taken about the cooking of the animal, which seems generally
+to have been boiled. As, however, in such a climate the
+flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making it tender, as is
+the case in this part of the world, it was cooked as soon as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+animal was killed, the fibres not having time to settle into the
+rigidity of death.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of
+tasting the flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of some
+rejoicing,&mdash;such, for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of
+a guest, for whom a lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the
+spot, a young male lamb being almost invariably chosen as less
+injurious than the ewe to the future prospects of the flock.
+Roasting over a fire was sometimes adopted, as was baking in an
+oven sunk in the ground, a remarkable instance of which we
+shall see when we come to the Jewish sacrifices. Boiling,
+however, was the principal mode; so much so, indeed, that the
+Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind
+of cooking, even when the meat was roasted.</p>
+
+<p>The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the
+skin was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint,
+the right shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remembered,
+was the priest's portion; see Lev. vii. 32: "The right
+shoulder shall ye give unto the priest for an heave offering of the
+sacrifices of your peace offerings." The whole of the flesh was
+then separated from the bones, and chopped small, and even the
+bones themselves broken up, so that the marrow might not
+be lost.</p>
+
+<p>A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, "Who
+pluck off their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their
+bones; who also eat the flesh of my people ... and they break
+their bones, and chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh
+within the caldron." The reader will now understand more fully
+the force of the prophecy, "He keepeth all His bones: not one of
+them is broken" (Psa. xxxiv. 20).</p>
+
+<p>The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the
+caldron, which was generally filled with water, but sometimes
+with milk, as is the custom with the Bedouins of the present
+day, whose manners are in many respects identical with those
+of the early Jews. It has been thought by some commentators
+that the injunction not to "seethe a kid in his mothers milk"
+(Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom. I believe, however, that
+the expression "in his mother's milk" does not signify that the
+flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's
+milk, <em>i.e.</em> unweaned.</p>
+
+<p>Salt and spices were generally added to it; see Ezek. xxiv. 10:
+"Heap on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it
+well." The surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat
+was thoroughly cooked, it and the broth were served up separately.
+The latter was used as a sort of sauce, into which unleavened
+bread was dipped. So in Judges vi. 19 we read that
+when Gideon was visited by the angel, according to the hospitable
+custom of the land, he "made ready a kid, and unleavened
+cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he put in a basket,
+and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him
+under the oak, and presented it to him."</p>
+
+<p>Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there
+has always existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very
+sight of the flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral
+Oriental. The principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep
+was, and is still, the milk; which afforded abundant food without
+thinning the number of the flock. As all know who have
+tasted it, the milk of the Sheep is peculiarly rich, and in the
+East is valued much more highly than that of cattle. The
+milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as is usually the case
+with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour, curdled, and
+semi-solid.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less important
+than the flesh and the milk, <em>i.e.</em> the fleece, or wool.</p>
+
+<p>In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was
+made of wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely
+the large mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could
+be folded, and which was the usual covering during sleep. The
+wool, therefore, would be an article of great national value; and
+so we find that when the king of Moab paid his tribute in kind
+to the king of Israel, it was carefully specified that the Sheep
+should not be shorn. "And Mesha king of Moab was a sheep-master,
+and rendered unto the king of Israel an hundred thousand
+lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, with the wool."</p>
+
+<p>The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value;
+some kinds being coarse and rough, while others were fine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present,
+being carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff
+being apparently unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the
+hand. The shape of the spindle was much like that of the well-known
+flat spinning-tops that come from Japan&mdash;namely, a
+disc through which passes an axle. A smart twirl given by the
+fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very rapidly, and its
+weight causes the rotation to continue for a considerable time.
+Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the women, a
+custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent
+time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster,"
+and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synonymous
+with a woman's proper work.</p>
+
+<p>When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple
+loom which has existed up to our own day, and which is
+identical in its general principles throughout a very large
+portion of the world. It consisted of a framework of wood, at
+one end of which was placed the "beam" to which the warp
+was attached; and at the other end was the "pin" on which the
+cloth was rolled as it was finished.</p>
+
+<p>The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling
+Samson to tell her the secret of his strength, he said, "If thou
+weavest the seven locks of my head with the web." So, as he
+slept, she interwove his long hair with the fabric which was on
+her loom, and, to make sure, "fastened it with the pin," <em>i.e.</em> wove
+it completely into the cloth which was rolled round the pin.
+So firmly had she done so, that when he awoke he could not
+disentangle his hair, but left the house with the whole of the
+loom, the beam and the pin, and the web hanging to his head.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Wool was often dyed of various colours; blue, purple, and
+scarlet being those which were generally employed. The rams'
+skins which formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were
+ordered to be dyed scarlet, partly on account of the significance
+of the colour, and partly because none but the best and purest
+fleeces would be chosen for so rare and costly a dye. How the
+colour was produced we shall learn towards the end of the
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>Sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and revelry,
+which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of sobriety.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thousand
+Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to
+ask for some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance
+with the disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally
+churlish nature with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like
+the feast of a king: and Nabal's heart was merry within him,
+for he was very drunken" (1 Sam. xxv. 36).</p>
+
+<p>The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing his
+Sheep (Gen. xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been
+possible for Jacob to have gone away unknown to Laban, taking
+with him his wives and children, his servants, his camels, and
+his flocks, the rapid increase of which had excited the jealousy
+of his uncle, and which were so numerous that, in fear of his
+brother Esau, he divided them into two bands, and yet was able
+to select from them a present to his brother, consisting in all of
+nearly six hundred sheep, camels, oxen, goats, and asses.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral
+districts made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with
+the wool still adhering to it. The custom extends to the present
+day, and even in many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of
+the shepherds is a familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was
+sometimes tanned and used as leather, but was considered as
+inferior to that of the goat. Mr. Tristram conjectures that the
+leathern "girdle" worn by St. John the Baptist was probably the
+untanned sheep-skin coat which has been just mentioned. So
+it is said of the early Christians, that "they wandered about in
+sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute, afflicted, tormented,"
+the sheep-skins in question being evidently the rude shepherd's
+coats.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The horn of the ram had a national value, as from it were
+made the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in
+the history of the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the
+primitive trumpets were originally formed either from the horn
+of an animal, such as the ox, the large-horned antelopes, the
+sheep, and the goat, and that in process of time they were made
+of metal, generally copper or silver.</p>
+
+<p>References are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets,
+for which there were different names, probably on account of
+their different forms. These names are, however, very loosely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+rendered in our version, the same word being sometimes translated
+the "cornet," and sometimes the "trumpet."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sounding" id="sounding"></a>
+<img src="images/i_201.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="sounding" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SOUNDING THE TRUMPETS IN THE YEAR OF JUBILEE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The jubilee year was always ushered in by the blasts of the
+sacred trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the
+jubilee to sound on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the
+day of atonement shall ye make the trumpet sound throughout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+all your land" (Lev. xxv. 9). Then there was the festival
+known as the Feast of Trumpets. "In the seventh month, on
+the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation;
+ye shall do no servile work: it is a day of blowing the trumpets
+unto you" (Numb. xxix. 1).</p>
+
+<p>One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in the
+accompanying illustration.</p>
+
+<p>In length it measures eighteen inches, <em>i.e.</em> a cubit, and it is
+formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made
+from the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already
+been remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, and
+forming nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This
+structure, added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for
+its purpose. In order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn
+is softened by heat, and is then modelled into the very form
+which was used by the Jewish priests who blew the trumpet
+before the ark.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="horn" id="horn"></a>
+<img src="images/i_202.jpg" width="400" height="141" alt="horn" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">RAM'S HORN TRUMPET.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in
+every Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the
+privilege of blowing it.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep
+in sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the
+Sheep, and in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified
+the precise age as well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be
+sacrificed in certain circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was
+sacrificed as an offering of thanksgiving, sometimes as an
+expiation for sin, and sometimes as a redemption for some more
+valuable animal. The young male lamb was the usual sacrifice;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+and almost the only sacrifice for which a Sheep might not be
+offered was that of the two goats on the great Day of Atonement.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="burnt" id="burnt"></a>
+<img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="400" height="373" alt="burnt" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A LAMB UPON THE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered for
+sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will therefore
+restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish nation,
+the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb of
+God, who taketh away the sins of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the
+Paschal sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which
+distinguish it from any other sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined
+with the minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish,
+and must be of the first year. It must be killed on the fourteenth
+of the month Abib as the sun is setting, and the blood
+must be sprinkled with hyssop. In the first or Egyptian Passover
+the blood was sprinkled on the lintels and doorposts of
+the houses, but afterwards on the altar. It must be roasted
+with fire, and not boiled, after the usual custom in the East;
+not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by the household
+in haste, as if they were just starting on a journey, and if any
+of it should be left, it must be consumed in the fire, and not
+eaten on the following day.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+at once a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not being
+sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which
+might hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number
+of directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for
+example, to guard against the destruction of any part of the
+animal by careless cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of
+a bone by a sudden jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather
+baked than roasted, being placed in an earthen oven from
+which the ashes had been removed. In order to prevent it
+from being burned or blackened against the sides of the oven,
+(in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and not
+with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden stake, made from the
+pomegranate-tree, and a transverse spit was thrust through the
+shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because a metal spit
+would become heated in the oven, and would cause all the flesh
+which it touched to be roasted with metal, and not with fire;
+and the wood of the pomegranate was chosen, because that
+wood was supposed not to emit any sap when heated. If a
+drop of water had fallen on the flesh, the law would have been
+broken, as that part of the flesh would be considered as boiled,
+and not roasted.</p>
+
+<p>As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with
+the lamb, the custom does not bear on the present subject.
+In shape the oven seems to have resembled a straw beehive,
+having an opening at the side by which the fuel could be
+removed and the lamb inserted.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several
+persons, such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of Westminster,
+the latter of whom has given, a most striking and vivid
+account of the rite in his "Lectures on the Jewish Church."</p>
+
+<p>The place which is now employed in the celebration of this
+rite is a level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of
+the mountain, a place which is apparently selected on account
+of its comparative quiet and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks
+that in former times, when the Samaritans were the masters of
+the country, they celebrated the sacrifice on the sacred plateau
+on the very summit of the mountain, so that the rite could be
+seen for a vast distance on every side. Now, however, the less
+conspicuous place is preferred. By the kindness of the Palestine
+Exploration Society, I am enabled to present the reader<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+with a view of this sacred spot, taken from a photograph made
+an hour or two before the time of sacrifice. The rough, rugged
+character of the mountain is shown by this illustration, though
+not so well as in several other photographs of Gerizim, in which
+the entire surface seems to be loosely covered with stones like
+those of which the low wall is built. Near the centre of the
+illustration may be seen a pile of sticks and the tops of two
+caldrons, on each of which a stone is laid to keep the cover from
+being blown off by the wind. These sticks nearly fill a trench
+in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use will be presently
+seen on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far distance
+are the plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the
+priest and his nephew, and probable successor, show that the
+time of sacrifice is rapidly approaching.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="place" id="place"></a>
+<img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="400" height="398" alt="place" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched
+their tents on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached
+the women retired to the tents, and all the males, except those
+who were unclean according to the provisions of the Mosaic law,
+assembled near a long deep trench that had been dug in the
+ground. The men are clothed in long white garments, and the
+six young men who are selected as the actual sacrifices are
+dressed in white drawers and shirts. These youths are trained
+to the duty, but whether they hold any sacred office could not
+be ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, "the priest,
+ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation, recited
+in a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined,
+prayers or praises chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham
+and Isaac. Their attitude was that of all Orientals in prayer;
+standing, occasionally diversified by the stretching out of the
+hands, and more rarely by kneeling or crouching, with their
+knees wrapped in their clothes and bent to the ground, towards
+the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim. The priest recited
+his prayers by heart; the others had mostly books in Hebrew
+and Arabic.</p>
+
+<p>"Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers
+six sheep, driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned.
+The unconscious innocence with which they wandered to and
+fro amongst the bystanders, and the simplicity in aspect and
+manner of the young men who tended them, more recalled a
+pastoral scene in Arcadia, or one of those inimitable patriarchal
+<em>tableaux</em> represented in the Ammergau Mystery, than a religious
+ceremonial.</p>
+
+<p>"The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the
+Mediterranean in the distance, now sank very nearly to the
+farthest western ridge overhanging the plain of Sharon. The
+recitation became more vehement. The priest turned about,
+facing his brethren, and the whole history of the Exodus from
+the beginning of the plagues of Egypt was rapidly, almost
+furiously, chanted. The sheep, still innocently playful, were
+driven more closely together.</p>
+
+<p>"The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst
+into a wild murmur of their own, drew forth their long bright
+knives, and brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+were thrown on their backs, and the flashing knives rapidly
+drawn across their throats. Then a few convulsive but silent
+struggles&mdash;'as a sheep ... dumb ... that openeth not his mouth,'&mdash;and
+the six forms lay lifeless on the ground, the blood streaming
+from them; the one only Jewish sacrifice lingering in the world.
+In the blood the young men dipped their fingers, and a small
+spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the children. A
+few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But this had
+now dwindled away into the present practice, preserved, we were
+told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in congratulation
+at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed
+each other, in the Oriental fashion, on each side of the head.</p>
+
+<p>"The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the
+slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished
+such ample provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had
+been dug; one at some distance, of considerable depth, the other,
+close to the scene of the sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In
+this latter cavity, after a short prayer, a fire was kindled, out of
+the mass of dry heath, juniper, and briers, such as furnished the
+materials for the conflagration in Jotham's parable, delivered not
+far from this spot.</p>
+
+<p>"Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. Whilst
+the water boiled, the congregation again stood around, and (as if
+for economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of
+Exodus, and bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip
+of unleavened bread&mdash;'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs
+shall they eat it.' Then was chanted another short prayer; after
+which the six youths again appeared, poured the boiling water
+over the sheep, and plucked off their fleeces. The right forelegs
+of the sheep, with the entrails, were thrown aside and burnt.
+The liver was carefully put back. Long poles were brought, on
+which the animals were spitted; near the bottom of each pole
+was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from slipping
+off."</p>
+
+<p>This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which
+in most cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no
+resemblance to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on
+this point, because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit
+an emblem of the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem
+would have been more appropriate, as in that ceremony the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+cross-piece was passed through the shoulders, and the forefeet
+tied to it.</p>
+
+<p>The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven,
+which on this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire
+had been previously kindled. Into this the victims were carefully
+lowered, the stakes on which they were impaled guarding
+their bodies from touching the sides of the oven, and the cross-piece
+at the end preventing them from slipping off the stake to
+the bottom of the pit among the ashes. A hurdle was then laid
+on the mouth of the pit, and wet earth was heaped upon it so as
+to close it completely. The greater part of the community then
+retired to rest. In about five hours, the Paschal moon being
+high in the heavens, announcement was made that the feast was
+about to begin. Then, to resume Dean Stanley's narrative,</p>
+
+<p>"Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose
+into the still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam;
+recalling, with a shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental
+coincidence, Reginald Heber should have so well caught this
+striking feature of so remote and unknown a ritual:</p>
+
+<p>
+'Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice.'<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>"Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on
+their long spits, black from the oven. The outlines of their
+heads, their ears, their legs, were still visible&mdash;'his head, with
+his legs, and with the inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted
+aloft, and then thrown on large square brown mats, previously
+prepared for their reception, on which we were carefully prevented
+from treading, as also from touching even the extremities
+of the spit.</p>
+
+<p>"The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to
+the trench where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon
+them in a line between two files of the Samaritans. Those who
+had before been dressed in white robes still retained them, with
+the addition now of shoes on their feet and staves in their hands,
+and ropes round their waists&mdash;'thus shall ye eat it; with your
+loins girded, your shoes on your feet, your staff in your hand.'
+The recitation of prayers or of the Pentateuch recommenced, and
+continued till it suddenly terminated in their all sitting down on
+their haunches, after the Arab fashion at meals, and beginning
+to eat. This, too, is a deviation from the practice of only a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+years since, when they retained the Mosaic ritual of standing
+whilst they ate. The actual feast was conducted in rapid silence,
+as of men in hunger, as no doubt most of them were, and so as
+soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses, which
+they tore away piecemeal with their fingers&mdash;'ye shall eat in
+haste.' There was a general merriment, as of a hearty and
+welcome meal.</p>
+
+<p>"In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the
+priest and to the women, who, all but two (probably his two
+wives), remained in the tents, separate morsels were carried
+round. The remnants were gathered into the mats, and put on a
+wooden grate, or hurdle, over the hole where the water had been
+originally boiled; the fire was again lit, and a huge bonfire was
+kindled. By its blaze, and by candles lighted for the purpose,
+the ground was searched in every direction, as for the consecrated
+particles of sacramental elements; and these fragments of
+flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass&mdash;'ye shall
+let nothing remain until the morning; and that which remaineth
+until the morning ye shall burn with fire;' 'there shall not
+anything of the flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even
+remain all night until the morning;' 'thou shalt not carry forth
+aught of the flesh abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed
+up once more, and then gradually sank away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="350" height="296" alt="sheep" />
+</div>
+
+<p>"Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will
+be the only relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="chamois" id="chamois"></a>
+<img src="images/i_210.jpg" width="400" height="473" alt="chamois" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CHAMOIS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the Bible&mdash;Signification of the word
+Zemer&mdash;Probability that the Zemer is the Aoudad&mdash;Its strength and activity&mdash;The
+Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the name of Zemer.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one
+which in our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a
+passage which has several times been quoted.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that, whatever
+may be the Hebrew word, "Chamois" cannot be the correct rendering,
+inasmuch as this animal does not inhabit Palestine, nor are
+there any proofs that it ever did so. The Chamois frequents the
+lofty inaccessible crags of the highest mountains, finding its food
+in the scanty herbage which grows in such regions, appearing on
+the brink of awful precipices, and leaping from ledge to ledge
+with ease and safety. We must, therefore, look for some other
+animal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Chamois is one of the most wary of Antelopes, and possesses
+the power of scenting mankind at what would seem to be an impossible
+distance.</p>
+
+<p>Its ears are as acute as its nostrils, so that there are few animals
+which are so difficult to approach.</p>
+
+<p>Only those who have been trained to climb the giddy heights of
+the Alpine Mountains, to traverse the most fearful precipices with
+a quiet pulse and steady head, to exist for days amid the terrible
+solitudes of ice, rock, and snow,&mdash;only these, can hope to come
+within sight of the Chamois, when the animal is at large upon
+its native cliffs.</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew word, which has been rendered Chamois, is
+Zamar, or Zemer, <em>i. e.</em> the leaper, and therefore an animal which
+is conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in
+the opinion that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome
+wild sheep which we know under the name of Aoudad (<em>Ammotragus
+Tragelaphus</em>). This splendid sheep is known by various
+names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and the Bearded Sheep of
+others. It is also called the Fichtall, or Lerwea; and the French
+zoologists describe it under the name of <em>Mouflon à manchettes</em>,
+in allusion to the fringe of long hair that ornaments the fore
+limbs.</p>
+
+<p>The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly
+active, and has the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep,
+on which account it is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs
+of the present day, and doubtless was similarly classed by the
+ancient inhabitants of Palestine. The height of the adult
+Aoudad is about three feet, and its general colour is pale dun,
+relieved by the dark masses of long hair that fall from the neck
+and the tufts of similar hair which decorate the knees of the
+male. The female is also bearded and tufted, but the hair,
+which in the male looks like the mane of the lion, in the female
+is but slightly developed.</p>
+
+<p>It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male
+which lived for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much
+dreaded by the keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to
+enter the enclosure if he could help himself. The animal was
+given to making unexpected charges, and would do so with
+astonishing quickness, springing round and leaping at the object
+of his hate with tremendous force, and with such rapidity that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a><br /><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+even the experienced keeper, who knew all the ways of the
+animals under his charge, had often some difficulty in slipping
+behind the door, against which the horns of the Aoudad would
+clatter as if they would break the door to pieces. So fond was
+he of attacking something that he would often butt repeatedly
+at the wooden side of the shed, hurling himself against it with
+eager fury.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 349px;"><a name="defending" id="defending"></a>
+<img src="images/i_212.jpg" width="349" height="600" alt="defending" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="chase" id="chase"></a>
+<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="400" height="406" alt="chase" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CHASING THE AOUDAD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are
+of considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully
+backwards, their points diverging considerably from each other,
+so that when the animal throws its head up, the points of the
+horns come on either side of the back. This divergence of the
+horns has another object. They cover a considerable space, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+that when the animal makes its charge the object of its anger
+has much more difficulty in escaping the blow than if the horns
+were closer together.</p>
+
+<p>Whether these horns were used as musical instruments is
+doubtful, simply because we are not absolutely sure that the
+Zamar and the Aoudad are identical, however great may be the
+probability. But inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently
+of various sizes, it is certain that the Jewish musicians would
+never have neglected to take advantage of such magnificent
+materials as they would obtain from the horns of this animal.
+Perhaps the Chaldaic "keren" may have been the horn of the
+Aoudad, or of the animal which will next be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones
+bound to an astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their
+hoofs eight feet from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds,
+and prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with
+a sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These
+flocks are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest
+and least broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and
+then run it down with their horses, as seen in the illustration
+on page 214.</p>
+
+<p>The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now
+is found along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the
+Egyptian monuments, and, owing to its evident profusion, we
+have every reason to conjecture that it was one of those animals
+which were specially indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving
+the hoof.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Perhaps the <span class="smcap">Mouflon</span> (<em>Caprovis Musimon</em>) may be the animal
+which is meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not
+unlikely that both animals may have been included in one
+name.</p>
+
+<p>This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also
+very goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance
+that the name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The
+name Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the
+Aoudad, has a similar signification.</p>
+
+<p>The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+and are of enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and
+great power were needed, they could be obtained from the horns
+of this animal. Those of the Aoudad are very large, and would
+be well adapted for the same purpose, but they would not furnish
+such instruments as the horns of the Mouflon, which are so
+large that they seem almost unwieldy for an animal of twice
+the Mouflon's size, and give visible proofs of the strength and
+agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and leap
+about under their weight so easily as does the Mouflon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 375px;"><a name="mouflon" id="mouflon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_215.jpg" width="375" height="389" alt="mouflon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE MOUFLON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the present time the Mouflon is only to be found in
+Crete, Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to
+inhabit many other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly
+one of the many animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but
+which have in later days been extirpated.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE GOAT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Value of the Goat&mdash;Its use in furnishing food&mdash;The male kid the usual animal of
+slaughter&mdash;Excellence of the flesh and deception of Isaac&mdash;Milk of the Goat&mdash;An
+Oriental milking scene&mdash;The hair of the goat, and the uses to which it is
+put&mdash;The Goat's skin used for leather&mdash;The "bottle" of Scripture&mdash;Mode of
+making and repairing the bottles&mdash;Ruse of the Gibeonites&mdash;The "bottle in the
+smoke"&mdash;The sacks and the kneading troughs&mdash;The Goat as used for sacrifice&mdash;General
+habits of the Goat&mdash;Separation of the Goats from the sheep&mdash;Performing
+Goats&mdash;Different breeds of Goats in Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to
+sacrifice, the <span class="smcap">Goat</span> was scarcely a less important animal than the
+sheep. It was especially valuable in such a country as Palestine,
+in which the soil and the climate vary so much according
+to the locality. Upon the large fertile plains the sheep are bred
+in vast flocks, the rich and succulent grass being exactly to their
+taste; while in the hilly and craggy districts the Goats abound,
+and delight in browsing upon the scanty herbage that grows
+upon the mountain-side.</p>
+
+<p>For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the
+sheep. The adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very
+tough, and having an odour which would repel any but an
+actually starving man. Neither were the females generally
+eaten, as they were needed for the future increase of the flocks.
+The young male kid formed the principal material of a feast, and
+as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality of a man in good
+circumstances, the first thing that was done was to take a young
+male kid and dress it for him.</p>
+
+<p>For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a
+stranger, Gideon "went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened
+cakes of an ephah of flour," and brought them to his
+guest (Judges vi. 19). And when Isaac was on his death-bed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows and hunt for
+"venison," which was probably the flesh of one of the antelopes
+which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute was
+found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah made the dish
+for which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without
+detection, because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and
+can scarcely be distinguished from lamb, even when simply
+roasted. Isaac, therefore, with his senses dulled by his great
+age, was the less likely to discover the imposture, when the flesh
+of the kids was stewed into "savoury meat such as he loved."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="deceives" id="deceives"></a>
+<img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="400" height="338" alt="deceives" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JACOB DECEIVES HIS FATHER AND TAKES ESAU'S BLESSING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food
+is given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father
+had killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his
+father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed
+I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me
+a kid, that I might make merry with my friends" (Luke xv. 29).
+The force of the reproval cannot be properly understood unless we
+are acquainted with the customs of the East. The kid was the
+least valuable animal that could have been given, less valuable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the fatted calf, which was
+kept in wealthy households for some feast of more than ordinary
+magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep,
+namely, by cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat
+and broth being served separately. See, for example, the case of
+Gideon, to whom a reference has already been made. When he
+brought the banquet to his guest, "the flesh he put in a basket,
+and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him under
+the oak, and presented it. And the angel of God said unto him,
+Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, and lay them upon this
+rock, and pour out the broth."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gideon" id="gideon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_218.jpg" width="400" height="311" alt="gideon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ANGEL APPEARS TO GIDEON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gideon did so, and the angel reached forth the staff that was in
+his hand, and touched the flesh, and there rose up fire out of the
+rock and burnt up the offering.</p>
+
+<p>The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief
+receives a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to
+be cooked, and the guest is pressed to stay until it is ready, in the very
+words used by Gideon three thousand years ago. "Depart not hence,
+I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring forth my present, and
+set it before thee." The refusal of proffered hospitality would be,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+and still is considered to be, either a studied insult, or a proof
+of bad manners, and no one with any claims to breeding would
+commit such an action without urgent cause and much apology.</p>
+
+<p>Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer,
+and at the present day the milk of the Goat is used
+as largely as that of the sheep. "At Rasheiya, under Mount
+Hermon," writes Mr. Tristram, "we saw some hundreds of
+goats gathering for the night in the wide open market-place
+beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our way
+among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated intruders
+on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighbouring hills
+are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's
+milking, after which they set forth on their day's excursion.</p>
+
+<p>"Each house possesses several, and all know their owners.
+The evening milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and
+open space is filled with the goats; and women, boys, and girls
+are everywhere milking with their small pewter pots, while the
+goats are anxiously awaiting their turn, or lying down to chew
+the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids or he-goats are
+admitted, the scene is very orderly, and there is none of the
+deafening bleating which usually characterises large flocks.</p>
+
+<p>"These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of
+their demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth,
+and never were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them
+home in the evening, for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining
+unprotected, they hurry homewards of their own accord
+as soon as the sun begins to decline."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for
+the manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its
+quality differs according to the particular breed of the animal,
+which assumes almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog.
+The hair of some varieties is thick and rough, and can only be
+made into coarse cloths, while others, of which the mohair Goat
+and Cashmere Goat are familiar examples, furnish a staple of
+surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is most likely that the
+covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned in Exod.
+xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have
+been out of character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet,
+their golden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+every part of the sacred building. Moreover, the hair
+of the Goat is classed among the costly offerings which were
+made when the Tabernacle was built. "And they came forth,
+men and women, as many as were willing hearted, and brought
+bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels of
+gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of gold
+unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue,
+and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red
+skins of rams, and badgers' skins, brought them" to be used in
+the structure of that wonderful building, in which nothing
+might be used except the finest and costliest that could be
+procured.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied
+was the manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still
+used, and is considered far better than that of the sheep.
+Perhaps the most common form in which this leather is used
+is the well-known water-vessel, or "bottle" of the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the
+animal, which is prepared in slightly different methods according
+to the locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In
+Palestine they are soaked for some little time in the tanning
+mixture, and are then filled with water, after the seams have
+been pitched. In this state they are kept for some time, and
+are kept exposed to the sun, covered entirely with the tanning
+fluid, and filled up with water to supply the loss caused by
+evaporation and leakage.</p>
+
+<p>The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as
+a preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject
+at the hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy
+covering wears off, first in patches, and then over the entire
+surface, so that a new bottle can be recognised at a glance, and
+any one who wished to sell an old bottle at the price of a new
+one would be at once detected.</p>
+
+<p>Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in
+the countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels
+would be too heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant
+evaporation that always takes place through the pores of the
+leather keeps down the temperature of the water, even under a
+burning sun, the slight loss which is caused by the porousness of
+the skin being more than counterbalanced by the coolness of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+water. It is true that the goat-skin communicates to the liquid
+a flavour far from pleasant, but in those countries the quality of
+the water is of little consequence, provided that it is plentiful in
+quantity, and tolerably cool.</p>
+
+<p>In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this
+purpose the mode of manufacture is practically identical. An
+account of the art of preparing the goat-skin as practised in
+Abyssinia is given by Mr. C. Johnston, in his "Travels in
+Southern Abyssinia:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around
+the neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers
+to draw the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first
+incision is made to commence the process, and which is a circular
+cut carried around both haunches, not many inches from and
+having the tail for a centre. The hide is then stripped over the
+thighs, and two smaller incisions being made round the middle
+joint of the hind-legs enable them to be drawn out.</p>
+
+<p>"A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by
+this, for the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is
+suspended from the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls
+around the body, the skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs,
+which are incised around the knees, to admit of their being
+taken out; after which, the head being removed, the whole business
+concludes by the skin being pulled inside out over the
+decollated neck. One of the parties now takes a rough stone
+and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of a few fibres of
+the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the skin, and
+after this operation it is laid aside until the next day; the more
+interesting business of attending to the meat calling for immediate
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>"These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the
+apertures around the neck and legs being secured by a double
+fold of the skin being sewed upon each other, by means of a
+slender but very tough thong. These small seams are rendered
+quite air-tight, and the larger orifice around the haunches being
+gathered together by the hands, the yet raw skin is distended
+with air; and the orifice being then tied up, the swollen bag is
+left in that state for a few days, until slight putrefaction has
+commenced, when the application of the rough stone soon divests
+its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a deal of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+labour, during at least one day, is required to soften the distended
+skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it for
+hours together, the labourer supporting himself by clinging to
+the bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the
+house.</p>
+
+<p>"In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented
+from getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil
+condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter.
+When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming
+hard and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and
+a very soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several
+days after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise
+unemployed, by well rubbing it all over with his hands."</p>
+
+<p>The reader will see that the two processes are practically
+identical, the chief difference being that in one country the skins
+are distended with water and in the other with air.</p>
+
+<p>As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns,
+branches, rocks, and similar objects with which they come in
+contact, and are much too valuable to be thrown away as useless,
+their owners have discovered methods of patching and repairing
+them, which enable them to be used for some time longer.
+Patches of considerable size are sometimes inserted, if the rent
+should be of importance, while the wound caused by a thorn is
+mended by a simple and efficacious expedient. The skin is first
+emptied, and a round flat piece of wood, or even a stone of
+suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then held with the
+wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until it
+comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet
+hide gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and
+a ligature is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers
+may have practised the same method of mending a punctured
+football.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in
+Josh. ix. 4, 13. The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and went and
+made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon
+their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up ... and
+said ... these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and,
+behold, they be rent."</p>
+
+<p>If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is sometimes
+the case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+shrivel up, and become rotten and weak, and are no longer
+enabled to bear the pressure caused by the fermentation of new
+wine. So, in Ps. cxix. 81-83: "My soul fainteth for Thy salvation:
+but I hope in Thy word.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 373px;"><a name="carriers" id="carriers"></a>
+<img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="373" height="550" alt="carriers" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN WATER-CARRIERS WITH BOTTLES MADE OF GOAT-SKIN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort
+me?</p>
+
+<p>"For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not
+forget Thy statutes."</p>
+
+<p>How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the
+early life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are
+no windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and
+fro until it settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles
+and other rude articles of furniture that are hung from the
+poles!</p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the
+weakness of old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into
+old bottles, or the bottles break and the wine runneth out, and
+the bottles perish; but they put new wine into new bottles, and
+both are preserved." It would be impossible to understand the
+meaning of this passage unless we knew that the "bottles" in
+question were not vessels of glass or earthenware, but merely
+the partly-tanned skins of goats.</p>
+
+<p>Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that
+part of the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned.
+If the reader will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the
+Gibeonites took with them not only old bottles, but old sacks.
+Now, these sacks bore no resemblance to the hempen bags with
+which we are so familiar, but were nothing more than the same
+goat-skins that were employed in the manufacture of bottles, but
+with the opening at the neck left open. They were, in fact,
+skin-bottles for holding solids instead of liquids. The sacks
+which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the mouths of
+which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags, made
+as described.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that
+the "kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply
+circular pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground
+when wanted, and rolled up and carried away when out of use.
+Thus, the fact that "the people took their dough before it was
+leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing
+upon their shoulders," need cause no surprise.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The
+women were all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected
+journey, when the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+by night, and said, Rise up, and get you forth from among my
+people, both ye and the children of Israel, and go, serve the
+Lord, as ye have said.... And the Egyptians were urgent upon
+the people that they might send them out of the land in haste;
+for they said, We be all dead men."</p>
+
+<p>So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven
+out of the country before they had leavened, much less baked,
+their bread, had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the
+leathern "kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their
+spare clothing, and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if
+we connect the kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden
+implements used in this country, we shall form an entirely
+erroneous idea of the proceeding. As soon as they came to their
+first halting-place at Succoth, they took the leathern kneading-troughs
+out of their clothes, unrolled them, took the dough
+which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly had the order
+for marching arrived, made it into flat cakes, and baked them
+as they best could. The same kind of "kneading-trough" is
+still in use in many parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the
+inhabitants of ancient Palestine; but they were only employed
+for the storage of wine in houses, whereas the bottles that were
+used in carrying wine from one place to another were invariably
+made of leather. Water also was stored in stone or earthenware
+jars. See, for example, John ii. 6: "And there were set there
+six waterpots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the
+Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece." Whereas, when
+it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of skin.
+Such was probably the "bottle of water" that Abraham put
+on Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy
+of Sarah, and such was the "bottle of wine" that Hannah brought
+as her offering when she dedicated Samuel to the service of
+God.</p>
+
+<p>In sacrifices the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as
+the lamb, and in one&mdash;namely, that which was celebrated on the
+Great Day of Atonement&mdash;the Goat was specially mentioned as
+the only animal which could be sacrificed. The reader will,
+perhaps, remember that for this peculiar sacrifice two Goats were
+required, on which two lots were cast, one for the Lord, <em>i.e.</em> with
+the word "Jehovah" upon it, and the other for the scapegoat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+<em>i.e.</em> inscribed with the word "Azazel." The latter term is derived
+from two Hebrew words, the former being "Az," which is the
+general name for the Goat, and the second "azel," signifying "he
+departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was sacrificed,
+and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar of
+incense; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness,
+bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let
+loose.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined
+that the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is
+watched as carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both
+sheep and Goats belong to the same master, and are tended by
+the same shepherd, who exercises the same sway over them that
+he does over the sheep.</p>
+
+<p>They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will
+follow the shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not
+mix with the sheep. The latter will walk in a compact flock
+along the valley, the shepherd leading the way, and the sheep
+following him, led in their turn by the sound of the bell tied
+round the neck of the master-ram of the flock. The Goats,
+however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but prefer
+to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys,
+skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight
+in getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could
+not venture to set his foot.</p>
+
+<p>In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose,
+they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height
+in the precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds,
+where the jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them.
+When such is the case, the shepherds take their station by the
+mouth of the cave, and assist the sheep as they come sedately
+up the narrow path that leads to the cavern. The Goats, however,
+need no assistance, but come scrambling along by paths
+where no foot but a Goat's could tread, mostly descending from a
+considerable height above the cave, and, as if in exultation at
+their superior agility, jumping over the backs of the sheep as
+they slowly file into the accustomed fold.</p>
+
+<p>Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle
+together. There may be large flocks of them feeding in the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+pasturage, but the Goats always take the highest spots on which
+verdure grows, while the sheep graze quietly below. Goats are
+specially fond of the tender shoots of trees, which they find in
+plenty upon the mountain side; and, according to Mr. Tristram,
+by their continual browsing, they have extirpated many species
+of trees which were once common on the hills of Palestine, and
+which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east of the
+Jordan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="march" id="march"></a>
+<img src="images/i_227.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="march" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">GOATS ON THE MARCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats
+never mix with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and
+they instinctively take the same order when assembled round the
+wells at mid-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally
+recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that
+"before Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate
+them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from
+the goats: and He shall set the sheep on His right hand, and
+the goats on His left."</p>
+
+<p>The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the
+hearers, who were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep
+and Goats under one shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other.
+At feeding-time the Goats will be browsing in long lines on the
+mountain sides, while the sheep are grazing in the plain or
+valley; at mid-day, when the flocks are gathered round the wells
+to await the rolling away of the stone that guards the water, the
+Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on the other. And
+at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by one shepherd,
+they are still separated from each other. The same image
+is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: "As for you, O my flock,
+thus said the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and
+cattle, between rams and the he-goats."</p>
+
+<p>Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as
+well as the leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there
+was an old proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds
+the bell-goat," while another proverb is based upon the inferior
+docility of the animal&mdash;"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats
+will run away."</p>
+
+<p>Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be
+taught to perform many tricks. "We saw just below us, on the
+rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children, surrounding
+a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which
+had been tutored to perform some cunning trick. It stood with
+its four feet close together on the top of a very long pole, and
+allowed the man to lift it up and carry it round and round
+within the circle; then the Goat was perched on four sticks, and
+again carried about. A little band of music&mdash;pipes, drums, and
+tambourines&mdash;called together the people from all parts of the
+town to witness this performance.</p>
+
+<p>"The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly,
+in very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly
+understanding the words and commands of his master. The
+men who watched the actions of the Goat looked as grave and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+serious as if they were attending a philosophical or scientific
+lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine," by Miss Rogers.)</p>
+
+<p>Another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained
+Goats. The man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the
+ground, so as to be perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to
+stand upon it. A piece of wood about six inches in length, and
+shaped something like a dice-box, is then placed on the stool,
+and the Goat manages to stand on it, all his sharp, hard hoofs
+being pressed closely together on the tiny surface. The man
+then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the Goat's feet.
+The animal gently removes first one foot and then another, and,
+by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to place the
+second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are
+made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of
+some nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the
+whole looking like a stout reed marked off with joints.</p>
+
+<p>The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is
+mentioned in the Proverbs: "There be three things which go
+well, yea, four are comely in going:</p>
+
+<p>"A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not
+away for any;</p>
+
+<p>"A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom
+there is no rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is
+here rendered as he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is
+given to the animal on account of the mode in which it uses its
+formidable horns. The word is not common in the Bible, but it
+is used even at the present day among the Arabs.</p>
+
+<p>Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of
+which is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian
+Goat. These, however dissimilar they may be in appearance,
+are only varieties of the ordinary domestic animal, the former
+being produced artificially by carefully selecting those specimens
+for breeding which have the longest and finest hair. It was from
+the hair of this breed that the costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle
+were woven, and it is probably to this breed that reference
+is made in Solomon's Song, iv. 1, 2: "Behold, thou art fair,
+my love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast doves' eyes within thy
+locks: thy hair is as a flock of goats, that appear from Mount
+Gilead.</p>
+
+<p>"Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a><br /><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+came up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader
+will also note another reference to the habits of the Goats and
+sheep, the hair being compared to the dark-haired Goats that
+wander on the tops of the hills, while the teeth are compared to
+sheep that are ranged in regular order below. The Mohair Goat
+is known scientifically as <em>Capra Angorensis</em>. The same image is
+used again in chap. vi. 5.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 333px;"><a name="attacked" id="attacked"></a>
+<img src="images/i_230.jpg" width="333" height="600" alt="attacked" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HERD OF GOATS ATTACKED BY A LION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the
+country. It is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is
+remarkable for the enormous length of its ears, which sometimes
+exceed a foot from root to tip. This variety has been described
+as a separate species under the name of <em>Capra Mambrica</em>, or
+<em>C. Syriaca</em>, but, like the Mohair Goat, and twenty-three other
+so-called species, is simply a variety of the common Goat, <em>Hircus
+ægragus</em>.</p>
+
+<p>Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in
+Amos iii. 12: "Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh
+out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so
+shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria."
+Such a scene, which was familiar to Amos, the shepherd as
+well as the prophet, is represented in the illustration. In the
+foreground is the goat on which the lion has sprung, and from
+which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its companions
+are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying to
+discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background
+is a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which
+they have just killed, while one of them is holding up the torn
+ear which he has taken out of the lion's mouth.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE WILD GOAT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden or Arabian Ibex&mdash;Different
+names of the Beden&mdash;Its appearance and general habits&mdash;En-gedi, or
+Goats' Fountain&mdash;The Beden formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now
+tolerably common&mdash;Its agility&mdash;Difficulty of catching or killing it&mdash;How the
+young are captured&mdash;Flesh of the Beden&mdash;Use of the horns at the present day&mdash;The
+Ako of Deuteronomy.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, "Azelim,"
+which is variously translated in our Authorized Version.</p>
+
+<p>It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as
+"Wild Goats." "It was told Saul, saying, Behold, David is in
+the wilderness of En-gedi [<em>i.e.</em> the Fountain of the Goat]. Then
+Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went
+to seek David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats
+(<em>azelim</em>)." The same word occurs in Job xxxix. 1: "Knowest
+thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth?"
+It is also found in Ps. civ. 18: "The high hills are a refuge for
+the wild goats." In all these passages it is rendered as "wild
+goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is translated as roe: "Rejoice
+with the wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and
+pleasant roe (<em>azelah</em>)." The Jewish Bible follows the same
+diverse renderings.</p>
+
+<p>We now have to discover the animal which was signified by
+the word Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber,
+just as the adult he-goat is called the Butter.</p>
+
+<p>That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and
+that it loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident
+from the repeated connexion of the word rock with the name of
+the animal. We also see, from the passage in Job, that it is a
+wild animal whose habits were not known. There is scarcely
+any doubt that the Azel of the Old Testament is the <span class="smcap">Arabian
+Ibex</span> or <span class="smcap">Beden</span> (<em>Capra Nubiana</em>). This animal is very closely
+allied to the well-known Ibex of the Alps, or Steinbock, but
+may be distinguished from it by one or two slight differences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+such as the black beard and the slighter make of the horns,
+which moreover have three angles instead of four, as is the case
+with the Alpine Ibex.</p>
+
+<p>The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes
+called the Jaela, sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also
+known as the Wild Goat of Sinai. The general colour of the
+Beden is grey, becoming brownish in winter, and being whitish
+grey beneath. The feet are spotted with black and white, and
+the beard of the male is black, differing from that of the Alpine
+Ibex, which is brown. The female is beardless. The lines along
+the back and the sides of the tail are black, and there are three
+streaks on each ear.</p>
+
+<p>The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and
+is even now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild,
+weird-looking En-gedi (Ain Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats,
+the Beden is still to be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David
+and his followers took up their residence at En-gedi for the sake
+of the Wild Goats that were plentiful upon the spot, and which
+would furnish food for himself and his hardy band of outlaws.
+"In the neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks this traveller,
+"while encamped by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained several
+fine specimens, and very interesting it was to find the graceful
+creature by the very fountain to which it gave name.</p>
+
+<p>"When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often,
+by the help of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once,
+when near Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started
+one at a distance of four hundred yards. At the south end of
+the Dead Sea they were common, and I have picked up a horn
+both near Jericho on the hills and also on the hills of Moab on
+the eastern side. At Jericho, too, I obtained a young one which
+I hoped to rear, but which died after I had had it for ten days,
+owing, I believe, to the milk with which it was fed being sour.
+Further north and west we did not find it, though I have reason
+to believe that a few linger on the mountains between Samaria
+and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some of the spurs of
+Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in
+the Lebanon, proving its former abundance there."</p>
+
+<p>As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days
+when fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and
+wary, so that they will not show themselves within range of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+bullet, it is evident that in the time when David lived at En-gedi
+and drank of the Goats' Fountain they were far more numerous,
+and could afford nourishment to him and his soldiers. Travellers,
+moreover, who do not happen to be experienced hunters, will
+often fail in seeing the Beden, even in places where it is tolerably
+plentiful. The colour of its coat resembles so nearly that of the
+rocks, that an inexperienced eye would see nothing but bare
+stones and sticks where a practised hunter would see numbers
+of Beden, conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns.</p>
+
+<p>The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest
+and most craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from
+spot to spot with a recklessness that startles one who has not
+been accustomed to the animal, and the wonderful certainty of
+its foot. It will, for example, dash at the face of a perpendicular
+precipice that looks as smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose
+of reaching a tiny ledge which is hardly perceptible, and which
+is some fifteen feet or so above the spot whence the animal
+sprang. Its eye, however, has marked certain little cracks and
+projections on the face of the rock, and as the animal makes its
+leap, it takes these little points of vantage in rapid succession,
+just touching them as it passes upwards, and by the slight stroke
+of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap. Similarly,
+the Ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides of
+the mountains, sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn
+together, on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny, and
+sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting
+with exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems
+scarcely large enough to sustain a rat comfortably.</p>
+
+<p>The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed.
+They are, however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble
+than the young gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The
+natives can generally procure the kids at the proper time of
+year, and sell them at a very cheap rate. They seldom, however,
+can be reared, and even those who live in the country experience
+the greatest difficulty in keeping the young Beden alive until
+it attains maturity.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young
+could scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that
+they could easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers.
+But the mother Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+life, wandering to considerable distances, and leaving her kid
+snugly hidden in some rock-cleft. The hunters watch the
+mother as she starts off in the morning, clamber up to the
+spot where the kid is concealed, and secure it without difficulty.
+The Arabs say that there are always two kids at a birth, but
+there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this point,
+which, after all, is of very little importance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ibex" id="ibex"></a>
+<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="400" height="407" alt="ibex" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior
+to that of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and
+it has been happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in
+search of which Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his
+bow, and which furnished the "savoury meat" which Isaac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+loved. None but a true hunter can hope to secure the Beden,
+and even all the knowledge, patience, and energy of the best
+hunters are tried before they can kill their prey. It was therefore
+no matter of wonder that Isaac should be surprised when
+he thought that he heard Esau return so soon from the hunting-grounds.
+"How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my
+son?"</p>
+
+<p>There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even
+the chamois of the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of
+a hunter more than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted
+with very keen eyes, which can discern the approach of an
+enemy long before its grey coat and curved horns can be distinguished
+from the stones and gnarled boughs of the mountain
+side. And, even if the enemy be not within range of the animal's
+sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can detect a man by scent
+alone at a considerable distance. Like all gregarious animals,
+the Beden insures the safety of the flock by stationing sentries,
+which are posted on places that command the whole surrounding
+country, and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary
+guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for
+approaching a herd, because the animals are then feeding, and
+if the hunter can manage to approach them against the wind, he
+may chance to come within range. Should however the wind
+change its direction, he may quietly walk home again, for at the
+first breath of the tainted gale the sentinels utter their shrill
+whistle of alarm, and the whole party dash off with a speed that
+renders pursuit useless.</p>
+
+<p>The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their
+bold curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their
+front, are remarkably handsome objects. In their own country
+they are in great request as handles to knives, and even in
+England they may be occasionally seen serving as handles
+to carving-knives and forks.</p>
+
+<p>As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together
+with other animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is
+so much doubt about the correct translation that I can do no
+more than mention that the Jewish Bible follows our authorized
+edition in translating Ako as Wild Goat, but adds the doubtful
+mark to the word.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord " style="width: 350px;"><a name="deer" id="deer"></a>
+<img src="images/i_237.jpg" width="350" height="347" alt="deer" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE DEER.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Hart and Hind of Scripture&mdash;Species of Deer existing in Palestine&mdash;Earliest
+mention of the Hind&mdash;The Hart classed among the clean animals&mdash;Passages
+alluding to its speed&mdash;Care of the mother for her young, and her custom of
+secreting it&mdash;Tameable character of the Deer.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the <span class="smcap">Deer</span> which are mentioned in Scripture.
+There are not many passages in which they are mentioned, and
+one of them is rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come
+to it.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the two words <span class="smcap">Hart</span> and <span class="smcap">Hind</span> (in the
+Hebrew <em>Ayzal</em> and <em>Ayzalah</em>) represent Deer of some kind, and
+the question is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by
+these words. I think that we may safely determine that no
+particular species is meant, but that under the word Ayzal are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+comprehended any
+kinds of Deer that
+inhabit Palestine,
+and were likely to
+be known to those to whom the
+earlier Scriptures were addressed.
+That some kind of Deer was plentiful
+is evident from the references which are made to
+it, and specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala,
+as it is pronounced, which signifies the Deer-ground or
+pasture. But the attempt to discriminate between one species and
+another is simply impossible, and the more careful the search the
+more impracticable the task appears.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="red" id="red"></a>
+<img src="images/i_238.jpg" width="400" height="497" alt="red" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">RED DEER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhabited
+Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one
+belonging to the division which is known by its branched
+horns, and the other to that in which the horns are flat or palmated
+over the tips. Examples of both kinds are familiar to us
+under the titles of the <span class="smcap">Red Deer</span> and the <span class="smcap">Fallow Deer</span>, and it
+is tolerably certain that both these animals were formerly found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+in Palestine, or that at all events the Deer which did exist there
+were so closely allied to them as to be mere varieties occasioned
+by the different conditions in which they were placed.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will now proceed to the various passages in which the
+Hart and Hind are mentioned in the Bible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hind" id="hind"></a>
+<img src="images/i_239.jpg" width="400" height="481" alt="hind" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FALLOW-DEER, OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As might be expected, we come upon it among the number of
+the beasts which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and
+were specially indicated as fit for food; see Deut. xii. 15:
+"Notwithstanding thou mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates,
+... the unclean and the clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck,
+and as of the hart."</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen.
+xlix. 21. It occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a><br /><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+Jacob blesses his sons, and prophesies their future, each image
+serving ever afterwards as the emblem of the tribe: "Naphtali
+is a hind let loose: he giveth goodly words;"&mdash;or, according to
+the Jewish Bible, "Naphtali is a hind sent forth: he giveth
+sayings of pleasantness." Now, such an image as this would
+never have been used, had not the spectacle of the "hind let
+loose" been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying
+patriarch and his hearers, and equally so with the lion, the ass,
+the vine, the serpent, and other objects used emblematically in
+the same prophetic poem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 334px;"><a name="quiet" id="quiet"></a>
+<img src="images/i_240.jpg" width="334" height="600" alt="quiet" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A QUIET SPOT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence
+among the animals used for King Solomon's table: see 1 Kings
+iv. 23, a passage which has been quoted several times, and
+therefore need only be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in
+several passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6: "Then shall
+the lame man leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb
+sing." Again, in 2 Sam. xxii. 33, 34: "God is my strength and
+power: and He maketh my way perfect.</p>
+
+<p>"He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon
+my high places."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk
+using precisely the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm
+of Thanksgiving:&mdash;"Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in
+the God of my salvation.</p>
+
+<p>"The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet
+like hinds' feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high
+places." (iii. 18, 19.)</p>
+
+<p>A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's
+Song, ii. 8, 9: "The voice of my beloved! behold, he cometh
+leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills.</p>
+
+<p>"My beloved is like a roe or a young hart."</p>
+
+<p>There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in
+many ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the
+text for so many well-known anthems. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God.</p>
+
+<p>"My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I
+come and appear before God?" (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.)</p>
+
+<p>Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood
+without the context.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="blue" id="blue"></a>
+<img src="images/i_242.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="blue" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">RED DEER AND FAWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power,
+and while he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place,
+and seeking an uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6
+he enumerates some of the spots in which he has been forced to
+reside, far away from the altar, the priests, and the sacrifice.
+He has been hunted about from place to place by his enemies
+as a stag is hunted by the hounds, and his very soul thirsted
+for the distant Tabernacle, in which the Shekinah, the visible
+presence of God, rested on the mercy-seat between the golden
+cherubim.</p>
+
+<p>Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was
+ever the reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a
+psalm that he wrote in which we do not find some allusion
+to the visible presence of God among men. No matter what
+might be the troubles through which he had to pass, even
+though he trod the valley of the shadow of death, the thought
+of his God was soothing as water to the hunted stag, and in
+that thought he ever found repose. Through all his many trials
+and adversities, through his deep remorse for his sins, through
+his wounded paternal affections, through his success and prosperity,
+that one thought is the ruling power. He begins his
+career with it when he opposed Goliath: "Thou comest to me
+with a sword, and with a spear, and with a shield: but I come
+to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies
+of Israel." He closes his career with the same thought, and, in
+the "last words" that are recorded, he charged his son to keep
+the commandments of the Lord, that he might do wisely all that
+he did.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to another point in the Deer's character;
+namely, the watchful care of the mother over her young. She
+always retires to some secret place when she instinctively
+knows that the birth is at hand, and she hides it from all eyes
+until it is able to take care of itself. By some strange instinct,
+the little one, almost as soon as it is born, is able to comprehend
+the signals of its mother, and there is an instance, well known
+to naturalists, where a newly-born Deer, hardly an hour old,
+crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light tap on its
+shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the intense watchfulness
+of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so warned
+her young one to hide itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 399px;"><a name="leader" id="leader"></a>
+<img src="images/i_244.jpg" width="399" height="600" alt="leader" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LEADER OF THE HERD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer,
+as all hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively
+easy to deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the
+eyes and ears of the hinds is a very different business, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+taxes all the resources of a practised hunter. If they take such
+care of the herd in general, it may be imagined that their
+watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold when the object of
+their anxiety is their own young.</p>
+
+<p>It is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a
+passage in the Book of Job refers: "Knowest thou the time
+when the wild goats of the rock bring forth? or canst thou mark
+when the hinds do calve?" (xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used
+in Psa. xxix. 9. After enumerating the wonders that are done
+by the voice of the Lord, the thunders and rain torrents,
+the devastating tempests, the forked lightning, and the earthquake
+"that shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh," the Psalmist
+proceeds: "The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve,
+and discovereth the forests,"&mdash;this being as mysterious to the
+writer as the more conspicuous wonders which he had previously
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the
+female Deer exercised over her young, that it forms the subject
+of a powerful image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies:
+"Yea, the hind also calved in the field, and forsook it, because
+there was no grass." (xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits
+of the animal, this is a most telling and picturesque image. In
+the first place, the Hind, a wild animal that could find food
+where less active creatures would starve, was reduced to such
+straits that she was obliged to remain in the fields at the time
+when her young was born, instead of retiring to some sheltered
+spot, according to her custom. And when it was born, instead
+of nurturing it carefully, according to the natural maternal
+instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in
+order to find a sufficiency of food for herself.</p>
+
+<p>That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate
+disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs
+(v. 18, 19): "Let thy fountain be blessed: and rejoice with the
+wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant
+roe."</p>
+
+<p>We might naturally expect that the Rabbinical writers would
+have much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among
+much that is irrelevant to the object of the present work there
+are a few passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the
+annual shedding of the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respecting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+one who ventures his money too freely in trade, that "he has
+hung it on the stag's horns," meaning thereby that he will never
+see it again. It is remarkable that in Western Africa there is a
+proverb of a similar character, the imprudent merchant being told
+to look for his money in the place where Deer shed their horns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="watchful" id="watchful"></a>
+<img src="images/i_246.jpg" width="400" height="561" alt="watchful" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WATCHFUL DOE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="kneeling" id="kneeling"></a>
+<img src="images/i_247.jpg" width="400" height="269" alt="kneeling" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A KNEELING CAMEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CAMEL.</h2>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing them&mdash;Value of the
+Camel in the East&mdash;Thirst-enduring capability&mdash;The hump, and its use to the
+animal&mdash;The Camel as a beast of draught and burden&mdash;How the Camel is laden&mdash;Camels
+for riding&mdash;Difficulty of sitting a Camel&mdash;A rough-paced steed&mdash;Method
+of guiding the Camel&mdash;The swift dromedary&mdash;Young Camels and their appearance&mdash;The
+deserted Camel.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Before treating of the Scriptural references to the Camel, it
+will be as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct
+species of Camel are known to zoologists; namely, the common
+Camel (<em>Camelus dromedarius</em>), which has one hump, and the
+Bactrian Camel (<em>Camelus Bactrianus</em>), which has two of these
+curious projections. There is a popular but erroneous idea that
+the dromedary and the Camel are two distinct animals, the latter
+being distinguished by its huge hump, whereas the fact is, that
+the dromedary is simply a lighter and more valuable breed of
+the one-humped Camel of Arabia, the two-humped Bactrian
+Camel being altogether a different animal, inhabiting Central
+Asia, Thibet, and China.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit
+Palestine, and in former times it played a part in Jewish history
+scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep. We shall, therefore,
+devote some space to it.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the
+sheep, and was infinitely more useful than the goat. At the
+very beginning of Jewish history we read of this animal, and it
+is mentioned in the New Testament nearly two thousand years
+after we meet with it in the Book of Genesis. The earliest
+mention of the Camel occurs in Gen. xii. 16, where is related
+the journey of Abram: "He had sheep, and oxen, and he-asses,
+and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="returns" id="returns"></a>
+<img src="images/i_248.jpg" width="400" height="338" alt="returns" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JACOB LEAVES LABAN AND RETURNS TO CANAAN WITH HIS CAMELS, SHEEP, AND CATTLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Belonging, as he did, to the nomad race which lives almost
+wholly on the produce of their herds, Abram needed Camels,
+not only for their milk, and, for all we know, for their flesh, but
+for their extreme use as beasts of burden, without which he
+could never have travelled over that wild and pathless land.
+The whole of Abram's outer life was exactly that of a Bedouin
+sheikh of the present day, in whom we find reproduced the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+habits, the tone of thought, and the very verbiage of the ancient
+Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>Many years afterwards, when the son of his old age was
+desirous of marrying a wife of his own kindred, we find that he
+sent his trusted servants with ten of his Camels to Mesopotamia,
+and it was by the offering of water to these Camels, that Rebekah
+was selected as Isaac's wife (see Gen. xxiv. 10, 19). In after
+days, when Jacob was about to leave Laban, these animals are
+mentioned as an important part of his wealth: "And the man
+increased exceedingly, and had much cattle, and maid-servants,
+and men-servants, and camels, and asses" (Gen. xxx. 43).</p>
+
+<p>It is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that
+Job had three thousand, and afterwards six thousand Camels
+(Job i. 3, and xlii. 12); that the Midianites and Amalekites possessed
+camels without number, as the sand by the seaside.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="camp" id="camp"></a>
+<img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="camp" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A CAMP IN THE DESERT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>They were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one
+potentate to another. For example, when Jacob went to meet
+Esau, he gave as his present two hundred and twenty sheep, the
+same number of goats, fifty oxen, thirty asses, and sixty camels,
+i.e. thirty mothers, each with her calf. They were important
+enough to be guarded by men of position. In 1 Chron. xxvii. 30,
+we find that the charge of David's Camels was confided to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+of his officers, Obil the Ishmaelite, who, from his origin, might
+be supposed to be skilful in the management of these animals.
+Bochart, however, conjectures that the word Obil ought to be
+read as Abal, <em>i.e.</em> the camel-keeper, and that the passage would
+therefore read as follows: "Over the camels was an Ishmaelitish
+camel-keeper."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will now proceed to the uses of the Camel, and first take
+it in the light of food.</p>
+
+<p>By the Mosaic law, the Camel was a forbidden animal, because
+it did not divide the hoof, although it chewed the cud.
+Yet, although the Jews might not eat its flesh, they probably
+used the milk for food, as they do at the present day. No
+distinct Scriptural reference is made to the milk of the Camel;
+but, as the Jews of the present day are quite as fastidious as
+their ancestors in keeping the Mosaic law, we are justified in
+concluding that, although they would not eat the flesh of the
+animal, they drank its milk. At the present time, the milk is
+used, like that of the sheep, goat, and cow, both in a fresh and
+curdled state, the latter being generally preferred to the former.
+A kind of cheese is made from it, but is not much to the taste
+of the European traveller, on account of the quantity of salt
+which is put in it. Butter is churned in a very simple manner,
+the fresh milk being poured into a skin bag, and the bag beaten
+with a stick until the butter makes its appearance.</p>
+
+<p>That it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident
+by the passage which has already been mentioned, where Jacob
+is related to have brought as a present to his brother Esau thirty
+milch Camels, together with their young. So decided a stress
+would certainly not have been laid upon the fact that the animals
+were milch Camels unless the milk were intended for use.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the use of the Camel's milk might be justified by
+saying that the prohibition extended only to eating and not to
+drinking, and that therefore the milk might be used though the
+flesh was prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>There was another mode in which the Camel might be used
+by travellers to sustain life.</p>
+
+<p>The reader is probably aware that, even in the burning climate
+in which it dwells, the Camel is able to go for a long time without
+drinking,&mdash;not that it requires less liquid nourishment than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+other animals, but that it is able, by means of its internal construction,
+to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which
+will last for a considerable time. It is furnished with a series of
+cells, into which the water runs as fast as it is drunk, and in which
+it can be kept for some time without losing its life-preserving
+qualities. As much as twenty gallons have been imbibed by a
+Camel at one draught, and this amount will serve it for several
+days, as it has the power of consuming by degrees the water
+which it has drunk in a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>This curious power of the Camel has often proved to be the
+salvation of its owner. It has often happened that, when
+travellers have been passing over the desert, their supply of
+water has been exhausted, partly by the travellers and partly by
+the burning heat which causes it to evaporate through the pores
+of the goat-skin bottle in which it was carried. Then the next
+well, where they had intended to refill their skins and refresh
+themselves, has proved dry, and the whole party seemed doomed
+to die of thirst.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, only one chance of escape is left
+them. They kill a Camel, and from its stomach they procure
+water enough to sustain life for a little longer, and perhaps to
+enable them to reach a well or fountain in which water still
+remains. The water which is thus obtained is unaltered, except
+by a greenish hue, the result of mixing with the remains of
+herbage in the cells. It is, of course, very disagreeable, but
+those who are dying from thirst cannot afford to be fastidious,
+and to them the water is a most delicious draught.</p>
+
+<p>It is rather curious that, if any of the water which is taken
+out of a dead Camel can be kept for a few days, both the green
+hue and the unpleasant flavour disappear, and the water
+becomes fresh, clear, and limpid. So wonderfully well do the
+internal cells preserve the water, that after a Camel has been
+dead for ten days&mdash;and in that hot climate ten days after death
+are equal to a month here&mdash;the water within it has been quite
+pure and drinkable.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea
+that the Camel does not require as much water as ordinary
+animals. He will see, however, from the foregoing account that
+it needs quite as much water as the horse or the ox, but that it
+possesses the capability of taking in at one time as much as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a><br /><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+either of these animals would drink in several days. So far
+from being independent of water, there is no animal that requires
+it more, or displays a stronger desire for it. A thirsty Camel
+possesses the power of scenting water at a very great distance,
+and, when it does so, its instincts conquer its education, and it
+goes off at full speed towards the spot, wholly ignoring its rider
+or driver. Many a desert spring has been discovered, and many
+a life saved, by this wonderful instinct, the animal having
+scented the distant water when its rider had lost all hope, and
+was resigning himself to that terrible end, the death by thirst.
+The sacred Zemzem fountain at Mecca was discovered by two
+thirsty Camels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 348px;"><a name="shade" id="shade"></a>
+<img src="images/i_252.jpg" width="348" height="600" alt="shade" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A GRATEFUL SHADE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Except by the Jews, the flesh of the Camel is eaten throughout
+Palestine and the neighbouring countries, and is looked upon as
+a great luxury. The Arab, for example, can scarcely have a
+greater treat than a Camel-feast, and looks forward to it in a state
+of wonderful excitement. He is so impatient, that scarcely is
+the animal dead before it is skinned, cut up, and the various
+parts prepared for cooking.</p>
+
+<p>To European palates the flesh of the Camel is rather unpleasant,
+being tough, stringy, and without much flavour. The
+fatty hump is universally considered as the best part of the
+animal, and is always offered to the chief among the guests, just
+as the North American Indian offers the hump of the bison to
+the most important man in the assembly. The heart and the
+tongue, however, are always eatable, and, however old a Camel
+may be, these parts can be cooked and eaten without fear.</p>
+
+<p>The hump, or "bunch" as it is called in the Bible, has no
+connexion with the spine, and is a supplementary growth, which
+varies in size, not only in the species, but in the individual. It
+is analogous to the hump upon the shoulders of the American
+bison and the Indian zebra, and in the best-bred Camels it is the
+smallest though the finest and most elastic.</p>
+
+<p>This hump, by the way, affords one of the points by which the
+value of the Camel is decided. When it is well fed and properly
+cared for, the hump projects boldly, and is firm and elastic to
+the touch. But if the Camel be ill, or if it be badly fed or overworked,
+the hump becomes soft and flaccid, and in bad cases
+hangs down on one side like a thick flap of skin. Consequently,
+the dealers in Camels always try to produce their animals in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+market with their humps well developed; and, if they find that
+this important part does not look satisfactory, they use various
+means to give it the required fulness, inflating it with air
+being the most common. In fact, there is as much deception
+among Camel-dealers in Palestine as with dog or pigeon fanciers
+in England.</p>
+
+<p>Here perhaps I may remark that the hump has given rise to
+some strange but prevalent views respecting the Camel. Many
+persons think that the dromedary has one hump and the Camel
+two&mdash;in fact, that they are two totally distinct animals. Now
+the fact is that the Camel of Palestine is of one species only,
+the dromedary being a lighter and swifter breed, and differing
+from the ordinary Camel just as a hunter or racer differs from
+a cart-horse. The two-humped Camel is a different species
+altogether, which will be briefly described at the end of the
+present article.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Camel is also used as a beast of draught, and, as we find,
+not only from the Scriptures, but from ancient monuments, was
+employed to draw chariots and drag the plough. Thus in Isa.
+xxi. 7: "And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, a
+chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels." It is evident that in
+this passage some chariots were drawn by Camels and some by
+asses. It is, however, remarkable that in Kennard's "Eastern
+Experiences", these two very useful animals are mentioned as
+being yoked together: "We passed through a fertile country,
+watching the fellaheen at their agricultural labours, and not a
+little amused at sometimes remarking a very tall camel and a
+very small donkey yoked together in double harness, dragging a
+plough through the rich brown soil." Camels drawing chariots
+are still to be seen in the Assyrian sculptures. In Palestine&mdash;at
+all events at the present time&mdash;the Camel is seldom if ever
+used as a beast of draught, being exclusively employed for bearing
+burdens and carrying riders.</p>
+
+<p>Taking it first as a beast of burden, we find several references
+in different parts of the Scriptures. For example, see 2 Kings
+viii. 9: "So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with
+him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty camels'
+burden." Again, in 1 Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were
+nigh them, even unto Issachar and Zebulun and Naphtali,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+brought bread on asses, and on camels, and on mules, and on
+oxen." Another allusion to the same custom is made in Isaiah:
+"They will carry their riches upon the shoulders of young asses,
+and their treasures upon the bunches (or humps) of camels."</p>
+
+<p>The Camel can carry a considerable load, though not so much
+as is generally fancied. A sort of a pack-saddle of a very
+simple description is used, in order to keep the burden upon so
+strangely-shaped an animal. A narrow bag about eight feet
+long is made, and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar
+material. It is then doubled, and the ends firmly sewn together,
+so as to form a great ring, which is placed over the hump, and
+forms a tolerably flat surface. A wooden framework is tied on
+the pack-saddle, and is kept in its place by a girth and a
+crupper. The packages which the Camel is to carry are
+fastened together by cords, and slung over the saddle. They are
+only connected by those semi-knots called "hitches," so that,
+when the Camel is to be unloaded, all that is needed is to pull
+the lower end of the rope, and the packages fall on either side of
+the animal. So quickly is the operation of loading performed,
+that a couple of experienced men can load a Camel in very little
+more than a minute.</p>
+
+<p>As is the case with the horse in England, the Camels that are
+used as beasts of burden are of a heavier, slower, and altogether
+inferior breed to those which are employed to carry riders, and
+all their accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order, devoid
+of the fantastic ornaments with which Oriental riders are fond
+of decorating their favourite animals.</p>
+
+<p>In the large illustration are represented four of the ordinary
+Camels of burden, as they appear when laden with boughs for
+the Feast of Tabernacles. The branches are those of the Hebrew
+pine, and, as may be seen, the animals are so heavily laden with
+them that their forms are quite hidden under their leafy
+burdens. The weight which a Camel will carry varies much,
+according to the strength of the individual, which has given rise
+to the Oriental proverb, "As the camel, so the load." But an
+animal of ordinary strength is supposed to be able to carry from
+five to six hundred pounds for a short journey, and half as much
+for a long one,&mdash;a quantity which, as the reader will see, is not
+so very great when the bulk of the animal is taken into consideration.
+It is remarkable that the Camel knows its own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a><br /><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+powers, and instinctively refuses to move if its correct load
+be exceeded. But, when it is properly loaded, it will carry its
+burden for hours together at exactly the same pace, and without
+seeming more fatigued than it was when it started.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 329px;"><a name="laden" id="laden"></a>
+<img src="images/i_256.jpg" width="329" height="600" alt="laden" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CAMELS LADEN WITH BOUGHS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="morning" id="morning"></a>
+<img src="images/i_257.jpg" width="400" height="359" alt="morning" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MORNING IN THE DESERT: STARTING OF THE CARAVAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The riding Camels are always of a better breed than those
+which are used for burden, and maybe divided into two classes;
+namely, those which are meant for ordinary purposes, and those
+which are specially bred for speed and endurance. There is as
+much difference between the ordinary riding Camel and the
+swift Camel as there is between the road hack and the race-horse.
+We will first begin with the description of the common
+riding Camel and its accoutrements.</p>
+
+<p>The saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from
+the pack-saddle on which burdens are carried, and has a long
+upright projection in front, to which the rider can hold if he
+wishes it.</p>
+
+<p>The art of riding the Camel is far more difficult of accomplishment
+than that of riding the horse, and the preliminary
+operation of mounting is not the least difficult portion of it. Of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+course, to mount a Camel while the animal is standing is impossible,
+and accordingly it is taught to kneel until the rider is
+seated. Kneeling is a natural position with the Camel, which
+is furnished with large callosities or warts on the legs and
+breast, which act as cushions on which it may rest its great
+weight without abrading the skin. These callosities are not
+formed, as some have imagined, by the constant kneeling to
+which the Camel is subjected, but are born with it, though of
+course less developed than they are after they have been hardened
+by frequent pressure against the hot sand.</p>
+
+<p>When the Camel kneels, it first drops on its knees, and then
+on the joints of the hind legs. Next it drops on its breast, and
+then again on the bent hind legs. In rising it reverses the process,
+so that a novice is first pitched forward, then backward,
+then forward, and then backward again, to the very great disarrangement
+of his garments, and the probable loss of his seat
+altogether. Then when the animal kneels he is in danger
+of being thrown over its head by the first movement, and jerked
+over its tail by the second; but after a time he learns to keep
+his seat mechanically.</p>
+
+<p>As to the movement of the animal, it is at first almost as
+unpleasant as can be conceived, and has been described by several
+travellers, some of whose accounts will be here given. One
+well-known traveller declares that any person desiring to practise
+Camel-riding can readily do so by taking a music-stool,
+screwing it up as high as possible, putting it into a cart without
+springs, sitting on the top of it cross-legged, and having
+the cart driven at full speed transversely over a newly-ploughed
+field.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, as great a difference in the gait of Camels
+as of horses, some animals having a quiet, regular, easy movement,
+while others are rough and high-stepping, harassing their
+riders grievously in the saddle. Even the smooth-going Camel
+is, however, very trying at first, on account of its long swinging
+strides, which are taken with the legs of each side alternately,
+causing the body of the rider to swing backwards and forwards
+as if he were rowing in a boat.</p>
+
+<p>Those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with
+the same malady when they make their first attempts at Camel-riding,
+while even those who are proof against this particular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+form of discomfort soon begin to find that their backs are
+aching, and that the pain becomes steadily worse. Change of
+attitude is but little use, and the wretched traveller derives but
+scant comfort from the advice of his guide, who tells him to
+allow his body to swing freely, and that in a short time he will
+become used to it. Some days, however, are generally consumed
+before he succeeds in training his spine to the continual unaccustomed
+movement, and he finds that, when he wakes on
+the morning that succeeds his first essay, his back is so stiff
+that he can scarcely move without screaming with pain, and
+that the prospect of mounting the Camel afresh is anything but
+a pleasant one.</p>
+
+<p>"I tried to sit erect without moving," writes Mr. Kennard,
+when describing his experience of Camel-riding. "This proved
+a relief for a few minutes, but, finding the effort too great to
+continue long in this position, I attempted to recline with my
+head resting upon my hand. This last man&oelig;uvre I found would
+not do, for the motion of the camel's hind legs was so utterly at
+variance with the motion of his fore-legs that I was jerked upwards,
+and forwards, and sideways, and finally ended in nearly
+rolling off altogether.</p>
+
+<p>"Without going into the details of all that I suffered for the
+next two or three days&mdash;how that on several occasions I slid
+from the camel's back to the ground, in despair of ever accustoming
+my half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and
+swaying to and fro, and how that I often determined to trudge
+on foot over the hot desert sand all the way to Jerusalem rather
+than endure it longer&mdash;I shall merely say that the day did at
+last arrive when I descended from my camel, after many hours'
+riding, in as happy and comfortable a state of mind as if I had
+been lolling in the easiest of arm-chairs."</p>
+
+<p>A very similar description of the transition from acute and
+constant suffering to perfect ease is given by Albert Smith, who
+states that more than once he has dozed on the back of his
+Camel, in spite of the swaying backwards and forwards to
+which his body was subjected.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 355px;"><a name="post" id="post"></a>
+<img src="images/i_260.jpg" width="355" height="600" alt="post" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE CAMEL POST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good-tempered
+Camel, it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going
+and cross-grained animal must be a very severe trial to an inexperienced
+rider. A very amusing account of a ride on such a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a><br /><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+Camel, and of a fall from its back, is given by Mr. Hamilton in
+his "Sinai, the Hedjaz, and Soudan:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"A dromedary I had obtained at Suk Abu Sin for my own
+riding did not answer my expectations, or rather the saddle was
+badly put on&mdash;not an easy thing to do well, by the way&mdash;and
+one of my servants, who saw how out of patience I was at the
+many times I had had to dismount to have it arranged, persuaded
+me to try the one he was riding, the Sheik's present. I had my
+large saddle transferred to his beast, and, nothing doubting,
+mounted it.</p>
+
+<p>"He had not only no nose-string, but was besides a vicious
+brute, rising with a violent jerk before I was well in the saddle,
+and anxious to gain the caravan, which was a little way ahead,
+he set off at his roughest gallop. Carpets, kufieh, tarbush, all
+went off in the jolting; at every step I was thrown a foot into
+the air, glad to come down again, bump, bump, on the saddle, by
+dint of holding on to the front pommel with the left hand, while
+the right was engaged with the bridle, which in the violence of
+the exercise it was impossible to change to its proper hand. I
+had almost reached the caravan, and had no doubt my hump-backed
+Pegasus would relax his exertions, when a camel-driver,
+one of the sons of iniquity, seeing me come up at full speed, and
+evidently quite run away with, took it into his head to come to
+my assistance.</p>
+
+<p>"I saw what he was at, and called out to him to get out of
+the way, but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me,
+stretching himself out like a St. Andrew's cross, with one hand
+armed with a huge club, and making most diabolical grimaces.
+Of course the camel was frightened, it was enough to frighten a
+much more reasonable being; so, wheeling quickly round, it upset
+my unstable equilibrium. Down I came head foremost to the
+ground, and when I looked up, my forehead streaming with
+blood, the first thing I saw was my Arab with the camel, which
+he seemed mightily pleased with himself for having so cleverly
+captured, while the servant who had suggested the unlucky experiment
+came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary, and
+consoled me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast,
+which there was no riding without a nose-string.</p>
+
+<p>"I now began to study the way of keeping one's seat in such
+an emergency. An Arab, when he gallops his dromedary with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+one of these saddles, holds hard on with the right hand to the
+back part of the seat, not to the pommel, and grasps the bridle
+tightly in the other. The movement of the camel in galloping
+throws one violently forward, and without holding on, excepting
+on the naked back, when the rider sits behind the hump, it is
+impossible to retain one's seat. I afterwards thought myself
+lucky in not having studied this point sooner, as, from the greater
+resistance I should have offered, my tumble, since it was <em>fated</em> I
+should have one, would probably have been much more severe.
+It is true I might also have escaped it, but in the chapter of
+probabilities I always think a mishap the most probable."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="runaway" id="runaway"></a>
+<img src="images/i_262.jpg" width="400" height="526" alt="runaway" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A RUNAWAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sheik" id="sheik"></a>
+<img src="images/i_263.jpg" width="400" height="517" alt="sheik" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AN ARAB SHEIK MOUNTED UPON HIS CAMEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be imagined that a fall from a Camel's back is not
+a trifle, and, even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to
+fall on soft sand instead of hard rock, he receives a tolerably
+severe shock, and runs no little risk of breaking a limb. For
+the average height of a Camel's back is rather more than six feet,
+while some animals measure seven feet from the ground to the
+top of the hump.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This height, however, is of material advantage to the traveller.
+In the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that
+are continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays
+of the sun are poured throughout the day; and in the second
+place it brings him within reach of the slightest breeze that
+passes above the stratum of hot air, and which comes to the
+traveller like the breath of life. Moreover, his elevated position
+enables him to see for a very great distance, which is an
+invaluable advantage in a land where every stranger may be
+a robber, and is probably a murderer besides.</p>
+
+<p>The best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the Arab mode
+of riding,&mdash;namely, to pass one leg over the upright pommel,
+which, as has been mentioned, is a mere wooden peg or stake,
+and hitching the other leg over the dangling foot. Perhaps the
+safest, though not the most comfortable, mode of sitting is by
+crossing the legs in front, and merely grasping the pommel with
+the hands.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, fatiguing as is the seat on the Camel's back to the
+beginner, it is less so than that on the horse's saddle, inasmuch
+as in the latter case one position is preserved, while in the
+former an infinite variety of seat is attainable when the rider
+has fairly mastered the art of riding.</p>
+
+<p>The Camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse,
+but by a rope tied like a halter round the muzzle, and having
+a knot on the left or "near" side. This is held in the left hand,
+and is used chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal. The
+Camel is guided partly by the voice of its rider, and partly by
+a driving-stick, with which the neck is lightly touched on the
+opposite side to that which its rider wishes it to take. A
+pressure of the heel on the shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its
+pace, and a little tap on the head followed by a touch on the
+short ears are the signals for full speed.</p>
+
+<p>There are three different kinds of stick with which the Camel
+is driven; one of them, a mere almond branch with the bark,
+and an oblique head, is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of
+the Prince of Mecca. Mr. Hamilton suggests that this stick,
+called the "<em>mesh'ab</em>," is the original of the jackal-headed stick
+with which so many of the Egyptian deities are represented;
+and that Aaron's rod that "brought forth buds, and bloomed
+blossoms, and yielded almonds," was the <em>mesh'ab</em>, the almond-branch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+sceptre, the emblem of his almost regal rank and authority.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="rod" id="rod"></a>
+<img src="images/i_265.jpg" width="400" height="342" alt="rod" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AARON'S ROD BEARS ALMONDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The women mostly ride in a different manner from the men.
+Sometimes they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same
+way as their husbands, but as a rule they are carried by the
+animal rather than ride it, sitting in great basket-like appendages
+which are slung on either side of the Camel. These constitute
+the "furniture" which is mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 34. When
+Jacob left the house of Laban, to lead an independent life,
+Rachel stole her father's images, or "teraphim," and carried them
+away with her, true to her affectionate though deceptive nature,
+which impelled her to incur the guilt of robbery for the sake of
+enriching her husband with the cherished teraphim of her
+father. From the most careful researches we learn that these
+teraphim were used for divining the future, and that they were
+made in the human form. That they were of considerable size
+is evident from the fact that, when Saul was hunting after David,
+his wife Michal contrived to convey him out of the house, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+for a time to conceal her fraud by putting an image (or teraph)
+into the bed as a representative of her husband. Had not,
+therefore, the camel-furniture been of considerable dimensions,
+images of such a size could not be hidden, but they could
+well be stowed away in the great panniers, as long as their
+mistress sat upon them, after the custom of Oriental travellers
+and declined to rise on the ready plea of indisposition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="riding" id="riding"></a>
+<img src="images/i_266.jpg" width="400" height="333" alt="riding" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CAMEL-RIDING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This sort of carriage is still used for the women and children.
+"The wife and child came by in the string of camels, the
+former reclining in an immense circular box, stuffed and padded,
+covered with red cotton, and dressed with yellow worsted ornaments.
+This family nest was mounted on a large camel. It
+seemed a most commodious and well-arranged travelling carriage,
+and very superior as a mode of camel-riding to that which our
+Sitteen rejoiced in (<em>i.e.</em> riding upon a saddle). The Arab wife
+could change her position at pleasure, and the child had room
+to walk about and could not fall out, the sides of the box just
+reaching to its shoulders. Various jugs and skins and articles
+of domestic use hung suspended about it, and trappings of
+fringe and finery ornamented it."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This last sentence brings us to another point which is several
+times mentioned in the Bible; namely, the ornaments with
+which the proprietors of Camels are fond of bedizening their
+favourite animals.</p>
+
+<p>Their leathern collars are covered with cowrie shells sewn on
+them in various fantastic patterns. Crescent-shaped ornaments
+are made of shells sewn on red cloth, and hung so abundantly
+upon the harness of the animal that they jingle at every step
+which it takes. Sheiks and other men of rank often have
+these ornaments made of silver, so that the cost of the entire
+trappings is very great.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="swift" id="swift"></a>
+<img src="images/i_267.jpg" width="400" height="465" alt="swift" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE DELOUL, OR SWIFT CAMEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now come to the Swift Camel, or Deloul.</p>
+
+<p>The limbs of the Deloul are long and wiry, having not an
+ounce of superfluous fat upon them, the shoulders are very broad,
+and the hump, though firm and hard, is very small.</p>
+
+<p>A thoroughbred Deloul, in good travelling condition, is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+at all a pleasing animal to an ordinary eye, being a lank, gaunt,
+and ungainly-looking creature, the very conformation which
+insures its swiftness and endurance being that which detracts
+from its beauty. An Arab of the desert, however, thinks a
+good Deloul one of the finest sights in the world. As the talk
+of the pastoral tribes is of sheep and oxen, so is the talk of the
+nomads about Camels. It is a subject which is for ever on their
+lips, and a true Bedouin may be seen to contemplate the beauties
+of one of these favourite animals for hours at a time,&mdash;if his
+own, with the rapture of a possessor, or, if another's, with the
+determination of stealing it when he can find an opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour,
+which is the average speed of the common Camel, the Deloul
+can cover, if lightly loaded, nine or ten miles an hour, and go on
+at the same pace for a wonderful time, its long legs swinging,
+and its body swaying, as if it were but an animated machine.
+Delouls have been reported to have journeyed for nearly fifty
+hours without a single stop for rest, during which time the
+animals must have traversed nearly five hundred miles. Such
+examples must, however, be exceptional, implying, as they do,
+an amount of endurance on the part of the rider equal to that
+of the animal; and even a journey of half that distance is
+scarcely possible to ordinary men on Delouls.</p>
+
+<p>For the movements of the Deloul are very rough, and the
+rider is obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting
+himself tightly with two leathern bands, one just under the
+arms, and the other round the pit of the stomach. Without
+these precautions, the rider would be likely to suffer serious
+injuries, and, even with them, the exercise is so severe, that an
+Arab makes it a matter of special boast that he can ride a
+Deloul for a whole day.</p>
+
+<p>A courier belonging to the Sherif of Mecca told Mr. Hamilton
+that he often went on the same dromedary from Mecca to Medina
+in forty-eight hours, the distance being two hundred and forty
+miles. And a thoroughbred Deloul will travel for seven or
+eight weeks with only four or five days of rest.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the present time, these Camels are used for the conveyance
+of special messages, and in the remarkable Bornu kingdom
+a regular service of these animals is established, two couriers
+always travelling in company, so that if one rider or Camel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+should fail or be captured by the Arabs, who are always on the
+alert for so valuable a prey, the other may post on and carry the
+message to its destination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="mode" id="mode"></a>
+<img src="images/i_269.jpg" width="400" height="412" alt="mode" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANOTHER MODE OF RIDING THE CAMEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The swift dromedary, or Deloul, is mentioned several times in
+the Old Testament. One of them occurs in Isa. lx. 6: "The
+multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian
+and Ephah." In this passage a distinction is drawn between
+the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, the former being
+the word "gamel," and the latter the word "beker," which is
+again used in Jer. ii. 23: "See thy way in the valley, know
+what thou hast done: thou art a swift dromedary."</p>
+
+<p>There is a passage in the Book of Esther which looks as if it
+referred to the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+there is considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering
+It runs as follows: "And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name,
+and sealed it with the king's ring, and sent letters and
+posts on horseback, and riders on mules, camels, and young
+dromedaries."</p>
+
+<p>The Jewish Bible, however, translates this passage as follows:
+"And sent letters by the runners on the horses, and riders on
+the racers, mules, and young mares." Now, the word <em>rekesh</em>,
+which is translated as "racer," is rendered by Buxtorf as "a
+swift horse or mule," and the word <em>beni-rammachim</em>, which
+is translated as "young mares," literally signifies "those born
+of mares."</p>
+
+<p>The Camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the
+curious inconsistency which forms so large a part of the Oriental
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Prizing them above nearly all earthly things, proud of them,
+and loving them after their own fashion, the drivers will talk to
+them, cheer them, and sing interminable songs for their benefit.
+Towards the afternoon the singing generally begins, and it goes
+on without cessation in a sort of monotonous hum, as Dr. Bonar
+calls it. The same traveller calls attention to a passage in
+Caussinus' "Polyhistor Symbolicus," in which the learned and
+didactic author symbolizes the maxim that more can be done by
+kindness than by blows. "The Camel is greatly taken with
+music and melody. So much so, indeed, that if it halts through
+weariness, the driver does not urge it with stripes and blows,
+but soothes it by his songs."</p>
+
+<p>Several travellers have mentioned these songs. See, for
+example, Miss Rogers' account of some Bedouins: "Their songs
+were already subdued to harmonize with their monotonous
+swinging pace, and chimed softly and plaintively with the
+tinkling of camel-bells, thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"'Dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Art thou, O my Camel!<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Precious to me as the health of my life,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Art thou, O my Camel!<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Sweet to my ears is the sound<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Of thy tinkling bells, O my Camel!<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And sweet to thy listening ears<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Is the sound of my evening song.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="noind">And so on, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad libitum</i>."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a female Camel gives birth to a colt on the journey.
+In such a case, a brief pause is made, and then the train proceeds
+on its journey, the owner of the Camel carrying the young
+one in his arms until the evening halt. He then gives it to its
+mother, and on the following day it is able to follow her without
+further assistance. The young Camels are almost pretty, their
+hair being paler than that of the adult animal, and their limbs
+more slender.</p>
+
+<p>Although the young Camel is better-looking than its parents,
+it is not one whit more playful. Unlike almost all other animals,
+the Camel seems to have no idea of play, and even the young
+Camel of a month or two old follows its mother with the same
+steady, regular pace which she herself maintains.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all the kindness with which a driver treats his
+Camels, he can at times be exceedingly cruel to them, persisting
+in over-loading and over-driving them, and then, if a Camel fall
+exhausted, removing its load, and distributing it among the
+other Camels. As soon as this is done, he gives the signal to
+proceed, and goes on his way, abandoning the wretched animal
+to its fate&mdash;<em>i.e.</em> to thirst and the vultures. He will not even
+have the humanity to kill it, but simply leaves it on the ground,
+muttering that it is "his fate!"</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CAMEL.</h2>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Camel and its master&mdash;Occasional fury of the animal&mdash;A boy killed by a
+Camel&mdash;Another instance of an infuriated Camel&mdash;Theory respecting the
+Arab and his Camel&mdash;Apparent stupidity of the Camel&mdash;Its hatred of a load,
+and mode of expressing its disapprobation&mdash;Riding a Camel through the
+streets&mdash;A narrow escape&mdash;Ceremony of weaning a young Camel&mdash;The Camel's
+favourite food&mdash;Structure of the foot and adaptation to locality&mdash;Difficulty
+in provisioning&mdash;Camel's hair and skin&mdash;Sal-ammoniac and Desert fuel&mdash;The
+Camel and the needle's eye&mdash;Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel.</p>
+
+<p>The Camels know their master well, some of them being
+much more affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+of strange fury, in which case even their own masters are not
+safe from them. They are also of a revengeful nature, and have
+an unpleasant faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can
+find a time of repaying it. Signor Pierotti gives a curious
+example of this trait of character. As he was going to the
+Jordan, he found a dead Camel lying on the roadside, the head
+nearly separated from the body. On inquiry he found that
+the animal had a master who ill-treated it, and had several times
+tried to bite him. One evening, after the Camels had been
+unloaded, the drivers lay down to sleep as usual.</p>
+
+<p>The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him
+as he slept. The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time
+for another. The infuriated Camel followed up its attack by
+grasping his throat in its powerful jaws, and shaking him to
+death. The whole scene passed so rapidly, that before the other
+drivers could come to the man's assistance he was hanging dead
+from the jaws of the Camel, who was shaking him as a dog
+shakes a rat, and would not release its victim until its head
+had been nearly severed from its body by sword-cuts.</p>
+
+<p>A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central
+and Eastern Arabia:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which
+he gives many a hideous example; while, in carrying it out, he
+shows an unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile
+with all the cold stupidity of his usual character. One
+instance of this I well remember&mdash;it occurred hard by a small
+town in the plain of Baalbec, where I was at the time residing.</p>
+
+<p>"A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden
+with wood, from that very village to another at half an hour's
+distance or so. As the animal loitered or turned out of the way,
+its conductor struck it repeatedly, and harder than it seems to
+have thought he had a right to do. But, not finding the occasion
+favourable for taking immediate quits, it 'bided its time,' nor
+was that time long in coming.</p>
+
+<p>"A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast,
+but unladen, to his own village. When they were about half
+way on the road, and at some distance from any habitation, the
+camel suddenly stopped, looked deliberately round in every
+direction to assure itself that no one was in sight, and, finding
+the road clear of passers-by, made a step forward, seized the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+unlucky boy's head in its monstrous mouth, and, lifting him up
+in the air, flung him down again on the earth, with the upper
+part of his head completely torn off, and his brains scattered on
+the ground. Having thus satisfied its revenge, the brute quietly
+resumed its pace towards the village, as though nothing were
+the matter, till some men, who had observed the whole, though
+unfortunately at too great a distance to be able to afford timely
+help, came up and killed it.</p>
+
+<p>"Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some
+philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs
+to the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have
+in their sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to
+those who partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral
+qualities of the animal to which they belonged. I do not feel
+myself capable of pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a
+question, but thus much I can say, that the camel and its
+Bedouin master do afford so many and such divers points of
+resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of Shomer far in the
+wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, 'God created the
+Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.'"</p>
+
+<p>The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote
+makes reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no
+doubt that the Camel is by no means an intellectual animal; but
+it is very possible that its stupidity may in a great measure be
+owing to the fact that no one has tried to cultivate its intellectual
+powers. The preceding anecdotes show clearly that the Camel
+must possess a strong memory, and be capable of exercising
+considerable ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall off
+its back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse
+would do, but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his
+master to catch it if he can. Should it turn out of the way to
+crop some green thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction,
+never thinking of turning back into the right road unless directed
+by its rider. Should the Camel stray, "it is a thousand
+to one that he will never find his way back to his accustomed
+home or pasture, and the first man who picks him up will have
+no particular shyness to get over; ... and the losing of his old
+master and of his former cameline companions gives him no
+regret, and occasions no endeavour to find them again."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter
+how light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation
+by growling and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual
+is this conduct that if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and
+a stone as large as a walnut laid on its back, it begins to remonstrate
+in its usual manner, groaning as if it were crushed to the
+earth with its load.</p>
+
+<p>The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading
+it to plod onward in its direct course. What may have been its
+habits in a state of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon
+as a wild Camel has never been known in the memory of man.
+There are wild oxen, wild goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and
+wild asses, but there is no spot on the face of the earth where
+the Camel is found except as the servant of man. Through
+innate stupidity, according to Mr. Palgrave, it goes straight forwards
+in the direction to which its head happens to be pointed,
+and is too foolish even to think of stopping unless it hears the
+signal for halt.</p>
+
+<p>As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city,
+laden with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up
+the thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every
+one who is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and
+to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The
+driver or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to
+the pedestrians to get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely
+passes through a long street without having knocked down a
+man or two, or driven before it a few riders on asses who cannot
+pass between the Camel and the wall.</p>
+
+<p>One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low
+archways which span so many of the streets. They are just
+high enough to permit a laden Camel to pass under them, but are
+so low that they leave no room for a rider. The natives, who
+are accustomed to this style of architecture, are always ready for
+an archway, and, when the rider sees an archway which will not
+allow him to retain his seat, he slips to the ground, and remounts
+on the other side of the obstacle.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these arch
+ways. "I had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without
+being obliged to do more than just bend my head forward, and
+was in the act of conversing with one of my companions behind,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+and was therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was
+immediately before me, when the shouting and running together
+of the people in the street on either side made me turn my head
+quickly, but only just in time to feel my breath thrown back on
+my face against the keystone of a gateway, beneath which my
+camel, with too much way on him to be stopped immediately,
+had already commenced to pass.</p>
+
+<p>"With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw
+myself back as far as I could, and was carried through in an
+almost breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along
+against the stonework. On emerging again into the open
+street, I could hardly realize my escape, for if there had been a
+single projecting stone to stop my progress, the camel would
+have struggled to get free, and my chest must have been
+crushed in."</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity
+is not an undeserved one. Still the animal has enough
+intellect to receive all the education which it needs for the service
+of man, and which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary
+Camel of burden is merely taught to follow its conductor, to
+obey the various words and gestures of command, and to endure
+a load. The Deloul, however, is more carefully trained. It is
+allowed to follow its mother for a whole year in perfect liberty.
+Towards the expiration of that time the young animal is gradually
+stinted in its supply of milk, and forced to browse for its nourishment.
+On the anniversary of its birth, the young Deloul is
+turned with its head towards Canopus, and its ears solemnly
+boxed, its master saying at the same time, "Henceforth drinkest
+thou no drop of milk." For this reason the newly-weaned
+Camel is called Lathim, or the "ear-boxed." It is then prevented
+from sucking by a simple though cruel experiment. A
+wooden peg is sharpened at both ends, and one end thrust into
+the young animal's nose. When it tries to suck, it pricks its
+mother with the projecting end, and at the same time forces the
+other end more deeply into the wound, so that the mother drives
+away her offspring, and the young soon ceases to make the
+attempt.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything
+that it can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to
+browse as it goes along, bending its long neck to the ground, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a><br /><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+cropping the scanty herbage without a pause. Camels have
+been known to travel for twenty successive days, passing over
+some eight hundred miles of ground, without receiving any food
+except that which they gathered for themselves by the way.
+The favourite food of the Camel is a shrub called the ghada,
+growing to six feet or so in height, and forming a feathery tuft
+of innumerable little green twigs, very slender and flexible. It
+is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can scarcely ever pass a
+bush without turning aside to crop it; and even though it be
+beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the process at
+the next shrub that comes in sight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="passing" id="passing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_276.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="passing" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN CITY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so
+plentifully in that part of the world; and though the thorns are
+an inch or two in length, very strong, and as sharp as needles,
+the hard, horny palate of the animal enables it to devour them
+with perfect ease.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bush" id="bush"></a>
+<img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="400" height="335" alt="bush" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are
+scattered profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the commonest
+growth of the place. After they die, being under the
+fierce sun of that climate, they dry up so completely, that if
+a light be set to them they blaze up in a moment, with a sharp
+cracking sound and a roar of flame, and in a moment or two are
+nothing but a heap of light ashes. No wonder was it that when
+Moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being consumed he
+was struck with awe at the miracle. These withered bushes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+are the common fuel of the desert, giving out a fierce but brief
+heat, and then suddenly sinking into ashes. "For as the
+crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool"
+(Eccl. vii. 6).</p>
+
+<p>The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten
+by the Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment
+from every sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed
+on charcoal, and, as has been happily remarked, could thrive on
+the shavings of a carpenter's workshop.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="encampment" id="encampment"></a>
+<img src="images/i_278.jpg" width="450" height="406" alt="encampment" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be
+managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. "Our
+guide," writes Mr. Hamilton, in the work which has already been
+mentioned, "is an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel-drivers.
+He has three camels in the caravan, and it was amusing
+to see his preparations for their evening's entertainment. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+table-cloth, a circular piece of leather, was duly spread on the
+ground; on this he poured the quantity of dourrah destined for
+their meal, and calling his camels, they came and took each its
+place at the feast. It is quaint to see how each in his turn eats,
+so gravely and so quietly, stretching his long neck into the
+middle of the heap, then raising his head to masticate each
+mouthful; all so slowly and with such gusto, that we could
+swear it was a party of epicures sitting in judgment on one of
+Vachette's <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chefs d'&oelig;uvre</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully
+adapted is the constitution of the Camel for the country in which
+it lives, and how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has
+been called "the ship of the desert," for without the Camel the
+desert would be as impassable as the sea without ships. No
+water being found for several days' journey together, the animal
+is able to carry within itself a supply of water which will last it
+for several days, and, as no green thing grows far from the
+presence of water, the Camel is able to feed upon the brief-lived
+thorn-shrubs which have sprung up and died, and which, from
+their hard and sharp prickles, are safe from every animal except
+the hard-mouthed Camel.</p>
+
+<p>But these advantages would be useless without another&mdash;<em>i. e.</em>
+the foot. The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin
+the feet of almost any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel
+should be furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like
+the hoof of a horse, that is broad enough to prevent the creature
+from sinking into the sand, and is tough enough to withstand
+the action of the rough and burning soil.</p>
+
+<p>Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long
+toes resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny
+sole. This cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal
+is as noiseless as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the
+toes, it spreads as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives
+a firm footing on loose ground. The foot of the moose-deer has
+a similar property, in order to enable the animal to walk upon
+the snow.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply
+into the ground than any other animal; but yet it does sink in
+it, and dislikes a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step,
+and being wearied by the exertion of dragging its hard foot out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+of the holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that
+hills are impracticable to the Camel; but it is able to climb even
+rocky ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an
+American traveller, was much surprised by seeing a caravan of
+fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petræa. The rock
+was as smooth as polished marble, and the angle was on an
+average fifteen degrees; but the whole caravan passed over it
+without an accident.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="marches" id="marches"></a>
+<img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="400" height="464" alt="march" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ON THE MARCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground,
+on which it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a
+Camel from behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close
+together until the ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that
+the feet are set on the ground at a considerable distance from each
+other. On dry ground this structure increases the stability of
+the animal by increasing its base; but on wet ground the effect
+is singularly unpleasant. The soft, padded feet have no hold,
+and slip sideways at every step, often with such violence as to
+dislocate a joint and cause the death of the animal. When
+such ground has to be traversed, the driver generally passes a
+bandage round the hind legs just below the ankle-joint, so as to
+prevent them from diverging too far.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the
+animal lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy
+ground is so exceptional that the generality of Camels never see
+it in their lives. Camels do not object to mud an inch or two
+deep, provided that there is firm ground below; and they have
+been seen to walk with confident safety over pavements covered
+with mud and half-frozen snow.</p>
+
+<p>The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the
+bed be stony or gravelly; but they are bad swimmers, their
+round bodies and long necks being scarcely balanced by their
+legs, so that they are apt to roll over on their sides, and in such
+a case they are sure to be drowned. When swimming is a
+necessity, the head is generally tied to the stern of a boat, or
+guided by the driver swimming in front, while another often
+clings to the tail, so as to depress the rump and elevate the
+head. It is rather curious that the Camels of the Sahara cannot
+be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim the river
+readily enough; but they are apt to be seized with illness afterwards,
+and to die in a few hours.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to some other uses of the Camel.</p>
+
+<p>Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many
+purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the
+Camel's hair is that it is employed in making brushes for
+painters; but in its own land the hair plays a really important
+part. At the proper season it is removed from the animal,
+usually by being pulled away in tufts, but sometimes by being
+shorn, and it is then spun by the women into strong thread.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is
+required and coarseness is not an objection. The "black tents"
+of the Bedouin Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived,
+are made of Camel's hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage
+used by the nomad tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold
+weather are made of Camel's hair, and it was in a dress of this
+coarse and rough material that St. John the Baptist was clad.
+The best part of the Camels hair is that which grows in tufts
+on the back and about the hump, the fibre being much longer
+than that which covers the body. There is also a little very
+fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a sufficient
+quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments.
+Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which
+are made from the Cachmire goat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="hair" id="hair"></a>
+<img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="300" height="233" alt="hair" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HAIR OF THE CAMEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is
+simply tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with
+salt.</p>
+
+<p>Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some
+places water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being
+thicker and less porous than that of the goat, and therefore
+wasting less of the water by evaporation. The bones are utilized,
+being made into various articles of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is
+important to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the
+animal feeds, it consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic
+shrubs. It is much used as poultices in case of bruises
+or rheumatic pains, and is even applied with some success to
+simple fractures. It is largely employed for fuel, and the desert
+couriers use nothing else, their Camels being furnished with a
+net, so that none of this useful substance shall be lost. For this
+purpose it is carefully collected, mixed with bits of straw, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+made into little rolls, which are dried in the sun, and can then
+be laid by for any time until they are needed.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of
+mortar or cement with which the walls of huts are rendered
+weather-proof, and the same material is used in the better-class
+houses to make a sort of terrace on the flat roof. This must be
+waterproof in order to withstand the wet of the rainy season,
+and no material answers the purpose so well as that which has
+been mentioned. So strangely hard and firm is this composition,
+that stoves are made of it. These stoves are made like jars, and
+have the faculty of resisting the power of the inclosed fire. Even
+after it is burned it has its uses, the ashes being employed in the
+manufacture of sal-ammoniac.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There are two passages in the New Testament which mention
+the Camel in an allegorical sense. The first of these is the
+proverbial saying of our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter
+into the kingdom of heaven. Again I say unto you, It is easier
+for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich
+man to enter into the kingdom of God" (Matt. xix. 23, 24).</p>
+
+<p>Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires
+some little dissection. If the reader will refer to the
+context, he will see that this saying was spoken in allusion to
+the young and wealthy man who desired to be one of the
+disciples, but clung too tightly to his wealth to accept the only
+conditions on which he could be received. His possessions were
+a snare to him, as was proved by his refusal to part with them
+at Christ's command. On his retiring, the expression was used,
+"that a rich man shall hardly (or, with difficulty) enter the
+kingdom of heaven;" followed by the simile of the Camel and
+the needle's eye.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw
+one conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter
+heaven than a camel pass through the eye of a needle, i.e. that
+it is impossible for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous
+sentence, Christ says not that it is impossible, but difficult
+(δυσκόλως) for him to do so. It is difficult for a man to use his
+money for the service of God, the only purpose for which it was
+given him, and the difficulty increases in proportion to its
+amount. But wealth in itself is no more a bar to heaven than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+intellect, health, strength, or any other gift, and, if it be rightly
+used, is one of the most powerful tools that can be used in the
+service of God. Our Lord did not condemn all wealthy men
+alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He
+advised to sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the
+condition of being admitted among the disciples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="needle" id="needle"></a>
+<img src="images/i_284.jpg" width="400" height="344" alt="needle" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the
+needle's eye. Of course it can be taken merely as a very bold
+metaphor, but it may also be understood in a simpler sense, the
+sense in which it was probably understood by those who heard
+it. In Oriental cities, there are in the large gates small and
+very low apertures called metaphorically "needle's-eyes," just
+as we talk of certain windows as "bull's-eyes." These entrances
+are too narrow for a Camel to pass through them in the ordinary
+manner, especially if loaded. When a laden Camel has to pass
+through one of these entrances, it kneels down, its load is
+removed, and then it shuffles through on its knees. "Yesterday,"
+writes Lady Duff-Gordon from Cairo, "I saw a camel go through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+the eye of a needle, <em>i.e.</em> the low-arched door of an enclosure. He
+must kneel, and bow his head to creep through; and thus the
+rich man must humble himself."</p>
+
+<p>There is another passage in which the Camel is used by our
+Lord in a metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence:
+"Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel"
+(Matt. xxiii. 24). It is remarkable that an accidental misprint
+has robbed this passage of its true force. The real translation
+is: "which strain <em>out</em> the gnat, and swallow the camel." The
+Greek word is διυλίζω, which signifies to filter thoroughly; and
+the allusion is made to the pharisaical custom of filtering liquids
+before drinking them, lest by chance a gnat or some such insect
+which was forbidden as food might be accidentally swallowed.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">General description of the animal&mdash;Its use in mountain roads&mdash;Peculiar formation
+of the foot&mdash;Uses of a mixed breed&mdash;Its power of enduring cold&mdash;Used chiefly
+as a beast of draught&mdash;Unfitness for the plough&mdash;The cart and mode of harnessing&mdash;The
+load which it can draw&mdash;Camel-skin ropes&mdash;A Rabbinical legend.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The second kind of Camel&mdash;namely, the Bactrian species&mdash;was
+probably unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion
+of their history. This species was employed by the Assyrians,
+as we find by the sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other
+way the Jews would become acquainted with them through the
+nation by whom they were conquered, and in whose land they
+abode for so long.</p>
+
+<p>The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that
+which has already been described by the two humps and the
+clumsier and sturdier form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian
+and Arabian species are so similar that none but a very skilful
+anatomist can distinguish between them, and several learned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a><br /><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+zoologists have expressed an opinion, in which I entirely coincide,
+that the Bactrian and Arabian Camels are but simple
+varieties of one and the same species, not nearly so dissimilar
+as the greyhound and the bulldog.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="rest" id="rest"></a>
+<img src="images/i_286.jpg" width="600" height="332" alt="rest" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A REST IN THE DESERT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at
+home in a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its congener
+does over smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber,
+and is said even to surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread.
+This quality is probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of
+the foot, which has an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft
+pad, and forming a sort of claw. In the winter time the riders
+much prefer them to horses, because their long legs enable them
+to walk easily through snow, in which a horse could only plunge
+helplessly, and would in all probability sink and perish.</p>
+
+<p>A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is
+thought to be the best for hill work in winter time, and General
+Harlan actually took two thousand of these animals in winter
+time for a distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the
+snowy tops of the Indian Caucasus; and though the campaign
+lasted for seven months, he only lost one Camel, and that
+was accidentally killed. Owing to its use among the hills, the
+Bactrian species is sometimes called the Mountain Camel.</p>
+
+<p>It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because
+the warm mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow,
+and the frost of night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When
+the Camel walks upon this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge
+into the soft substratum through the icy crust, against which its
+legs are severely cut. The beginning of the winter is liable to
+the same objection.</p>
+
+<p>The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be
+procured from a male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If
+the parentage be reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak,
+ill-tempered, and disobedient.</p>
+
+<p>The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of
+cold, and is indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest
+winters without seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen
+quietly feeding when the thermometer has reached a temperature
+several degrees below zero. Sometimes, when the cold is
+more than usually sharp, the owners sew a thick cloth round its
+body, but even in such extreme cases the animal is left to find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+its own food as it best can. And, however severe the weather
+may be, the Bactrian Camel never sleeps under a roof.</p>
+
+<p>This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but
+its general use is for draught. It is not often used alone for the
+plough, because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling,
+and does not possess the steady dragging movement which is
+obtained by the use of the horse or ox.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bactrian" id="bactrian"></a>
+<img src="images/i_288.jpg" width="400" height="403" alt="bactrian" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs.
+The mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be
+conceived. A pole runs between them from the front of the
+vehicle, and the Camels are attached to it by means of a pole
+which passes over their necks. Oxen were harnessed in a
+similar manner. It was probably one of these cars or chariots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
+that was mentioned by Isaiah in his prophecy respecting
+Assyria:&mdash;"And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, a
+chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels" (Isa. xxi. 7). The cars
+themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing them, being
+almost exactly like the ox carts which have already been
+described.</p>
+
+<p>The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is
+really considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair of
+Camels are expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight
+hundred weight, and to continue their labours for twenty or
+thirty successive days, traversing each day an average of thirty
+miles. It is much slower than the Arabian Camel, seldom going
+at more than two and a half miles per hour. If, however, the
+vehicle to which a pair of Bactrians are harnessed were well
+made, the wheels truly circular, and the axles kept greased so as
+to diminish the friction, there is no doubt that the animals could
+draw a still greater load to longer distances, and with less
+trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels are wretchedly
+fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual creaking
+that is most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally unheeded
+by the drivers.</p>
+
+<p>The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong;
+and, like that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth.
+It is plucked off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally
+becomes loose in readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight
+of the entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds. The
+skin is not much valued, and is seldom used for any purpose
+except for making ropes, straps, and thongs, and is not thought
+worth the trouble of tanning. The milk, like that of the
+Arabian animal, is much used for food, but the quantity is very
+trifling, barely two quarts per diem being procured from each
+Camel.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little that is generally interesting in the Rabbinical
+writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying
+upon the shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request
+that is likely to be refused, they quote the instance of the
+Camel, who, it seems, was dissatisfied with its appearance, and
+asked for horns to match its long ears. The result of the request
+was, that it was deprived of its ears, and got no horns.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE HORSE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Hebrew words which signify the Horse&mdash;The Horse introduced into Palestine
+from Egypt&mdash;Similarity of the war-horse of Scripture and the Arab horse of
+the present day&mdash;Characteristics of the Horse&mdash;Courage and endurance of the
+Horse&mdash;Hardness of its unshod hoofs&mdash;Love of the Arab for his Horse&mdash;Difficulty
+of purchasing the animal&mdash;The Horse prohibited to the Israelites&mdash;Solomon's
+disregard of the edict&mdash;The war-chariot, its form and use&mdash;Probable
+construction of the iron chariot&mdash;The cavalry Horse&mdash;Lack of personal interest
+in the animal.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural
+writers to signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse,
+mare, pony, charger, &amp;c., are used to express the different qualities
+of the animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed
+to lie in its use for riding or driving, the larger and heavier
+animals being naturally required for drawing the weighty springless
+chariots. The chariot horse was represented by the word
+<em>Sus</em>, and the cavalry horse by the word <em>Parash</em>, and in several
+passages both these words occur in bold contrast to each other.
+See, for example, 1 Kings iv. 26, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is
+mentioned, there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct
+of war, and therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must
+regard it.</p>
+
+<p>The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal
+to the Arab Horse of the present day, as we find not only from
+internal evidence, but from the sculptures and paintings which
+still remain to tell us of the vanished glories of Egypt and
+Assyria. It is remarkable, by the way, that the first mention of
+the Horse in the Scriptures alludes to it as an Egyptian animal.
+During the terrible famine which Joseph had foretold, the
+Egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries were
+unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their cattle, and,
+accordingly, they sold all their beasts for bread. "And they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+brought their cattle unto Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread
+in exchange for horses and the flocks, and for the cattle of herds,
+and for the asses, and he fed them with bread for all their cattle
+for that year."</p>
+
+<p>This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the
+purposes of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than
+the heavier and more powerful breeds, which are found in different
+parts of the world. It is remarkable for the flexible
+agility of its movements, which enable it to adapt itself to
+every movement of the rider, whose intentions it seems to divine
+by a sort of instinct, and who guides it not so much by the
+bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the voice. Examples
+of a similar mode of guidance may be seen on the well-known
+frieze of the Parthenon, where, in the Procession of Horsemen,
+the riders may be seen directing their steeds by touching the
+side of the neck with one finger, thus showing their own skill
+and the well-trained quality of the animals which they ride.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="trial" id="trial"></a>
+<img src="images/i_291.jpg" width="400" height="312" alt="trial" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">TRIAL OF ARAB HORSES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Kochlani
+breed will go through an amount of work which is almost
+incredible. Even the trial by which a Horse is tested is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a><br /><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+severe, that any other animal would be either killed on the spot
+or ruined for life. When a young mare is tried for the first
+time, her owner rides her for some fifty or sixty miles at full
+speed, always finishing by swimming her through a river. After
+this trial she is expected to feed freely; and should she refuse
+her food, she is rejected as an animal unworthy of the name of
+Kochlani.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="breed" id="breed"></a>
+<img src="images/i_292.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="breed" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AN ARAB HORSE OF THE KOCHLANI BREED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant association
+with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent
+animal. In Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the
+sensitive intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon
+it rather as a machine for draught and carriage than a companion
+to man. The Arab, however, lives with his horse, and
+finds in it the docility and intelligence which we are accustomed
+to associate with the dog rather than the Horse. It
+will follow him about and come at his call. It will stand
+for any length of time and await its rider without moving.
+Should he fall from its back, it will stop and stand patiently
+by him until he can remount; and there is a well-authenticated
+instance of an Arab Horse whose master had been wounded in
+battle, taking him up by his clothes and carrying him away to a
+place of safety.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true
+Arab Horse seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves
+the splendid eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19-25):
+"Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his
+neck with thunder?</p>
+
+<p>"Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory
+of his nostrils is terror.</p>
+
+<p>"He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he
+goeth on to meet the armed men.</p>
+
+<p>"He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth
+he back from the sword.</p>
+
+<p>"The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the
+shield.</p>
+
+<p>"He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage: neither
+believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet.</p>
+
+<p>"He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the
+battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting."</p>
+
+<p>In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+Horse, and its love for the battle. "I hearkened and heard, but
+they spake not aright: no man repented him of his wickedness,
+saying, What have I done? Every one turned to his course, as
+the horse rusheth into the battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the
+mimic battle of the djereed the Horse seems to exult in the conflict
+as much as his rider, and wheels or halts almost without
+the slightest intimation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="war" id="war"></a>
+<img src="images/i_294.jpg" width="400" height="381" alt="war" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WAR HORSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners
+thinking that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even
+among the burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads with
+unbroken hoof. In such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would
+be worse than useless, as it would only scorch the hoof by day,
+and in consequence of the rapid change of temperature by day or
+night, the continual expansion and contraction of the metal would
+soon work the nails loose, and cause the shoe to fall off.</p>
+
+<p>A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we
+often find in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+reckoned among one of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for
+example, Isa. v. 28: "Whose arrows are sharp, and all their
+bows bent, their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and
+their wheels like a whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise
+and thresh, O daughter of Zion: for I will make thine horn
+iron, and I will make thy hoofs brass: and thou shalt beat in
+pieces many people." Allusion is here made to one mode of
+threshing, in which a number of Horses were turned into the
+threshing-floor, and driven about at random among the wheat,
+instead of walking steadily like the oxen.</p>
+
+<p>In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of
+the Horse. It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by
+Deborah and Barak after the death of Sisera: "Then were the
+horse-hoofs broken by the means of the prancings, the prancings
+of their mighty ones."</p>
+
+<p>Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and
+sureness of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the
+present day the Arab warrior esteems above all things a Horse
+of the purest breed, and, whether he buys or sells one, takes care
+to have its genealogy made out and hung on the animal's neck.</p>
+
+<p>As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to
+make an Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale
+of the animal is hindered by a number of impediments which
+in point of fact are almost prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose
+long residence in Palestine has given him a deep insight into
+the character of the people, speaks in the most glowing terms
+of the pure Arab Horse, and of its inestimable value to its
+owner. Of the difficulties with which the sale of the animal is
+surrounded, he gives a very amusing account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will
+describe the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the
+case of the mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price
+varies with the purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of
+its owner. When he is requested to fix a value, his first reply is,
+'It is yours, and belongs to you, I am your servant;' because,
+perhaps, he does not think that the question is asked with
+any real design of purchasing; when the demand is repeated, he
+either makes no answer or puts the question by; at the third
+demand he generally responds rudely with a sardonic smile,
+which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a sign of anger; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a><br /><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+then says that he would sooner sell his family than his mare.
+This remark is not meant as a mere jest; for it is no uncommon
+thing for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather than
+separate himself from his friend.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 333px;"><a name="horses" id="horses"></a>
+<img src="images/i_296.jpg" width="333" height="600" alt="horses" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ARAB HORSES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"If, however, owing to some misfortune, he determines on
+selling his mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents
+will allow her to leave their country without taking the precaution
+to render her unfit for breeding.</p>
+
+<p>"There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which
+I should like to describe particularly; however, I will confine
+myself to a general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon
+the question of the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the
+parents, friends, and allies of the owners give their consent to
+the sale, without which some difficulty or other may arise, or
+perhaps the mare may be stolen from her new master. He must
+also obtain an unquestionable warranty that she is fit for breeding
+purposes, and that no other has a prior claim to any part of
+her body. This last precaution may seem rather strange, but it
+arises from the following custom. It sometimes happens that,
+when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money, he raises it most
+easily by selling a member of his horse; so that very frequently
+a horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom has purchased
+the right fore-leg, another the left, another the hind-leg,
+or the tail, or an ear, or the like; and the proprietors have each a
+proportionate interest in the profits of its labour or sale.</p>
+
+<p>"So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner; sometimes
+only the first-born, sometimes the first three; and then it
+occasionally happens that two or three members of the foal are,
+as it were, mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant
+of this custom may find that, after he has paid the price of the
+mare to her supposed owner, a third person arises who demands
+to be paid the value of his part; and, if the purchaser refuse to
+comply, he may find himself in a very unpleasant situation,
+without any possibility of obtaining help from the local government.
+Whoever sells his mare entirely, without reserving to
+himself one or two parts, must be on good terms with the confederate
+chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have obtained their
+formal sanction, otherwise they would universally despise him,
+and perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only hope of
+escape would be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had committed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a><br /><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+some great crime. It is an easier matter to purchase a stallion;
+but even in this case the above formalities must be observed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 336px;"><a name="buying" id="buying"></a>
+<img src="images/i_298.jpg" width="336" height="600" alt="buying" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BUYING AN ARAB HORSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest
+blood; those of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and
+at fair prices."</p>
+
+<p>For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites
+from the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity,
+the use of the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it,
+was forbidden to the Israelites; see Deut. xvi. 16. After
+prophesying that the Israelites, when they had settled themselves
+in the Promised Land, would want a king, the inspired
+writer next ordains that the new king must be chosen by
+Divine command, and must belong to one of the twelve tribes.
+He then proceeds as follows:&mdash;"But he shall not multiply
+horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to
+the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord
+hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that
+way."</p>
+
+<p>The foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown
+by the fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for
+Horses, Egypt being the chief source from which these animals
+were obtained. And, judging from the monuments to which
+reference has been made, the Horse of Egypt was precisely the
+same animal as the Arab Horse of the present day, and was
+probably obtained from nomad breeders.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon
+used Horses in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely
+from Egypt, disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality
+of Horses as that against plurality of wives, which
+immediately follows.</p>
+
+<p>David seems to have been the first king who established a
+force of chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of
+action on the flat grounds of Palestine, where infantry were at a
+great disadvantage when attacked by the dreaded chariots; yet
+he did not controvert the law by multiplying to himself Horses,
+or even by importing them from Egypt; and when he had an
+opportunity of adding to his army an enormous force of chariots,
+he only employed as many as he thought were sufficient for his
+purpose. After he defeated Hadadezer, and had taken from
+him a thousand chariots with their Horses together with seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a><br /><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+hundred cavalry, he houghed all the Horses except those which
+were needed for one hundred chariots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="steed" id="steed"></a>
+<img src="images/i_300.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="steed" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ARAB'S FAVOURITE STEEDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke
+the ancient law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending
+to Egypt for them. We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 of the enormous
+establishment which he kept up both for chariots and
+cavalry. Besides those which were given to him as tribute, he
+purchased both chariots and their Horses from Egypt and Syria.</p>
+
+<p>Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, probably
+because their weight made their onset irresistible against
+infantry, who had no better weapons than bows and spears.
+The slingers themselves could make little impression on the
+chariots; and even if the driver, or the warrior who fought in
+the chariot, or his attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty
+machine, with its two Horses, still went on its destructive way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="pursues" id="pursues"></a>
+<img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="400" height="332" alt="pursues" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS
+THEM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of their use in battle we find very early mention. For
+example, in Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready
+his chariot to pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part
+of the same chapter we find that six hundred of the Egyptian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
+chariot force accompanied their master in the pursuit, and that
+the whole army was delayed because the loss of the chariot
+wheels made them drive heavily.</p>
+
+<p>Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished
+general is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he
+would be conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his
+death, his mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and
+saying to the women of the household, "Why is his chariot so
+long in coming? Why tarry the wheels of his chariot?"</p>
+
+<p>During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot
+plays a somewhat important part. As long as the war was
+carried on in the rugged mountainous parts of the land, no mention
+of the chariot is made; but when the battles had to be
+fought on level ground, the enemy brought the dreaded chariots
+to bear upon the Israelites. In spite of these adjuncts, Joshua
+won the battles, and, unlike David, destroyed the whole of the
+Horses and burned the chariots.</p>
+
+<p>Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron
+chariot, was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new
+instrument of war seems to have cowed the people completely;
+for we find that by means of his nine hundred chariots of iron
+Jabin "mightily oppressed the children of Israel" for twenty
+years. It has been well suggested that the possession of the
+war chariot gave rise to the saying of Benhadad's councillors,
+that the gods of Israel were gods of the hills, and so their army
+had been defeated; but that if the battle were fought in the
+plain, where the chariots and Horses could act, they would be
+victorious.</p>
+
+<p>So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were
+familiar with them and were accustomed to use them, that when
+the Syrians had besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by
+starvation, the fancied sound of a host of chariots and Horses
+that they heard in the night caused them all to flee and evacuate
+the camp, leaving their booty and all their property in the hands
+of the Israelites.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots
+is not quite certain, though it is probable that they may have
+done so; and this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that
+they were employed against the Jews by Antiochus, who had
+"footmen an hundred and ten thousand, and horsemen five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+thousand and three hundred, and elephants two and twenty, and
+three hundred chariots armed with hooks" (2 Macc. xiii. 2).
+Some commentators think that by the iron chariots mentioned
+above were signified ordinary chariots armed with iron scythes
+projecting from the sides.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="carried" id="carried"></a>
+<img src="images/i_303.jpg" width="400" height="360" alt="carried" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces
+in war, and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the
+Scriptures, not only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which
+every one could understand. In the Psalms, for example, are
+several allusions to the war-chariot." He maketh wars to cease
+unto the end of the earth; He breaketh the bow, and cutteth the
+spear in sunder; He burneth the chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9).
+Again: "At Thy rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the chariot and
+horse are cast into a dead sleep" (Ps. lxxvi. 6). And: "Some
+trust in chariots, and some in horses: but we will remember the
+name of the Lord our God" (Ps. xx. 7). Now, the force of these
+passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we realize to
+ourselves the dread in which the war-chariot was held by the
+foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much feared; but the chariots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+were objects of almost superstitious fear, and the rushing sound
+of their wheels, the noise of the Horses' hoofs, and the shaking
+of the ground as the "prancing horses and jumping chariots"
+(Nah. iii. 2) thundered along, are repeatedly mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10: "By reason of the abundance
+of his horses their dust shall cover thee: thy walls shall shake
+at the noise of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the
+chariots." Also, Jer. xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of
+the hoofs of his strong horses, at the rushing of his chariots,
+and at the rumbling of his wheels, the fathers shall not look
+back to their children for feebleness of hands." See also Joel
+ii. 4, 5: "The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses;
+and as horsemen, so shall they run.</p>
+
+<p>"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall
+they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the
+stubble, as a strong people set in battle array."</p>
+
+<p>In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold
+imagery as expressions of Divine power: "The chariots of God
+are twenty thousand, even thousands of angels: the Lord is
+among them, as in Sinai, in the holy place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A
+similar image is employed in Ps. civ. 3: "Who maketh the
+clouds His chariot: who walketh upon the wings of the wind."
+In connexion with these passages, we cannot but call to mind
+that wonderful day when the unseen power of the Almighty
+was made manifest to the servant of Elisha, whose eyes were
+suddenly opened, and he saw that the mountain was full of
+Horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.</p>
+
+<p>The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from
+earth are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage
+which describes that wonderful event, we may mention one
+which occurs in the splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was
+the Lord displeased against the rivers? was Thine anger against
+the rivers? was Thy wrath against the sea, that Thou didst ride
+upon Thine horses and Thy chariots of salvation?"</p>
+
+<p>By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes,
+and was employed as our carriages of the present day, in carrying
+persons of wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from
+very early times is evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are
+told that after Pharaoh had taken Joseph out of prison and
+raised him to be next in rank to himself, the king caused him to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+ride in the second chariot which he had, and so to be proclaimed
+ruler over Egypt. Many years afterwards we find him
+travelling in his chariot to the land of Goshen, whither he
+went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the presence of
+Pharaoh.</p>
+
+<p>At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the
+Israelites to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is
+not until a comparatively late time that we find it employed as
+a carriage, and even then it is only used by the noble and
+wealthy. Absalom had such chariots, but it is evident that he
+used them for purposes of state, and as appendages of his regal
+rank. Chariots or carriages were, however, afterwards employed
+by the Israelites as freely as by the Egyptians, from whom they
+were originally procured; and accordingly we find Rehoboam
+mounting his chariot and fleeing to Jerusalem, Ahab riding in
+his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel, with Elijah running before
+him; and in the New Testament we read of the chariot in
+which sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip baptized
+(Acts viii. 28).</p>
+
+<p>As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are
+made familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt and
+Assyria, from both of which countries the Jews procured the
+vehicles. Differing very slightly in shape, the principle of the
+chariot was the same; and it strikes us with some surprise that
+the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and the Jews, the three wealthiest
+and most powerful nations of the world, should not have invented
+a better carriage. They lavished the costliest materials and
+the most artistic skill in decorating the chariots, but had no idea
+of making them comfortable for the occupants.</p>
+
+<p>They were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of
+very small size. They were hung very low, so that the occupants
+could step in and out without trouble, though they do not
+seem to have had the sloping floor of the Greek or Roman
+chariot. They had no springs, but, in order to render the jolting
+of the carriage less disagreeable, the floor was made of a sort of
+network of leathern ropes, very tightly stretched so as to be
+elastic. The wheels were always two in number, and generally
+had six spokes.</p>
+
+<p>To the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained
+the bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+man these bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and
+adorned with figures of lions and other animals. Should the
+chariot be intended for two persons, two bow-cases were fastened
+to it, the one crossing the other. The spear had also its tubular
+case, in which it was kept upright, like the whip of a modern
+carriage.</p>
+
+<p>Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though
+three were sometimes employed. They were harnessed very
+simply, having no traces, and being attached to the central pole
+by a breast-band, a very slight saddle, and a loose girth. On
+their heads were generally fixed ornaments, such as tufts of
+feathers, and similar decorations, and tassels hung to the harness
+served to drive away the flies. Round the neck of each Horse
+passed a strap, to the end of which was attached a bell. This
+ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20: "In that day shall
+there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord"&mdash;i.e.
+the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the animals
+once used in war.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going
+into battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed
+the Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both
+his hands at liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins
+passed round his waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist
+by a thong, so that when the charioteer used the bow, his principal
+weapon, he could do so without danger of losing his whip.</p>
+
+<p>Thus much for the use of the chariot in war; we have now
+the Horse as the animal ridden by the cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not
+employed by the Jews until a comparatively late period of their
+history. They had been familiarized with cavalry during their
+long sojourn in Egypt, and in the course of their war of conquest
+had often suffered defeat from the horsemen of the enemy. But
+we do not find any mention of a mounted force as forming
+part of the Jewish army until the days of David, although
+after that time the successive kings possessed large forces
+of cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets,
+sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for
+example, Jer. vi. 23: "They shall lay hold on bow and spear;
+they are cruel, and have no mercy; their voice roareth like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>
+sea; and they ride upon horses, set in array as men for war
+against thee, O daughter of Zion." The same prophet has a
+similar passage in chap. l. 42, couched in almost precisely the
+same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4, there is a further reference
+to the cavalry, which is specially valuable as mentioning the
+weapons used by them. The first call of the prophet is to the
+infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield, and draw near to
+battle" (verse 3); and then follows the command to the cavalry,
+"Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and stand forth
+with your helmets; furbish the spears, and put on the brigandines."
+The chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore
+the cuirass, the helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all
+ages, and in all countries, have been found to be peculiarly
+suitable to the horse-soldier.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="joshua" id="joshua"></a>
+<img src="images/i_307.jpg" width="400" height="369" alt="joshua" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ISRAELITES, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation
+of the war and state chariots, I have selected Egypt as the
+typical country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
+have been executed with the greatest care in details,
+every one of which, even to the harness of the Horses, the mode
+of holding the reins, the form of the whip, and the offensive
+and defensive armour, has been copied from the ancient records
+of Egypt and Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ancient" id="ancient"></a>
+<img src="images/i_308.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="ancient" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANCIENT BATTLE-FIELD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot
+because the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots
+of Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted
+chariots as an acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as
+well as the trained Horses, and probably their occupants, were
+procured from Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and
+a revolted province, so that the reader may have the opportunity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+of seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour
+which were in use in Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the
+foreground is the chariot of the general, driven at headlong
+speed, the Horses at full gallop, and the springless chariot leaping
+off the ground as the Horses bound along. The royal rank of the
+general in question is shown by the feather fan which denotes
+his high birth, and which is fixed in a socket at the back of his
+chariot, much as a coachman fixes his whip. The rank of the
+rider is further shown by the feather plumes on the heads of his
+Horses.</p>
+
+<p>By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case,
+the former being covered with decorations, and having
+the figure of a recumbent lion along its sides. The simple
+but effective harness of the Horses is especially worthy of
+notice, as showing how the ancients knew, better than the
+moderns, that to cover a Horse with a complicated apparatus
+of straps and metal only deteriorates from the powers of the
+animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well if he
+can see freely on all sides, than if all lateral vision be cut off by
+the use of blinkers.</p>
+
+<p>Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one
+of whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the
+ground. The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes
+past the fallen animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of
+some slain enemies, and the Horses are snorting and shaking
+their heads, significative of their unwillingness to trample on a
+human being. By the side of the dead man are his shield, bow,
+and quiver, and it is worthy of notice that the form of these
+weapons, as depicted upon the ancient Egyptian monuments, is
+identical with that which is still found among several half-savage
+tribes of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards.
+One chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing
+round the body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side,
+on the other the imperial chariots are thundering along to
+support the attack, and are driving their enemies before them.
+In the distance are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air
+by the hoofs and wheels, and circling in clouds by the eddies
+caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles, thus illustrating the
+passage in Jer. iv. 13: "Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+his chariots shall be as a whirlwind: his horses are swifter than
+eagles. Woe unto us! for we are spoiled." The reader will see,
+by reference to the illustration, how wonderfully true and forcible
+is this statement, the writer evidently having been an eye-witness
+of the scene which he so powerfully depicts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;"><a name="chariot" id="chariot"></a>
+<img src="images/i_310.jpg" width="450" height="450" alt="chariot" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CHARIOT OF STATE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong
+contrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the
+galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the
+archers bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour
+of battle, we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king
+making a solemn progress in his chariot after a victory, accompanied
+by his attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all
+the placid splendour of Eastern state.</p>
+
+<p>Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his
+chariot, wearing the regal crown, or mitre, and sheltered from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>
+the sun by the umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more
+modern times, was the emblem of royalty. By his side is his
+charioteer, evidently a man of high rank, holding the reins in a
+business-like manner; and in front marches the shield-bearer.
+In one of the sculptures from which this illustration was composed,
+the shield-bearer was clearly a man of rank, fat, fussy,
+full of importance, and evidently a portrait of some well-known
+individual.</p>
+
+<p>The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they
+bear the gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider,
+their heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes
+with which the Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot
+Horses, and the breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated
+in successive rows like the plumes of the head.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the
+Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more
+valued among the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the
+sculptures show the Horses with their knees almost touching
+their noses. Of course the artist exaggerrated the effect that
+he wanted to produce; but the very fact of the exaggeration
+shows the value that was set on a high and showy action in a
+Horse that was attached to a chariot of state. The old Assyrian
+sculptors knew the Horse well, and delineated it in a most
+spirited and graphic style, though they treated it rather conventionally.
+The variety of attitude is really wonderful, considering
+that all the figures are profile views, as indeed seemed to have
+been a law of the historical sculptures.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well
+to remark the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural
+accounts. Of the other domesticated animals many such
+details are given, but of the Horse we hear but little, except in
+connexion with war. There are few exceptions to this rule, and
+even the oft-quoted passage in Job, which goes deeper into the
+character of the Horse than any other portion of the Scriptures,
+only considers the Horse as an auxiliary in battle. We miss the
+personal interest in the animal which distinguishes the many
+references to the ox, the sheep, and the goat; and it is
+remarkable that even in the Book of Proverbs, which is so
+rich in references to various animals, very little is said of the
+Horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="sculpture" id="sculpture"></a>
+<img src="images/i_312.jpg" width="600" height="364" alt="sculpture" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE REPRESENTING A VICTORIOUS KING IN HIS CHARIOT SLAYING HIS ENEMIES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="egyptian" id="egyptian"></a>
+<img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="600" height="314" alt="egyptian" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MUMMY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING (OVER THREE THOUSAND YEARS OLD).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ass" id="ass"></a>
+<img src="images/i_314.jpg" width="400" height="286" alt="ass" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE ASS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Importance of the Ass in the East&mdash;Its general use for the saddle&mdash;Riding the Ass
+not a mark of humility&mdash;The triumphal entry&mdash;White Asses&mdash;Character of the
+Scriptural Ass&mdash;Saddling the Ass&mdash;Samson and Balaam.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the
+Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more
+important of the two, we will give it precedence.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In the East, the Ass has always played a much more
+important part than among us Westerns, and on that account we
+find it so frequently mentioned in the Bible. In the first place,
+it is the universal saddle-animal of the East. Among us the
+Ass has ceased to be regularly used for the purposes of the
+saddle, and is only casually employed by holiday-makers and the
+like. Some persons certainly ride it habitually, but they almost
+invariably belong to the lower orders, and are content to ride
+without a saddle, balancing themselves in some extraordinary
+manner just over the animal's tail. In the East, however, it is
+ridden by persons of the highest rank, and is decorated with
+saddle and harness as rich as those of the horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>So far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal being a
+mark of humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the opposite
+light. In consequence of the very natural habit of reading,
+according to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books
+essentially Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought,
+many persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar
+passage, the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future
+Messiah. "Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter
+of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just,
+and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a
+colt the foal of an ass" (Zech. ix. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its fulfilment
+so many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as
+a proof of the meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding
+upon so humble an animal when He made His entry into Jerusalem.
+The fact is, that there was no humility in the case,
+neither was the act so understood by the people. He rode upon
+an Ass as any prince or ruler would have done who was engaged
+on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved for war purposes.
+He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because He was the
+Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very clearly
+in the context. For, after writing the words which have just
+been quoted, Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10): "And I
+will cut off the chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jerusalem,
+and the battle bow shall be cut off: and He shall speak
+peace unto the heathen: and His dominion shall be from sea
+even to sea, and from the river even to the ends of the earth."</p>
+
+<p>Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character,
+hitherto unknown to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince,
+not of war, as had been all other celebrated kings, but of peace.
+Had He come as the Jews expected&mdash;despite so many prophecies&mdash;their
+Messiah to come, as a great king and conqueror,
+He might have ridden the war-horse, and been surrounded with
+countless legions of armed men. But He came as the herald of
+peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet a
+Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had
+borne no inferior burden.</p>
+
+<p>That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident
+from the manner in which it was received by the people,
+accepting Him as the Son of David, coming in the name of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+Highest, and greeting Him with the cry of "Hosanna!"
+("Save us now,") quoted from verses 25, 26 of Ps. cxviii.:
+"Save now, I beseech Thee, O Lord: O Lord, I beseech Thee,
+send now prosperity."</p>
+
+<p>"Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter  bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="entering" id="entering"></a>
+<img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="400" height="415" alt="entering" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ENTERING JERUSALEM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were
+not chosen by the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing
+honour to Him whom they acknowledged as the Son of David.
+They were necessarily connected with the cry of "Hosanna!"
+At the Feast of Tabernacles, it was customary for the people to
+assemble with branches of palms and willows in their hands,
+and for one of the priests to recite the Great Hallel, <em>i.e.</em> Ps. cxiii.
+and cxviii. At certain intervals, the people responded with
+the cry of "Hosanna!" waving at the same time their palm-branches.
+For the whole of the seven days through which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+feast lasted they repeated their Hosannas, always accompanying
+the shout with the waving of palm-branches, and setting them
+towards the altar as they went in procession round it.</p>
+
+<p>Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to
+take part in the solemnity, just as did the children on the occasion
+of the triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna
+was transferred to the palm-branches themselves, as well as to
+the feast, the last day being called the Great Hosanna.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of
+palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who
+used them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem
+had no idea that He was acting any lowly part.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Again, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet
+Elisha, a mission in which the life of her only child was involved,
+was a woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not
+only to receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish
+it for him.</p>
+
+<p>Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that
+the Ass of the East was held in comparatively high estimation,
+being used for the purposes of the saddle, just as would a high-bred
+horse among ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this
+country he is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for displaying
+the intellectual powers which he possesses, and which
+are of a much higher order than is generally imagined. It is
+rather remarkable, that when we wish to speak slightingly of
+intellect we liken the individual to an Ass or a goose, not
+knowing that we have selected just the quadruped and the bird
+which are least worthy of such a distinction.</p>
+
+<p>Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we
+shall find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated
+animals. We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence,
+and of the Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing
+that, of the two animals, the Ass is by far the superior in point
+of intellect. It has been well remarked by a keen observer of
+nature, that if four or five horses are in a field, together with
+one Ass, and there be an assailable point in the fence, the Ass
+is sure to be the animal that discovers it, and leads the way
+through it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a
+common to graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when
+persecuted by the idle boys who generally frequent such places,
+and who try to ride every beast that is within their reach. It
+seems to divine at once the object of the boy as he steals up to
+it, and he takes a pleasure in baffling him just as he fancies that
+he has succeeded in his attempt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="asses" id="asses"></a>
+<img src="images/i_318.jpg" width="400" height="397" alt="asses" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SYRIAN ASSES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that
+proves more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it
+resents, and sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing
+but a slave, it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that
+it can possibly avoid.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than
+our own animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+from those displayed by the generality of its brethren. "Why,
+the very slave of slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer
+in Arabia," "the crushed and grief-stricken, is so no more in
+Egypt: the battered drudge has become the willing servant.
+Is that active little fellow, who, with race-horse coat and full
+flanks, moves under his rider with the light step and the action
+of a pony&mdash;is he the same animal as that starved and head-bowed
+object of the North, subject for all pity and cruelty, and
+clothed with rags and insult?</p>
+
+<p>"Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his
+small head well up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle
+of light chains and red leather can make him. It was a gladdening
+sight to see the unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt."</p>
+
+<p>Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance
+of cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and
+spirit in proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it
+might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it
+were as carefully treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; but it is
+a well-known fact that the horse does not necessarily degenerate
+by moving towards a colder climate, though the Ass has always
+been found to do so.</p>
+
+<p>There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass
+receives even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the
+customs and traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned,
+writes in very glowing terms of the animal. He states that he
+formed a very high opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt,
+not only from its spirited aspect and its speed, but because it
+was employed even by the Viceroy and the great Court officers,
+who may be said to use Asses of more or less intelligence for
+every occasion. He even goes so far as to say that, if all the
+Asses were taken away from Egypt, travel would be impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character
+of the Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. "What,
+then, are the characteristics of the ass? Much the same as those
+which adorn it in other parts of the East&mdash;namely, it is useful for
+riding and for carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and
+shows gratitude; it is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and
+more tractable than its European congener; its pace is easy
+and pleasant; and it will shrink from no labour, if only its poor
+daily feed of straw and barley is fairly given.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise,
+and wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of
+its extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters,
+who, however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having
+learned to live among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the
+same system of education with their miserable dependants.</p>
+
+<p>"The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and
+silver trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with
+rich Persian carpets. The poor do the best they can for him,
+steal for his benefit, give him a corner at their fireside, and in
+cold weather sleep with him for more warmth. In Palestine, all
+the rich men, whether monarchs or chiefs of villages, possess
+a number of asses, keeping them with their flocks, like the
+patriarchs of old. No one can travel in that country, and observe
+how the ass is employed for all purposes, without being struck
+with the exactness with which the Arabs retain the Hebrew
+customs."</p>
+
+<p>The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an
+enduring and tolerably swift animal, vying with the camel itself
+in its powers of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a
+sort of easy canter. On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said
+even to gain on the horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs
+give it a firm footing where the larger hoof of the horse is liable
+to slip.</p>
+
+<p>The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know
+by that name, but is very large and complicated in structure.
+Over the animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick
+woollen stuff, and folded several times. The saddle itself is a
+very thick pad of straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top,
+instead of being rounded as is the case with our saddles. The
+pommel is very high, and when the rider is seated on it, he is
+perched high above the back of the animal. Over the saddle is
+thrown a cloth or carpet, always of bright colours, and varying
+in costliness of material and ornament according to the wealth
+of the possessor. It is mostly edged with a fringe and tassels.</p>
+
+<p>The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells,
+embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>
+guided by a driver who ran behind it, just as is done with donkeys
+hired to children here. Owing to the unchanging character of the
+East, there is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures
+rode exactly after the mode which is adopted at the present day.
+What that mode is, we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amusing
+and vivid description of a ride through the streets of Cairo:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 402px;"><a name="cairo" id="cairo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_321.jpg" width="402" height="600" alt="cairo" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to
+the ways of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I
+would advise no one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey-riding
+is universal, and no one thinks of going beyond the Frank
+quarters on foot. If he does, he must submit to be followed by
+not less than six donkeys with their drivers. A friend of mine
+who was attended by such a cavalcade for two hours, was obliged
+to yield at last, and made no second attempt. When we first
+appeared in the gateway of an hotel, equipped for an excursion,
+the rush of men and animals was so great that we were forced
+to retreat until our servant and the porter whipped us a path
+through the yelling and braying mob. After one or two trials
+I found an intelligent Arab boy named Kish, who for five
+piastres a day furnished strong and ambitious donkeys, which
+he kept ready at the door from morning till night. The other
+drivers respected Kish's privilege, and henceforth I had no
+trouble.</p>
+
+<p>"The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the
+ground, but there is no end to their strength and endurance.
+Their gait, whether in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light
+that fatigue is impossible. The drivers take great pride in
+having high-cushioned red saddles, and in hanging bits of
+jingling brass to the bridles. They keep their donkeys close
+shorn, and frequently beautify them by painting them various
+colours. The first animal I rode had legs barred like a zebra's,
+and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly. The
+drivers ran behind them with a short stick, punching them from
+time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the rump. Very
+few of them own their donkeys, and I understood their pertinacity
+when I learned that they frequently received a beating
+on returning home empty-handed.</p>
+
+<p>"The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous
+on donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between
+knocking somebody down and being knocked down yourself,
+and one certainly prefers the former alternative. There is no
+use in attempting to guide the donkey, for he won't be guided.
+The driver shouts behind, and you are dashed at full speed into
+a confusion of other donkeys, camels, horses, carts, water-carriers,
+and footmen. In vain you cry out '<em>Bess</em>' (enough), '<em>Piacco</em>,'
+and other desperate adjurations; the driver's only reply is: 'Let<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+the bridle hang loose!' You dodge your head under a camel-load
+of planks; your leg brushes the wheel of a dust-cart; you strike
+a fat Turk plump in the back; you miraculously escape upsetting
+a fruit-stand; you scatter a company of spectral, white-masked
+women; and at last reach some more quiet street, with
+the sensations of a man who has stormed a battery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 179px;"><a name="beggar" id="beggar"></a>
+<img src="images/i_323.jpg" width="179" height="500" alt="beggar" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but presently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+I let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious
+interest in seeing how near a chance I ran of striking or being
+struck. Sometimes there seemed no hope of avoiding a violent
+collision; but, by a series of the most remarkable dodges, he
+generally carried you through in safety. The cries of the driver
+running behind gave me no little amusement. 'The hawadji
+comes! Take care on the right hand! Take care on the left
+hand! O man, take care! O maiden, take care! O boy, get out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+the way! The hawadji comes!' Kish had strong lungs, and his
+donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we
+contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 210px;"><a name="night" id="night"></a>
+<img src="images/i_324.jpg" width="210" height="500" alt="watch" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This description explains several allusions which are made
+in the Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets,
+and to the chariots raging and jostling against each other in
+the ways.</p>
+
+<p>The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as
+it is at present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same
+way. Sacks and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle; but
+poles, planks, and objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping
+direction on the side of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on
+the ground, and the shorter projecting at either side of the
+animal's head. The North American Indians carry the poles of
+their huts, or wigwams, in precisely the same way, tying them
+on either side of their horses, and making them into rude sledges,
+upon which are fastened the skins that form the walls of their
+huts. The same system of carriage is also found among the
+Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme North, who harness
+their dogs in precisely the same manner. The Ass, thus laden,
+becomes a very unpleasant passenger through the narrow and
+crowded streets of an Oriental city; and many an unwary traveller
+has found reason to remember the description of Issachar
+as the strong Ass between two burdens.</p>
+
+<p>The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in
+the plough, as we find from many passages. See for example,
+"Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither
+the feet of the ox and the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside
+the waters is a custom that still prevails in all hot countries,
+the margins of rivers being tilled, while outside this cultivated
+belt there is nothing but desert ground.</p>
+
+<p>The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation,
+turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river,
+and poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of
+the tilled land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of
+the East is at the present day identical with those which were
+used in the old Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine
+in rather an ingenious manner. The machine consists of an
+upright pivot, and to it is attached the horizontal pole to which
+the ox or Ass is harnessed. A machine exactly similar in principle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span>
+may be seen in almost any brick-field in England; but the
+ingenious part of the Eastern water-machine is the mode in
+which the animal is made to believe that it is being driven by
+its keeper, whereas the man in question might be at a distance,
+or fast asleep.</p>
+
+<p>The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the
+horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar,
+is one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting
+end, being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal,
+keeps up a continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe
+that it is being drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some
+ingenious but lazy attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting
+whip, <em>i.e.</em> a stick which is lifted and allowed to fall
+on the animal's back by the action of the wheel once every
+round.</p>
+
+<p>The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used
+for ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present
+day the prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is
+often disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one,
+as the slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and
+more active animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its companion
+with its horns in order to stimulate it to do more than its
+fair proportion of the work.</p>
+
+<p>There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed
+in the days of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find
+any reference to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays
+from its master, the man who captures the trespasser on his
+grounds clips a piece out of its ear before he returns it to its
+owner. Each time that the animal is caught on forbidden
+grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear. By looking at
+the ears of an Ass, therefore, any one can tell whether it has
+ever been a straggler; and if so, he knows the number of times
+that it has strayed, by merely counting the clip-marks, which
+always begin at the tip of the ear, and extend along the edges.
+Any Ass, no matter how handsome it may be, that has many of
+those clips, is always rejected by experienced travellers, as it is
+sure to be a dull as well as a disobedient beast.</p>
+
+<p>There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circumstances
+connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few
+words. The first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+in the course of which there occurred that singular incident of
+the Ass speaking in human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35).
+The second is the well-known episode in the story of Samson,
+where he is recorded as breaking the cords with which his
+enemies had bound him, and killing a thousand Philistines with
+the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE WILD ASS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Various allusions to the Wild Ass&mdash;Its swiftness and wildness&mdash;The Wild Ass of
+Asia and Africa&mdash;How the Wild Ass is hunted&mdash;Excellence of its flesh&mdash;Meeting
+a Wild Ass&mdash;Origin of the domestic Ass&mdash;The Wild Asses of Quito.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass
+is distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of
+them there is some reference made to its swiftness, its intractable
+nature, and love of freedom. It is an astonishingly swift
+animal, so that on the level ground even the best horse has
+scarcely a chance of overtaking it. It is exceedingly wary, its
+sight, hearing, and sense of scent being equally keen, so that to
+approach it by craft is a most difficult task.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending
+hills or rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and
+even in the plains it will generally contrive to discover some
+earth-mound or heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel
+and give the alarm in case of danger. It is a gregarious animal,
+always assembling in herds, varying from two or three to several
+hundred in number, and has a habit of partial migration in
+search of green food, traversing large tracts of country in its
+passage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when
+captured very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a
+burden or draw a vehicle.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young
+that have been born in captivity, but with very slight success,
+the wild nature of the animal constantly breaking out,
+even when it appears to have become moderately tractable.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within
+the limits of the Holy Land, it was common enough in the
+surrounding country, and, from the frequent references made
+to it in Scriptures, was well known to the ancient Jews.</p>
+
+<p>We will now look at the various passages in which the Wild
+Ass is mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in Job
+xxxix. 5-8:</p>
+
+<p>"Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed
+the bands of the wild ass?</p>
+
+<p>"Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren
+lands (or salt places) his dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>"He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he
+the crying of the driver.</p>
+
+<p>"The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth
+after every green thing."</p>
+
+<p>Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and
+truth of detail that can only be found in personal knowledge;
+its love of freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration
+in search of pasture.</p>
+
+<p>Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is
+to be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5: "Doth the
+wild ass bray when he hath grass?" or, according to the version
+of the Jewish Bible, "over tender grass?"</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its
+wild state is given by Sir R. Kerr Porter, who was allowed by
+a Wild Ass to approach within a moderate distance, the animal
+evidently seeing that he was not one of the people to whom it
+was accustomed, and being curious enough to allow the stranger
+to approach him.</p>
+
+<p>"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern
+mountains, when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+animal which, my Persians said, from the glimpse they had of
+it, was an antelope. I instantly put spurs to my horse, and
+with my attendants gave chase. After an unrelaxed gallop of
+three miles, we came up with the dog, who was then within a
+short stretch of the creature he pursued; and to my surprise,
+and at first vexation, I saw it to be an ass.</p>
+
+<p>"Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it
+must be a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which
+the Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase,
+I determined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I
+was on could carry me. But the single instant of checking my
+horse to consider had given our game such a head of us that,
+notwithstanding our speed, we could not recover our ground
+on him.</p>
+
+<p>"I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions,
+when, at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made
+a pause, and allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him.
+He then darted off again with the quickness of thought, capering,
+kicking, and sporting in his flight, as if he were not blown in
+the least, and the chase was his pastime. When my followers
+of the country came up, they regretted that I had not shot the
+creature when he was within my aim, telling me that his flesh
+is one of the greatest delicacies in Persia.</p>
+
+<p>"The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which
+he fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description
+that Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above
+all, it reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author
+of the Book of Job. I was informed by the Mehnander, who
+had been in the desert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine
+of Ali, that the wild ass of Irak Arabi differs in nothing from
+the one I had just seen. He had observed them often for a
+short time in the possession of the Arabs, who told him the
+creature was perfectly untameable.</p>
+
+<p>"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these
+animals, and, pursuing it determinately, had the good fortune
+to kill it."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>It has been suggested by many zoologists that the Wild Ass
+is the progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the
+domesticated animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a><br /><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>
+no data whereon even a theory can be built. It is true that the
+Wild and the Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance,
+and that an <em>Asinus hemippus</em>, or Wild Ass, looks so like an
+Asiatic <em>Asinus vulgaris</em>, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye
+alone the two are hardly distinguishable from each other. But
+with their appearance the resemblance ends, the domestic animal
+being quiet, docile, and fond of man, while the wild animal is
+savage, intractable, and has an invincible repugnance to human
+beings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="hunt" id="hunt"></a>
+<img src="images/i_330.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="hunt" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HUNTING WILD ASSES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and
+is strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They
+are the descendants of the animals that were imported by the
+Spaniards, and live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine
+the habits of the Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame
+animal. They are as swift of foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or
+Africa, and have the same habit of frequenting lofty situations,
+leaping about among rocks and ravines, which seem only fitted
+for the wild goat, and into which no horse can follow them.</p>
+
+<p>Nominally, they are private property, but practically they
+may be taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The
+lasso is employed for the purpose, and when the animals are
+caught they bite, and kick, and plunge, and behave exactly like
+their wild relations of the Old World, giving their captors infinite
+trouble in avoiding the teeth and hoofs which they wield so
+skilfully. But, as soon as a load has once been bound on the
+back of one of these furious creatures, the wild spirit dies
+out of it, the head droops, the gait becomes steady, and the
+animal behaves as if it had led a domesticated life all its days.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE MULE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Ancient use of the Mule&mdash;Various breeds of Mule&mdash;Supposed date of its introduction
+into Palestine&mdash;Mule-breeding forbidden to the Jews&mdash;The Mule as a saddle-animal&mdash;Its
+use on occasions of state&mdash;The king's Mule&mdash;Obstinacy of the
+Mule.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are several references to the <span class="smcap">Mule</span> in the Holy Scriptures,
+but it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at
+all until the time of David, and that in the New Testament the
+name does not occur at all.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the Mule is unknown, but that the mixed breed
+between the horse and the ass has been employed in many
+countries from very ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very
+strange circumstance that the offspring of these two animals
+should be, for some purposes, far superior to either of the
+parents, a well-bred Mule having the lightness, surefootedness,
+and hardy endurance of the ass, together with the increased size
+and muscular development of the horse. Thus it is peculiarly
+adapted either for the saddle or for the conveyance of burdens
+over a rough or desert country.</p>
+
+<p>The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from
+the male ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the
+father and the ass as the mother being small, and comparatively
+valueless. At the present day, Mules are largely employed in
+Spain and the Spanish dependencies, and there are some breeds
+which are of very great size and singular beauty, those of
+Andalusia being especially celebrated. In the Andes, the Mule
+has actually superseded the llama as a beast of burden.</p>
+
+<p>Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In
+Gen. xxxvi. 24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred
+to the Mule: "This was that Anah that found the mules in the
+wilderness." Now the word which is here rendered as Mules is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+"Yemim," a word which is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew
+Scriptures. The best Hebraists are agreed that, whatever interpretation
+may be put upon the word, it cannot possibly have
+the signification that is here assigned to it. Some translate
+the word as "hot springs," while the editors of the Jewish Bible
+prefer to leave it untranslated, thus signifying that they are not
+satisfied with any rendering.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="mules" id="mules"></a>
+<img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="400" height="415" alt="mules" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MULES OF THE EAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The word which is properly translated as Mule is "Pered;"
+and the first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom
+had taken advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother
+Amnon in revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the
+servants of Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+Then all the king's sons arose, and every man gat him
+up upon his mule, and fled." It is evident from this passage
+that the Mule must have been in use for a considerable time,
+as the sacred writer mentions, as a matter of course, that the
+king's sons had each his own riding mule.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="absalom" id="absalom"></a>
+<img src="images/i_334.jpg" width="400" height="452" alt="absalom" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ABSALOM IS CAUGHT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TREE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Farther on, chap. xviii. 9 records the event which led to
+the death of Absalom by the hand of Joab. "And Absalom
+met the servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a mule,
+and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and
+his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between
+the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him
+went away."</p>
+
+<p>We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such
+high estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the
+saddle, and had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage
+we shall find that the Mule was ridden by the king himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+when he travelled in state, and that to ride upon the king's
+Mule was considered as equivalent to sitting upon the king's
+throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in which there are several
+passages illustrative of this curious fact. See first, ver. 33, in
+which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet,
+and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for bringing
+his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the stead
+of his father: "Take with you the servants of your lord, and
+cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring
+him down to Gihon."</p>
+
+<p>That the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal
+in Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that
+the Eastern mules of the present day are quite as troublesome
+as their European brethren. They are very apt to shy at
+anything, or nothing at all; they bite fiercely, and every now and
+then they indulge in a violent kicking fit, flinging out their
+heels with wonderful force and rapidity, and turning round and
+round on their fore-feet so quickly that it is hardly possible to
+approach them. There is scarcely a traveller in the Holy Land
+who has not some story to tell about the Mule and its perverse
+disposition; but, as these anecdotes have but very slight bearing
+on the subject of the Mule as mentioned in the Scriptures, they
+will not be given in these pages.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="refuses" id="refuses"></a>
+<img src="images/i_336.jpg" width="400" height="482" alt="refuses" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT THE KING'S MEAT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>SWINE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Mosaic prohibition of the pig&mdash;Hatred of Swine by Jews and Mahometans&mdash;The
+prodigal son&mdash;Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the skin&mdash;Destruction
+of the herd of Swine&mdash;The wild boar of the woods&mdash;The damage
+which it does to the vines.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the
+Mosaic law as unfit for food, beside those that come under the
+general head of being unclean because they do not divide the
+hoof and chew the cud. There is none, however, that excited
+such abhorrence as the hog, or that was more utterly detested.</p>
+
+<p>It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the
+present day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing
+with which the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+Even at the present day, a zealous Jew or Mahometan looks
+upon the hog, or anything that belongs to the hog, with an
+abhorrence too deep for words. The older and stricter Jews felt
+so deeply on this subject, that they would never even mention
+the name of the hog, but always substituted for the objectionable
+word the term "the abomination."</p>
+
+<p>Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding
+disgust felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of
+the Mosaic law on which a Jew would ground his antipathy to
+the flesh of Swine is that passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7:
+"And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed,
+yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you." But
+the very same paragraph, of which this passage forms the termination,
+treats of other unclean beasts, such as the coney (or
+hyrax) and the hare, neither of which animals are held in such
+abhorrence as the Swine.</p>
+
+<p>This enactment could not therefore have produced the singular
+feeling with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews,
+and in all probability the antipathy was of far greater antiquity
+than the time of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer
+from many passages, several of which occur in the Book of
+Isaiah. See, for example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh
+me to anger continually to my face; that sacrificeth in
+gardens, and burneth incense upon altars of brick;</p>
+
+<p>"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments,
+which eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things
+is in their vessels." Here we have the people heaping one
+abomination upon another&mdash;the sacrifice to idols in the gardens,
+the burning of incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange
+fire, the living among the tombs, where none but madmen and
+evil spirits were supposed to reside, and, as the culminating
+point of iniquity, eating Swine's flesh, and drinking the broth
+in which it was boiled.</p>
+
+<p>In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the
+Swine. Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the
+uselessness of their sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say: "He
+that killeth an ox is as if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a
+lamb, as if he had cut off a dog's neck; he that offereth an
+oblation, as if he offered swine's blood." We see here how the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
+prophet proceeds from one image to another: the murder of a
+man, the offering of a dog instead of a lamb, and the pouring
+out of Swine's blood upon the altar instead of wine&mdash;the last-mentioned
+crime being evidently held as the worst of the three.
+Another reference to the Swine occurs in the same chapter,
+verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves
+in the gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's
+flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed
+together, saith the Lord."</p>
+
+<p>Not only did the Jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but
+they held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it,
+and would have thought themselves polluted had they been even
+touched with a hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feeling
+has not diminished, and both by Jews and Mahometans the
+hog is held in utter abhorrence.</p>
+
+<p>Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling.
+Signor Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine,
+found the flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. "How
+often has the flesh of this animal supported me, especially during
+the earlier part of my stay in Palestine, before I had learned to
+like the mutton and the goats' flesh! I give the preference to
+this meat because it has often saved me time by rendering a fire
+unnecessary, and freed me from importunate, dirty, and unsavoury
+guests, who used their hands for spoons, knives, and forks.</p>
+
+<p>"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth
+that served me for a table was always my best friend. Without
+this talisman I should never have freed myself from unwelcome
+company, at least without breaking all the laws of hospitality
+by not inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my
+meal; a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country.
+Therefore, on the contrary, when thus provided I pressed them
+with the utmost earnestness to eat with me, but of course never
+succeeded in persuading them; and so dined in peace, keeping
+on good terms with them, although they did call me behind my
+back a 'dog of a Frank' for eating pork.</p>
+
+<p>"Besides, I had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always
+took care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants
+of my party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than
+a revolver, a rifle, or a sword; and I recommend all travellers in
+Palestine to carry bacon rather than arms."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the
+abject degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable
+must have descended, when he was compelled to become a
+swine-herd for a living, and would have been glad even to have
+eaten the very husks on which the Swine fed. These husks, by
+the way, were evidently the pods of the locust-tree, or carob, of
+which we shall have more to say in a future page. We have in
+our language no words to express the depths of ignominy into
+which this young man must have fallen, nor can we conceive
+any office which in our estimation would be so degrading as
+would be that of swine-herd to a Jew.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="prodigals" id="prodigals"></a>
+<img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="400" height="135" alt="prodigals" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PRODIGAL SON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh
+we can see from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a
+series of insults offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple
+in Jerusalem was to be called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus,
+and that on Gerizim was to be dedicated to Jupiter, the defender
+of strangers. The altars were defiled by forbidden things, and the
+celebration of the Sabbath, or of any Jewish ceremony, was
+punishable with death.</p>
+
+<p>Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the
+Jews seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly
+than any other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's
+flesh, an act which was so abhorrent to the Jews that in
+attempting to enforce it, Antiochus found that he was foiled by
+the passive resistance offered to him. The Jews had allowed
+their temples to be dedicated to the worship of heathen deities,
+they had submitted to the deprivation of their sacred rites, they
+had even consented to walk in procession on the Feast of
+Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers in that
+most licentious festival. It might be thought that any people
+who submit to such degradation would suffer any similar indignity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>
+But even their forbearance had reached its limits, and
+nothing could induce them to eat the flesh of Swine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="swine" id="swine"></a>
+<img src="images/i_340.jpg" width="400" height="595" alt="swine" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded
+in the book just mentioned. Eleazer, for example, a man
+ninety years old, sternly refused to partake of the abominable
+food. Some of the officials, in compassion for his great age,
+advised him to take lawful meat with him and to exchange it for
+the Swine's flesh. This he refused to do, saying that his age
+was only a reason for particular care on his part, lest the young
+should be led away by his example. His persecutors then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+forced the meat into his mouth, but he rejected it, and died
+under the lash.</p>
+
+<p>Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given
+by the same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were
+urged with blows to eat the forbidden food, and refused to do
+so. Thinking that the mother would not be able to endure the
+sight of her sons' sufferings, the officers took them in succession,
+and inflicted a series of horrible tortures upon them, beginning
+by cutting off their tongues, hands, and feet, and ending by
+roasting them while still alive. Their mother, far from counselling
+her sons to yield, even though they were bribed by promises
+of wealth and rank, only encouraged them to persevere, and,
+when the last of her sons was dead, passed herself through the
+same fiery trial.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="seven" id="seven"></a>
+<img src="images/i_341.jpg" width="400" height="333" alt="seven" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig
+was prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of
+its flesh in a hot country, and that its almost universal repudiation
+in such lands is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries
+where diseases of the skin are so common, and where the
+dreaded leprosy still maintains its hold, the flesh of the pig is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+thought, whether rightly or wrongly, to increase the tendency to
+such diseases, and on that account alone would be avoided.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="evil" id="evil"></a>
+<img src="images/i_342.jpg" width="400" height="516" alt="evil" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OF SWINE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be
+habitually consumed in hot countries without producing any
+evil results; and, moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was
+not confined to the Swine, but included many other animals
+whose flesh is used without scruple by those very persons who
+reject that of the pig.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal,
+we may naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of
+Swine kept in Jewish lands.</p>
+
+<p>Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of
+Swine that was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28-34). It is
+an open question whether those who possessed the Swine were
+Jews of lax principles, who disregarded the Law for the sake<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span>
+of gain, or whether they were Gentiles, who, of course, were not
+bound by the Law. The former seems the likelier interpretation,
+the destruction of the Swine being a fitting punishment for their
+owners. It must be here remarked, that our Lord did not, as is
+often said, destroy the Swine, neither did He send the devils into
+them, so that the death of these animals cannot be reckoned as
+one of the divine miracles. Ejecting the evil spirits from the
+maniacs was an exercise of His divine authority; the destruction
+of the Swine was a manifestation of diabolical anger, permitted,
+but not dictated.</p>
+
+<p>Swine are at the present day much neglected in Palestine,
+because the Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the
+Christians, as a rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt
+the feelings of their neighbours. Pigs are, however, reared in the
+various monasteries, and by the Arabs attached to them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="carcase" id="carcase"></a>
+<img src="images/i_343.jpg" width="400" height="315" alt="carcase" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now come to the wild animal. There is only one passage
+in the Scriptures in which the <span class="smcap">Wild Boar</span> is definitely mentioned,
+and another in which a reference is made to it in a
+paraphrase.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 354px;"><a name="wilder" id="wilder"></a>
+<img src="images/i_344.jpg" width="354" height="600" alt="wilder" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WILD BOARS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms:
+"Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which
+pass by the way do pluck her?</p>
+
+<p>"The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast
+of the field doth devour it" (Ps. lxxx. 12, 13). The second
+passage is to be found in Ps. lxviii. 30. In the Authorized
+Version it is thus rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen,
+the multitude of bulls, with the calves of the people." If the
+reader will refer to the marginal translation (which, it must be
+remarked, is of equal authority with the text), the passage runs
+thus: "Rebuke the beasts of the reeds," &amp;c. Now, this is
+undoubtedly the correct rendering, and is accepted in the Jewish
+Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the
+description and character of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much
+more plentiful than is the case in these days, owing to the
+greater abundance of woods, many of which have disappeared
+by degrees, and others been greatly thinned by the encroachments
+of mankind. Woods and reed-beds are always the habitations
+of the Wild Boar, which resides in these fastnesses, and
+seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the wood, probably
+because it can find plenty of mud, in which it wallows after the
+fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever that the "beast
+of the reeds" is simply a poetical phrase for the Wild Boar.</p>
+
+<p>If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood,
+the Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to
+the crops. It is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in
+any other ground, as it not only devours the grapes, but tears
+down and destroys the vines, trampling them under foot, and
+destroying a hundredfold as much as it eats.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader will refer again to Ps. lxxx. he will see that the
+Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine: "Thou
+hast brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the
+heathen and planted it," &amp;c. No image of a destructive enemy
+could therefore be more appropriate than that which is used.
+We have read of the little foxes that spoil the vines, but the
+Wild Boar is a much more destructive enemy, breaking its way
+through the fences, rooting up the ground, tearing down the vines
+themselves, and treading them under its feet. A single party<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a><br /><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+of these animals will sometimes destroy an entire vineyard in
+a single night.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 334px;"><a name="vineyard" id="vineyard"></a>
+<img src="images/i_346.jpg" width="334" height="600" alt="vineyard" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WILD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a
+vineyard even by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar
+is infinitely more destructive. It is of very great size, often
+resembling a donkey rather than a boar, and is swift and active
+beyond conception. The Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as
+the very near relation of the domestic species. It runs with
+such speed, that a high-bred horse finds some difficulty in overtaking
+it, while an indifferent steed would be left hopelessly
+behind. Even on level ground the hunter has hard work to
+overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or hilly ground, no
+horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a considerable
+distance, and can wheel and turn when at full speed, with an
+agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed, the
+inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would
+as soon face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose
+razor-like tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is
+sufficient to rip up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Wild Boar is not as plentiful in Palestine as
+used to be the case, it is still found in considerable numbers.
+Whenever the inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of
+marauding parties among the crops, they turn out for a general
+hunt, and kill as many as they can manage to slay. After one
+of these hunts, the bodies are mostly exposed for sale, but, as the
+demand for them is very small, they can be purchased at a very
+cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought one in the plains of Jericho
+for five shillings. For the few who may eat the hog, this is a
+fortunate circumstance, the flesh being very excellent, and as
+superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a barn-door fowl
+or venison to mutton.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_347.jpg" width="400" height="146" alt="blah" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="indian" id="indian"></a>
+<img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="indian" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">INDIAN ELEPHANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE ELEPHANT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized Version&mdash;The Elephant as
+an engine of war&mdash;Antiochus and his Elephants&mdash;Oriental exaggeration&mdash;Self-devotion
+of Eleazar&mdash;Attacking the Elephants, and their gradual abandonment
+in war.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Except indirectly, the Elephant is never mentioned in the
+Authorized Version of the Canonical Scriptures, although frequent
+references are made to ivory, the product of that animal.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest mention of ivory in the Scriptures is to be found
+in 1 Kings x. 18: "Moreover the king (<em>i.e.</em> Solomon) made a
+great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold." This
+passage forms a portion of the description given by the sacred
+historian of the glories of Solomon's palace, of which this celebrated
+throne, with the six steps and the twelve lions on the
+steps, was the central and most magnificent object. It is named
+together with the three hundred golden shields, the golden vessel
+of the royal palace, and the wonderful arched viaduct crossing
+the valley of the Tyrop&oelig;on, "the ascent by which he went up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+unto the house of the Lord," all of which glories so overcame
+the Queen of Sheba that "there was no more spirit in her."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sheba" id="sheba"></a>
+<img src="images/i_349.jpg" width="400" height="341" alt="sheba" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">KING SOLOMON, SEATED UPON HIS THRONE, RECEIVES THE QUEEN OF SHEBA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We see, therefore, that in the time of Solomon ivory was so
+precious an article that it was named among the chief of the
+wonders to be seen in the palace of Solomon, the wealthiest and
+most magnificent monarch of sacred or profane history.</p>
+
+<p>That it should not have been previously mentioned is very
+singular. Five hundred years had elapsed since the Israelites
+escaped from the power of Egypt, and during the whole of that
+time, though gold and silver and precious stones and costly
+raiment are repeatedly mentioned, we do not find a single passage
+in which any allusion is made to ivory. Had we not
+known that ivory was largely used among the Egyptians, such
+an omission would cause no surprise. But the researches of
+modern travellers have brought to light many articles of ivory
+that were in actual use in Egypt, and we therefore cannot but
+wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem
+to have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought
+by the Israelites from the land of their captivity, and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a><br /><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+were so abundant that the Tabernacle was entirely formed of
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 330px;"><a name="elephants" id="elephants"></a>
+<img src="images/i_350.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="elephants" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">INDIAN ELEPHANTS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the various collections of Europe are many specimens of
+ivory used by the ancient Egyptians, among the chief of which
+may be mentioned an ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid
+the name of the dynasty in which it was carved, and the ivory-tipped
+lynch-pins of the splendid war-chariot in Florence, from
+which the illustration on page 309 has been drawn.</p>
+
+<p>The ivory used by the Egyptians was, of course, that of the
+African Elephant; and was obtained chiefly from Ethiopia, as
+we find in Herodotus ("Thalia," 114):&mdash;"Where the meridian declines
+towards the setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches,
+being the extreme part of the habitable world. It produces
+much gold, huge elephants, wild trees of all kinds, ebony, and
+men of large stature, very handsome and long-lived."</p>
+
+<p>The passages in the Bible in which the Elephant itself is
+named are only to be found in the Apocrypha, and in all of them
+the Elephant is described as an engine of war. If the reader
+will refer to the First Book of the Maccabees, he will find that
+the Elephant is mentioned at the very commencement of the
+book. "Now when the kingdom was established before Antiochus,
+he thought to reign over Egypt, that he might have the
+dominion of two realms.</p>
+
+<p>"Wherefore he entered into Egypt with a great multitude,
+with chariots, and elephants, and horsemen, and a great navy."
+(i. 16, 17.)</p>
+
+<p>Here we see that the Elephant was considered as a most potent
+engine of war, and, as we may perceive by the context, the King
+of Egypt was so alarmed by the invading force, that he ran away,
+and allowed Antiochus to take possession of the country.</p>
+
+<p>After this, Antiochus Eupator marched against Jerusalem
+with a vast army, which is thus described in detail:&mdash;"The
+number of his army was one hundred thousand footmen, and
+twenty thousand horsemen, and two and thirty elephants exercised
+in battle.</p>
+
+<p>"And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to
+fight, they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries.</p>
+
+<p>"Moreover, they divided the beasts among the armies, and
+for every elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with
+coats of mail, and with helmets of brass on their heads; and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+besides this for every beast were ordained five hundred horsemen
+of the best.</p>
+
+<p>"These were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast
+was; and whithersoever the beast went they went also, neither
+departed they from him.</p>
+
+<p>"And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood,
+which covered every one of them, and were girt fast unto them
+with devices; there were also upon every one two and thirty
+strong men that fought upon them, beside the Indian that ruled
+him.</p>
+
+<p>"As for the remnant of the horsemen, they set them on this
+side and that side at the two fronts of the host, giving them
+signs what to do, and being harnessed all over amidst the
+ranks." (1 Macc. vi. 30, &amp;c.)</p>
+
+<p>It is evident from this description that, in the opinion of the
+writer, the Elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing
+force, these animals being prominently mentioned, and the rest
+of the army being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the
+terrible beasts. The thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken
+such a hold of the narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon
+them in the same light that the ancient Jews regarded chariots
+of war, or as at the present day savages regard artillery.
+According to his ideas, the thirty-two Elephants constituted the
+real army, the hundred thousand infantry and twenty thousand
+cavalry being only in attendance upon these animals.</p>
+
+<p>Taken as a whole, the description of the war Elephant is a
+good one, though slightly exaggerated, and is evidently written
+by an eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or
+"Indian that guided him," is characteristic enough, as is the
+account of the howdah, or wooden carriage on the back of the
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated,
+though not to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's
+Elephants, which are said to have carried on their backs sixty
+soldiers, beside the wooden tower in which they fought. It is
+evident that, in the first place, no Elephant could carry a tower
+large enough to hold so many fighting men, much less one
+which would afford space for them to use their weapons.</p>
+
+<p>A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel
+(p. 157):&mdash;"There were certain officers and guides of the Elephants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+who were called <em>Elephantarchæ</em>, who were the governors
+of sixteen Elephants, and they which did institute and teach
+them martial discipline were called <em>Elephantagogi</em>.</p>
+
+<p>"The Military Elephant did carry four persons on his bare
+back, one fighting on the right hand, another fighting on the
+left hand, a third, which stood fighting backwards from the
+Elephant's head, and a fourth in the middle of these, holding
+the rains, and guiding the Beast to the discretion of the Souldiers,
+even as the Pilot in a ship guideth the stem, wherein
+was required an equall knowledge and dexterity; for when the
+Indian which ruled them said, Strike here on the right hand,
+or else on the left, or refrain and stand still, no reasonable man
+could yield readier obedience."</p>
+
+<p>This description is really a very accurate as well as spirited
+one, and conveys a good idea of the fighting Elephant as it
+appeared when brought into action.</p>
+
+<p>Strangely enough, after giving this temperate and really
+excellent account of the war Elephant, the writer seems to have
+been unable to resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds
+to describe, with great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting
+adopted by the animal, intermixed with a considerable amount
+of the exaggeration from which the former part of his account
+is free.</p>
+
+<p>"They did fasten iron chains, first of all, upon the Elephant
+that was to bear ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty men, on either
+side two panniers of iron bound underneath their belly, and
+upon them the like panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they
+placed their men at armes, and covered them over with small
+boards (for the trunck of the Elephant was covered with a mail
+for defence, and upon that a broadsword two cubits long); this
+(as also the wooden Castle, or pannier aforesaid) were fastened
+first to the neck and then to the rump of the Elephant.</p>
+
+<p>"Being thus armed, they entered the battle, and they shewed
+unto the Beasts, to make them more fierce, wine, liquor made of
+Rice, and white cloth, for at the sight of any of these his courage
+and rage increaseth above all measure. Then at the sound of
+the Trumpet, he beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil,
+take up into the air, cast down again, stamp upon men under
+feet, overthrow with his trunck, and make way for his riders to
+pierce with Spear, Shield, and Sword; so that his horrible voice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a><br /><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+his wonderful body, his terrible force, his admirable skill, his
+ready and inestimable obedience, and his strange and seldom-seen
+shape, produced in a main battel no mean accidents and
+overturns."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 347px;"><a name="ward" id="ward"></a>
+<img src="images/i_354.jpg" width="347" height="600" alt="ward" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WAR ELEPHANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this account there is a curious mixture of truth and
+exaggeration. As we have already seen, the number of soldiers
+which the animal was supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated,
+and it is rather amusing to note how the "towers" in which they
+fought are modified into "panniers." Then the method by which
+the animal is incited to the combat is partly true, and partly
+false. Of course an Elephant is not angered by seeing a piece
+of white cloth, or by looking at wine, or a liquor made of rice.</p>
+
+<p>But that the wine, or the "liquor made of rice," <em>i.e.</em> arrack,
+was administered to the Elephant before it was brought into the
+battle-field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of
+strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task within
+their powers by a provision of arrack, and when stimulated by
+a plentiful supply of their favourite drink they would be in
+good fighting condition.</p>
+
+<p>Next we find the writer describing the Elephant as being
+furnished with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis, the
+end of which was armed with a sword a yard in length. Now
+any one who is acquainted with the Elephant will see at once
+that such offensive and defensive armour would deprive the
+animal of the full use of the proboscis, and would, therefore,
+only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in battle. Accordingly
+we find that the writer, when describing with perfect
+accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly omits
+all mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and describes
+the animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword, but as
+overthrowing with the trunk, taking up into the air, and casting
+down again&mdash;acts which could only be performed when the
+proboscis was unencumbered by armour. The use of weapons
+was left to the soldiers that fought upon its back, the principal
+object of the huge animal being to trample its way through
+the opposing ranks, and to make a way for the soldiers that
+followed.</p>
+
+<p>It may be easily imagined that, before soldiers become familiarized
+with the appearance of the Elephant, they might be
+pardoned for being panic-struck at the sight of so strange an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>
+animal. Not only was it formidable for its vast size, and for the
+armed men which it carried, but for the obedience which it
+rendered to its keeper, and the skill with which it wielded the
+strange but powerful weapon with which Nature had armed it.</p>
+
+<p>At first, the very approach of so terrible a foe struck consternation
+into the soldiers, who knew of no mode by which
+they could oppose the gigantic beast, which came on in its
+swift, swinging pace, crushing its way by sheer weight through
+the ranks, and striking right and left with its proboscis. No
+other method of checking the Elephant, except by self-sacrifice,
+could be found; and in 1 Macc. vi. 43-46, we read how
+Eleazar, the son of Mattathias, nobly devoted himself for his
+country.</p>
+
+<p>"Eleazar also, surnamed Savaran, perceiving that one of the
+beasts, armed with royal harness, was higher than all the rest,
+and supposing that the king was upon him,</p>
+
+<p>"Put himself in jeopardy, to the end he might deliver his
+people, and get him a perpetual name.</p>
+
+<p>"Whereupon he ran upon him courageously, through the
+midst of the battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left,
+so that they were divided from him on both sides.</p>
+
+<p>"Which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him
+under, and slew him; whereupon the elephant fell down upon
+him, and he died."</p>
+
+<p>I may here mention that the surname of Savaran, or Avaran,
+as it ought to be called, signifies one who pierces an animal from
+behind, and was given to him after his death, in honour of his
+exploit.</p>
+
+<p>At first, then, Elephants were the most formidable engines
+of war that could be brought into the battle-field, and the very
+sight of these huge beasts, towering above even the helmets
+of the cavalry, disheartened the enemy so much that victory
+became easy.</p>
+
+<p>After a while, however, when time for reflection had been
+allowed, the more intellectual among the soldiers began to think
+that, after all, the Elephant was not a mere engine, but a living
+animal, and, as such, subject to the infirmities of the lower
+animals. So they invented scheme after scheme, by which they
+baffled the attacks of these once dreaded foes, and sometimes
+even succeeded in driving them back among the ranks of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+own soldiery, so maddened with pain and anger, that they dealt
+destruction among the soldiers for whom they were fighting,
+and so broke up their order of battle that the foe easily overcame
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered, and
+soldiers were armed with very sharp swords, set on long handles,
+with which they continually attacked the Elephants' trunks.
+Others were mounted on swift horses, dashed past the Elephant,
+and hurled their darts before the animal could strike them.
+Others, again, were placed in chariots, and armed with very long
+and sharply-pointed spears. Several of these chariots would
+be driven simultaneously against an Elephant, and sometimes
+succeeded in killing the animal. Slingers also were told off
+for the express purpose of clearing the "castles," or howdahs,
+of the soldiers who fought on the Elephants' backs, and their
+especial object was the native mahout, who sat on the animal's
+neck.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes they made way for the Elephant as it pressed
+forward, and then closed round it, so as to make it the central
+mark, on which converged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones
+on every side, until the huge animal sank beneath its many
+wounds. By degrees, therefore, the Elephant was found to be
+so uncertain an engine of war, that its use was gradually discontinued,
+and finally abandoned altogether.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Elephant which was employed in these wars was the
+Indian species, <em>Elephas Indicus</em>, which is thought to be more
+susceptible of education than the African Elephant. The latter,
+however, has been tamed, and, in the days of Rome's greatest
+splendour, was taught to perform a series of tricks that seem
+almost incredible. As, however, the Indian species is that with
+which we have here to do, I have selected it for the principal
+illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>It may be at once distinguished from its African relative by
+the comparatively small ears, those of the African Elephant
+reaching above the back of the head, and drooping well below
+the neck. The shape of the head, too, is different. In the
+Indian species, only the males bear tusks, and even many of
+them are unarmed. In the African species, however, both sexes
+bear tusks, those of the male furnishing the best ivory, with its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+peculiar creamy colour and beautiful graining, and those of the
+female being smaller in size, and producing ivory of a much
+inferior quality.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="afric" id="afric"></a>
+<img src="images/i_358.jpg" width="400" height="488" alt="afric" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">AFRICAN ELEPHANTS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Elephant, whether of Asia or Africa,
+always lives in herds varying greatly in numbers,
+and invariably found in the deepest forests,
+or in their near vicinity. Both species are fond
+of water, and never wander far from some stream or fountain,
+although they can, and do, make tolerably long journeys for the
+purpose of obtaining the needful supply of liquid.</p>
+
+<p>They have a curious capability of laying up a store of water in
+their interior, somewhat after the fashion of the camel, but also
+possess the strange accomplishment of drawing the liquid supply
+from their stomachs by means of their trunks, and scattering it in
+a shower over their backs to cool their heated bodies.</p>
+
+<p>When drinking, the Elephant inserts the tip of his trunk into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
+the stream, fills it with water, and then, turning it into his throat,
+discharges the contents.</p>
+
+<p>The strangest portion of the Elephant is the trunk, or proboscis.
+This wonderful appendage is furnished at its extremity with a finger-like
+projection, with which the animal can pluck a single blade
+of grass or pick up a small object from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the proboscis to the Elephant can be estimated
+when it is considered that without its aid the animal must soon
+starve to death. The short, thick neck and projecting tusks would
+entirely prevent it from reaching any of the vegetation upon which
+it feeds.</p>
+
+<p>With the trunk, however, the Elephant readily carries its food
+to its mouth, and employs the useful member just as if it were a
+long and flexible arm.</p>
+
+<p>The Elephant bears a worldwide fame for its capabilities as a
+servant and companion of man, and for the extraordinary development
+of its intellectual faculties. The Indian or Asiatic Elephant
+is the variety that is considered most docile and easy to
+train; these are almost invariably taken in a wild state from their
+native forests. The Indian hunters usually proceed into the woods
+with trained female Elephants. These advance quietly, and by
+their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate
+male that they meet that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs
+together and fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions
+now leave him to struggle in impotent rage until he is so subdued
+by hunger and fatigue that the hunters can drive him home between
+two tame elephants. When once captured, he is easily
+trained.</p>
+
+<p>The following curious instance of intelligence in an Elephant
+is given by a traveller in Ceylon:</p>
+
+<p>"One evening, while riding in the vicinity of Kandy, my horse
+showed some excitement at a noise which was heard in the thick
+jungle, sounding something like '<em>Urmph! Urmph!</em>' uttered in a
+hoarse and dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the
+mystery, by bringing me face to face with a tame working Elephant
+unaccompanied by any driver or attendant. He was laboring
+painfully with a heavy beam of timber, which he had balanced
+across his tusks and was carrying to the village from which I had
+come.</p>
+
+<p>"The pathway being narrow, he was compelled to bend his head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a><br /><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+to one side to permit the passage of the long piece of wood, and
+the exertion and inconvenience combined, led him to utter the
+dissatisfied sounds which had frightened my horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 365px;"><a name="swatter" id="swatter"></a>
+<img src="images/i_360.jpg" width="365" height="600" alt="swatter" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ELEPHANTS' WATERING-PLACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"On seeing us halt, the Elephant raised his head, looked at us
+for a moment, then dropped the timber, and forced himself backward
+among the bushes at the side of the road, so as to leave us
+plenty of room to pass.</p>
+
+<p>"My horse still hesitated; the Elephant observed this, and impatiently
+crowded himself still deeper in the jungle, repeating his
+cry of, '<em>Urmph! Urmph!</em>' but in a voice evidently meant to
+encourage us to come on. Still the horse trembled; and, anxious
+to observe the conduct of the two sagacious creatures, I forbore
+any interference. Again the Elephant wedged himself farther in
+among the trees and waited for us to pass him. At last the horse
+timidly did so, after which I saw the wise Elephant come out
+of the wood, take up the heavy timber upon his tusks, and resume
+his route, hoarsely snorting, as before, his discontented remonstrance."</p>
+
+<p>Although so valuable an animal for certain kinds of work, the
+Elephant is hardly so effective an assistant as might be supposed.
+The working Elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
+watchfulness and care; as a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory,
+for, although in the matter of mere strength there is hardly any
+weight that could be conveniently placed on him which he could
+not carry, it is difficult to pack it without causing abrasions of
+the Elephant's skin, which afterwards ulcerate.</p>
+
+<p>His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wet weather.
+Either during long droughts, or too much moisture, his feet are
+also liable to sores which render him useless for months.</p>
+
+<p>In India the Elephant is used more for purposes of state display
+or for hunting than for hard labor. It is especially trained for
+tiger-hunting, and, as there is a natural dread of the terrible tiger
+deeply implanted in almost all Elephants, it is no easy matter to
+teach the animal to approach his powerful foe.</p>
+
+<p>A stuffed tiger-skin is employed for this purpose, and is continually
+shown to the Elephant until he learns to lose all distrust
+of the inanimate object, and to strike it, to crush it with his feet,
+or to pierce it with his tusks.</p>
+
+<p>After a while a boy is put inside the tiger-skin, in order to
+accustom the Elephant to the sight of the tiger in motion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="tigers" id="tigers"></a>
+<img src="images/i_362.jpg" width="600" height="395" alt="tiger" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">TIGER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The last stage in the proceedings is to procure a dead tiger,
+and to substitute it for the stuffed skin. Even with all this training,
+it most frequently happens that when the Elephant is brought
+to face a veritable living tiger the furious bounds, the savage yells,
+and gleaming eyes of the beast are so terrifying that he turns tail
+and makes a hasty retreat. Hardly one Elephant out of ten will
+face an angry tiger. The Elephant, when used in tiger-hunting,
+is always guided by a native driver, called a mahout, who sits
+astride of the animal's neck and guides its movements by means
+of the voice and the use of an iron hook at the end of a short stick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="reeds" id="reeds"></a>
+<img src="images/i_363.jpg" width="400" height="242" alt="reeds" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE TIGER IN THE REEDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hunters who ride upon the Elephant sit in a kind of box
+called a howdah, which is strapped firmly upon the animal's back,
+or else merely rests upon a large flat pad furnished with cross-ropes
+for maintaining a firm hold. The Elephant generally kneels to
+enable the riders to mount, and then rises from the ground with a
+peculiar swinging motion that is most discomposing to beginners in
+the art.</p>
+
+<p>The chase of the tiger is among the most exciting and favourite
+sports in India. When starting on a hunt, a number of hunters
+usually assemble, mounted on Elephants trained for the purpose,
+and carrying with them a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs,
+or carriages mounted on the Elephants' backs. Thus armed, they
+proceed to the spot where a tiger has been seen. The animal is
+usually found hidden in the long grass or jungle, which is frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+eight or more feet in height; and when roused, it endeavours
+to creep away under the grass. The movement of the leaves betrays
+him, and he is checked by a rifle-ball aimed at him through the
+jungle. Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he
+turns round and springs at the nearest Elephant, endeavouring to
+clamber up it and attack the party in the howdah. This is the
+most dangerous part of the proceedings, as many Elephants will
+turn round and run away, regardless of the efforts of their drivers
+to make them face the tiger. Should, however, the Elephant stand
+firm, a well-directed ball checks the tiger in his spring; and he
+then endeavours to again escape, but a volley of rifle-balls from
+the backs of the other Elephants, who by this time have come up,
+lays the savage animal prostrate, and in a very short time his skin
+decorates the successful marksman's howdah.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="tigger" id="tigger"></a>
+<img src="images/i_364.jpg" width="300" height="270" alt="tigger" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_365.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="hyrax" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CONEY, OR HYRAX.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the word&mdash;Identification
+of the Shaphan with the Syrian Hyrax&mdash;Description of the animal&mdash;Its feet,
+teeth, and apparent rumination&mdash;Passages in which the Coney is mentioned&mdash;Habits
+of the animal&mdash;Its activity and wariness&mdash;The South African Hyrax,
+and its mode of life&mdash;Difficulty of procuring it&mdash;Similarity in appearance and
+habits of the Syrian species&mdash;Three species of Hyrax known to naturalists.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Among the many animals mentioned in the Bible, there is
+one which is evidently of some importance in the Jewish code,
+inasmuch as it is twice named in the Mosaic law.</p>
+
+<p>That it was also familiar to the Jews is evident from other
+references which are made to its habits. This animal is the
+Shaphan of the Hebrew language, a word which has very
+wrongly been translated in the Authorized Version as Coney,
+<em>i.e.</em> Rabbit, the creature in question not being a rabbit, nor even
+a rodent. No rabbit has ever been discovered in Palestine, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+naturalists have agreed that the true Coney or Rabbit has never
+inhabited the Holy Land. There is no doubt that the Shaphan
+of the Hebrew Scripture, and the Coney of the Vulgate, was the
+<span class="smcap">Syrian Hyrax</span> (<em>Hyrax Syriacus</em>). This little animal is rather
+larger than an ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in appearance,
+and has many of its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, it is
+very active, it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, and it has in
+the front of its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth, very much like
+those of the rabbit. Consequently, it was classed by naturalists
+among the rodents for many years, under the name of Rock
+Rabbit. Yet, as I have already mentioned, it is not even a
+rodent, but belongs to the pachydermatous group of animals, and
+occupies an intermediate place between the rhinoceros and the
+hippopotamus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hyrax" id="hyrax"></a>
+<img src="images/i_366.jpg" width="400" height="334" alt="hyrax" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HYRAX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If it be examined carefully, the rodent-like teeth will be seen
+to resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
+with their sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a
+close inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny
+hoofs just like those of the rhinoceros; and there are many other
+points in its structure which, to the eye of a naturalist, point
+out its true place in nature.</p>
+
+<p>In common with the rodents, and other animals which have
+similarly-shaped teeth, the Hyrax, when at rest, is continually
+working its jaws from side to side, a movement which it instinctively
+performs, in order that the chiselled edges of the upper
+and lower teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing
+against each other, and that they may not be suffered to grow
+too long, and so to deprive the animal of the means whereby it
+gains its food. But for this peculiar movement, which looks
+very like the action of ruminating, the teeth would grow far
+beyond the mouth, as they rapidly deposit dental material in
+their bases in order to supply the waste caused at their tips by
+the continual friction of the edges against each other.</p>
+
+<p>It may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the
+elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, all bare-skinned
+animals, should be clothed with a furry coat. The reader may
+perhaps remember that the Hyrax does not afford a solitary
+instance of this structure, and that, although the elephants of
+our day have only a few bristly hairs thinly scattered over the
+body, those of former days were clad in a thick and treble coat
+of fur and hair.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There are four passages of Scripture in which the <span class="smcap">Coney</span> is
+mentioned&mdash;two in which it is prohibited as food, and two in
+which allusion is made to its manner of life. In order to
+understand the subject better, we will take them in their order.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of the Coney occurs in Leviticus xi. 5,
+among the list of clean and unclean animals: "The coney,
+because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is
+unclean unto you." The second is of a like nature, and is to be
+found in Deut. xiv. 7: "These ye shall not eat of them that
+chew the cud, or of them that divide the cloven hoof; as the
+camel, and the hare, and the coney: for they chew the cud, but
+divide not the hoof; therefore they are unclean unto you."</p>
+
+<p>The remaining passages, which describe the habits of the
+Coney, are as follow. The first alludes to the rock-loving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+habits of the animal: "The high hills are a refuge for the wild
+goats, and the rocks for the conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second
+makes a similar mention of the localities which the animal
+frequents, and in addition speaks of its wariness, including it
+among the "four things which are little upon the earth, but they
+are exceedingly wise." The four are the ants, the locusts, the
+spiders, and the Conies, which "are but a feeble folk, yet make
+they their houses in the rocks."</p>
+
+<p>We will take these passages in their order.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been mentioned that the Hyrax, a true pachyderm,
+does not merely chew the cud, but that the peculiar and
+constant movement of its jaws strongly resembles the act of
+rumination. The Jews, ignorant as they were of scientific
+zoology, would naturally set down the Hyrax as a ruminant, and
+would have been likely to eat it, as its flesh is very good. It
+must be remembered that two conditions were needful to render
+an animal fit to be eaten by a Jew, the one that it must be a
+ruminant, and the second that it should have a divided hoof.
+Granting, therefore, the presence of the former qualification,
+Moses points out the absence of the latter, thereby prohibiting
+the animal as effectually as if he had entered into a question of
+comparative anatomy, and proved that the Hyrax was incapable
+of rumination.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the habits of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>As we may gather from the passages of Scripture which have
+already been mentioned, the Hyrax inhabits rocky places, and
+lives in the clefts that are always found in such localities. It is
+an exceedingly active creature, leaping from rock to rock with
+wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm
+hold of the hard and irregular surface of the stony ground.
+Even in captivity it retains much of its activity, and flies about
+its cage with a rapidity that seems more suitable to a squirrel
+than to an animal allied to the rhinoceros and hippopotamus.</p>
+
+<p>There are several species&mdash;perhaps only varieties&mdash;of the
+Hyrax, all of them identical in habits, and almost precisely
+similar in appearance. The best known of these animals is that
+which inhabits Southern Africa (<em>Hyrax Capensis</em>), and which is
+familiar to the colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit.
+In situations which suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is
+much hunted by the natives, who esteem its flesh very highly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
+Small and insignificant as it appears to be, even Europeans
+think that to kill the Hyrax is a tolerable test of sportsmanship,
+the wariness of the animal being so great that much hunter's
+craft is required to approach it.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the Hyrax has been furnished to me
+by Major A. W. Drayson, R.A.:&mdash;"In the Cape Colony, and over
+a great portion of Southern Africa, this little creature is found.
+It is never, as far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers,
+as we find rabbits in England, though the caution of the animal
+is such as to enable it to remain safe in districts from which
+other animals are soon exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>"As its name implies, it is found among rocks, in the crevices
+and holes of which it finds a retreat. When a natural cavity is
+not found, the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the
+rocks, and burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about
+equal to a hare, though it is much shorter in the legs, and has
+ears more like those of a rat than a rabbit. Its skin is covered
+with fur, thick and woolly, as though intended for a colder
+climate than that in which it is usually found; and, when seen
+from a distance, it looks nearly black.</p>
+
+<p>"The rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature, and usually
+feeds on the summit of any piece of rock near its home, always
+choosing one from which it can obtain a good view of the surrounding
+country. When it sees an enemy approaching, it
+sits rigidly on the rock and watches him without moving, so
+that at a little distance it is almost impossible to distinguish
+it from the rock on which it sits. When it does move, it darts
+quickly out of sight, and disappears into its burrow with a
+sudden leap.</p>
+
+<p>"In consequence of its activity and cunning, the rock-rabbit
+is seldom killed by white men; and when a hunter does secure
+one, it is generally by means of a long shot. The natives usually
+watch near its burrow, or noiselessly stalk it.</p>
+
+<p>"I once killed one of these animals by a very long shot
+from a rifle, as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large
+boulder, at a distance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts.
+The Dutch Boers who were with me were delighted at
+the sight of it, as they said it was good eating; and so it proved
+to be, the flesh being somewhat like that of a hare, though in
+our rough field-cookery we could not do justice to it."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This short narrative excellently illustrates the character of the
+animal, which is classed among the "four things which be exceeding
+wise." It is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set
+has induced a Hyrax to enter it, and so wary that it is with
+difficulty to be killed even with the aid of fire-arms. "No
+animal," writes Mr. Tristram, "ever gave us so much trouble to
+secure.... The only chance of securing one is to be concealed,
+particularly about sunset or before sunrise, on some overhanging
+cliff, taking care not to let the shadow be cast below, and then
+to wait until the little creatures cautiously peep forth from their
+holes. They are said to be common by those who have not
+looked for them, but are certainly not abundant in Palestine,
+and few writers have ever had more than a single glimpse of one.
+I had the good fortune to see one feeding in the gorge of the
+Kedron, and then to watch it as it sat at the mouth of its hole,
+ruminating, metaphorically if not literally, while waiting for
+sunset."</p>
+
+<p>Should the Hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy, it
+utters a shrill cry or squeal, and darts at once to its hole&mdash;an
+action which is followed by all its companions as soon as they
+hear the warning cry. It is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing
+four or five young at a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of
+hay and fur, in which they are almost hidden. If surprised in
+its hole and seized, the Hyrax will bite very sharply, its long
+chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe wounds on the hand that
+attempts to grasp it. But it is of a tolerably docile disposition,
+and in a short time learns to know its owner, and to delight in
+receiving his caresses.</p>
+
+<p>Three species of Hyrax are known to naturalists. One is the
+Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit, of Southern Africa; the second is the
+Ashkoko of Abyssinia; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or
+the Coney of the Bible. The two last species have often been
+confounded together, but the Syrian animal may be known
+by the oblong pale spot on the middle of its back.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hippo" id="hippo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_371.jpg" width="400" height="307" alt="hippo" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HIPPOPOTAMUS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>BEHEMOTH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Literal translation of the word Behemoth&mdash;Various theories respecting the
+identity of the animal&mdash;The Hippopotamus known to the ancient Hebrews&mdash;Geographical
+range of the animal&mdash;"He eateth grass like the ox"&mdash;Ravages
+of the Hippopotamus among the crops&mdash;Structure of the mouth and teeth&mdash;The
+"sword or scythe" of the Hippopotamus&mdash;Some strange theories&mdash;Haunts
+of the Hippopotamus&mdash;The Egyptian hunter&mdash;A valuable painting&mdash;Strength
+of the Hippopotamus&mdash;Rising of the Nile&mdash;Modern hunters&mdash;Wariness of the
+Hippopotamus&mdash;The pitfall and the drop-trap.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so
+familiar to us as the Book of Job, the Lord is represented as reproving
+the murmurs of Job, by showing that he could not even
+understand the mysteries of the universe, much less the purposes
+of the Creator. By presuming to bring a charge of injustice
+against his Maker, he in fact inferred that the accuser was more
+competent to govern the world than was the Creator, and thus
+laid himself open to the unanswerable irony of the splendid
+passages contained in chapters xl. xli., which show that man
+cannot even rule the animals, his fellow-creatures, much less
+control the destinies of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>The passages with which we are at present concerned are to
+be found at the end of the fortieth chapter, and contain a most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+powerful description of some animal which is called by the
+name of Behemoth. Now this word only occurs once in the
+whole of the Scriptures, <em>i.e.</em> in Job xl. 15: "Behold now
+behemoth, which I made with thee," &amp;c. Some commentators,
+in consequence of the plural termination of the word, which
+may be literally translated as "beasts," have thought that it was
+a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as
+the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like.
+Others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word
+Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with palæontology,
+have put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must
+have been some extinct pachydermatous animal, like the dinotherium,
+in which might be combined many of the qualities of
+the elephant and hippopotamus.</p>
+
+<p>It is now, however, agreed by all Biblical scholars and naturalists,
+that the hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the creature
+which was signified by the word Behemoth, and this interpretation
+is followed in the Jewish Bible.</p>
+
+<p>We will now take the whole of the passage, and afterwards
+examine it by degrees, comparing the Authorized Version with
+the Jewish Bible, and noting at the same time one or two variations
+in the rendering of certain phrases. The passage is given
+as follows in the Jewish Bible, and may be compared with our
+Authorized Version:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+"Behold now the river-horse, which I have made with thee: he eateth grass like an ox.<br />
+<br />
+"Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his vigour is in the muscles of his body.<br />
+<br />
+"He moveth his tail like a cedar: the sinews of his thighs are wrapped together.<br />
+<br />
+"His bones are pipes of copper; his bones are like bars of iron.<br />
+<br />
+"He is the chief of the ways of God: he that made him can alone reach his sword.<br />
+<br />
+"That the mountains should bring forth food for him, and all the beasts of the field play there.<br />
+<br />
+"He lieth under wild lotuses, in the covert of the reed, and fens.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>"Wild lotuses cover him with their shadow; willows of the brook compass him about.<br />
+<br />
+"Behold, should a river overflow, he hasteth not: he feels secure should Jordan burst forth up to his mouth.<br />
+<br />
+"He taketh it in with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>We will now take this description in detail, and see how far
+it applies to the now familiar habits of the hippopotamus. A
+little allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but
+we shall find that in all important details the account of the
+Behemoth agrees perfectly with the appearance and habits of
+the hippopotamus.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is evident that we may dismiss from our
+minds the idea that the Behemoth was an extinct pachyderm.
+The whole tenor of the passage shows that it must have been
+an animal then existing, and whose habits were familiar to Job
+and his friends. Now the date of the Book of Job could not
+have been earlier than about 1500 <small>B.C.</small>, and in consequence,
+the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be discarded.</p>
+
+<p>We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most
+unlikely that Job should have known anything about the
+animal, and it is certain that he could not have attained the
+familiarity with its appearance and habits which is inferred by
+the context. Moreover, it cannot be said of the elephant that
+"he eateth grass as an ox." The elephant feeds chiefly on the
+leaves of trees, and when he does eat grass, he cannot do so
+"like an ox," but plucks it with his proboscis, and then puts the
+green tufts into his mouth. So characteristic a gesture as this
+would never have passed unnoticed in a description so full of
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>That the hippopotamus was known to the ancient Hebrews is
+certain. After their sojourn in Egypt they had necessarily
+become familiarized with it; and if, as most commentators believe,
+the date of the Book of Job be subsequent to the liberation
+of the Israelites, there is no difficulty in assuming that Job and
+his companions were well acquainted with the animal. Even if
+the book be of an earlier date, it is still possible that the hippopotamus
+may, in those days, have lived in rivers where it is now
+as much extinct as it is in England. Mr. Tristram remarks on
+this point: "No hippopotamus is found in Asia, but there is no
+reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern range as
+far as Palestine, and wallowed in the Jordan; for its bones are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a><br /><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
+found in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the
+Mediterranean, when tradition is quite silent as to its former
+existence."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="hip" id="hip"></a>
+<img src="images/i_374.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="hip" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the hippopotamus and the urus were
+the two largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably
+on that account that the former received the name of Behemoth.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming, therefore, that the Behemoth is identical with the
+hippopotamus, we will proceed with the description.</p>
+
+<p>"He eateth grass like the ox." The word which is here
+rendered "grass" is translated in Numb. xi. 5 as "leeks." It
+means, something that is green, and is probably used to signify
+green herbage of any description. Now it is perfectly true of
+the hippopotamus that it eats grass like an ox, or like cattle, as
+the passage may be translated. In order to supply its huge
+massive body with nourishment, it consumes vast quantities of
+food. The mouth is enormously broad and shovel-shaped, so as to
+take in a large quantity of food at once; and the gape is so wide,
+that when the animal opens its jaws to their full extent it seems to
+split its head into two nearly equal portions. This great mobility
+of jaw is assisted by the peculiar form of the gape, which takes a
+sudden turn upwards, and reaches almost to the eyes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="jaws" id="jaws"></a>
+<img src="images/i_375.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="jaws" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GREAT JAWS OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a><br /><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>
+food, so the jaws and teeth are made to procure it. From the
+front of the lower jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally, no
+longer performing the ordinary duties of teeth, but being modified
+into tusks, which are in all probability used as levers for
+prising up the vegetables on which the animal lives. But the
+most singular portion of the jaw is the mode in which the canine
+teeth are modified so as to resemble the incisor teeth of rodents,
+and to perform a similar office.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hipp" id="hipp"></a>
+<img src="images/i_376.jpg" width="400" height="305" alt="hipp" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These teeth are very long, curved, and chisel-edged at their
+tips, their shape being preserved by continual attrition, just as
+has been mentioned of the hyrax. The material of the teeth is
+peculiarly hard, so much so, indeed, that it is in great request for
+artificial teeth, the "verniers" of philosophical instruments, and
+similar purposes. Consequently, with these teeth the hippopotamus
+can cut through the stems of thick and strong herbage as
+with shears, and the strength of its jaws is so great that an
+angered hippopotamus has been known to bite a man completely
+in two, and to crush a canoe to fragments with a single movement
+of its enormous jaws.</p>
+
+<p>Keeping this description in our minds, we shall see how true
+is the statement in verse 19. This passage is not adequately
+rendered in the Authorized Version: the word which is translated
+as "sword" also signifies a scythe, and evidently having that
+meaning in the text. The passage is best translated thus: "His
+Maker hath furnished him with his scythe."</p>
+
+<p>The havoc which such an animal can make among growing
+crops may be easily imagined. It is fond of leaving the river,
+and forcing its way into cultivated grounds, where it eats vast
+quantities of green food, and destroys as much as it eats, by the
+trampling of its heavy feet. Owing to the width of the animal,
+the feet are placed very far apart, and the consequence is that
+the hippopotamus makes a double path, the feet of each side
+trampling down the herbage, and causing the track to look like
+a double rut, with an elevated ridge between them.</p>
+
+<p>Some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in
+verse 20, "Surely the mountains bring him forth food." Commentators
+ignorant of the habits of the hippopotamus, and not
+acquainted with the character of the country where it lives, have
+thought that the animal only lived in the rivers, and merely
+found its food along its banks, or at most upon the marshes at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
+the river-side. The hippopotamus, say they, is not a dweller on
+the mountains, but an inhabitant of the river, and therefore this
+passage cannot rightly be applied to the animal.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in the first place, the word <em>harim</em>, which is translated as
+"mountains" in the Authorized Version, is rendered as "hills" by
+many Hebraists. Moreover, as we know from many passages of
+Scripture, the word "mountain" is applied to any elevated spot,
+without reference to its height. Such places are very common
+along the banks of the Nile, and are employed for the culture of
+vegetables, which would not grow properly upon the flat and
+marshy lands around them. These spots are very attractive to
+the hippopotamus, who likes a change of diet, and thus finds food
+upon the mountains. In many parts of Egypt the river runs
+through a mountainous country, so that the hills are within a
+very short distance of the water, and are easily reached by the
+hippopotamus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="grass" id="grass"></a>
+<img src="images/i_378.jpg" width="300" height="220" alt="grass" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HIPPOPOTAMUS EATING GRASS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to the next verse. After mentioning
+that the Behemoth can eat grass like an ox, and finds its food
+upon the hills, the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its
+moments of repose it is an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy
+ground: "He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the
+reed, and fens.</p>
+
+<p>"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows
+of the brook compass him about."</p>
+
+<p>Here I may remind the reader that the compound Hebrew word
+which is rendered in the Authorized Version as "shady trees" is
+translated by some persons as "wild lotuses"&mdash;a rendering which
+is followed by the editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently,
+however, the Authorized Version gives a more correct meaning
+of the term. Judging from a well-known Egyptian painting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span>
+which represents a hunter in the act of harpooning the hippopotamus,
+the tall papyrus reeds are the plants that are signified
+by this word, which occurs in no other place in the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be more accurate than this description of the
+habits of the animal. I have now before me a number of sketches
+by Mr. T. Baines, representing various incidents in the life of the
+hippopotamus; and in one or two of them, the little islands that
+stud the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly
+clothed with reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly
+similar to those which are represented in the conventional style
+of Egyptian art. These spots are the favourite haunts of the
+hippopotamus, which loves to lie under their shadow, its whole
+body remaining concealed in the water, and only the eyes, ears,
+and nostrils appearing above the surface.</p>
+
+<p>As reference will be made to this painting when we come to
+the Leviathan, it will be as well to describe it in detail. In
+order that the reader should fully understand it, I have had it
+translated, so to speak, from the conventional outline of Egyptian
+art into perspective, exactly as has been done with the Assyrian
+and Egyptian chariots.</p>
+
+<p>In the foreground is seen the hunter, standing on a boat that
+closely resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several
+parts of Africa. It is made of the very light wood called
+ambatch, by cutting down the requisite number of trees, laying
+them side by side so that their bases form the stern and their
+points the bow of the extemporized boat. They are then firmly
+lashed together, the pointed ends turned upwards, and the simple
+vessel is complete. It is, in fact, nothing more than a raft of
+triangular shape, but the wood is so buoyant that it answers
+every purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about
+to launch at the hippopotamus. This is evidently the same
+weapon which is still employed for that purpose. It consists of
+a long shaft, into the end of which a barbed iron point is loosely
+inserted. To the iron point is attached one end of a rope, and
+to the other end, which is held in the left hand of the harpooner,
+a float of ambatch wood is fastened.</p>
+
+<p>When the weapon is thrown, the furious struggles of the
+wounded animal disengage the shaft of the harpoon, which is
+regained by the hunter; and as it dashes through the water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
+throwing up spray as it goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of
+the rope at the surface, so that it can be seen as soon as the
+animal becomes quieter. Sometimes it dives to the bottom, and
+remains there as long as its breath can hold out; and when it
+comes up to breathe, it only pushes the nostrils out of the water
+under the shadow of the reeds, so that but for the float it might
+manage to escape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hippohunt" id="hippohunt"></a>
+<img src="images/i_380.jpg" width="400" height="402" alt="hippohunt" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A HIPPOPOTAMUS HUNT IN EGYPT.<br />
+
+(This picture is taken from an ancient Egyptian painting.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the meantime, guided by the float, the hunter follows the
+course of the animal, and, as soon as it comes within reach of
+his weapon, drives another spear into it, and so proceeds until
+the animal dies from loss of blood. The modern hunters never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>
+throw a second harpoon unless the one already fixed gives way,
+mainly employing a spear to inflict the last wounds. But if we
+may judge from this painting, the Egyptian hunter attached a
+new rope with every cast of his weapon, and, when the hippopotamus
+became weak from its wounds, gathered up the ropes
+and came to close quarters.</p>
+
+<p>In the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant, armed with a
+rope made lasso-wise into a noose, which he is throwing over
+the head of the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression
+show evidently, in spite of the rudeness of the drawing, the
+impotent anger of the weakened animal.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the hippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and
+papyrus under the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and
+on the surface of the water float the beautiful white flowers of
+the lotus.</p>
+
+<p>In the Egyptian painting, the artist, in spite of the conventionalities
+to which he was bound, has depicted the whole scene
+with skill and spirit. The head and open mouth of the hippopotamus
+are remarkably fine, and show that the artist who drew
+the animal must have seen it when half mad with pain, and
+half dead from loss of blood.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in
+verses 16, 18, the last of which passages requires a little explanation.
+Two different words are used here to express the bones of
+the animal. The first is derived from a word signifying strength,
+and means the "strong bones," <em>i.e.</em> those of the legs. These are
+hollow, and are therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of
+copper. The second term is thought by some Hebraists to refer
+to the rib-bones, which are solid, and therefore are not likened
+to tubes, but to bars of iron.</p>
+
+<p>The 23d verse has been translated rather variously. The
+Authorized Version can be seen by reference to a Bible, and
+another translation, that of the Jewish Bible, is given on page
+374. A third, and perhaps the best rendering of this passage is
+given by the Rev. W. Drake, in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible:"
+"Lo, the river swelleth proudly against him, yet he is not
+alarmed; he is securely confident though a Jordan burst forth
+against his mouth."</p>
+
+<p>In all probability reference is here made to the annual rising
+of the Nile, and the inundations which it causes. In some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span>
+years, when it rises much above its usual height, the floods
+become most disastrous. Whole villages are swept away, and
+scarcely a vestige of the mud-built houses is left; the dead
+bodies of human beings are seen intermixed with those of cattle,
+and the whole country is one scene of desolation. Yet the
+almost amphibious hippopotamus cares nothing for the floods,
+as long as it can find food, and so, "though the river swelleth
+proudly against him," he is not alarmed.</p>
+
+<p>From the use of the word "Jordan" in the same verse, it might
+be thought that the river of Palestine was intended. This,
+however, is not the case. The word "Jordan" is simply used as a
+poetical term for any river, and is derived from a Hebrew
+word which signifies "descending quickly."</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the last verse of this noble description: "He
+taketh it in with his eyes." These words have also been variously
+rendered, some translating them as "He receiveth it (<em>i.e.</em> the
+river) up to his eyes." But the translation which seems to suit
+the context best is, "Who will take him when in his sight? His
+nose pierceth through (<em>i.e.</em> detects) snares." Now, this faculty
+of detecting snares is one of the chief characteristics of the
+hippopotamus, when it lives near places inhabited by mankind,
+who are always doing their best to destroy it. In the first
+place, its body gives them an almost unlimited supply of flesh,
+the fat is very highly valued for many purposes, the teeth are
+sold to the ivory-dealers, and the hide is cut up into whips, or
+khoorbashes.</p>
+
+<p>There is now before me a khoorbash, purchased from a native
+Egyptian who was beating a servant with it. The whip is
+identical with that which was used by the ancient Egyptians in
+urging the Israelites to their tasks, and the scene reminded the
+traveller so forcibly of the old Scriptural times that he rescued
+the unfortunate servant, and purchased the khoorbash, which is
+now in my collection.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with hunting the hippopotamus, the natives
+contrive various traps, either pitfalls or drop-traps. The former
+are simply pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with
+sticks and reeds, and having at the bottom a sharp stake on
+which the victim is impaled, and so effectually prevented from
+escaping or damaging the pit by its struggles.</p>
+
+<p>The drop-trap is a log of wood, weighted with stones, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span>
+having at one end an iron spike, which is sometimes poisoned.
+The path which the animal takes is watched, a conveniently
+overhanging branch is selected, and from that branch the cruel
+spear is suspended, by a catch or trigger, exactly over the centre
+of the path. There is no difficulty in finding the precise centre
+of the path, owing to the peculiar gait of the animal, which
+has already been described. One end of the trigger supports
+the spear, and to the other is attached a rope, which is brought
+across the path in such a way that when touched it relieves the
+spear, which is driven deeply into the animal's back. If well
+hung, the spear-blade divides the spine, and the wounded animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+falls on the spot, but, even if it should miss a vital part, the
+poison soon does its fatal work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="trap" id="trap"></a>
+<img src="images/i_383.jpg" width="400" height="399" alt="trap" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In consequence of the continual persecution to which it is
+subjected, the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary, and,
+huge, clumsy, and blundering as it looks, is clever enough to
+detect either pitfall or drop-trap that have not been contrived
+with especial care. An old and experienced hippopotamus
+becomes so wary that he will be suspicious even of a bent twig,
+and, rather than venture across it, he will leave the path, force
+for himself a roundabout passage, and return to the path beyond
+the object that alarmed him.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. T. Baines, to whose sketches I am indebted for the
+illustration, told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of
+much more intellect than might be expected from a creature
+of so dull, clumsy, and unpromising aspect. Apathetic it
+generally is, and, as long as it is left unmolested, does not
+care to molest even the human beings that intrude upon its
+repose.</p>
+
+<p>It likes to lie in the shade of the reeds and rushes, and may
+be seen floating in the water, with only the nostrils, the eyes,
+and the ears above the surface, these organs being set in a line
+along the head, evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole
+body to be hidden under water while the three most important
+senses are capable of acting.</p>
+
+<p>A canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will
+fearlessly take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals,
+knowing that, if he only avoids contact with them, they will
+not interfere with him. The only danger is, that a hippopotamus
+may rise under the canoe, and strike itself against the boat, in
+which case the animal is rather apt to consider the intruding
+object as an enemy, and to attack it, sometimes crushing the
+canoe between its teeth, and mostly upsetting it, and throwing
+the crew into the water. In such a case, the men always dive
+at once to the bottom of the river, and hold on to some weed or
+rock as long as they can exist without breathing. The reason
+for this proceeding is, that the hippopotamus always looks for
+its enemy upon the surface of the water, and, if the men were
+to swim to shore, they would be caught and killed before they
+had swum many strokes. But, as it sees nothing but the
+damaged canoe, its short-lived anger vanishes, and it sinks again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
+into the river, leaving the men at liberty to regain and repair
+their vessel.</p>
+
+<p>There is one passage in the description of the Behemoth
+which requires a few words of explanation: "He moveth his
+tail like a cedar" (v. 17).</p>
+
+<p>Several commentators have imagined that this expression
+shows that the Behemoth must have been an animal which had
+a very long and powerful tail, and have adduced the passage as a
+proof that the crocodile was the animal that was signified by
+the Behemoth. Others, again, have shifted the position of the
+tail, and, by rendering it as the "proboscis," have identified the
+Behemoth with the elephant. There is, however, no necessity
+for straining the interpretation, the passage evidently signifying
+that the member in question is stiff and inflexible as the cedar-stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_385.jpg" width="350" height="365" alt="lily" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="baboon" id="baboon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_386.jpg" width="400" height="354" alt="baboon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BABOON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE APE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture&mdash;Why the Ape was introduced
+into Palestine&mdash;Solomon's ships, and their cargo of Apes, peacocks, ivory, and
+gold&mdash;Various species of Monkey that might have been imported&mdash;Habits of
+the Monkey, and reverence in which it is held by the natives&mdash;The Egyptians
+and their Baboon worship&mdash;Idols and memorials&mdash;The Wanderoo&mdash;its singular
+aspect&mdash;Reasons why it should be introduced into Palestine&mdash;General habits of
+the Wanderoo&mdash;Various species of Monkey that may be included in the term
+"Kophim."</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly
+mentioned in Holy Writ. If, as is possible, the Satyr of
+Scripture signifies some species of baboon, there are but three
+passages either in the Old or New Testament where these
+animals are mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22, and the parallel
+passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes a passing
+allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which
+were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshish, the remaining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
+articles being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage
+occurs in Is. xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the
+site of Babylon satyrs shall dance.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for this reticence is simple enough. No monkey
+was indigenous to Palestine when the various writers of the
+Bible lived, and all their knowledge of such animals must have
+been derived either from the description of sailors, or from the
+sight of the few specimens that were brought as curiosities from
+foreign lands. Such specimens must have been extremely rare
+or they would not have been mentioned as adjuncts to the
+wealth of Solomon, the wealthiest, as well as the wisest monarch
+of his time. To the mass of the people they must have been
+practically unknown, and therefore hold but a very inferior place
+in the Scriptures, which were addressed to all mankind.</p>
+
+<p>There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect,
+which is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery
+which pervades the whole of the Scriptures. For example,
+the various carnivorous animals, such as the lion, wolf, and
+bear, are used as emblems of destruction in various ways; while
+the carnivorous birds, such as the eagle and hawk, and the
+destructive insects, such as the locust and the caterpillar, are
+all similarly employed in strengthening and illustrating the
+words of Holy Writ.</p>
+
+<p>But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned
+metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were imported
+into Palestine must only have been intended as objects of
+curiosity, just as the peacocks which accompanied them were
+objects of beauty, and the gold and ivory objects of value&mdash;all
+being employed in the decoration of the king's palace.</p>
+
+<p>The question that now comes before us is the species of
+monkey that is signified by the Hebrew word Kophim. In
+modern days, we distinguish this tribe of animals into three
+great sections, namely, the apes, the baboons, and the monkey;
+and according to this arrangement the ape, being without tails,
+must have been either the chimpanzee of Africa, the orang-outan
+of Sumatra, or one of the Gibbons. But there is no reason to
+imagine that the word Kophim was intended to represent any
+one of these animals, and it seems evident that the word was
+applied to any species of monkey, whether it had a tail or not.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
+particular species of monkey, is to notice the land from which
+the animals came. Accordingly, we find that the ships of
+Solomon brought gold, ivory, apes, and peacocks, and that they
+evidently brought their cargoes from the same country. Consequently,
+the country in question must produce gold, and must be
+inhabited by the monkey tribe, by the elephant, and by the
+peacock. If the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned,
+we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country
+to which reference is made; but the mention of that bird shows
+that some part of Asia must be signified. It is most probable
+that the vessels in question visited both India and Ceylon, although,
+owing to the very imperfect geographical knowledge of the period,
+it is not possible to assert absolutely that this is the case. In
+India, however, and the large island of Ceylon, gold, elephants,
+peacocks, and monkeys exist; and therefore we will endeavour
+to identify the animals which are mentioned under the general
+term Apes, or Kophim.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="rhesus" id="rhesus"></a>
+<img src="images/i_388.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="rhesus" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE RHESUS MONKEY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question
+must have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely
+that one of them was the <span class="smcap">Rhesus Monkey</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="india" id="india"></a>
+<img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="400" height="546" alt="india" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FEEDING THE MONKEYS IN INDIA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many
+creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently,
+it takes up its quarters near human habitations, feeling sure that
+it will not be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at
+hand. It is said that in some parts of India the natives always
+leave one-tenth of their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus
+the animals content themselves with this offering, and refrain
+from devastating the fields, as they would otherwise do. This
+story may be true or not. It is certainly possible that in a long
+series of years the monkeys of that neighbourhood have come to
+look upon their tithe as a matter belonging to the ordinary
+course of things; but whether it be true or not, it illustrates the
+reverence entertained by the Hindoos for their monkeys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the
+monkeys get rather more than their share, plundering without
+scruple, and finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who
+dare not drive them away, lest they should injure any of these
+sacred beings. However, being of the opinion that no evil
+will follow a foreigner's action, they are only too glad to avail
+themselves of the assistance of Europeans, who have no scruples
+on the subject. Still, although they are pleased to see the
+monkeys driven off, and their crops saved, they would rather
+lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be killed,
+and in the earlier years of the Indian colony, several riots took
+place between the natives and the English, because the latter
+had killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in
+which it was held.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="trouble" id="trouble"></a>
+<img src="images/i_390.jpg" width="400" height="347" alt="trouble" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">TROUBLESOME NEIGHBORS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another monkey which may probably have been brought to
+Palestine from India is the <span class="smcap">Hoonuman</span>, <span class="smcap">Entellus</span>, or <span class="smcap">Makur</span>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
+which is more reverenced by the Hindoos than any other
+species. Its scientific title is <em>Presbytes entellus</em>. In some parts of
+India it is worshipped as a form of divinity, and in all it is
+reverenced and protected to such an extent that it becomes a
+positive nuisance to Europeans who are not influenced by the
+same superstitious ideas as those which are so prevalent in
+India. Being a very common species, it could easily be
+captured, especially if, as is likely to be the case, it was fearless
+of man through long immunity from harm. The sailors who
+manned Solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about the
+sacred character of the monkeys, but would take them without
+the least scruple wherever they could be found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="centering" id="centering"></a>
+<img src="images/i_391.jpg" width="400" height="380" alt="centering" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MONKEYS ENTERING A PLANTATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of
+its docility when taken young, and the amusing tricks which it
+is fond of displaying in captivity as well as in a state of
+freedom. Moreover, it is rather a pretty creature, the general
+colour being yellowish, and the face black.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="slothful" id="slothful"></a>
+<img src="images/i_392.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="slothful" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SLOTHFUL MONKEYS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perfectly aware of the impunity with which they are permitted
+to act, these monkeys prefer human habitations to the
+forests which form the natural home of their race, and crowd
+into the villages and temples, the latter being always swarming
+with the long-tailed host. As is the case with the Rhesus, the
+Hoonuman monkeys are much too fond of helping themselves
+from the shops and stalls, and if they can find a convenient roof,
+will sit there and watch for the arrival of the most dainty
+fruits.</p>
+
+<p>However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling
+to inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in
+making arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on
+forbidden spots will inflict injury on itself. They may not shoot
+or wound in any way the monkeys which cluster on their roofs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>
+and the animals are so perfectly aware of the fact, that they
+refuse to be driven away by shouts and menacing gestures.
+But, they contrive to make the roofs so uncomfortable by covering
+them with thorns, that the monkeys are obliged to quit their
+points of vantage, and to choose some spot where they can sit
+down without fear of hurting themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="privileged" id="privileged"></a>
+<img src="images/i_393.jpg" width="400" height="521" alt="privileged" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A PRIVILEGED RACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a
+monkey, does seem equally absurd and contemptible. But,
+strange as this superstition may be, and the more strange because
+the intellectual powers of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly
+subtle and penetrating, it was shared by a greater, a mightier,
+and a still more intellectual race, now extinct as a nation. The
+ancient Egyptians worshipped the baboon, and ranked it among
+the most potent of their deities; and it can but strike us with
+wonder when we reflect that a people who could erect buildings
+perfectly unique in the history of the world, who held the foremost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>
+place in civilization, who perfected arts which we, at a
+distance of three thousand years, have only just learned, should
+pay divine honours to monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such,
+however, was the case; and we find that the modern Hindoo
+shows as great reverence for the identical animals as did the
+Egyptian when Pharaoh was king, and Joseph his prime
+minister.</p>
+
+<p>It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient
+times, nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped
+these creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs
+of some attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have
+been made as to the worship of idols, and it is likely enough
+that the highly educated among the worshippers did look upon a
+serpent merely as an emblem of divine wisdom, a bull as an
+image of divine strength, and a monkey as an external memorial
+of the promised incarnation of divinity. So with idols, which to
+the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but visible
+symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in
+worship. But, though this was the case with the educated and
+intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who compose the
+great mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that both the
+living animal and the lifeless idol were themselves divine, and
+did worship them accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely
+to have been brought to Palestine, and used for the adornment
+of a luxurious monarch's palace. This is the <span class="smcap">Wanderoo</span>,
+or <span class="smcap">Nil-Bhunder</span> (<em>Silenus veter</em>). The Wanderoo, or Ouanderoo,
+as the name is sometimes spelled, is a very conspicuous animal,
+on account of the curious mane that covers its neck and head,
+and the peculiarly formed tail, which is rather long and tufted,
+like that of a baboon, and has caused it to be ranked among
+those animals by several writers, under the name of the Lion-tailed
+Baboon. That part of the hairy mass which rolls over the
+head is nearly black, but as it descends over the shoulders, it
+assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is nearly white.
+As is the case with many animals, the mane is not noticeable
+in the young specimens, but increases in size with age, only reaching
+its full dimensions when the animal has attained adult age.
+Only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, venerable, wig-like
+mane to be seen in perfection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corresponds
+with its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be
+more sedate than the ordinary monkeys, to judge from the
+specimens which have lived in the Zoological Gardens, and sits
+peering with its shiny brown eyes out of the enormous mane,
+with as much gravity as if it were really a judge deciding an important
+case in law. Not that it will not condescend to the little
+tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so celebrated;
+but it soon loses the vivacity of youth, and when full-grown,
+presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity, as does
+a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the restless, lively,
+playful kitten of three months old. During its growth, it can be
+taught to go through several amusing performances, but it has
+little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally found
+among the monkey tribe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="wanderoo" id="wanderoo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_395.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="wanderoo" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WANDEROO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its
+youth. The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable
+when young, and yet, when a few years have passed over its
+head and whitened its mane, may be totally obstinate and dull.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 358px;"><a name="discovered" id="discovered"></a>
+<img src="images/i_396.jpg" width="358" height="600" alt="discovered" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ENEMY DISCOVERED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The natives of the country in which the Wanderoo lives,
+attribute to it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to
+imply, much as the ancient Athenians venerated the owl as
+the bird of wisdom, and the chosen companion of the learned
+Minerva. In many places, the Wanderoo is thought to be a sort
+of king among monkeys, and to enjoy the same supremacy
+over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king-vulture maintains over
+the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest that
+marks its rank.</p>
+
+<p>I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have been
+one of the monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and
+therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together
+with the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely probable,
+the Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it
+is almost certain that the Wanderoo would have been brought to
+Solomon, in order to increase the glories of his palace. Sir
+Emerson Tennant points out very forcibly, that in the Tamil
+language, the words for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical
+with the Hebrew names for the same objects, and thus gives a
+very strong reason for supposing that Ceylon was the country
+from which Solomon's fleet drew its supplies.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would
+have been one of the animals sent to grace the palace of
+Solomon is this. In the days when that mighty sovereign lived,
+as indeed has been the case in all partially civilized countries, the
+kings and rulers have felt a pride in collecting together the
+rarest objects which they could purchase, giving the preference to
+those which were in any way conspicuous, whether for intrinsic
+value, for size, for beauty, or for ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs,
+and deformed persons of either sex, and even idiots, were seen as
+regular attendants at royal courts, a custom which extended
+even into the modern history of England, the "Fool" being an
+indispensable appendage to the train of every person of rank.
+Animals from foreign lands were also prized, and value was set
+upon them, not only for their variety, but for any external
+characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects,
+simply because they were rare, and in accordance with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a><br /><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
+general custom; and in importing the "apes" and peacocks
+together with the gold and ivory, Solomon but followed the
+usual custom. He, however, on whom the gift of wisdom had
+been especially bestowed, would have another motive besides
+ostentation or curiosity. He was learned in the study of that
+science which we now call Natural History. It is, therefore,
+extremely probable, that he would not neglect any opportunities
+of procuring animals from distant lands, in order that he might
+study the products of countries which he had not personally
+visited, and it is not likely that so conspicuous an animal as the
+Wanderoo would have escaped the notice of those who provided
+the cargo for which so wealthy a king could pay, and for which
+they would demand a price proportionate to its variety.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 341px;"><a name="bonnet" id="bonnet"></a>
+<img src="images/i_398.jpg" width="341" height="600" alt="bonnet" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BONNET MONKEYS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among
+its kin as the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or ape
+inhabiting those parts of the world to which the fleet of Solomon
+would have access. Its staid, sedate manners, its black body,
+lion-like tail, and huge white-edged mane, would distinguish it
+so boldly from its kinsfolk, that the sailors would use all their
+efforts to capture an animal for which they would be likely to
+obtain a high price.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar and unique character of Solomon affords good
+reason for conjecture that, not only were several species of the
+monkey tribe included under the general word Kophim, but that
+the number of species must have been very great. He wrote
+largely of the various productions of the earth, and, to judge
+him by ourselves, it is certain that with such magnificent means
+at his command, he would have ransacked every country that
+his ships could visit, for the purpose of collecting materials for
+his works. It is therefore almost certain that under the word
+Kophim may be included all the most plentiful species of
+monkey which inhabit the countries to which his fleet had
+access, and that in his palace were collected together specimens
+of each monkey which has here been mentioned, besides many
+others of which no special notice need be taken, such as the
+Bonnet Monkeys, and other Macaques.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bat" id="bat"></a>
+<img src="images/i_400.jpg" width="400" height="290" alt="bat" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BAT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BAT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence&mdash;Meaning of the Hebrew name&mdash;The
+prohibition against eating Bats&mdash;The edible species, their food and mode of
+life&mdash;The noisome character of the Bat, and the nature of its dwelling-place&mdash;Its
+hatred of light&mdash;Mr. Tristram's discoveries&mdash;Bats found in the quarries from
+which the stone of the Temple was hewn&mdash;Edible Bats in a cave near the centre
+of Palestine&mdash;Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the rock caves
+where hermits had been buried&mdash;Other species which probably inhabit Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the
+Israelites we find the <span class="smcap">Bat</span> prominently mentioned, and in one or
+two parts of Scripture the same creature is alluded to with
+evident abhorrence. In Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is prophesied
+that when the day of the Lord comes, the worshippers
+of idols will try to hide themselves from the presence of the
+Lord, and will cast their false gods to the bats and the moles,
+both animals being evidently used as emblems of darkness and
+ignorance, and associated together for a reason which will be
+given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the
+Bat is expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies
+some being that flies by night, and it is a notable fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
+Greek and Latin names for the bat have also a similar derivation.</p>
+
+<p>In Lev. xi. 20, the words, "All fowls that creep, going upon
+all four, shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently intended
+to apply to the bat, which, as is now well known, is not
+a bird with wings, but a mammal with very long toes, and a
+well developed membrane between them. Like other mammals,
+the Bat crawls, or walks, on all four legs, though the movement
+is but a clumsy one, and greatly different from the graceful ease
+with which the creature urges its course through the evening air
+in search of food.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may
+seem almost needless; but it must be remembered that in
+several parts of the earth, certain species of Bat are used as
+food. These are chiefly the large species, that are called
+Kalongs, and which feed almost entirely on fruit, thus being to
+their insectivorous relatives what the fruit-loving bear is among
+the larger carnivora. These edible Bats have other habits not
+shared by the generality of their kin. Some of the species do
+not retire to caves and hollow trees for shelter during their hours
+of sleep, but suspend themselves by their hind legs from the
+topmost branches of the trees whose fruit affords them nourishment.
+In this position they have a most singular aspect, looking
+much as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging
+from the boughs. Thus, they are cleanly animals, and are as
+little repulsive as bats can be expected to be.</p>
+
+<p>But the ordinary bats, such as are signified by the "night-fliers"
+of the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceedingly
+unpleasant creatures. Almost all animals are infested with
+parasitic insects, but the Bat absolutely swarms with them, so
+that it is impossible to handle a Bat recently dead without finding
+some of them on the hands. Also, the bats are in the habit
+of resorting to caverns, clefts in the rocks, deserted ruins, and
+similar dark places, wherein they pass the hours of daylight, and
+will frequent the same spots for a long series of years. In consequence
+of this habit, the spots which they select for their
+resting place become inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely be
+entered by human beings, so powerful is the odour with which
+they are imbued.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chamber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>s
+of ruined buildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the
+recesses of rocky caves, they have been repelled by the bats
+which had taken up their habitation therein. No sooner does
+the light of the torch or lamp shine upon the walls, than the
+clusters of bats detach themselves from the spots to which they
+had been clinging, and fly to the light like moths to a candle.
+No torch can withstand the multitude of wings that come flapping
+about it, sounding like the rushing of a strong wind, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span>
+the bats that do not crowd around the light, dash against the
+explorers, beating their leathery wings against their faces, and
+clinging in numbers to their dress. They would even settle on the
+face unless kept off by the hands, and sometimes they force the intruders
+to beat a retreat. They do not intend to attack, for they
+are quite incapable of doing any real damage; and, in point of
+fact, they are much more alarmed than those whom they annoy.
+Nocturnal in their habits, they cannot endure the light, which
+completely dazzles them, so that they dash about at random, and
+fly blindly towards the torches in their endeavours to escape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 251px;"><a name="rests" id="rests"></a>
+<img src="images/i_402.jpg" width="251" height="500" alt="rests" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BATS' RESTING-PLACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If, then, we keep in mind the habits of the bats, we shall
+comprehend that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolting
+to human beings, and shall the better understand the force of
+the prophecy that the idols shall be cast to the bats and the
+moles.</p>
+
+<p>No particular species of Bat seems to be indicated by the
+Hebrew word Hatalleph, which is evidently used in a comprehensive
+sense, and signifies all and any species of Bat. Until
+very lately, the exact species of Bats which inhabit Palestine
+were not definitely ascertained, and could only be conjectured.
+But, Mr. Tristram, who travelled in the Holy Land for the express
+purpose of investigating its physical history, has set this
+point at rest, in his invaluable work, "The Land of Israel," to
+which frequent reference will be made in the course of the
+following pages.</p>
+
+<p>Almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted by bats,
+and he procured several species of these repulsive but interesting
+animals. While exploring the vast quarries in which the stone
+for the Temple was worked beneath the earth, so that no sound
+of tool was heard during the building, numbers of bats were disturbed
+by the lights, and fluttered over the heads of the
+exploring party.</p>
+
+<p>On another occasion, he was exploring a cave near the centre
+of Palestine, when he succeeded in procuring some specimens,
+and therefore in identifying at least one species. "In climbing
+the rocks soon afterwards, to examine a cave, I heard a singular
+whining chatter within, and on creeping into its recesses, a stone
+thrown up roused from their roosting-places a colony of large bats,
+the soft waving flap of whose wings I could hear in the darkness.
+How to obtain one I knew not; but on vigorously plying my<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span>
+signal whistle, all the party soon gathered to my help. B. suggested
+smoking them, so a fire of brushwood was kindled, and
+soon two or three rushed out. Two fell to our shot, and I was
+delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple of large fox-headed
+bats of the genus Pteropus (<em>Xantharpya ægyptiaca</em>), and
+extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing. As none
+of the bats of Palestine are yet known, this was a great prize,
+and another instance of the extension westward of the Indian
+fauna." These Bats belong to the fruit-eating tribe, and are
+closely allied to the Flying Foxes of Java, Australia, and
+Southern Africa. Therefore, this would be one of the species
+commonly used for food, and hence the necessity for the prohibition.
+The present species extends over the greater part of
+Northern Africa and into parts of Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="great" id="great"></a>
+<img src="images/i_404.jpg" width="400" height="421" alt="great" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">GREAT FOX-HEADED BAT, OR FLYING FOX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The same traveller subsequently discovered several more
+species of bats. On one occasion, he was exploring some caves,
+near the site of the ancient Jericho. On the eastern face of the
+cliffs are a number of caves, arranged in regular tiers, and
+originally approached by steps cut out of the face of the rock.
+These staircases are, however, washed away by time and the
+rains, and in consequence the upper tiers were almost inaccessible.
+In some of these caves the walls were covered with
+brilliant, but mutilated frescoes; and in others, hermits had
+lived and died and been buried. Mr. Tristram and his companions
+had penetrated to the second tier, and there made a
+curious discovery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="cave" id="cave"></a>
+<img src="images/i_405.jpg" width="400" height="397" alt="cave" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CAVE NEAR THE SITE OF ANCIENT JERICHO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"In the roof of this was a small hole, athwart which lay a
+stick. After many efforts, we got a string across it, and so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>
+hauled up a rope, by which, finding the stick strong enough, we
+climbed, and with a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art,
+we found ourselves in a third tier of cells, similar to the lower
+ones, and covered with the undisturbed dust of ages. Behind the
+chapel was a dark cave, with an entrance eighteen inches high.
+Having lighted our lantern, we crept in on our faces, and found
+the place full of human bones and skulls; with dust several inches
+deep. We were in an ancient burying-place of the Anchorites,
+or hermits of the country, whose custom it was to retire to such
+desert and solitary places.</p>
+
+<p>"Their bones lay in undisturbed order, probably as the corpses
+had been stretched after death.</p>
+
+<p>"After capturing two or three long-tailed bats, of a species new
+to us, which were the only living occupants of the cave, we crept
+out, with a feeling of religious awe, from this strange, sepulchral
+cavern."</p>
+
+<p>Besides the species of bats that have been described, it is probable
+that representatives of several more families of bats inhabit
+Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="tropics" id="tropics"></a>
+<img src="images/i_406.jpg" width="400" height="233" alt="tropics" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="leopards" id="leopards"></a>
+<img src="images/i_407.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="leopards" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LEOPARDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 362px;">
+<img src="images/i_408.jpg" width="362" height="600" alt="birds" />
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/i_409.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="nest" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="vulture" id="vulture"></a>
+<img src="images/i_410.jpg" width="400" height="515" alt="vulture" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE<br />
+LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture&mdash;The vultures
+of Palestine&mdash;The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture&mdash;Appearance of the
+Lämmergeier&mdash;Its flight and mode of feeding&mdash;Nest of the Lämmergeier.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical
+scholars have found very great difficulties in identifying several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span>
+of the animals which are named in Scripture. This difficulty is
+greatly increased when we come to the <span class="smcap">Birds</span>, and in many instances
+it is absolutely impossible to identify the Hebrew word
+with any precise species. In all probability, however, the
+nomenclature of the birds is a very loose one, several species
+being classed under the same title.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="lammer" id="lammer"></a>
+<img src="images/i_411.jpg" width="400" height="424" alt="lammer" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LÄMMERGEIER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Keeping this difficulty in mind, I shall mention all the species
+which are likely to have been classed under a single title, giving
+a general description of the whole, and a detailed account of the
+particular species which seems to answer most closely to the
+Hebrew word.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Following the arrangement which has been employed in this
+work, I shall begin with the bird which has been placed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span>
+zoologists at the head of its class, namely, the <span class="smcap">Lämmergeier</span>, the
+bird which may be safely identified with the Ossifrage of
+Scripture. The Hebrew word is "Peres," a term which only
+occurs twice when signifying a species of bird; namely, in Lev.
+xi. 13, and the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 12. The first of
+these passages runs as follows: "These ye shall have in abomination
+among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an
+abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." The
+corresponding passage in Deuteronomy has precisely the same
+signification, though rather differently worded: "These are they
+of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the
+ospray."</p>
+
+<p>The word <em>peres</em> signifies a breaker; and the Latin term Ossifraga,
+or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the word.
+How it applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently see.</p>
+
+<p>The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more
+the appearance of an eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed
+with feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with
+down. It may at once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like
+feathers which depends from the beak, and which has gained for
+the bird the title of Bearded Vulture. The colour of the
+plumage is a mixture of different browns and greys, tawny
+below and beautifully pencilled above, a line of pure white running
+along the middle of each feather. When young it is nearly
+black, and indeed has been treated as a separate species under
+the name of Black Vulture.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the largest of the flying birds, its length often
+exceeding four feet, and the expanse of its wings being rather
+more than ten feet. In consequence of this great spread of
+wing, it looks when flying like a much larger bird than it really
+is, and its size has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as
+may be imagined from the possession of such wings, is equally
+grand and graceful, and it sweeps through the air with great
+force, apparently unaccompanied by effort.</p>
+
+<p>The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of
+country, and is found throughout many parts of Europe and
+Asia. It is spread over the Holy Land, never congregating
+in numbers, like ordinary vultures, but living in pairs, and
+scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least one pair of
+Lämmergeiers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures,
+the flesh of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the
+same manner that they do. When the ordinary vultures have
+found a carcase they tear it to pieces, and soon remove all the
+flesh. This having been done, the Lämmergeier comes to the
+half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh from them, and
+finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow. That a bird
+should be able to break a bone as thick and hard as the thigh-bone
+of a horse or ox seems rather problematical, but the bird
+achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner.</p>
+
+<p>Seizing the bone in its claws, it rises to an immense height in
+the air, and then, balancing itself over some piece of rock, it lets
+the bone fall, and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than
+the bone falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird
+picks the marrow out of the fragments; and should it have
+escaped fracture by reason of falling on a soft piece of ground
+instead of a hard rock, the bird picks it up, and renews the process
+until it has attained its object. It will be seen, therefore,
+that the name of Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker, may very properly
+be given to this bird.</p>
+
+<p>Not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this
+peculiar manner, but it procures other articles of food by employing
+precisely the same system. If it sees a tortoise, many
+of which reptiles are found in the countries which it inhabits, it
+does not waste time and trouble by trying to peck the shell
+open, but carries its prey high in the air, drops it on the ground,
+and so breaks its shell to pieces. Tortoises are often very hard-shelled
+creatures, and the Lämmergeier has been observed to
+raise one of them and drop it six or seven times before the
+stubborn armour would yield. Snakes, too, are killed in a
+similar manner, being seized by the neck, and then dropped from
+a height upon rocks or hard ground. The reader may perhaps
+be aware that the Hooded Crow of England breaks bones and
+the shells of bivalve molluscs in a similar manner.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the
+"eagle" which mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for
+a white stone, and killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was
+in all likelihood a Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the
+same country, and the act of tortoise-dropping being its usual
+mode of killing those reptiles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 342px;"><a name="defence" id="defence"></a>
+<img src="images/i_414.jpg" width="342" height="600" alt="defence" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A SUCCESSFUL DEFENCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such
+enormous wings, and so great a power of flight, these attributes
+being needful in order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient
+height. The air, as we all know, becomes more and more
+attenuated in exact proportion to the height above the earth; and
+did not the bird possess such great powers of flight, it would
+not be able to carry a heavy tortoise into the thinner strata of
+air which are found at the height to which it soars.</p>
+
+<p>The instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against
+other animals besides snakes and tortoises, though exerted in a
+somewhat different manner. The bird, as has already been
+mentioned, lives among mountain ranges, and it may be seen
+floating about them for hours together, watching each inch of
+ground in search of prey. Should it see a goat or other inhabitant
+of the rocks standing near a precipice, the Lämmergeier
+sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow of its wing knocks
+the animal off the rock into the valley beneath, where it lies
+helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall.</p>
+
+<p>Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from
+the havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that
+it has obtained the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So
+swift and noiseless is the rush of the bird, that an animal which
+has once been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from
+the swoop; and even the Alpine hunters, who spend their lives
+in pursuit of the chamois, have occasionally been put in great
+jeopardy by the sudden attack of a Lämmergeier, the bird having
+mistaken their crouching forms for the chamois, and only turned
+aside at the last moment.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to
+be found in the structure of the feet, which, although belonging
+to so large and powerful a bird, are comparatively feeble, and are
+unable, like those of the eagle, to grasp the living animal in a
+deadly hold, and to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. They
+are not well adapted for holding prey, the talons not possessing
+the hook-like form or the sharp points which characterise those
+of the eagle. The feet, by the way, are feathered down to the
+toes. The beak, too, is weak when compared with the rest
+of the body, and could not perform its work were not the
+object which it tears previously shattered by the fall from a
+height.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 343px;"><a name="dizzy" id="dizzy"></a>
+<img src="images/i_416.jpg" width="343" height="600" alt="dizzy" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">STRUCK FROM A DIZZY HEIGHT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and
+is of enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a
+lofty cliff, and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks
+rudely interwoven, and supporting a nearly equal amount of sods
+and moss.</p>
+
+<p>An allied species lives in Northern Africa, where it is called
+by a name which signifies Father Longbeard, in allusion to the
+beard-like tufts of the bill.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="vultures" id="vultures"></a>
+<img src="images/i_417.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="vultures" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture&mdash;Its appearance
+on the Egyptian monuments&mdash;The shape, size, and colour of the bird&mdash;Its value
+as a scavenger, and its general habits&mdash;The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons&mdash;Its
+fondness for the society of man&mdash;Nest of the Egyptian Vulture.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the same list of unclean birds which has already been given,
+we find the name of a bird which we can identify without much
+difficulty, although there has been some little controversy about
+it. This is the so-called Gier-Eagle, which is named with the
+cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the Jews
+are forbidden to eat. The word which is translated as Gier-Eagle
+is Râchâm, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic
+name of the <span class="smcap">Egyptian Vulture</span>, sometimes called Pharaoh's
+Chicken, because it is so often sculptured on the ancient monuments
+of Egypt. It is called by the Turks by a name which
+signifies White Father, in allusion to the colour of its plumage.</p>
+
+<p>This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven
+in size, though its enormously long wings give it an appearance
+of much greater size. Its colour is white, with the exception of
+the quill feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill
+and the naked face and legs are bright ochreous yellow. It does
+not attain this white plumage until its third year, its colour
+before reaching adult age being brown, with a grey neck and
+dull yellow legs and face.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Vulture, although not large, is a really handsome
+bird, the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown
+being very conspicuous when it is on the wing. In this plumage
+it has never been seen in England, but one or two examples are
+known of the Egyptian Vulture being killed in England while
+still in its dark-brown clothing.</p>
+
+<p>It inhabits a very wide range of country, being found
+throughout all the warmer parts of the Old World. Although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>
+it is tolerably plentiful, it is never seen in great numbers, as is
+the case with several of the vultures, but is always to be found
+in pairs, the male and female never separating, and invariably
+being seen close together. In fact, in places where it is common
+it is hardly possible to travel more than a mile or two without
+seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures. Should more than two of
+these birds be seen together, the spectator may be sure that they
+have congregated over some food. It has been well suggested
+that its Hebrew name of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it
+in consequence of this constant association of the male and
+female.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gier" id="gier"></a>
+<img src="images/i_419.jpg" width="400" height="405" alt="gier" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Vulture is one of the best of scavengers, not
+only devouring the carcases of dead animals, but feeding on
+every kind of offal or garbage. Indeed, its teeth and claws are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>
+much too feeble to enable it to cope with the true vultures in
+tearing up a large carcase, and in consequence it never really
+associates with them, although it may be seen hovering near
+them, and it never ventures to feed in their company, keeping
+at a respectful distance while they feed, and, when they retire,
+humbly making a meal on the scraps which they have left.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram narrates an amusing instance of this trait of
+character. "On a subsequent occasion, on the north side of
+Hermon, we observed the griffons teaching a lesson of patience
+to the inferior scavengers. A long row of Egyptian vultures
+were sitting on some rocks, so intently watching a spot in a
+corn-field that they took no notice of our approach. Creeping
+cautiously near, we watched a score of griffons busily engaged
+in turning over a dead horse, one side of which they had already
+reduced to a skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>"Their united efforts had just effected this, when we showed
+ourselves, and they quickly retired. The inferior birds, who
+dreaded us much less than them, at once darted to the repast,
+and, utterly regardless of our presence within ten yards of them,
+began to gorge. We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when
+the griffons came down with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures
+and a pair or two of eagles hurriedly resumed their post of
+observation; while some black kites remained, and contrived by
+their superior agility to filch a few morsels from their lordly
+superiors."</p>
+
+<p>So useful is this bird as a scavenger, that it is protected in all
+parts of the East by the most stringent laws, so that a naturalist
+who wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the
+bird, or even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages,
+and may generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse
+which are left to be cleared away by the animals and birds
+which constitute the scavengers of the East.</p>
+
+<p>It not only eats dead animal substances, but kills and devours
+great quantities of rats, mice, lizards, and other pests that swarm
+in hot countries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed,
+like the gull and the rook of our own country, following the
+ploughman as he turns up the ground, and examining the furrow
+for the purpose of picking up the worms, grubs, and similar
+creatures that are disturbed by the share.</p>
+
+<p>Being thus protected and encouraged by man, there is good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>
+reason why it should have learned in course of time to fear him
+far less than its own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with
+regard to human beings, that it habitually follows the caravans
+as they pass from one town to another, for the sake of feeding
+on the refuse food and other offal which is thrown aside on
+the road.</p>
+
+<p>Two articles of diet which certainly do not seem to fall within
+the ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed
+by this bird. The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell
+of which is too hard to be broken by the feeble beak of the
+Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, like the lämmergeier,
+carry the egg into the air and drop it on the ground, because its
+feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only slip off its round
+and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raising the egg into
+the air and dropping it upon a stone, it carries a stone into the
+air and drops it upon the egg. So at least say the natives of the
+country which it inhabits, and there is no reason why we should
+doubt the truth of the statement.</p>
+
+<p>The other article of food is a sort of melon, very full of juice.
+This melon is called "nara," and is devoured by various creatures,
+such as lions, leopards, mice, ostriches, &amp;c. and seems to serve
+them instead of drink.</p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Egyptian Vulture is made in some rocky
+ledge, and the bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot
+inaccessible to man, knowing well that it will not be disturbed.
+The nest is, like that of other vultures, a large and rude mass
+of sticks, sods, bones, and similar materials, to which are added
+any bits of rag, rope, skin, and other village refuse which it can
+pick up as it traverses the streets. There are two, and occasionally
+three, eggs, rather variously mottled with red. In
+its breeding, as in its general life, it is not a gregarious bird,
+never breeding in colonies, and, indeed, very seldom choosing
+a spot for its nest near one which has already been selected
+by another pair.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration on page 420 represents part of the nest of
+the Egyptian Vulture, in which the curious mixture of bones
+and sticks is well shown. The parent birds are drawn in
+two characteristic attitudes taken from life, and well exhibit
+the feeble beak, the peculiar and intelligent, almost cunning
+expression of the head, and the ruff of feathers which surrounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>
+the upper part of the neck. In the distance another bird is drawn
+as it appears on the wing, in order to show the contrast between
+the white plumage and the dark quill feathers of the wings, the
+bird presenting a general appearance very similar to that of the
+common sea-gull.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE</h2>
+
+<h3>GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture&mdash;Geographical range of
+the Griffon&mdash;Its mode of flight and sociable habits&mdash;The featherless head and
+neck of the bird&mdash;The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and
+rapacity&mdash;Its powers of sight&mdash;How Vultures assemble round a carcase&mdash;Nesting-places
+of the Griffon&mdash;Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon&mdash;Rock-caves
+of the Wady Hamâm&mdash;Care of the young, and teaching them to fly&mdash;Strength
+of the Griffon.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The Griffon Vulture is found throughout a large portion of
+the Old World, inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this
+hemisphere. The colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish
+brown, diversified by the black quill feathers and the ruff of
+white down that surrounds the neck. The head and neck are
+without feathers, but are sparingly covered with very short down
+of a similar character to that of the ruff.</p>
+
+<p>It is really a large bird, being little short of five feet in total
+length, and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet.</p>
+
+<p>The Griffon Vulture is very plentiful in Palestine, and, unlike
+the lesser though equally useful Egyptian Vulture, congregates
+together in great numbers, feeding, flying, and herding in
+company. Large flocks of them may be seen daily, soaring high
+in the air, and sweeping their graceful way in the grand curves
+which distinguish the flight of the large birds of prey. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>
+are best to be seen in the early morning, being in the habit of
+quitting their rocky homes at daybreak, and indulging in a flight
+for two or three hours, after which they mostly return to the
+rocks, and wait until evening, when they take another short
+flight before retiring to rest.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion is made in the Scriptures to the gregarious habits
+of the Vultures: "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the
+eagles be gathered together" (Matt. xxiv. 28). That the Vulture,
+and not the eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that
+the eagles do not congregate like the Vultures, never being seen
+in greater numbers than two or three together, while the Vultures
+assemble in hundreds.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a curious passage in the Book of Proverbs, chap.
+xxx. ver. 17, which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird:
+"The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his
+mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young
+eagles shall eat it."</p>
+
+<p>Allusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the
+Vulture, as well as its voracity. See, for example, a portion of
+David's lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who,
+according to the poet's metaphor, "were lovely and pleasant in
+their lives, and in their death they were not divided; they were
+swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions."</p>
+
+<p>The "bitter" people&mdash;namely, the Chaldeans&mdash;are again mentioned
+in a very similar manner by the prophet Jeremiah: "Our
+persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens; they
+pursued us upon the mountains, they laid wait for us in the
+wilderness" (Lam. iv. 19).</p>
+
+<p>There is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the
+Vulture as an image of strength and swiftness when applied to
+warriors, the bird being an invariable attendant on the battle,
+and flying to the field of death with marvellous swiftness. All
+who had ever witnessed a battle were familiar with the presence
+of the Vulture&mdash;the scene of carnage, and the image which is
+employed, would be one which commended itself at once to
+those for whom it was intended. And, as the earlier history of
+the Jewish nation is essentially of a warlike character, we
+cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image should
+have been repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings.</p>
+
+<p>Wonderful powers of sight are possessed by this bird. Its eyes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a><br /><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>
+are able to assume either a telescopic or a microscopic character,
+by means of a complex and marvellous structure, which can
+alter the whole shape of the organ at the will of the bird.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="vult" id="vult"></a>
+<img src="images/i_424.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="vult" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">VULTURES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not only can the eye be thus altered, but it changes instantaneously,
+so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is to
+perform. A Vulture, for example, sees from a vast height the
+body of a dead animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like
+an arrow from a bow. In order to enable the bird to see so
+distant an object, the eye has been exercising its telescopic
+powers, and yet, in a second or two, when the Vulture is close
+to its prey, the whole form of the eye must be changed, or
+the bird would mistake its distance, and dash itself to pieces
+on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>By means of its powerful eyes, the Vulture can see to an
+enormous distance, and with great clearness, but neither so far
+nor so clearly as is popularly supposed. It is true that, as soon
+as a carcase is discovered, it will be covered with Vultures, who
+arrive from every side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air,
+scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing
+their flight to the same point. "Where the carcase is, there
+will the vultures be gathered together." But, although they all
+fly towards the same spot, it does not follow that they have all
+seen the same object. The fact is, they see and understand each
+other's movements.</p>
+
+<p>A single Vulture, for example, sees a dead or dying sheep, and
+swoops down upon it. The other Vultures which are flying
+about in search of food, and from which the animal in question
+may be concealed, know perfectly well that a Vulture soars high
+in the air when searching for food, and only darts to the earth
+when it has found a suitable prey. They immediately follow its
+example, and in their turn are followed by other Vultures, which
+can see their fellows from a distance, and know perfectly well
+why they are all converging to one spot.</p>
+
+<p>In this way all the Vultures of a neighbourhood will understand,
+by a very intelligible telegraph, that a dead body of some
+animal has been found, and, aided by their wonderful powers of
+flight, will assemble over its body in an almost incredibly short
+space of time.</p>
+
+<p>The resting-place of the Griffon Vulture is always on some
+lofty spot. The Arabian Vulture will build within easy reach,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span>
+the eagle prefers lofty situations, but nothing but the highest
+and most inaccessible spots will satisfy the Vulture. To reach
+the nest of this bird is therefore a very difficult task, only to
+be attempted by experienced and intrepid cragsmen; and, in
+consequence, both the eggs and young of the Griffon Vulture
+cannot be obtained except for a very high price. The birds are
+fond of building in the rock-caves which are found in so many
+parts of Palestine, and in some places they fill these places as
+thickly as rooks fill a rookery.</p>
+
+<p>In Mr. Tristram's "Land of Israel," there is a very graphic
+description of the Griffon's nests, and of the difficulty experienced
+in reaching them. "A narrow gorge, with limestone cliffs
+from five hundred to six hundred feet high, into which the sun
+never penetrates, walls the rapid brook on each side so closely
+that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs
+are perforated with caves at all heights, wholly inaccessible to
+man, the secure resting-place of hundreds of noble griffons, some
+lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and several species of eagle....
+One day in the ravine well repaid us, though so terrific were
+the precipices, that it was quite impossible to reach any of the
+nests with which it swarmed.</p>
+
+<p>"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the south-west
+end of the plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf,
+where we spent three days in exploration. The cliffs, though
+reaching the height of fifteen hundred feet, rise like terraces,
+with enormous masses of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i>, and the wood is half a mile
+wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved himself an expert
+rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' eggs, some
+of the party being let down by ropes, while those above were
+guided in working them by signals from others below in the
+valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture
+these nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite
+new to some Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who
+could not, excepting one little girl, be induced to render any
+assistance. She proved herself most sensible and efficient in
+telegraphing.</p>
+
+<p>"While capturing the griffons' nests, we were re-enacting a
+celebrated siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of
+the cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated Plain of
+Hattin, were the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span>
+principally by the remains of a synagogue, of which some
+marble shafts and fragments of entablature, like those of Tell
+Hûm, are still to be seen, and were afterwards visited by us.</p>
+
+<p>"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress:
+'All thy fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel
+in the day of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet
+here refers to the refuges in the rocks below.</p>
+
+<p>"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the
+precipice are called by the Arabs, Kulat Ibn Maân, and are
+very fully described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes
+of a set of bandits, who resided here with their families, and for
+years set the power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length,
+when all other attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let
+down soldiers at this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked
+the robbers with long hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all
+out.</p>
+
+<p>"The rock galleries, though now only tenanted by griffons,
+are very complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long
+galleries wind backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their
+walls being built with dressed stone, flush with the precipice,
+and often opening into spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise
+one after another with projecting windows, connected by narrow
+staircases, carried sometimes upon arches, and in the upper
+portions rarely broken away. In many of the upper chambers
+to which we were let down, the dust of ages had accumulated,
+undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds of the air; and
+here we rested during the heat of the day, with the plains and
+lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full zoological
+harvest, as in three days we captured fourteen nests of
+griffons."</p>
+
+<p>Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more
+accessible than most of the places whereon the Griffons build,
+the natives never venture to enter them, being deterred not so
+much by their height, as by their superstitious fears. The
+Griffons instinctively found out that man never entered these
+caverns, and so took possession of them.</p>
+
+<p>As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous
+places, it is evident that their first flight must be a
+dangerous experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds.
+At first the young are rather nervous at the task which lies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span>
+before them, and shrink from trusting themselves to the air.
+The parents, however, encourage them to use their wings, take
+short flights in order to set them an example, and, when they at
+last venture from the nest, accompany and encourage them in
+their first journey.</p>
+
+<p>In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be
+seen, and even when perched it often retains a certain look of
+majesty and grandeur. Sometimes, however, especially when
+basking in the sun, it assumes a series of attitudes which are
+absolutely grotesque, and convert the noble-looking bird into a
+positively ludicrous object. At one moment it will sit all
+hunched up, its head sunk between its shoulders, and one wing
+trailing behind it as if broken. At another it will bend its legs
+and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its feet out in front, and
+supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail. Often it will
+touch nearly flat on the ground, partly spread its wings, and
+allow their tips to rest on the earth, and sometimes it will support
+nearly all the weight of its body on the wings, which rest,
+in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have before me a great
+number of sketches, taken in a single day, of the attitudes
+assumed by one of these birds, every one of which is strikingly
+different from the others, and transforms the whole shape of
+the bird so much that it is scarcely recognisable as the same
+individual.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_428.jpg" width="350" height="210" alt="tree" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter hare" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hares" id="hares"></a>
+<img src="images/i_429.jpg" width="400" height="370" alt="hares" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE EAGLE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Signification of the word <em>Asniyeh</em>&mdash;The Golden Eagle and its habits&mdash;The Imperial
+Eagle&mdash;Its solitary mode of life&mdash;The Short-toed Eagle&mdash;Its domestic habits
+and fondness for the society of man&mdash;The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle&mdash;Its mode
+of catching fish&mdash;Its distribution in Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>As to the Eagle, rightly so called, there is little doubt that it is
+one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed
+under the general title of Asniyeh&mdash;the word which in the
+Authorized Version of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A
+similar confusion is observable in the modern Arabic, one word,
+<i lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">ogab</i>, being applied indiscriminately to all the Eagles and the
+large <em>falconidæ</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle
+(<em>Aquila chrysaëtos</em>), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and
+is seen frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its
+predacious habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any
+animal which lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires
+a large district in order to enable it to live, and thus twenty
+or thirty eagles will be scattered over a district of twice the
+number of miles. Like the lion among the mammalia, the
+Eagle leads an almost solitary life, scarcely ever associating with
+any of its kind except its mate and its young.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The whole of the Falconidæ, as the family to which the Eagles
+belong is called, are very destructive birds, gaining their subsistence
+chiefly by the chase, seldom feeding on carrion except when
+pressed by hunger, or when the dead animal has only recently
+been killed.</p>
+
+<p>Herein they form a complete contrast to the vultures, whose
+usual food is putrefying carrion, and fresh meat the exception.</p>
+
+<p>Destructive though the Eagles may be, they cannot be called
+cruel birds, for, although they deprive many birds and beasts of
+life, they effect their purpose with a single blow, sweeping down
+upon the doomed creature with such lightning velocity, and striking
+it so fiercely with their death-dealing talons, that almost instantaneous
+death usually results.</p>
+
+<p>When the Eagle pounces on a bird, the mere shock caused by
+the stroke of the Eagle's body is almost invariably sufficient to
+cause death, and the bird, even if a large one&mdash;such as the swan,
+for example&mdash;falls dead upon the earth with scarcely a wound.</p>
+
+<p>Smaller birds are carried off in the talons of their pursuers, and
+are killed by the grip of their tremendous claws, the Eagle in no
+case making use of its beak for killing its prey. If the great bird
+carries off a lamb or a hare, it grasps the body firmly with its
+claws, and then by a sudden exertion of its wonderful strength
+drives the sharp talons deep into the vitals of its prey, and does
+not loosen its grasp until the breath of life has fled from its
+victim.</p>
+
+<p>The structure by means of which the Eagle is enabled to use
+its talons with such terrible effect is equally beautiful and simple,
+deserving special mention.</p>
+
+<p>Now, many observant persons have been struck with the curious
+power possessed by birds which enables them to hold their position
+upon a branch or perch even while sleeping. In many instances
+the slumbering bird retains its hold of the perch by a single foot,
+the other being drawn up and buried in the feathers.</p>
+
+<p>As this grasp is clearly an involuntary one, it is evidently independent
+of the mere will of the bird, and is due to some peculiar
+formation.</p>
+
+<p>On removing the skin from the leg of any bird, and separating
+the muscles from each other, the structure in question is easily seen.
+The muscles which move the leg and foot, and the tendons, or
+leaders which form the attachment of the muscles to the bones,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span>
+are so arranged that whenever the bird bends its leg the foot is
+forcibly closed, and is opened again when the leg is straightened.</p>
+
+<p>A common chicken, as it walks along, closing its toes as it lifts
+its foot from the ground and spreading them as the leg is unbent,
+cannot do otherwise, as the tendons are shortened and lengthened
+as each step is taken.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="eagles" id="eagles"></a>
+<img src="images/i_431.jpg" width="400" height="545" alt="eagles" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EAGLES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen, therefore, that when a bird falls asleep upon a
+branch the legs are not only bent, but are pressed downwards by
+the weight of the body; so that the claws hold the perch with a
+firm and involuntary grasp which knows no fatigue, and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>
+remains secure as long as the pressure from above keeps the limbs
+bent.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the Eagle. When, therefore, the bird desires to
+drive his talons into the body of his prey, he needs only to sink
+downwards with his whole weight, and the forcible bending of his
+legs will contract the talons with irresistible force, without the
+necessity of any muscular exertion.</p>
+
+<p>Exertion, indeed, is never needlessly used by the Eagle, for it
+is very chary of putting forth its great muscular powers, and unless
+roused by the sight of prey, or pressed to fly abroad in search of
+food, will sit upon a tree or point of rock for hours as motionless
+as a stuffed figure.</p>
+
+<p>The Golden Eagle is a truly magnificent bird in size and appearance.
+A full-grown female measures about three feet six inches in
+length, and the expanse of her wings is nine feet. The male bird
+is smaller by nearly six inches. The colour of the bird is a rich
+blackish brown on the greater part of the body, the head and neck
+being covered with feathers of a golden red, which have earned for
+the bird its customary name.</p>
+
+<p>The Golden Eagle is observed to frequent certain favourite places,
+and to breed regularly in the same spot, for a long series of years.
+The nest is always made upon some high place, generally upon a
+ledge of rock, and is most roughly constructed of sticks.</p>
+
+<p>In hunting for their prey the Eagle and his mate assist each
+other. It may be also mentioned here that Eagles keep themselves
+to a single mate, and live together throughout their lives. Should,
+however, one of them die or be killed, the survivor does not long
+remain in a state of loneliness, but vanishes from the spot for a
+longer or shorter time, and then returns with a new mate.</p>
+
+<p>As rabbits and hares, which form a frequent meal for the Eagle,
+are usually hidden under bushes and trees during the day, the
+birds are frequently forced to drive them from their place of concealment;
+this they have been observed to do in a very clever
+manner. One of the Eagles conceals itself near the cover, and
+its companion dashes among the bushes, screaming and making
+such a disturbance that the terrified inmates rush out in hopes of
+escape, and are immediately pounced upon by the watchful confederate.</p>
+
+<p>The prey is immediately taken to the nest, and distributed to
+the young after being torn to pieces by the parent birds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine.
+There is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (<em>Aquila mogilnik</em>),
+which may be distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white
+patch on the shoulders, and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of
+the head and neck. These feathers are of a fawn colour, and
+contrast beautifully with the deep black-brown of the back and
+wings. It is not very often seen, being a bird that loves the
+forest, and that does not care to leave the shelter of the trees.
+It is tolerably common in Palestine.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best
+example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (<em>Circaëtus cinereus</em>), a
+bird which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land&mdash;so plentiful
+indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice
+as many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other
+species put together. The genus to which this bird belongs does
+not take rank with the true Eagles, but is supposed by systematic
+naturalists to hold an intermediate place between the
+true Eagles and the ospreys.</p>
+
+<p>The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to
+kill its prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and other
+reptiles, and is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and somewhat
+heavily built bird, lightness and swiftness being far less
+necessary than strength in taking the animals on which it feeds.
+It is rather more than two feet in length, and is a decidedly
+handsome bird, the back being dark brown, and the under parts
+white, covered with crescent-shaped black spots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_433.jpg" width="400" height="287" alt=";young" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 330px;"><a name="prey" id="prey"></a>
+<img src="images/i_434.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="prey" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EAGLE RETURNING TO THE NEST WITH HER PREY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE OSPREY.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle&mdash;Its geographical range&mdash;Mode of securing prey&mdash;Structure
+of its feet&mdash;Its power of balancing itself in the air.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the Osprey itself (<em>Pandion haliaëtus</em>), which
+was undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the
+collective term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two
+passages in Deut. xiv. and Lev. xi. which have been several
+times quoted already, and need not be mentioned again.</p>
+
+<p>This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and
+is found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence
+of its peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle.</p>
+
+<p>The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange
+that a predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds
+can swim, much less dive, should obtain its living from the
+water. That the cormorant and other diving birds should do so
+is no matter of surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the
+fish in their own element, and catch them by superior speed.
+But any bird which cannot dive, and which yet lives on fish, is
+forced to content itself with those fish that come to the surface
+of the water, a mode of obtaining a livelihood which does not
+appear to have much chance of success. Yet the Osprey does on
+a large scale what the kingfisher does on a small one, and contrives
+to find abundant food in the water.</p>
+
+<p>Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is
+employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of
+food, it soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water,
+watching every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a
+stubble-field. No sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to
+take a fly, or to leap into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts
+downwards, grasps the fish in its talons, drags the struggling
+prey from the water, and with a scream of joy and triumph
+bears it away to shore, where it can be devoured at leisure.</p>
+
+<p>The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak
+like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a><br /><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span>
+otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and carry
+off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard and
+slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp,
+and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides
+of the fish, and hold it as with grappling irons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 330px;"><a name="osprey" id="osprey"></a>
+<img src="images/i_436.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="osprey" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FISH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flight of the Osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant, as might
+be expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty-two
+inches, and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore able to hover over the water for long periods of
+time, and can balance itself in one spot without seeming to move
+a wing, having the singular facility of doing so even when a
+tolerably strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed
+to maintain its place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over
+the spot.</p>
+
+<p>Harmless though the Osprey be&mdash;except to the fish&mdash;it is a most
+persecuted bird, being everywhere annoyed by rooks and crows,
+and, in America, robbed by the more powerful white-headed eagle.</p>
+
+<p>Such a scene is thus described by Wilson:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Elevated on the high, dead limb of a gigantic tree that commanded
+a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, the
+great white-headed eagle calmly surveys the motions of various
+smaller birds that pursue their busy avocations below.</p>
+
+<p>"The snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the trains of
+ducks streaming over the surface; silent and watchful cranes,
+intent and wading, and all the winged multitude that subsist by
+the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature.</p>
+
+<p>"High over all these, hovers one whose action instantly arrests
+the eagle's attention. By his wide curvature of wing and sudden
+suspension in the air he knows him to be the Osprey, settling over
+some devoted victim of the deep. The eyes of the eagle kindle at
+the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened wings on the
+branch, he watches the result.</p>
+
+<p>"Down, rapid as an arrow, from heaven descends the Osprey,
+the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the water,
+making the surges foam around! At this moment the eager looks
+of the eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for flight, he
+sees the Osprey once more emerge, struggling with his prey, and
+mounting in the air with screams of exultation.</p>
+
+<p>"These are the signals for the eagle, who, launching into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a><br /><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span>
+air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on the Osprey; each
+exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in this
+encounter the most elegant and sublime aërial evolutions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 336px;"><a name="snatched" id="snatched"></a>
+<img src="images/i_438.jpg" width="336" height="600" alt="snatched" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SNATCHED FROM THE DEEP: THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS PREY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the
+point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably
+of despair and honest execration, the Osprey drops his fish.</p>
+
+<p>"The eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more
+certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere
+it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to
+the woods."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any
+other country, the Osprey is seen throughout the whole of that
+country where it can find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the
+sea-shore and the rivers of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea
+of Galilee.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The word <em>Dayah</em> and its signification&mdash;Dayah a collective term for different
+species of Kites&mdash;The Common or Red Kite plentiful in Palestine&mdash;Its piercing
+sight and habit of soaring&mdash;The Black Kite of Palestine and its habits&mdash;The
+Egyptian Kite&mdash;The Raah or Glede of Scripture&mdash;The Buzzards and their
+habits&mdash;The Peregrine Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the
+Lanner of the eastern parts of the country.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the
+list of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The
+word which is translated as Vulture is <em>dayah</em>, and we find it
+occurring again in Isaiah xxxiv. 15, "There shall the vultures
+also be gathered, every one with her mate." There is no doubt,
+however, that this translation of the word is an incorrect one,
+and that it ought to be rendered as Kite. In Job xxviii. 7, there
+is a similar word, <em>ayah</em>, which is also translated as Vulture, and
+which is acknowledged to be not a Vulture, but one of the
+Kites: "There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which
+the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these words are nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span>
+identical with modern Arabic terms which are employed rather
+loosely to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf, in his
+Hebrew Lexicon, gives the correct rendering, translating <em>dayah</em> as
+<em>Milvus</em>, and the Vulgate in one or two places gives the same
+translation, though in others it renders the word as Vulture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="kite" id="kite"></a>
+<img src="images/i_440.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="kite" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject,
+is inclined to refer the word <em>ayah</em> to the Common Kite (<em>Milvus
+regalis</em>), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now
+nearly extinct; and <em>dayah</em> to the Black Kite (<em>Milvus atra</em>). He
+founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species,
+the Common or Red Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the
+habit of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter
+being very plentiful and gregarious.</p>
+
+<p>We will first take the Red Kite.</p>
+
+<p>This bird is scattered all over Palestine, feeding chiefly on the
+smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the
+Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span>
+height into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The
+wings of this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it
+through the air in a peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in
+consequence of this flight that it has been called the Glede, the
+word being derived from its gliding movements.</p>
+
+<p>The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and,
+from the vast elevation to which it soars when in search of
+food, it is able to survey the face of the country beneath, and to
+detect the partridge, quail, chicken, or other creature that will
+serve it for food. This piercing sight and habit of soaring
+render the passage in Job peculiarly appropriate to this species
+of Kite, though it does not express the habits of the other.
+Should the Kite suspect danger when forced to leave its nest, it
+escapes by darting rapidly into the air, and soaring at a vast
+height above the trees among which its home is made. From
+that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and will not come down
+again until it is assured of safety.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Of the habits of the <span class="smcap">Black Kite</span> (<em>Milvus atra</em>), Mr. Tristram
+gives an admirable description. "The habits of the bird
+bear out the allusion in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting
+during the winter three months, so numerous everywhere in
+Palestine as to be almost gregarious. It returns about the beginning
+of March, and scatters itself over the whole country,
+preferring especially the neighbourhood of valleys, where it is a
+welcome and unmolested guest. It does not appear to attack
+the poultry, among whom it may often be seen feeding on
+garbage. It is very sociable, and the slaughter of a sheep at one
+of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites, which
+swoop down regardless of man and guns, and enjoy a noisy
+scramble for the refuse, chasing each other in a laughable
+fashion, and sometimes enabling the wily raven to steal off with
+the coveted morsel during their contentions. It is the butt of
+all the smaller scavengers, and is evidently most unpopular with
+the crows and daws, and even rollers, who enjoy the amusement
+of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which is a man&oelig;uvre
+most perplexing to the kite."</p>
+
+<p>The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite
+unlike the red species, is very careless about the position of its
+nest, and never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span>
+it in a tree, sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush
+growing on the rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the
+nest as conspicuous as possible, and hangs it all over with bits
+of cloth, strips of bark, wings of birds, and even the cast skins
+of serpents.</p>
+
+<p>Another species (<em>Milvus Ægyptiacus</em>) is sometimes called the
+Black Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather
+to retain the title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite,
+this bird is a great thief, and makes as much havoc among
+poultry as the red kite. It is also a robber of other birds, and if
+it should happen to see a weaker bird with food, it is sure to
+attack and rob it. Like the black kite, it is fond of the society
+of man, and haunts the villages in great numbers, for the purpose
+of eating the offal, which in Oriental towns is simply flung
+into the streets to be devoured by the dogs, vultures, kites, and
+other scavengers, without whom no village would be habitable
+for a month.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Whether the word <em>raah</em>, which is translated as Glede in
+Deut. xiv. 13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten,
+is one of these species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a
+very doubtful point. This is the only passage in which the
+word occurs, and we have but small grounds for definitely identifying
+it with any one species. The Hebrew Bible retains the
+word Glede, but affixes a mark of doubt to it, and several commentators
+are of opinion that the word is a wrong reading of
+<em>dayah</em>, which occurs in the parallel passage in Lev. xi. 14. The
+reading of the Septuagint follows this interpretation, and renders
+it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf translates the word <em>raah</em>
+as Rook, but suggests that <em>dayah</em> is the correct reading.</p>
+
+<p>Accepting, however, the word <em>raah</em>, we shall find that it is
+derived from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of
+some particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore
+be the chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one
+of the attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey,
+so that it evidently must be classed among the group with which
+we are now concerned. It has been suggested that, granting
+the <em>raah</em> to be a species distinct from the <em>dayah</em>, it is a collective
+term for the larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which
+inhabit Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there
+is no particular reason why they should be mentioned except by
+a collective name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds,
+and though their wings are short when compared with those of
+the vultures and eagles, the flight of the bird is both powerful
+and graceful. It is not, however, remarkable for swiftness, and
+never was employed, like the falcon, in catching other birds,
+being reckoned as one of the useless and cowardly birds of
+prey. In consonance with this opinion, to compare a man to a
+buzzard was thought a most cutting insult.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="peregrine" id="peregrine"></a>
+<img src="images/i_443.jpg" width="400" height="402" alt="peregrine" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or
+the large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span>
+for some animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns
+to its post, the whole movements being very like those of the
+flycatcher. This sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and
+almost owl-like plumage, have been the means of bringing the
+bird into contempt among falconers.</p>
+
+<p>As to the large falcons, which seem to be included in the term
+<em>raah</em>, the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon (<em>Falco peregrinus</em>),
+which is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his
+"Land of Israel," Mr. Tristram gives several notices of this bird,
+from which we may take the following picture from a description
+of a scene at Endor. "Dreary and desolate looked the plain,
+though of exuberant fertility. Here and there might be seen
+a small flock of sheep or herd of cattle, tended by three or
+four mounted villagers, armed with their long firelocks, and
+pistols and swords, on the watch against any small party of
+marauding cattle-lifters.</p>
+
+<p>"Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the
+rounded top of Tabor; and here and there an eagle was soaring
+beneath them in search of food, but at a most inconvenient distance
+from our guns. Hariers were sweeping more rapidly and
+closely over the ground, where lambs appeared to be their only
+prey; and a noble peregrine falcon, which in Central Palestine
+does not give place to the more eastern lanner, was perched on
+an isolated rock, calmly surveying the scene, and permitting us
+to approach and scrutinize him at our leisure."</p>
+
+<p>The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned above, is very
+characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest
+and most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can
+only be reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests
+of this bird are never built in close proximity, the Peregrine
+preferring to have its home at least a mile from the nest of any
+other of its kinsfolk. Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees,
+taking possession of the deserted home of some other bird; but
+it loves the cliff better than the tree, and seldom builds in the
+latter when the former is attainable.</p>
+
+<p>In the passage from the "Land of Israel" is mentioned the
+<span class="smcap">Lanner Falcon</span> (<em>Falco lanarius</em>), another of the larger falcons
+to which the term <em>raah</em> may have been applied.</p>
+
+<p>This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, indeed,
+is very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span>
+of the birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and
+the female, which is much larger and stronger than the male,
+was employed for the purpose of chasing the kite, whose long
+and powerful wings could not always save it from such a foe.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among
+the British birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is
+not even a visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by
+an error in nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon,
+which is much larger and darker than the male bird, having
+been erroneously called by the name of Lanner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="lanner" id="lanner"></a>
+<img src="images/i_445.jpg" width="400" height="407" alt="lanner" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LANNER FALCON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as
+pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine,
+the attitudes of both birds being taken from life.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hawk" id="hawk"></a>
+<img src="images/i_446.jpg" width="400" height="247" alt="hawk" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE HAWK.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Netz or Hawk&mdash;Number of species probably grouped under that name&mdash;Rare
+occurrence of the word&mdash;The Sparrow-Hawk and its general habits&mdash;Its place
+of nesting&mdash;The Kestrel, or Wind-hover&mdash;Various names by which it is known
+in England&mdash;Its mode of feeding and curious flight&mdash;The Hariers&mdash;Probable
+derivation of the name&mdash;Species of Harier known to inhabit Palestine&mdash;Falconry
+apparently unknown to the ancient Jews.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are
+grouped together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word
+which is rightly enough translated. That a great number of
+birds should have been thus confounded together is not surprising,
+seeing that even in this country and at the present time,
+the single word Hawk may signify any one of at least twelve
+different species. The various falcons, the hariers, the kestrel,
+the sparrow-hawk, and the hobbies, are one and all called
+popularly by the name of Hawk, and it is therefore likely
+that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as many species as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span>
+the English word Hawk. From them we will select one or two
+of the principal species.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We
+only find it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in which
+it is named, together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many
+other birds, as among the unclean creatures, to eat which was an
+abomination. It is next found in the parallel passage in Deut.
+xiv. 15, neither of which portions of Scripture need be quoted
+at length.</p>
+
+<p>That the word <em>netz</em> was used in its collective sense is very
+evident from the addition which is made to it in both cases.
+The Hawk, "after its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore
+that several kinds or species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any
+specific detail would be quite needless, as the collective term
+was quite a sufficient indication, and, having named the vultures,
+eagles, and larger birds of prey, the simple word <em>netz</em> was considered
+by the sacred writer as expressing the rest of the birds
+of prey.</p>
+
+<p>We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which
+we usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job
+xxxix. 26, we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy
+wisdom, and turn [or stretch] her wings toward the south?"
+The precise signification of this passage is rather doubtful, but
+it is generally considered to refer to the migration of several
+of the Hawk tribe. That the bird in question was distinguished
+for its power of flight is evident from the fact that the sacred
+poet has selected that one attribute as the most characteristic
+of the Netz.</p>
+
+<p>Taking first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that
+the <span class="smcap">Sparrow-Hawk</span> (<em>Accipiter nisus</em>) is plentiful in Palestine,
+finding abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It
+selects for its nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the
+Holy Land, <em>i.e.</em> the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees.
+Sometimes it builds in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot
+seems to be the lofty tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice.
+It seldom builds a nest of its own, but takes possession
+of that which has been made by some other bird. Some ornithologists
+think that it looks out for a convenient nest, say of
+the crow or magpie, and then ejects the rightful owner. I am
+inclined to think, however, that it mostly takes possession of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span>
+nest that is already deserted, without running the risk of fighting
+such enemies as a pair of angry magpies. This opinion is
+strengthened by the fact that the bird resorts to the same nest
+year after year.</p>
+
+<p>It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and
+when wild and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in
+captivity. As is the case with so many of the birds, the female
+is much larger than her mate, the former weighing about six
+ounces, and measuring about a foot in length, and the latter
+weighing above nine ounces, and measuring about fifteen inches
+in length.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="kestrel" id="kestrel"></a>
+<img src="images/i_448.jpg" width="400" height="337" alt="kestrel" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">KESTREL HOVERING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF PREY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the
+<span class="smcap">Common Kestrel</span>. This is the same species which is known
+under the names of Kestrel, Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk.</p>
+
+<p>It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit
+of hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes
+together. This action is always performed at a moderate distance
+from the ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in
+question never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span>
+others, myself included, have seen the bird hovering at a height
+of twice as many yards. Generally, however, it prefers a lower
+distance, and is able by employing this man&oelig;uvre to survey a
+tolerably large space beneath. As its food consists in a very
+great measure of field-mice, the Kestrel is thus able by means
+of its telescopic eyesight to see if a mouse rises from its hole;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span>
+and if it should do so, the bird drops on it and secures it in its
+claws.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hover" id="hover"></a>
+<img src="images/i_449.jpg" width="400" height="606" alt="hover" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE WIND-HOVER, OR KESTREL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious,
+and will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations
+of other birds, a number of nests being often found within
+a few yards of each other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has
+found its nest in the recesses of the caverns occupied by the
+griffon vultures, and that the Kestrel also builds close to the
+eagles, and is the only bird which is permitted to do so. It also
+builds in company with the jackdaw.</p>
+
+<p>Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least
+two inhabit the Holy Land, the second being a much smaller
+bird than the Common Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on
+insects, which it catches with its claws, the common chafers
+forming its usual prey. Great numbers of these birds live
+together, and as they rather affect the society of mankind, they
+are fond of building their nests in convenient crannies in the
+mosques or churches. Independently of its smaller size, it may
+be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by the whiteness of
+its claws.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life. The
+bird hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place,
+that the artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of
+the bird in the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming.
+After a while, the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and
+then resumed its hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the
+upper figure. In consequence of the great abundance of this
+species in Palestine, and the peculiarly conspicuous mode of
+balancing itself in the air while in search of prey, we may feel
+sure that the sacred writers had it specially in their minds when
+they used the collective term Netz.</p>
+
+<p>It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it
+was considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be
+trained to chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons
+can be taught to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is
+supposed by some to have been given to the bird in allusion to
+its peculiar cry, which is clear, shrill, and consists of a single
+note several times repeated.</p>
+
+<p>On page 444 the reader may see a representation of a pair of
+<span class="smcap">Harier Hawks</span> flying below the rock on which the peregrine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span>
+falcon has perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller
+birds.</p>
+
+<p>They have been introduced because several species of Harier
+are to be found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains
+and lowlands, the place which is occupied by the other hawks
+and falcons among the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on
+account of their habit of regularly quartering the ground over
+which they fly when in search of prey, just like hounds when
+searching for hares. This bird is essentially a haunter of flat
+and marshy lands, where it finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which
+it usually feeds. It does not, however, confine itself to such
+food, but will chase and kill most of the smaller birds, and
+occasionally will catch even the leveret, the rabbit, the partridge,
+and the curlew.</p>
+
+<p>When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the
+air, but almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it
+to the ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is
+mostly low, as suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom
+soars to any great height, except when it amuses itself by rising
+and wheeling in circles together with its mate. This proceeding
+generally takes place before nest-building. The usual flight is
+a mixture of that of the kestrel and the falcon, the Harier
+sometimes poising itself over some particular spot, and at others
+shooting forwards through the air with motionless wings.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does
+not as a rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on
+the ground, perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some
+similar elevation. Even its nest is made on the ground, and is
+composed of reeds, sedges, sticks, and similar matter, materials
+that can be procured from marshy land. The nest is always
+elevated a foot or so from the ground, and has occasionally been
+found on the top of a mound more than a yard in height. It
+is, however, conjectured that in such cases the mound is made
+by one nest being built upon the remains of another. The
+object of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the eggs in
+case of a flood.</p>
+
+<p>At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the
+Holy Land, two of which are among the British birds, namely,
+the Marsh Harier (<em>Circus æruginosus</em>), sometimes called the Duck<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>
+Hawk and the Moor Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (<em>Circus
+cyaneus</em>), sometimes called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue
+Hawk, on account of the plumage of the male, which differs
+greatly according to age; and the Ring-tailed Hawk, on account
+of the dark bars which appear on the tail of the female. All
+the Hariers are remarkable for the circlet of feathers that surrounds
+the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser degree the bold
+feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the
+entire absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry.
+Now, seeing that the art of catching birds and animals by means
+of Hawks is a favourite amusement among Orientals, as has
+already been mentioned when treating of the gazelle (page 168),
+and knowing the unchanging character of the East, we cannot
+but think it remarkable that no reference should be made to this
+sport in the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little
+scope for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of
+cultivated soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible.
+Besides, the use of the falcon implies that of the horse, and, as
+we have already seen, the horse was scarcely ever used except
+for military purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined
+to Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence
+of the sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember
+that the surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that
+the amusement is practised there at the present day, and that
+the Israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries,
+we can but wonder that the Hawks should never be mentioned
+as aids to bird-catching. We find that other bird-catching
+implements are freely mentioned and employed as familiar
+symbols, such as the gin, the net, the snare, the trap, and so
+forth; but that there is not a single passage in which the Hawks
+are mentioned as employed in falconry.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 305px;"><a name="barn" id="barn"></a>
+<img src="images/i_453.jpg" width="305" height="400" alt="barn" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BARN OWL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE OWL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The words which have been translated as Owl&mdash;Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching&mdash;Habits
+of the bird&mdash;The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of
+Palestine&mdash;The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl&mdash;Its food and nest.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several
+words which are translated as <span class="smcap">Owl</span> in the Authorized Version,
+and in most cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the
+correct one, while in one or two instances there is a difference of
+opinion on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among
+those which are an abomination, and which might not be eaten
+by the Israelites: "The owl, and the night-hawk, and the
+cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind;</p>
+
+<p>"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is very likely that the Little Owl here mentioned is identical
+with the Boomah of the Arabs. It is a bird that is common in
+Europe, where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as
+a means of attracting small birds to their traps. They place it on
+the top of a long pole, and carry it into the fields, where they
+plant the pole in the ground. This Owl has a curious habit of
+swaying its body backwards and forwards, and is sure to attract
+the notice of all the small birds in the neighbourhood. It is
+well known that the smaller birds have a peculiar hatred to the
+Owl, and never can pass it without mobbing it, assembling in
+great numbers, and so intent on their occupation that they seem
+to be incapable of perceiving anything but the object of their
+hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and hawks are taken by this
+simple device.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by the
+ancient inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful; but as they
+certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting
+game, it is not unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve
+as a decoy. We shall learn more about the system of decoy-birds
+when we come to the partridge.</p>
+
+<p>The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring
+little whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in
+villages, among deserted ruins, or in places where man has
+never lived. As, however, it is protected by the natives, it
+prefers the neighbourhood of villages, and may be seen quietly
+perched in some favourite spot, not taking the trouble to move
+unless it be approached closely. And to detect a perched Owl
+is not at all an easy matter, as the bird has a way of selecting
+some spot where the colours of its plumage harmonize so well
+with the surrounding objects that the large eyes are often the
+first indication of its presence. Many a time I have gone to
+search after Owls, and only been made aware of them by the
+sharp angry snap that they make when startled.</p>
+
+<p>The common and well-known Barn Owl, also inhabits Palestine.
+Like the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man,
+though it may be found in ruins and similar localities. An old
+ruined building is sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose
+nightly shrieks very often terrify the belated wanderer, and
+make him fancy that the place is haunted by disturbed spirits.
+Such being the habits of the bird, it is likely that in the East,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span>
+where popular superstition has peopled every well with its jinn
+and every ruin with its spirit, the nocturnal cry of this bird,
+which is often called the Screech Owl from its note, should be
+exceedingly terrifying, and would impress itself on the minds of
+sacred writers as a fit image of solitude, terror, and desolation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="little" id="little"></a>
+<img src="images/i_455.jpg" width="400" height="465" alt="little" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE LITTLE OWL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than
+the Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a
+separate name, is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is
+made in the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph,
+translated as the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in
+the prohibitory passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in
+the Book of Isaiah. In that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find
+the following passage: "From generation to generation it shall
+lie waste; none shall pass through it for ever and ever.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 345px;"><a name="napping" id="napping"></a>
+<img src="images/i_456.jpg" width="345" height="600" alt="napping" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CAUGHT NAPPING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl
+(<em>yanshûph</em>) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall
+stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of
+emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading.</p>
+
+<p>It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the
+<span class="smcap">Egyptian Eagle Owl</span> (<em>Bubo ascalaphus</em>), a bird which is closely
+allied to the great Eagle Owl of Europe (<em>Bubo maximus</em>), and
+the Virginian Eared Owl (<em>Bubo Virginianus</em>) of America. This
+fine bird measures some two feet in length, and looks much
+larger than its real size, owing to the thick coating of feathers
+which it wears in common with all true Owls, and the ear-like
+feather tufts on the top of its head, which it can raise or depress
+at pleasure. Its plumage is light tawny.</p>
+
+<p>This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and
+ruins, and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of
+which the prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful
+in Egypt, where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed
+long passed away or modified into other forms of religion, and
+its presence only intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling
+of loneliness that oppresses the traveller as he passes among the
+ruins.</p>
+
+<p>The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic
+congener. It dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of
+man, and during the day is hidden in some deep and dark recess,
+its enormous eyes not being able to endure the light of day. In
+the evening it issues from its retreat, and begins its search after
+prey, which consists of various birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fish,
+and even insects when it can find nothing better.</p>
+
+<p>On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able
+to overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb
+and the young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity.
+It seems never to chase any creature on the wing, but floats
+silently through the air, its soft and downy plumage deadening
+the sound of its progress, and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting
+prey while it is on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in
+ruins, and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs,
+lined with a tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent
+Owls returning to the same spot year after year. Should it not
+be able to find either a rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a><br /><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a><br /><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span>
+hollow in the ground, and there lays its eggs, which are generally
+two in number, though occasionally a third egg is found. The
+Egyptian Eagle Owl does much the same thing, burrowing in
+sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears danger, into the hollow
+where its nest has been made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="group" id="group"></a>
+<img src="images/i_458.jpg" width="600" height="323" alt="group" />
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p class="center">
+RAVEN.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;BARN OWL.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;EAGLE OWL.
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 345px;"><a name="council" id="council"></a>
+<img src="images/i_459.jpg" width="345" height="600" alt="council" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A FAMILY COUNCIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are
+given. The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards
+the spectator, grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts
+erect is looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating
+in mingled anger and fear the proceedings of the larger
+bird. Near them is perched a raven, in order to carry out more
+fully the prophetic words, "the owl also and the raven shall
+dwell in it."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_460.jpg" width="300" height="205" alt="pencil" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="swing" id="swing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_461.jpg" width="400" height="239" alt="swing" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE NIGHT-HAWK.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs&mdash;Probability that it signifies the
+Nightjar&mdash;Various names of the bird&mdash;Its remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling
+flight&mdash;Mode of feeding&mdash;Boldness of the bird&mdash;Deceptive appearance of
+its size.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs
+which is rendered in the Authorized Version as <span class="smcap">Night-hawk</span>.</p>
+
+<p>This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see
+Lev. xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies
+among commentators. The balance of probability
+seems to lie between two interpretations,&mdash;namely, that which
+considers the word <em>tachmâs</em> to signify the Night-hawk, and that
+which translates it as Owl. For both of these interpretations
+much is to be said, and it cannot be denied that of the two
+the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so, the White or Barn
+Owl is probably the particular species to which reference is
+made.</p>
+
+<p>Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or
+Nightjar is the bird which is signified by the word <em>tachmâs</em>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span>
+and, as we have already treated of the owls, we will accept the
+rendering of the Authorized Version. Moreover, the Jewish
+Bible follows the same translation, and renders <em>tachmâs</em> as
+Night-hawk, but affixes the mark of doubt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="nacht" id="nacht"></a>
+<img src="images/i_462.jpg" width="400" height="346" alt="nacht" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE NIGHT-HAWK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird
+among the owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among
+ourselves, who popularly speak of the Nightjar as the Fern Owl,
+Churn Owl, or Jar Owl, the two last names being given to
+it on account of its peculiar cry. There are few birds, indeed,
+which have received a greater variety of popular names, for,
+besides the Goatsucker and the five which have already been
+mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird and Dor-hawk, the former
+of these names having been given to the bird on account of its
+wheeling round the trees while seeking for prey, and the latter
+on account of the dor-beetles on which it largely feeds.</p>
+
+<p>This curious variety of names is probably due to the very
+conspicuous character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring, weird-like
+cry forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span>
+breaks the silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of
+a bird, but rather resembles the sound of a pallet falling on
+the cogs of a rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of
+evening, the long, jarring note being rolled out almost interminably,
+until the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath
+enough for such a prolonged sound. The hearer may hold his
+breath as long as he can, take a full inspiration, hold his breath
+afresh, and repeat this process over and over again, and yet the
+Nightjar continues to trill out its rapid notes without a moment's
+cessation for breath, the sound now rising shrill and clear, and
+now sinking as if the bird were far off, but never ceasing for an
+instant.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to
+look upon the bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing
+its cry full well, though to many the bird is unknown except
+by its voice. It is probable that, in the days when Moses wrote
+the Law, so conspicuous a bird was well known to the Jews,
+and we may therefore conjecture that it was one of those birds
+which he would specially mention by name.</p>
+
+<p>The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as
+its note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various
+moths, beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It
+may be seen wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak
+being a special favourite, sometimes circling round it, and sometimes
+rising high in the air, and the next moment skimming
+along the ground. Suddenly it will disappear, and next moment
+its long trilling cry is heard from among the branches of the
+tree round which it has been flying. To see it while singing is
+almost impossible, for it has a habit of sitting longitudinally on
+the branch, and not across it, like most birds, so that the outline
+of its body cannot be distinguished from that of the bough of
+which it is seated. As suddenly as it began, the sound ceases,
+and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling again through
+the air with its noiseless flight.</p>
+
+<p>Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows
+a careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often
+stood close to the tree round which several Nightjars were
+circling, and seen them chase their prey to the ground within a
+yard or two of the spot on which I was standing. The flight of
+the Nightjar is singularly graceful. Swift as the swallow itself,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span>
+it presents a command of wing that is really wonderful, gliding
+through the air with consummate ease, wheeling and doubling
+in pursuit of some active moth, whose white wings glitter
+against the dark background, while the sober plumage of its
+pursuer is scarcely visible, passing often within a few feet of the
+spectator, and yet not a sound or a rustle will reach his ears.
+Sometimes the bird is said to strike its wings together over its
+back, so as to produce a sharp snapping sound, intended to
+express anger at the presence of the intruder. I never, however,
+heard this sound, though I have watched the bird so
+often.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird,
+like the owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between
+ten and eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of
+twenty inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces.
+Its large mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as
+the eyes, and is furnished with a set of <em>vibrissæ</em> or bristles, which
+remind the observer of the "whale-bone" which is set on the
+jaw of the Greenland whale.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_464.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="trees" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="swallow" id="swallow"></a>
+<img src="images/i_465.jpg" width="400" height="276" alt="swallow" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SWALLOW.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Identification of the smaller birds&mdash;Oriental indifference to natural history&mdash;Use
+of collective terms&mdash;The Swallow&mdash;The Bird of Liberty&mdash;Swallows and Swifts&mdash;Variety
+of small birds found in Palestine&mdash;The Swallows of Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned
+in the Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty,
+but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous
+species, we are at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can
+only offer conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no
+idea of discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they
+happened to be tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice.
+We need not be much surprised at this. The Orientals of
+the present day do precisely the same thing, and not only
+fail to discriminate between the smaller birds, but absolutely
+have no names for them.</p>
+
+<p>By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes,
+the larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by
+a common title, derived from the twittering sound of their
+voices, only one or two of them having any distinctive titles.
+They look upon the birds much as persons ignorant of entomology
+look at a collection of moths. There is not much
+difficulty in discriminating between the great hawk-moths, and
+perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which are
+specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour;
+but when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpets," the
+"Wainscots," and similar groups, they are utterly lost; and,
+though they may be able to see the characteristic marks when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span>
+the moths are placed side by side, they are incapable of distinguishing
+them separately, and, to their uneducated eyes, twenty
+or thirty species appear absolutely alike.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical
+natural history is so widely extended as in England, and
+yet how few educated persons are there who, if taken along a
+country lane, can name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish
+between a sparrow, a linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a
+chaffinch. Nay, how many are there who, if challenged even to
+repeat the names of twelve little birds, would be unable to do so
+without some consideration, much less to know them if the birds
+were placed before them.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the case in a country where the capability of
+observation is more or less cultivated in every educated person,
+we may well expect that a profound ignorance on the subject
+should exist in countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected
+as a matter of education. Moreover, in England, there
+is a comparatively limited list of birds, whereas in Palestine
+are found nearly all those which are reckoned among British
+birds, and many other species besides. Those which reside in
+England reside also for the most part in Palestine, while the
+greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we might expect,
+into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries.</p>
+
+<p>If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant
+people and a vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that
+so many collective terms are used in the Scriptures, one word
+often doing duty for twenty or thirty species. The only plan,
+therefore, which can be adopted, is to mention generally the
+birds which were probably grouped under one name, and to
+describe briefly one or two of the most prominent.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does
+not appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might
+expect that several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great
+sacred poet, who drew so many of his images from natural
+objects, would have found in the song of birds some metaphor
+expressive of sweetness or joy. We might expect that in the
+Book of Job, in which so many creatures are mentioned, the
+singing of birds would be brought as prominently forward as
+the neck clothed with thunder of the horse, the tameless freedom
+of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture, and the swiftness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span>
+of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds to be
+mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces
+into his rugged poem the roar of the old lion and the wail of
+the cub, the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of
+the herdman's hut, and the ravages of the palmer-worm among
+the olives. Above all, we might expect that in the Psalms there
+would be many allusions to the notes of the various birds which
+have formed such fruitful themes for the poets of later times.
+There are, however, in the whole of the Scriptures but two
+passages in which the song of birds is mentioned, and even in
+these only a passing allusion is made.</p>
+
+<p>One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12: "By them (<em>i.e.</em> the
+springs of water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation,
+which sing among the branches." This passage is perhaps
+rendered more closely in the Jewish Bible: "Over them dwell
+the fowls of the heaven; they let their voices resound (or give
+their voice) from between the foliage."</p>
+
+<p>The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4: "And the doors shall be
+shut in the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and
+he shall rise up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters
+of music shall be brought low." The word which is here translated
+as "bird," is that which is rendered in some places as
+"sparrow," in others as "fowl," and in others as "bird." Even
+in these passages, as the reader will have noticed, no marks of
+appreciation are employed, and we hear nothing of the sweetness,
+joyousness, or mournfulness of the bird's song.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will now proceed to the words which have been translated
+as Swallow in the Authorized Version.</p>
+
+<p>These are two in number, namely, <em>derôr</em> and <em>agar</em>. Hebraists
+are, however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly
+applied, the translators having interchanged the signification of
+two contiguous words.</p>
+
+<p>We will therefore first take the word <em>deror</em>. This word
+signifies liberty, and is well applied to the Swallow, the bird of
+freedom. It is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old
+commentators have contrived to perplex themselves about a very
+simple matter. One of them comments upon the bird as being
+"so called, because it has the liberty of building in the houses
+of mankind." Another takes a somewhat similar view of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a><br /><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span>
+case, but puts it in a catechetical form: "Why is the swallow
+called the bird of liberty? Because it lives both in the house
+and in the field." It is scarcely necessary to point out to the
+reader that the "liberty" to which allusion is made is the
+liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its appointed
+times, and not being capable of domestication.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 329px;"><a name="lost" id="lost"></a>
+<img src="images/i_468.jpg" width="329" height="600" alt="lost" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LOST FROM THE FLOCK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including
+the true Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall
+presently see, it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished
+by a separate name. Whether or not the word <em>deror</em>
+included other birds beside the Swallows is rather doubtful,
+though not at all unlikely; and if so, it is probable that any
+swift-winged insectivorous bird would be called by the name of
+Deror, irrespective of its size or colour.</p>
+
+<p>The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number
+of the birds grouped together under the word <em>deror</em>, and we
+may conjecture that the same is the case with the sunbirds,
+those bright-plumed little beings that take in the Old World the
+place occupied by the humming-birds in the New, and often
+mistaken for them by travellers who are not acquainted with
+ornithology. One of these birds, the <em>Nectarinia Oseæ</em>, is described
+by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little creature of gorgeous
+plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America in the metallic
+lustre of its feathers&mdash;green and purple, with brilliant red and
+orange plumes under its shoulders."</p>
+
+<p>In order to account for the singular variety of animal life
+which is to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding
+diversity of species among the birds, we must remember that
+Palestine is a sort of microcosm in itself, comprising within its
+narrow boundaries the most opposite conditions of temperature,
+climate, and soil. Some parts are rocky, barren, and mountainous,
+chilly and cold at the top, and acting as channels
+through which the winds blow almost continuously. The cliffs
+are full of holes, rifts, and caverns, some natural, some artificial,
+and some of a mixed kind, the original caverns having been
+enlarged and improved by the hand of man.</p>
+
+<p>As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close
+at hand large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered
+cattle, and of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the
+animals which are pastured in it can find food throughout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span>
+the year. Through the centre of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing
+its banks with perpetual verdure, and ending its course
+in the sulphurous and bituminous waters of the Dead Sea,
+under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are supposed
+to lie. Westward we have the shore of the Mediterranean with
+its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on the eastward of the
+mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the sea is the great
+Lake of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the name of the Sea
+of Galilee.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="swifter" id="swifter"></a>
+<img src="images/i_470.jpg" width="400" height="399" alt="swift" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of
+species which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can
+be seen in any other part of the earth of the same dimensions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span>
+and it seems probable that for this reason, among many others,
+Palestine was selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example,
+the Christian Church had been originated under the tropics,
+those who lived in a cold climate could scarcely have understood
+the language in which the Scriptures must necessarily have been
+couched. Had it, on the contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic
+regions, the inhabitants of the tropics and temperate regions
+could not have comprehended the imagery in which the teachings
+of Scripture must have been conveyed. But the small and
+geographically insignificant Land of Palestine combines in itself
+many of the characteristics which belong respectively to the
+cold, the temperate, and the hot regions of the world, so that the
+terms in which the sacred writings are couched are intelligible
+to a very great proportion of the world's inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="galilee" id="galilee"></a>
+<img src="images/i_471.jpg" width="400" height="371" alt="galilee" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">VIEW OF THE SEA OF GALILEE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several
+species of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if so migratory
+a bird can be said to be an inhabitant of any one country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="haunt" id="haunt"></a>
+<img src="images/i_472.jpg" width="400" height="291" alt="haunt" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE SWALLOW'S FAVOURITE HAUNT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of freedom,"
+is that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct
+to pass from one country to another for the purpose of preserving
+itself in a tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards
+as the spring ripens into summer, and southwards as autumn
+begins to sink into winter. By some marvellous instinct it
+traces its way over vast distances, passing over hundreds of
+miles where nothing but the sea is beneath it, and yet at the
+appointed season returning with unerring certainty to the spot
+where it was hatched. How it is guided no one knows, but the
+fact is certain, that Swallows, remarkable for some peculiarity
+by which they could be at once identified, have been observed
+to leave the country on their migration, and to return in the
+following year to the identical nest whence they started.</p>
+
+<p>Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of mankind
+is mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "The sparrow
+hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where
+she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my
+King and my God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all
+countries to have enjoyed the protection of man, and to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span>
+been suffered to build in peace under his roof. We find the same
+idea prevalent in the New World as well as the Old, and it is
+rather curious that the presence of the bird should so generally
+be thought to bring luck to a house.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill
+a Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks
+that if he did so his cows would fail to give their due supply
+of milk. The connexion between the milking of a cow in the
+field and the destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not
+very easy to see, but nevertheless such is the belief. This idea
+ranks with that which asserts the robin and the wren to be the
+male and female of the same species, and to be under some
+special divine protection.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it
+be derived from some forgotten source, or whether it be the
+natural result of the confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow
+enjoys at the present day the protection of man, and builds freely
+in his houses, and even his places of worship. The heathen
+temples, the Mahometan mosques, and the Christian churches
+are alike inhabited by the Swallow, who seems to know her
+security, and often places her nest where a child might reach it.</p>
+
+<p>The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations
+of man, though it prefers them; and in those places where no
+houses are to be found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it
+takes possession of the clefts of rocks, and therein makes its
+nest. Many instances are known where the Swallow has chosen
+the most extraordinary places for its nest. It has been known
+to build year after year on the frame of a picture, between the
+handles of a pair of shears hung on the wall, on a lamp-bracket,
+in a table-drawer, on a door-knocker, and similar strange
+localities.</p>
+
+<p>The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is
+noticed by the sacred writers. "As the bird by wandering, as
+the swallow by flying, so the curse causeless shall not come"
+(Prov. xxvi. 2). This passage is given rather differently in the
+Jewish Bible, though the general sense remains the same:
+"As the bird is ready to flee, as the swallow to fly away; so a
+causeless execration, it shall not come." It is possible, however,
+that this passage may allude rather to the migration than the
+swiftness of the bird.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 363px;"><a name="home" id="home"></a>
+<img src="images/i_474.jpg" width="363" height="600" alt="home" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SWALLOWS AT HOME.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The "Dukiphath" of Scripture&mdash;Various interpretations of the word&mdash;The
+Hoopoe&mdash;Its beauty and ill reputation&mdash;The unpleasant odour of its nest&mdash;Food
+of the Hoopoe&mdash;Its beautiful nest, and remarkable gestures&mdash;A curious
+legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs
+the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version,
+Lapwing: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing,
+and the bat."</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew word is <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">dukiphath</i>, and various interpretations
+have been proposed for it, some taking it to be the common
+domestic fowl, others the cock-of-the-woods, or capercailzie,
+while others have preferred to translate it as Hoopoe. The
+Jewish Bible retains the word lapwing, but adds the mark of
+doubt. Commentators are, however, agreed that of all these
+interpretations, that which renders the word as <span class="smcap">Hoopoe</span> (<em>Upupa
+epops</em>) is the best.</p>
+
+<p>There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such
+a bird as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be
+very good reasons for the same injunction with regard to the
+Hoopoe.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an
+ill reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence
+seems to be regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious
+aversion. This universal distaste for the Hoopoe is
+probably occasioned by an exceedingly pungent and disagreeable
+odour which fills the nest of the bird, and which infects
+for a considerable time the hand which is employed to take
+the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any unpleasant
+smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and
+having therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is
+found in nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects
+They have been said to feed on earth-worms; but this notion
+seems to be a mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch
+an earth-worm so long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of
+various kinds seem to be their favourite food, and when the
+beetles are tolerably large&mdash;say, for example, as large as the
+common cockchafer and dor-beetle&mdash;the bird beats them into a
+soft mass before it attempts to eat them. Smaller beetles are
+swallowed without any ceremony. The various boring insects
+which make their home in decaying wood are favourite articles
+of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of the soft wood
+with its long curved beak.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made
+in the hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however,
+hollow trees cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts
+to clefts in the rock, or even to holes in old ruins.</p>
+
+<p>The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account
+of its boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its
+cry and its gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing
+its crest, and bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which
+could not fail to attract the attention even of the most incurious,
+the whole aspect and expression of the bird varying with the
+raising and depressing of the crest.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the
+case with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of
+King Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty
+wizard rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on
+which was engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway
+over the birds, the beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns
+and Afreets, <em>i.e.</em> the good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal
+for the material world and too gross for the spiritual, and therefore
+hold the middle place between them.</p>
+
+<p>On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perishing
+from the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid,
+and flew in a dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter
+from the fiery sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the
+monarch told the Hoopoes to ask for a boon, and it should be
+granted to them. The birds, after consulting together, agreed to
+ask that from that time every Hoopoe should wear a crown
+of gold like Solomon himself. The request was immediately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span>
+granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned with a royal
+crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was the
+joy of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to
+contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery
+mirror so as to display the crown to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition.
+The golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and,
+besides, the wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the
+prey of every fowler. The unfortunate Hoopoes were persecuted
+in all directions for the sake of their golden crowns
+which they could neither take off nor conceal.</p>
+
+<p>At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solomon,
+and begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by
+substituting a crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The
+Hoopoe, however, never forgets its former grandeur, and is
+always bowing and bending itself as it used to do when contemplating
+its golden crown in the water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="lapwing" id="lapwing"></a>
+<img src="images/i_477.jpg" width="400" height="504" alt="lapwing" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="housetop" id="housetop"></a>
+<img src="images/i_478.jpg" width="400" height="480" alt="housetop" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN HOUSE-TOP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SPARROW.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Sparrow upon the house top&mdash;Architecture
+of the East&mdash;Little
+birds exposed for sale in the market&mdash;The
+two Sparrows sold for a
+farthing&mdash;Bird-catching&mdash;The net, the snare, and the trap.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We have already discussed the signification of the compound
+word <em>tzippor-deror</em>, and will now take the word <em>tzippor</em> alone.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used in
+a collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially
+designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as
+Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On turning to Ps. cii. 5-7, we find that the word is used as an
+emblem of solitude and misery: "By reason of the voice of my
+groaning, my bones cleave to my skin.</p>
+
+<p>"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of
+the desert,</p>
+
+<p>"I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top."</p>
+
+<p>The word which is here translated as "Sparrow" is <em>tzippor</em>,
+the same which is rendered as "bird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The
+Hebrew Bible more consistently uses the collective term "bird"
+in both instances, and renders the passage as, "I watch, and am
+as a lonely bird upon a roof."</p>
+
+<p>Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is perfectly
+aware that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrelsome
+enough with its fellows, and always ready to fight for a
+stray grain or morsel of food; but it is exceedingly gregarious,
+assembling together in little parties, enlivening the air with its
+merry though unmusical twitterings.</p>
+
+<p>This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of
+Palestine, where it haunts the habitations of men with the same
+dauntless confidence which it displays in this country. It is often
+seen upon roofs or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone
+in Palestine than it is here. On the contrary, the Sparrows
+collect in great numbers on the house-tops, attracted by the
+abundant supply of food which it finds there. This requires
+some little explanation.</p>
+
+<p>The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as
+among ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat, and
+serve as terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for
+sleeping-places; and from the house-tops proclamations were
+made. See, for example, 1 Sam. ix. 25: "And when they were
+come down from the high place into the city, Samuel communed
+with Saul upon the top of the house"&mdash;this being the ordinary
+place which would be chosen for a conversation. In order to
+keep out the heat of the mid-day sun, tents were sometimes
+pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See 2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference
+to the use of the house-tops as places for conversation
+are made in the New Testament. See, for example, Matt. x. 27:
+"What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in light; and what
+ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops." Another
+passage of a similar nature occurs in Luke xii. 3: "Therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span>
+whatsoever ye have spoken in darkness shall be heard in the
+light, and that which ye have spoken in the ear in closets shall
+be proclaimed on the house-tops."</p>
+
+<p>These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like
+those to which we are accustomed in this country, are made
+with great beams of wood laid horizontally, and crossed by
+planks, poles, and brushwood packed tightly together. As this
+roof would not keep out the rain, it is covered with a thick layer
+of clay mixed with straw, and beaten down as hard as possible.
+This covering has constantly to be renewed, as, even in the best
+made roofs, the heavy rains are sure to wash away some portion
+of the clay covering, which has to be patched up with a fresh
+supply of earth. A stone roller is generally kept on the roof of
+each house for the purpose of making a flat and even surface.</p>
+
+<p>The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the
+uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the
+rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows
+and other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house-tops,
+and then peck away just as they do in our own streets and
+farm-yards.</p>
+
+<p>It is now evident that the "sparrow alone and melancholy
+upon the house-tops" cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow
+which assembles in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places.
+We must therefore look for some other bird, and
+naturalists are now agreed that we may accept the <span class="smcap">Blue Thrush</span>
+(<em>Petrocossyphus cyaneus</em>) as the particular Tzippor, or small bird,
+which sits alone on the house-tops.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its
+popular name. Its habits exactly correspond with the idea of
+solitude and melancholy. The Blue Thrushes never assemble
+in flocks, and it is very rare to see more than a pair together.
+It is fond of sitting on the tops of houses, uttering its note, which,
+however agreeable to itself, is monotonous and melancholy to a
+human ear.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye
+hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take
+the opportunity of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely
+seems relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings.
+The context shows that our Lord was speaking of the new doctrines
+which He had come to teach, and the duty of spreading<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span>
+them, and alludes to a mode of religious teaching which was
+then in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the
+Hebrew language to be disused among the common people, who
+had learned the Chaldaic language from their captors. After
+their return to Palestine, the custom of publicly reading the
+Scriptures was found to be positively useless, the generality of
+the people being ignorant of the Hebrew language.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="reading" id="reading"></a>
+<img src="images/i_481.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="reading" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">READING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE AFTER THE RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The
+roll of the Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred
+words read, or rather chanted. After each passage was read, a
+doctor of the law whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista
+or interpreter, who repeated to the people in the Chaldaic
+language the explanation which the doctor had whispered
+in Hebrew. The reader will now see how appropriate is the
+metaphor, the whispering in the ear and subsequent proclamation
+being the customary mode of imparting religious instruction.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that
+the word "sparrow" is used in a passage which has become very
+familiar to us. "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and
+one of them shall not fall on the ground without your Father.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"But the very hairs of your head are all numbered.</p>
+
+<p>"Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many
+sparrows." The same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in
+almost the same words.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="thrush" id="thrush"></a>
+<img src="images/i_482.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="thrush" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now the word which is translated as "Sparrow" is <em>strouthion</em>,
+a collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the
+addition of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any
+kind of small bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify
+even so large a creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had
+been mentioned beforehand. Conjoined with the word "great,"
+it signifies the ostrich; and when used in connexion with a word
+significative of running, it is employed as a general term for all
+cursorial birds.</p>
+
+<p>In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and evidently
+signifies any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not.
+Allusion is made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived
+to the present day, of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies
+of little birds. They are stripped of their feathers, and spitted
+together in rows, and always have a large sale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various birds are sold in this manner, little if any distinction
+being made between them, save perhaps in respect of size, the
+larger species commanding a higher price than the small birds.
+In fact, they are arranged exactly after the manner in which the
+Orientals sell their "kabobs," <em>i.e.</em> little pieces of meat pierced by
+wooden skewers.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that
+the birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a
+considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were
+employed for this purpose, and we may safely infer that the
+forms of the nets and the methods of using them were identical
+with those which are employed in the same country at the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>The fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on
+two sticks, and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top
+of a pole, they sally out at night to the places where the small
+birds sleep.</p>
+
+<p>Raising the net on its sticks, they lift it to the requisite
+height, and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place
+the net between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places
+are then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to
+awaken the sleeping birds. Startled by the sudden noise, they
+dash from their roosts, instinctively make towards the light, and
+so fall into the net. Bird-catching with nets is several times
+mentioned in the Old Testament, but in the New the net is only
+alluded to as used for taking fish.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used
+by the ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day.
+Boys, for example, who catch birds for their own consumption,
+and not for the market, can do so by means of various traps,
+most of which are made on the principle of the noose, or snare.
+Sometimes a great number of hair-nooses are set in places to
+which the birds are decoyed, so that in hopping about many of
+them are sure to become entangled in the snares. Sometimes
+the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow passage which
+the birds are likely to traverse, and sometimes a simple fall-trap
+is employed.</p>
+
+<p>We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. lxxxiv.
+1-3, we come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again
+mentioned: "How amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the
+Lord; my heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God.</p>
+
+<p>"Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a
+nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars,
+O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="treesparrow" id="treesparrow"></a>
+<img src="images/i_484.jpg" width="400" height="323" alt="treesparrow" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE TREE-SPARROW, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird
+from the Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops; and
+though the same word, <em>tzippor</em>, is used in both cases, it is clear
+that whereas the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of
+sorrow, solitude, and sadness, the latter is brought forward as an
+image of joy and happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the
+Psalmist, "that dwell in Thy house: they will be still praising
+Thee.... For a day in Thy courts is better than a thousand. I
+had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to
+dwell in the tents of wickedness."</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species
+to which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting
+the ruins in the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an
+old wall. "Near this gate I climbed on to the top of the wall,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span>
+and walked along for some time, enjoying the fine view at the
+gorge of the Kedron, with its harvest crop of little white tombs.
+In a chink I discovered a sparrow's nest (<em>Passer cisalpinus</em>, var.)
+of a species so closely allied to our own that it is difficult
+to distinguish it, one of the very kind of which the Psalmist
+sung.... The swallows had departed for the winter, but the
+sparrow has remained pertinaciously through all the sieges and
+changes of Jerusalem."</p>
+
+<p>The same traveller thinks that the <span class="smcap">Tree Sparrow</span> (<em>Passer
+montanus</em>) may be the species to which the sacred writer refers,
+as it is even now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the
+Temple. In all probability we may accept both these birds as
+representatives of the Sparrow which found a home in the
+Temple. The swallow is separately mentioned, possibly because
+its migratory habits rendered it a peculiarly conspicuous bird;
+but it is probable that many species of birds might make their
+nests in a place where they felt themselves secure from disturbance,
+and that all these birds would be mentioned under the
+collective and convenient term of Tzipporim.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sparrows" id="sparrows"></a>
+<img src="images/i_485.jpg" width="400" height="323" alt="sparrows" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="forest" id="forest"></a>
+<img src="images/i_486.jpg" width="400" height="379" alt="forest" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CUCKOO.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture&mdash;The common species, and the Great
+Spotted Cuckoo&mdash;Depositing the egg.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Only in two instances is the word <span class="smcap">Cuckoo</span> found in the Authorized
+Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages
+they are practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it
+mentioned among the birds that might not be eaten, and the
+same prohibition is repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being
+ordered to hold the bird in abomination.</p>
+
+<p>It is rather remarkable that the Arabic name for the bird is
+exactly the same as ours, the peculiar cry having supplied the
+name. Its habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds
+is well known, together with the curious fact, that although so
+large a bird, measuring more than a foot in length, its egg is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span>
+larger than that of the little birds, such as the hedge-sparrow,
+robin, or redstart.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="cuckoo" id="cuckoo"></a>
+<img src="images/i_487.jpg" width="400" height="335" alt="cuckoo" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides this species, another Cuckoo inhabits Palestine, and
+is much more common. This is the <span class="smcap">Great Spotted Cuckoo</span>
+(<em>Oxylophus glandarius</em>). The birds belonging to this genus have
+been separated from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on
+the head are formed into a bold crest, in some species, such as
+Le Vaillant's Cuckoo, reminding the observer of the crest of the
+cockatoo. This fine bird measures nearly sixteen inches in
+length, and can be distinguished, not only by the crested head,
+but by the reddish grey of the throat and chest, and the white
+tips of the wing and tail feathers.</p>
+
+<p>This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large
+birds, such as the rooks, crows, and magpies.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="noah" id="noah"></a>
+<img src="images/i_488.jpg" width="400" height="475" alt="noah" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE DOVE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Parallel between the lamb and the Dove&mdash;The Dove and the olive branch&mdash;Abram's
+sacrifice, and its acceptance&mdash;The Dove-sellers of the Temple&mdash;The Rock Dove
+and its multitudes.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we
+shall find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful
+information into a reasonable space. There is no bird which
+plays a more important part, both in the Old and the New
+Testaments, or which is employed so largely in metaphor and
+symbol.</p>
+
+<p>The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep
+and lambs to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief
+interest from their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the
+young pigeon being emblems of innocence, both were used on
+similar occasions, the latter being in many instances permitted
+when the former were too expensive for the means of the offerer.
+As to the rendering of the Hebrew words which have been
+translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span>
+been any discussion. The Hebrew word <em>yonâh</em> has always been
+acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word <em>tôr</em>
+to signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are used
+in combination, so that <em>tor-yonâh</em> signifies the Turtle Dove.</p>
+
+<p>Though the interpretation of the word <em>yonâh</em> is universally
+accepted, there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and its
+signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is
+derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth
+of its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been
+selected as the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is
+Buxtorf, derive it from a word which signifies oppression, because
+the gentle nature of the Dove, together with its inability to
+defend itself, cause it to be oppressed, not only by man, but by
+many rapacious birds.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The first passage in which we hear of the Dove occurs in the
+earlier part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the
+first two creatures that are mentioned by any definite names,
+the word <em>nachosh</em>, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1,
+being a collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether
+venomous or otherwise, and not used for the purpose of designating
+any particular species.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the
+Dove. The whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and
+it is only needful to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark
+in order that Noah might learn whether the floods had subsided,
+and that, after she had returned once, he sent her out again
+seven days afterwards, and that she returned, bearing an olive-branch
+(or leaf, in the Jewish Bible). Seven days afterwards he
+sent the Dove for the third time, but she had found rest on the
+earth, and returned no more.</p>
+
+<p>It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in
+the most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of
+the Scriptures. I shall, therefore, allude but very slightly to the
+metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from
+the ark and the sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting
+entirely aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the
+Dove are well contrasted. The one went out, and, though the
+trees were at that time submerged, it trusted in its strong wings,
+and hovered above the watery expanse until the flood had subsided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span>
+The Dove, on the contrary, fond of the society of man,
+and having none of the wild, predatorial habits which distinguish
+the raven, twice returned to its place of refuge, before it was
+finally able to find a resting-place for its foot.</p>
+
+<p>After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of
+Abraham, some four hundred years afterwards, when the covenant
+was made between the Lord and Abram, when "he believed
+in the Lord, and it was counted to him for righteousness." In
+order to ratify this covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice,
+which consisted of a young heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove,
+and a young dove or pigeon. The larger animals were
+severed in two, but the birds were not divided, and between the
+portions of the sacrifice there passed a lamp of fire as a symbol
+of the Divine presence.</p>
+
+<p>In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram
+should be as the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply
+fulfilled, together with the prophecy that they should be
+"strangers in a land that was not theirs," and should be in
+slavery and under oppression for many years, the Dove was
+specially mentioned in the new law as one of the creatures that
+were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly
+defined. See Lev. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his
+offering to the Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering
+of turtle-doves, or of young pigeons.</p>
+
+<p>"And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off
+his head, and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall
+be wrung out at the side of the altar.</p>
+
+<p>"And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast
+it beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes.</p>
+
+<p>"And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not
+divide it asunder: and the priest shall burn it upon the altar,
+upon the wood that is upon the fire."</p>
+
+<p>Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram,
+but of the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that
+the body of the bird should not be divided. There is a slight,
+though not very important variation in one or two portions of
+this passage. For example, the wringing off the head of the
+bird is, literally, pinching off, and had to be done with the
+thumb nail; and the passage which is by some translators rendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span>
+as the crop and the feathers, is by others translated as the
+crop and its contents&mdash;a reading which seems to be more consonant
+with the usual ceremonial of sacrifice than the other.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial
+animal in case one of more value could not be afforded;
+and so much care was taken in this respect, that with the
+exception of the two "sparrows" (<em>tzipporim</em>) that were enjoined
+as part of the sacrifice by which the cleansed leper was received
+back among the people (Lev. xiv. 4), no bird might be offered
+in sacrifice unless it belonged to the tribe of pigeons.</p>
+
+<p>It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the
+Virgin Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to
+present her new-born Son in the Temple. For those who were
+able to afford it, the required sacrifice was a lamb of the first
+year for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or Turtle Dove for
+a sin-offering. But "if she be not able to bring a lamb, then
+she shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, the one for
+the burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering." The extraordinary
+value which all Israelites set upon the first-born son is
+well known, both parents even changing their own names, and
+being called respectively the father and mother of Elias, or
+Joseph, as the case may be. If the parents who had thus
+attained the summit of their wishes possessed a lamb, or could
+have obtained one, they would most certainly have offered it in
+the fulness of their joy, particularly when, as in the case of
+Mary, there was such cause for rejoicing; and the fact that they
+were forced to substitute a second pigeon for the lamb is a proof
+of their extreme poverty.</p>
+
+<p>While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact
+nation, dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could
+easily offer their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes
+to the altar. But in process of time, when the nation had
+become a large and scattered one, its members residing at great
+distances, and only coming to the Temple once or twice in the
+year to offer their sacrifices, they would have found that for even
+the poor to carry their pigeons with them would have greatly
+increased the trouble, and in many cases have been almost
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers
+established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span>
+the purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice.
+Sheep and oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, as
+offerings of money could only be made in the Jewish coinage,
+money-changers established themselves for the purpose of exchanging
+foreign money brought from a distance for the legal
+Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded their object, and
+endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were ignorant of
+the comparative value of money and goods, is evident from the
+fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which were
+applied to them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="changers" id="changers"></a>
+<img src="images/i_492.jpg" width="400" height="342" alt="changers" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEY-CHANGERS AND THOSE WHO SOLD DOVES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to some old writers, the Dove was considered as
+having a superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty
+with which it finds its way from one place to another.
+At the present time, our familiarity with the variety of pigeon
+known as the Carrier has taught us that the eye is the real
+means employed by the pigeon for the direction of its flight.
+Those who fly pigeons for long distances always take them
+several times over the same ground, carrying them to an increasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span>
+distance at every journey, so that the birds shall be
+able to note certain objects which serve them as landmarks.</p>
+
+<p>Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a
+young wasp leaves its nest for the first time, it does not fly away
+at once, but hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting
+farther and farther away from the nest until it has learned the
+aspect of surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the
+same manner, and so completely does it depend upon eyesight
+that, if a heavy fog should come on, the best-trained pigeon will
+lose its way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="rockdove" id="rockdove"></a>
+<img src="images/i_493.jpg" width="400" height="334" alt="rockdove" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ROCK DOVE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon
+found its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their
+ideas, could guide it across the sea. They were not aware of the
+power possessed by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will,
+or of the enormous increase of range which the sight obtains by
+elevation. A pigeon at the elevation of several hundred yards
+can see to an astonishing distance, and there is no need of
+imagining one sense to receive a peculiar development when the
+ordinary powers of another are sufficient to obtain the object.</p>
+
+<p>That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well
+known. An allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span>
+is seen in Isa. lx. 8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as
+the doves to their windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates
+the passage, "as the doves to their apertures?" In this passage
+the sacred writer utters a prophecy concerning the coming of the
+world to the Messiah, the Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds
+of pigeons fly homeward to their cotes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bluerock" id="bluerock"></a>
+<img src="images/i_494.jpg" width="400" height="531" alt="bluerock" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BLUE ROCK PIGEONS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day,
+the houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses
+for the protection and shelter of these popular birds.</p>
+
+<p>In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons with
+which we are familiar, together with one or two others. First,
+there is the Rock Pigeon, or Blue Rock Dove, which is acknowledged
+to be the origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons,
+with all their infinite variety of colour and plumage. This
+species, though plentiful in Palestine, is not spread over the
+whole of the land, but lives chiefly on the coast and in the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span>
+parts of the country. In these places it multiplies in amazing
+numbers, its increase being almost wholly unchecked by man,
+on account of the inaccessible cliffs in which it lays its eggs
+and nurtures its young, its only enemies being a few of the birds
+and beasts of prey, which can exercise but a trifling influence
+on these prolific birds.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram, while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn,
+which lies near the Lake of Gennesaret, witnessed an amusing
+example of the vast number of these Pigeons.</p>
+
+<p>"No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of
+rock pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the
+ravine, whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt
+like a gust of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the
+dignity and the equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept
+past him. This enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite
+turned on his back by the sudden rush of wings and wind."</p>
+
+<p>In Palestine these birds are taken in nets, into which they are
+decoyed by a very effective though cruel device.</p>
+
+<p>When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by
+its capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy.
+They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it
+to a perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive
+cries, and continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of
+its kind, who settle on the surrounding branches and are easily
+taken, their whole attention being occupied by the cries of their
+distressed companion.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit
+the Holy Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will
+confine ourselves to the common species, with which we are so
+familiar in this country. Its migratory habits are noticed in the
+sacred writings. See the following passage in the Song of Solomon:</p>
+
+<p>"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the
+flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is
+come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land" (Cant.
+ii. 11, 12). The prophet Jeremiah also refers to the migration of
+this bird: "Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed
+times; and the turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe
+the time of their coming; but my people know not the judgment
+of the Lord" (viii. 7).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove, one variety
+of which is known as the Barbary Dove. It is a large species,
+measuring more than a foot in length. Another species is the Palm
+Turtle, so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it
+is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man. It
+is a gregarious bird, several nests being generally found on one
+tree, and even, when it cannot find a palm, it will build among
+the thorns in multitudes. Like the common Dove, it is fond of
+the society of man, and is sure to make its nest among human
+habitations, secure in its knowledge that it will not be disturbed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="turtledove" id="turtledove"></a>
+<img src="images/i_496.jpg" width="400" height="328" alt="turtledove" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE TURTLE DOVE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length,
+and having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding
+species.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="brood" id="brood"></a>
+<img src="images/i_497.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt="brood" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>POULTRY.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day&mdash;The Domestic Fowl unknown
+in the early times of Israel&mdash;The eating and gathering of eggs&mdash;References to
+Poultry in the New Testament&mdash;The egg and the scorpion&mdash;The fatted fowl of
+Solomon&mdash;The hen brooding over her eggs&mdash;Poultry prohibited within Jerusalem&mdash;The
+cock-crowing.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and
+Syria, and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is
+evident from one or two references which are made by our Lord.
+How long the Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is
+extremely uncertain, and we have very little to guide us in
+our search.</p>
+
+<p>That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period
+of their history is evident from the utter silence of the Old
+Testament on the subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful
+would certainly have been mentioned in the Law of Moses
+had it been known to the Israelites; but, in all its minute and
+detailed provisions, the Law is silent on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although
+there are a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span>
+which laid them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers
+not to a domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest
+chance to be before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether
+they be young ones, or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the
+young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the
+young: but thou shalt in any wise let the dam go, and take the
+young to thee; that it may be well with thee, that thou mayest
+prolong thy days."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fowl" id="fowl"></a>
+<img src="images/i_498.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="fowl" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE DOMESTIC FOWL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has ever
+been conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in
+1 Kings iv. 22, 23: "And Solomon's provision for one day was
+thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal,</p>
+
+<p>"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an
+hundred sheep, besides harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and
+fatted fowl."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the
+above-quoted passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon
+had introduced into Palestine, together with various other birds
+and animals, by means of his fleet. There may be truth in this
+conjecture, but, as there can be no certainty, we will pass from
+the Old Testament to the New.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic
+Fowl is mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example,
+that touching image employed by our Lord when lamenting over
+Jerusalem: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the
+prophets, and stonest them that are sent unto thee; how often
+would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen doth
+gather her brood under her wings, and ye would not!" The
+reference is evidently made to the Domesticated Fowl, which in
+the time of our Lord was largely bred in the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence
+of a Rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from
+being kept within the walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search
+for food they should scratch up any impurity which had been
+buried, and so defile the holy city. But it must be remembered
+that in the time of Christ Jerusalem belonged practically to the
+Romans, who held it with a garrison, and who, together with
+other foreigners, would not trouble themselves about any such
+prohibition, which would seem to them, as it does to us, exceedingly
+puerile, not to say unjustifiable.</p>
+
+<p>That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident
+from the reference to the "cock-crowing" as a measure of time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="poultry" id="poultry"></a>
+<img src="images/i_499.jpg" width="400" height="231" alt="poultry" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 312px;"><a name="peacock" id="peacock"></a>
+<img src="images/i_500.jpg" width="312" height="400" alt="peacock" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE PEACOCK.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon&mdash;The word <em>Tucciyim</em> and its various
+interpretations&mdash;Identity of the word with the Cingalese name of the Peacock&mdash;Reasons
+why the Peacock should have been brought to Solomon&mdash;Its subsequent
+neglect and extirpation.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Among the many foreign objects which were imported by
+Solomon into Palestine, we find that the Peacock is specially
+mentioned. (See a passage which has already been mentioned
+in connexion with ivory and apes.) The sacred historian, after
+mentioning the ivory throne, the golden shields and targets,
+that all the vessels in Solomon's house were of gold, and that
+silver was so common as to be of no account, proceeds to give
+the reason for this profuse magnificence. "For the king had at
+sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in three
+years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory,
+and apes, and peacocks" (1 Kings x. 22).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That this magnificent bird should have been one of those
+creatures that were imported by Solomon is almost certain.
+It would be imported for the same reason as the apes;
+namely, for the purpose of adding to the glories of Solomon's
+house, and no bird could have been selected which would have
+a more magnificent effect than the Peacock. Moreover, although
+unknown in Palestine, it is extremely plentiful in India and
+Ceylon, inhabiting the jungle by thousands, and, by a curious
+coincidence, being invariably most plentiful in those spots which
+are most frequented by tigers. In many parts of the country,
+great numbers of Peacocks frequent the temples, and live
+amicably with the sacred monkeys, passing their lives in absolute
+security, protected by the sanctity of the place.</p>
+
+<p>Their numbers, therefore, would render them easily accessible
+to Solomon's envoys, who would purchase them at a cheap rate
+from the native dealers, while their surpassing beauty would
+render them sure of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem.
+Indeed, their beauty made so great an impression that they are
+separately mentioned by the sacred chronicler, the Peacock and
+the ape being the only two animals that are thought worthy of
+enumeration.</p>
+
+<p>The Peacock may safely be termed one of the most beautiful
+of the feathered tribe, and may even lay a well-founded claim to
+the chief rank among birds, in splendour of plumage and effulgence
+of colouring.</p>
+
+<p>We are so familiar with the Peacock that we think little of its
+real splendour; but if one of these birds was brought to this
+country for the first time, it would create a greater sensation than
+many animals which are now viewed in menageries with the greatest
+curiosity and interest.</p>
+
+<p>The train of the male Peacock is the most remarkable feature
+of this beautiful bird; the feathers composing it are very long, and
+are coloured with green, purple, bronze, gold, and blue in such a
+manner as to form distinct "eyes."</p>
+
+<p>On the head is a tuft of upright feathers, blackish upon their
+shafts, and rich golden green, shot with blue, on their expanded
+tips. The top of the head, the throat, and neck are the most refulgent
+blue, changing in different lights to gold and green. The
+wings are darker than the rest of the plumage, the abdomen blackish,
+and the feathers of the thighs are fawn.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="peacocks" id="peacocks"></a>
+<img src="images/i_502.jpg" width="600" height="322" alt="peacocks" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PEACOCK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The female is much smaller than her mate, and not nearly so
+beautiful, the train being almost wanting, and the colour ashy-brown,
+with the exception of the throat and neck, which are
+green.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that after Solomon's death the breed of Peafowl was
+not kept up, owing in all probability to the troubles which beset
+the throne after that magnificent monarch died.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="feathers" id="feathers"></a>
+<img src="images/i_503.jpg" width="400" height="271" alt="feathers" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="partridge" id="partridge"></a>
+<img src="images/i_504.jpg" width="400" height="301" alt="partridge" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE PARTRIDGE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The word <em>Kore</em> and its signification&mdash;The Partridge upon the mountains&mdash;David's
+simile&mdash;The Desert Partridge and its habits&mdash;Hunting the Partridge with
+sticks&mdash;Eggs of the Partridge&mdash;Egg-hunting in Palestine&mdash;The various species
+of Partridge.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is a bird mentioned in the Old Testament, which, although
+its name is only given twice, is a very interesting bird to all
+students of the Scriptures, both passages giving an insight into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span>
+the manners and customs of the scarcely changing East. This
+is the bird called in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been
+generally accepted as signifying some kind of Partridge. There
+is no doubt that, like most other Hebrew names of animated
+beings, the word is a collective one, signifying a considerable
+number of species.</p>
+
+<p>The first passage occurs in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. When David was
+being pursued by Saul, and had been forced to escape from the
+city and hide himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself
+to the Partridge, which frequented exactly the same places:
+"The king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one
+doth hunt a partridge upon the mountains."</p>
+
+<p>The appositeness of this simile is perfect. The bird to which
+David alluded was in all probability the Desert Partridge
+(<em>Ammoperdix Heyii</em>), a species which especially haunts rocky
+and desert places, and even at the present day is exceedingly
+plentiful about the Cave of Adullam. The males, when they
+think themselves unobserved, are fond of challenging, or
+calling to each other in a loud ringing note, a peculiarity
+that has earned for the bird the Hebrew name of Kore, or
+"the caller."</p>
+
+<p>It is a very active bird, not taking to flight if it can escape
+by means of its legs, and, when pursued or disturbed, running
+with great swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide
+itself, taking care to interpose, as it runs, stones or other
+obstacles between itself and the object of its alarm. Thus,
+then, it will be seen how close was the parallel between this
+bird and David, who was forced, like the Partridge, to seek for
+refuge in the rocky caves.</p>
+
+<p>But the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine
+the full meaning of the passage. The Partridge is at the present
+day hunted on the mountains exactly as was the case in the
+time of David. The usual hunters are boys, who provide themselves
+with a supply of stout sticks about eighteen inches in
+length, and, armed with these, they chase the birds, hurling the
+sticks one after the other along the ground, so as to strike the
+Partridge as it runs. Generally, several hunters chase the same
+bird, some of them throwing the sticks along the ground, while
+others hurl them just above the bird, so that if it should take to
+flight, it may be struck as it rises into the air. By pertinaciously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span>
+chasing an individual bird, the hunters tire it, and contrive to
+come so close that they are certain to strike it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="greek" id="greek"></a>
+<img src="images/i_506.jpg" width="400" height="395" alt="greek" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GREEK PARTRIDGE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reader will now see how perfect is the image. Driven
+from the city, David was forced to wander, together with the
+Desert Partridge, upon the hill-sides, and, like that bird, his
+final refuge is the rock. Then came the hunters and pursued
+him, driving him from place to place, as the boys hunt the
+Partridge, until he was weary of his life, and exclaimed in his
+despair, "I shall now perish one day by the hand of Saul."</p>
+
+<p>The Partridges of Palestine are, like those of our own land,
+exceedingly prolific birds, laying a wonderful number of eggs,
+more than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest.
+These eggs are used for food, and the consumption of them is
+very great, so that many a Partridge has been deprived of her
+expected family: she has sat upon eggs, and hatched them not.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Just as hunting the Partridge is an acknowledged sport among
+the inhabitants of the uncultivated parts of Palestine, so is searching
+for the eggs of the bird a regular business at the proper time of year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="young" id="young"></a>
+<img src="images/i_507.jpg" width="400" height="492" alt="young" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PARTRIDGES AND THEIR YOUNG.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of these birds several species inhabit Palestine. There is,
+for example, the Desert Partridge, which has already been
+mentioned. It is beautifully, though not brilliantly
+coloured, and may be known by the white spot behind the eye,
+the purple and chestnut streaks on the sides, and the orange bill
+and legs. These, however, soon lose their colour after death.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="easternquail" id="easternquail"></a>
+<img src="images/i_508.jpg" width="350" height="278" alt="eastern" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">EASTERN QUAIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE QUAIL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Migration of the Quail&mdash;Modes of catching the Quail in the East&mdash;The Quail-hunters
+of Northern Africa&mdash;Quarrelsome nature of the bird&mdash;Quail-fighting in
+the East&mdash;How the Quails were brought to the Israelites.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In one or two parts of the Old Testament is found a word
+which has been translated in the Authorized Version of the
+Bible as <span class="smcap">Quail</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The word is <em>selâv</em>, and in every case where it is mentioned it
+is used with reference to the same occurrence; namely, the providing
+of flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could
+find no food. As the passages remarkably bear upon each other,
+it will be advisable to quote them in the order in which they
+come.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a
+few days after the Israelites had passed the Red Sea, they began
+to complain of the desert land into which Moses had led them,
+and openly said that they wished they had never left the land
+of their slavery, where they had plenty to eat. According to
+His custom, pitying their narrow-minded and short-sighted folly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span>
+the natural result of the long servitude to which they had been
+subject, the Lord promised to send both bread and flesh-meat.</p>
+
+<p>"And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying,</p>
+
+<p>"I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel:
+speak unto them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the
+morning ye shall be filled with bread; and ye shall know that I
+am the Lord your God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="quail" id="quail"></a>
+<img src="images/i_509.jpg" width="400" height="402" alt="quail" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE QUAIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and
+covered the camp" (ver. 11-13).</p>
+
+<p>The next passage records a similar circumstance, which
+occurred about a year afterwards, when the Israelites were tired
+of eating nothing but the manna, and again wished themselves
+back in Egypt. "And there went forth a wind from the Lord,
+and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span>
+as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's
+journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were
+two cubits high upon the face of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>"And the people stood up all that day, and all that night,
+and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that
+gathered least gathered ten homers; and they spread them
+all abroad for themselves round about the camp" (Numb.
+xi. 31, 32).</p>
+
+<p>The last passage in which Quails are mentioned occurs in the
+Psalms. In Ps. cv. are enumerated the various wonders done
+on behalf of the Israelites, and among them is specially mentioned
+this gift of the Quails and manna. "The people asked,
+and He brought quails, and satisfied them with the bread of
+heaven" (ver. 40).</p>
+
+<p>"He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the
+doors of heaven,</p>
+
+<p>"And had rained down manna upon them to eat, and had
+given them of the corn of heaven.</p>
+
+<p>"Man did eat angels' food: He sent them meat to the full.</p>
+
+<p>"He caused an east wind to blow in the heaven; and by His
+power He brought in the south wind.</p>
+
+<p>"He rained flesh also upon them as dust, and feathered fowls
+like as the sand of the sea" (Ps. lxxviii. 23-27).</p>
+
+<p>If the ordinary interpretation of <em>selâv</em> by "Quail" be accepted,
+the description is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks,
+and, being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of
+the wind. They will wait for days until the wind blows in the
+required direction, and will then take wing in countless multitudes;
+so that in an hour or two a spot on which not a Quail
+could be seen is covered with them.</p>
+
+<p>On account of their short wings, they never rise to any great
+height, even when crossing the sea, while on land they fly at a
+very low elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a
+yard or "two cubits high upon the face of the earth."</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and
+would be a great temptation to men who had passed so long a
+time without eating animal food. Another corroboration of the
+identity of the Quail and the Selâv is to be found in the mode
+in which the flesh is prepared at the present day. As soon as
+the birds have arrived, they are captured in vast multitudes, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span>
+account of their weariness. Many are consumed at once, but
+great numbers are preserved for future use by being split and
+laid out to dry in the sun, precisely as the Israelites are said to
+have spread out the Selavim "all abroad for themselves round
+about the camp."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we
+may proceed to the description of the bird.</p>
+
+<p>It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set
+closely on the shoulders. Owing to this peculiarity of form, it
+has its Arab name, which signifies plumpness or fatness. The
+wings are pressed closely to the body, and the tail is pointed,
+very short, and directed downwards, so that it almost appears to
+be absent, and the bird seems to be even more plump than
+really is the case.</p>
+
+<p>Several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in
+the East, and were probably employed, not only on the two
+occasions mentioned in Exodus and Numbers, but on many
+others of which the Scriptural narrative takes no notice. One
+very simple plan is, for the hunters to select a spot on which the
+birds are assembled, and to ride or walk round them in a large
+circle, or rather in a constantly diminishing spiral. The birds
+are by this process driven closer and closer together, until at the
+last they are packed in such masses that a net can be thrown
+over them, and a great number captured in it.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the Quails, and
+employ a similar man&oelig;uvre, except that, instead of merely
+walking round the Quails, they approach simultaneously from
+opposite points, and then circle round them until the birds are
+supposed to be sufficiently packed. At a given signal they all
+converge upon the terrified birds, and take them by thousands
+at a time.</p>
+
+<p>In Northern Africa these birds are captured in a very similar
+fashion. As soon as notice is given that a flight of Quails has
+settled, all the men of the village turn out with their great
+burnouses or cloaks. Making choice of some spot as a centre,
+where a quantity of brushwood grows or is laid down, the men
+surround it on all sides, and move slowly towards it, spreading
+their cloaks in their outstretched hands, and flapping them like
+the wings of huge birds. Indeed, when a man is seen from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span>
+little distance performing this act, he looks more like a huge bat
+than a human being.</p>
+
+<p>As the men gradually converge upon the brushwood, the
+Quails naturally run towards it for shelter, and at last they all
+creep under the treacherous shade. Still holding their outspread
+cloaks in their extended hands, the hunters suddenly run
+to the brushwood, fling their cloaks over it, and so enclose the
+birds in a trap from which they cannot escape. Much care is
+required in this method of hunting, lest the birds should take to
+flight, and so escape. The circle is therefore made of very great
+size, and the men who compose it advance so slowly that the
+Quails prefer to use their legs rather than their wings, and do
+not think of flight until their enemies are so close upon them
+that their safest course appears to be to take refuge in the
+brushwood.</p>
+
+<p>Boys catch the Quails in various traps and springes, the most
+ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door of which over-balances
+itself by the weight of the bird.</p>
+
+<p>By reason of the colour of the Quail, and its inveterate habit
+of keeping close to the ground, it easily escapes observation, and
+even the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single
+bird, though there may be hundreds within a very small compass.
+Fortunately for the hunters, and unfortunately for itself, it
+betrays itself by its shrill whistling note, which it frequently
+emits, and which is so peculiar that it will at once direct the
+hunter to his prey.</p>
+
+<p>This note is at the same time the call of the male to the
+female and a challenge to its own sex. Like all the birds of its
+group, the Quail is very combative, and generally fights a battle
+for the possession of each of its many mates. It is not gifted
+with such weapons of offence as some of its kinsfolk, but it is none
+the less quarrelsome, and fights in its own way as desperately as
+the game-cock of our own country.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, in the East, it is used for exactly the same purpose as
+the game-cock. Battles between birds and beasts, not to say
+men, are the common amusement with Oriental potentates, and,
+when they are tired of watching the combats of the larger
+animals, they have Quail-fights in their own chambers. The
+birds are selected for this purpose, and are intentionally furnished
+with stimulating food, so as to render them even more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span>
+quarrelsome than they would be by nature. Partridges are
+employed for the same cruel purpose; and as both these birds
+are easily obtained, and are very pugnacious, they are especially
+suited for the sport.</p>
+
+<p>Two passages occur in the Scriptures which exactly explain
+the mode in which the Quails were sent to the Israelites. The
+first is in Ps. lxxviii. 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord
+"caused an east wind to blow in the heaven, and by His power
+He brought in the south wind." Here, on examining the geographical
+position of the Israelites, we see exactly how the
+south-east wind would bring the Quails.</p>
+
+<p>The Israelites had just passed the Red Sea, and had begun to
+experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect
+in the desert through which they had to pass. Passing northwards
+in their usual migrations, the birds would come to the
+coast of the Red Sea, and there would wait until a favourable
+wind enabled them to cross the water. The south-east wind
+afforded them just the very assistance which they needed, and
+they would naturally take advantage of it.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable how closely the Scriptural narrative agrees
+with the habits of the Quail, the various passages, when compared
+together, precisely coinciding with the character of the
+bird. In Exod. xvi. 13 it is mentioned that "at even the
+quails came up and covered the camp." Nocturnal flight is one
+of the characteristics of the Quail. When possible, they invariably
+fly by night, and in this manner escape many of the
+foes which would make great havoc among their helpless columns
+if they were to fly by day.</p>
+
+<p>The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen
+to be established. In the first place, we have the name still
+surviving in the Arabic language. Next, the various details of
+the Scriptural narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that
+even if we were to put aside the etymological corroboration, we
+could have but little doubt on the subject. There is not a detail
+which is not correct. The gregarious instinct of the bird, which
+induces it to congregate in vast numbers; its habit of migration;
+its inability to fly against the wind, and the necessity for it to
+await a favourable breeze; its practice of flying by night, and its
+custom of merely skimming over the surface of the ground; the
+ease with which it is captured; the mode of preserving by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span>
+drying in the sun, and the proverbial delicacy of its flesh, are
+characteristics which all unite in the Quail.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Before closing our account of the Quail, it will be as well to
+devote a short space to the nature of the mode by which
+the Israelites were twice fed. Commentators who were
+unacquainted with the natural history of the bird have
+represented the whole occurrence as a miraculous one,
+and have classed it with the division of the Red Sea
+and of the Jordan, with the various plagues by which
+Pharaoh was induced to release the Israelites, and with
+many other events which we are accustomed
+to call miracles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 150px;"><a name="flight" id="flight"></a>
+<img src="images/i_514.jpg" width="150" height="301" alt="flight" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In reality, there is scarcely anything of
+a miraculous character about the event,
+and none seems to have been claimed for
+it. The Quails were not created at the
+moment expressly for the purpose of supplying
+the people with food, nor were they
+even brought from any great distance.
+They were merely assisted
+in the business on which they
+were engaged&mdash;namely, their migration
+or customary travel from
+south to north, and waiting on
+the opposite side of the narrow
+sea for a south-east wind. That
+such a wind should blow was no
+miracle. The Quails expected it to blow, and without it they
+could not have crossed the sea. That it was made to blow
+earlier than might have been the case is likely enough, but that
+is the extent of the miraculous character of the event.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE RAVEN.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Raven tribe plentiful in Palestine&mdash;The Raven and the Dove&mdash;Elijah and the
+Ravens&mdash;Desert-loving habits of the Raven&mdash;Notions of the old commentators&mdash;Ceremonial
+use of the Raven&mdash;Return of the Ravens&mdash;Cunning of the bird&mdash;Nesting-places
+of the Raven&mdash;The magpie and its character&mdash;The starling&mdash;Its
+introduction into Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word <em>oreb</em>
+primarily signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the
+name of <span class="smcap">Raven</span>, it was also used by the Jews in a much looser
+sense, and served to designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe,
+such as the raven itself, the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and
+the like. We will first take the word in its restricted sense, and
+then devote a brief space to its more extended signification.</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the
+Raven, it is very plentiful in Palestine, and even at the present
+time is apparently as firmly established as it was in the days
+when the various Scriptural books were written.</p>
+
+<p>There are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in
+the Holy Scriptures than the Raven, though the passages in
+which its name occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird
+which is mentioned in the Scriptures, its name occurring in
+Gen. viii. 7: "And it came to pass at the end of forty days
+that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made;</p>
+
+<p>"And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro
+until the waters were dried up from off the earth."</p>
+
+<p>Here we have, at the very outset, a characteristic account of
+the bird. It left the ark, and flew to and fro, evidently for the
+purpose of seeking food. The dove, which immediately followed
+the Raven, acted in a different manner. She flew from the ark
+in search of food, and, finding none, was forced to return again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span>
+The Raven, on the contrary, would find plenty of food in the
+bodies of the various animals that had been drowned, and were
+floating on the surface of the waters, and, therefore, needed not
+to enter again into the ark. The context shows that it made the
+ark a resting-place, and that it "went forth to and fro," or, as
+the Hebrew Bible renders the passage, "in going and returning,"
+until the waters had subsided. Here, then, is boldly drawn the
+distinction between the two birds, the carrion-eater and the
+feeder on vegetable substances&mdash;a distinction to which allusion
+has already been made in the history of the dove.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="raven" id="raven"></a>
+<img src="images/i_516.jpg" width="400" height="415" alt="raven" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE RAVEN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Passing over the declaration in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14,
+that every Raven (<em>i.e.</em> the Raven and all its tribe) is unclean, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span>
+come to the next historical mention of the bird. This occurs in
+1 Kings xvii. When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by
+prophesying three years of drought, he was divinely ordered to
+take refuge by the brook Cherith, one of the tributaries of the
+Jordan. "And it shall be, that thou shalt drink of the brook;
+and I have commanded the ravens [<em>orebim</em>] to feed thee there.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="elijah" id="elijah"></a>
+<img src="images/i_517.jpg" width="400" height="501" alt="elijah" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ELIJAH FED BY THE RAVENS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"So he went and did according unto the word of the Lord:
+for he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before
+Jordan.</p>
+
+<p>"And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning,
+and bread and flesh in the evening, and he drank of the
+brook."</p>
+
+<p>In this passage we have a history of a purely miraculous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[519]</a></span>
+character. It is not one that can be explained away. Some
+have tried to do so by saying that the banished prophet found
+the nests of the Ravens, and took from them daily a supply of
+food for his sustenance. The repetition of the words "bread
+and flesh" shows that the sacred writer had no intention of
+signifying a mere casual finding of food which the Ravens
+brought for their young, but that the prophet was furnished with
+a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice in the
+day. It is a statement which, if it be not accepted as the
+account of a miracle, must be rejected altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The desert-loving habit of the Raven is noticed in Isa. xxxiv.
+11: "The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl
+also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out
+upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will now pass to the notices of the Raven as given by
+the writers and commentators of the Talmud.</p>
+
+<p>Being an unclean bird, and one of ill omen, it was not permitted
+to perch on the roof of the Temple. According to some
+writers, it was kept off by means of scarecrows, and according
+to others, by long and sharp iron spikes set so closely together
+that there was no room for the bird to pass between them. The
+latter is by far the more probable account, as the Raven is much
+too cunning a bird to be deceived by a scarecrow for any length
+of time. It might be alarmed at the first sight of a strange
+object, but in a very short time it would hold all scarecrows in
+supreme contempt.</p>
+
+<p>Its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient
+writers, who must have had many opportunities of seeing the
+Raven unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies, not only
+of dead animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was
+the Raven of this food that, according to those writers, the very
+smell of human blood attracted the bird; and, if a man accidentally
+cut himself, or if he were bled for some illness, the
+odour of the blood would bring round the spot all the Ravens
+of the place.</p>
+
+<p>The punctuality with which the Raven, in common with all
+its kin, returns to its roosting-place, was also familiar to the
+Talmudists, who made rather an ingenious use of this habit
+The ceremonial law of the Jews required the greatest care in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[520]</a></span>
+observing certain hours, and it was especially necessary to know
+the precise time which marked the separation of one day from
+another. This was ascertained easily enough as long as the day
+was clear, but in case of a dull, murky day, when the course of
+the sun could not be traced, some other plan was needed.</p>
+
+<p>In the olden times, no artificial means of measuring time were
+known, and the devout Jew was consequently fearful lest he
+might unwittingly break the law by doing on one day an act
+which ought to have been done on another. A convenient
+method for ascertaining the time was, however, employed, and,
+as soon as the Ravens, rooks, and similar birds were seen
+returning to their homes, the sun was supposed to be setting.</p>
+
+<p>This habit of returning regularly at the same time is mentioned
+by Mr. Tristram in his "Land of Israel:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Of all the birds of Jerusalem, the raven is decidedly the
+most characteristic and conspicuous. It is present everywhere
+to eye and ear, and the odours that float around remind us of
+its use. On the evening of our arrival we were perplexed by
+a call-note, quite new to us, mingling with the old familiar
+croak, and soon ascertained that there must be a second species
+of raven along with the common <em>Corvus corax</em>. This was the
+African species (<em>Corvus umbrinus</em>, Hed.), the ashy-necked raven,
+a little smaller than the world-wide raven, and here more
+abundant in individuals.</p>
+
+<p>"Beside these, the rook (<em>Corvus agricola</em>, Trist.), the common
+grey, or hooded crow (<em>Corvus cornix</em>, L.), and the jackdaw
+(<em>Corvus monedula</em>, L.), roost by hundreds in the sanctuary. We
+used to watch them in long lines passing over our tents every
+morning at daybreak, and returning in the evening, the rooks in
+solid phalanx leading the way, and the ravens in loose order
+bringing up the rear, generally far out of shot. Before retiring
+for the night, popular assemblies of the most uproarious character
+were held together in the trees of the Kedron and Mount
+Olivet, and not until sunset did they withdraw in silence,
+mingled indiscriminately, to their roosting-places on the walls.</p>
+
+<p>"My companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of
+these Jerusalem birds, which could only be approached as they
+settled for the night; but we were warned by the Consul that
+shooting them so close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege
+by the Moslems, and provoke an attack by the guardians of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[521]</a></span>
+Haram and the boys of the neighbourhood. They finally determined,
+nevertheless, to run the risk; and stationing themselves
+just before sunset in convenient hiding-places near the walls, at
+a given signal they fired simultaneously, and, hastily gathering
+up the spoils, had retreated out of reach, and were hurrying to
+the tents before an alarm could be raised. The discharge of ten
+barrels had obtained fourteen specimens, comprising five species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="roostingplace" id="roostingplace"></a>
+<img src="images/i_520.jpg" width="400" height="449" alt="roosting" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">RAVENS' ROOSTING-PLACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The same man&oelig;uvre was repeated with equal success on
+another evening; but on the third occasion the ravens had
+learned wisdom by experience, and, sweeping round Siloam,
+chose another route to their dormitory."</p>
+
+<p>Those who have tried to come within gunshot of a Raven,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[522]</a></span>
+can appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the Raven
+would ever afterwards keep clear of the spot where the flash and
+smoke of fire-arms had twice appeared. In a large garden in
+which the sparrows used to congregate, it was a custom of the owner
+to lay a train of corn for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake
+the whole line with a discharge from a gun concealed in an
+outhouse. A tame Raven lived about the premises, and as soon
+as it saw any one carrying a gun towards the fatal outhouse, it
+became much alarmed, and hurried off to hide itself. As soon
+as the gun was fired, out came the Raven from its place of concealment,
+pounced on one of the dead sparrows, carried it off,
+and ate it in its private haunt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ravennest" id="ravennest"></a>
+<img src="images/i_521.jpg" width="400" height="444" alt="ravennest" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The nest to which the Raven returns with such punctuality
+is placed in some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders.
+The tops of lofty trees are favoured localities for the nest, and
+so are old towers, the interior of caves, and clefts in lofty precipices.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[523]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE OSTRICH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Hebrew words designating the Ostrich&mdash;Description of the bird in the Book of Job&mdash;Ancient
+use of Ostrich plumes&mdash;Supposed heedlessness of eggs and young&mdash;Mode
+of depositing the eggs&mdash;Hatching them in the sand&mdash;Natural enemies
+of the Ostrich&mdash;Anecdote of Ostriches and their young&mdash;Alleged stupidity of
+the Ostrich&mdash;Methods of hunting and snaring the bird&mdash;The Ostrich in
+domestication&mdash;Speed of the Ostrich&mdash;The flesh of the bird prohibited to the
+Jews&mdash;Ostrich eggs and their uses&mdash;Food of the Ostrich&mdash;Mode of drinking&mdash;Cry
+of the Ostrich, and reference made to it in Micah.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is rather a peculiarity about the manner in which this
+bird is mentioned in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures,
+and, unless we go to the original Hebrew, we shall be greatly
+misled. In that version the Ostrich is mentioned only three
+times, but in the Hebrew it occurs eight times.</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew word <em>bath-haya'nah</em>, which is translated in the
+Authorized Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as
+"Ostrich." Taking this to be the case, we find that there are
+several passages in the Scriptures in which the word has been
+used in the wrong sense.</p>
+
+<p>In those places, instead of rendering the word as "owl," we
+ought to read it as "Ostrich."</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of this bird occurs in Lev. xi. 16, and the
+parallel passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned
+among the unclean birds, without any notice being given of its
+appearance or habits.</p>
+
+<p>In the Book of Job, however, we have the Ostrich mentioned
+with that preciseness and fulness of description which is so
+often the case when the writer of that wonderful poem treats
+of living creatures.</p>
+
+<p>"Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or wings
+and feathers unto the ostrich?</p>
+
+<p>"Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in
+the dust,</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[524]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the
+wild beast may break them.</p>
+
+<p>"She is hardened against her young ones, as though they
+were not hers: her labour is in vain without fear;</p>
+
+<p>"Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He
+imparted to her understanding.</p>
+
+<p>"What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the
+horse and his rider." (Job xxxix. 13-19.)</p>
+
+<p>There is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage,
+wherein the word which has been translated as "peacock" is
+now allowed to be properly rendered as "Ostrich," while the
+word which is translated as "Ostrich" ought to have been given
+as "feathers." The marginal translation gives the last words of
+ver. 13 in a rather different manner, and renders it thus:&mdash;"Gavest
+thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks, or the feathers
+of the stork and ostrich?" The Hebrew Bible renders the next
+verses as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"She would yet leave her eggs on the earth, and warm them
+in dust; and forget that the foot may crush them, or that the
+beast of the field may break them.</p>
+
+<p>"She is hardened against her young ones, for those not hers;
+being careless, her labour is in vain."</p>
+
+<p>In the same Book, chap. xxx., is another passage wherein this
+bird is mentioned. "I went mourning without the sun: I stood
+up, and I cried in the congregation.</p>
+
+<p>"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls," or
+Ostriches, in the marginal and correct reading. The Jewish
+Bible also translates the word as Ostriches, but the word which
+the Authorized Version renders as "dragons" it translates as
+"jackals." Of this point we shall have something to say on a
+future page. A somewhat similar passage occurs in Isa. xliii.
+20: "The beast of the field shall honour me, the dragons and
+the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading), "because I give
+waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink
+to My people, My chosen." The Jewish Bible retains the same
+reading, except that the word "dragons" is given with the mark
+of doubt.</p>
+
+<p>Accepting, therefore, the rendering of the Hebrew as Ostriches,
+let us see how far the passages of Scripture agree with the
+appearance and habits of the bird.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[525]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Here I may observe that, although in the Scriptures frequent
+allusions are made to the habits of animals, we are not to look
+for scientific exactness to the Scriptures. Among much that is
+strictly and completely true, there are occasional errors, to which
+a most needless attention has been drawn by a certain school of
+critics, who point to them as invalidating the truth of Scripture
+in general. The real fact is, that they have no bearing whatever
+on the truth or falsehood of the Scriptural teachings.</p>
+
+<p>The Scriptures were written at various times, for instruction
+in spiritual and not in temporal matters, and were never
+intended for scientific treatises on astronomy, mathematics,
+zoology, or any such branch of knowledge. The references
+which are made to the last-mentioned subject are in no case of
+a scientific nature, but are always employed by way of metaphor
+or simile, as the reader must have seen in the previous pages. No
+point of doctrine is taught by them, and none depends on them.</p>
+
+<p>The Spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people
+could only use the means that existed, and could no more employ
+the scientific knowledge of the present time than use as metaphors
+the dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The
+Scriptures were written in Eastern lands for Orientals by
+Orientals, and were consequently adapted to Oriental ideas; and
+it would be as absurd to look for scientific zoology in the writings
+of an ancient Oriental, as for descriptions of the printing-press,
+the steam-engine, the photographic camera, or the electric
+telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>So, when we remember that only a few years ago the real
+history of the Ostrich was unknown to those who had made
+zoology the study of their lives, we cannot wonder that it was
+also unknown to those who lived many centuries ago, and who
+had not the least idea of zoology, or any kindred science.</p>
+
+<p>Still, even with these drawbacks, it is wonderful how accurate
+in many instances were the writers of the Scriptures, and the
+more so when we remember the character of the Oriental mind,
+with its love of metaphor, its disregard of arithmetical precision,
+and its poetical style of thought.</p>
+
+<p>We will now take the passage in Job xxxix. In ver. 13
+reference is made to the wings and feathers of the Ostrich. If
+the reader will refer to page 310, he will see that the feathers of
+the Ostrich were formerly used as the emblem of rank. In this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[526]</a></span>
+case, they are shown as fastened to the heads of the horses, and
+also in the form of a plume, fixed to the end of a staff, and
+appended to a chariot, as emblematical of the princely rank of
+the occupier. In the ancient Egyptian monuments these Ostrich
+plumes are repeatedly shown, and in every case denote very high
+rank. These plumes were therefore held in high estimation at
+the time in which the Book of Job was written, and it is
+evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer has
+mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the Ostrich.</p>
+
+<p>Passing the next portion of the description, we find that the
+Ostrich is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs, and
+leaves them "in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and
+forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast
+may break them."</p>
+
+<p>Now it is true that the Ostrich is often known to take the
+greatest care of its eggs, the male collecting and sitting on
+them, and watching them with loving assiduity, and by some
+persons this fact has been brought forward as a proof that the
+writer of the Book of Job was mistaken in his statements. A
+further acquaintance with the habits of the bird tells us, however,
+that in those parts of the world which were known to the
+writer of that book the Ostrich does behave in precisely the
+manner which is described by the sacred writer.</p>
+
+<p>Several females lay their eggs in the same nest, if the title of
+nest can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the
+sand, and, at least during the daytime, when the sun is shining,
+they simply cover the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from
+ordinary enemies, and leave them to be hatched by the warm
+sunbeams. They are buried to the depth of about a foot, so
+that they receive the benefit of a tolerably equable warmth. So
+much, then, for the assertion that the Ostrich leaves her eggs
+"in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust."</p>
+
+<p>We next come to the statement that she forgets that "the foot
+may crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." It is
+evident from the preceding description that eggs which are
+buried a foot deep in the sand could not be crushed by the foot,
+even were they of a fragile character, instead of being defended
+by a shell as thick, and nearly as hard, as an ordinary earthenware
+plate. Neither would the wild beast be likely to discover
+much less to break them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[527]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ostrich" id="ostrich"></a>
+<img src="images/i_526.jpg" width="400" height="401" alt="ostrich" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">OSTRICH AND NEST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A more intimate acquaintance with the history of the Ostrich
+shows that, even in this particular, the sacred writer was perfectly
+correct. Besides the eggs which are intended to be
+hatched, and which are hidden beneath the sand to be hatched,
+a number of supplementary eggs are laid which are not meant
+to be hatched, and are evidently intended as food for the young
+until they are able to forage for themselves. These are left
+carelessly on the surface of the ground, and may easily be
+crushed by the hoof of a horse, if not by the foot of man. We
+meet, however, with another statement,&mdash;namely, that they may
+be broken by the wild beasts. Here we have reference to
+another fact in the history of the Ostrich. The scattered eggs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[528]</a></span>
+to which allusion is made, are often eaten, not only by beasts,
+but also by birds of prey; the former breaking the shells by
+knocking them against each other, and the latter by picking up
+large stones in their claws, rising above the eggs, and dropping
+the stones on them. The bird would like to seize the egg, rise
+with it in the air, and drop it on a stone, as mentioned on page
+414, but the round, smooth surface of the egg defies the grasp of
+talons, and, instead of dropping the egg upon a stone, it is
+obliged to drop a stone upon the egg.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the present point, therefore, the writer of the Book of
+Job is shown to be perfectly correct in his statements. We
+will now proceed to verse 16: "She is hardened against her
+young ones, as though they were not hers." Now in the Jewish
+Bible the passage is rendered rather differently: "She is hardened
+against her young ones, for those not hers;" and, as we
+shall presently see, the reading perfectly agrees with the character
+of the Ostrich.</p>
+
+<p>There has long existed a belief that the Ostrich, contrary to
+the character of all other birds, is careless of her young, neglects
+them, and is even cruel to them. That this notion was shared
+by the writer of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding
+passage. It also prevailed for at least a thousand years after
+the Book of Job was written. See Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea
+monsters draw out the breast, they give suck to their young
+ones: the daughter of my people is become cruel, like the
+ostriches in the wilderness."</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the
+Ostrich towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock
+of Ostriches be chased, and among them there be some very
+young birds, the latter are left behind by their parents, and fall
+a prey to the hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice
+in the matter. The wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment
+in which it might hide its young. Nature has not
+furnished it with weapons by means of which it can fight for
+them; and consequently it is forced to use the only means of
+escape by which it can avoid sacrificing its own life, as well as
+the lives of the young.</p>
+
+<p>It does not, however, leave the young until it has tried, by all
+means in its power, to save them. For example, it sometimes
+has recourse to the man&oelig;uvre with which we are so familiar in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[529]</a></span>
+the case of the lapwing, and pretends to be wounded or lamed,
+in order to draw the attention of its pursuers, while its young
+escape in another direction. An instance of this practice is
+given by Mr. Andersson in his "Lake Ngami." "When we had
+proceeded little more than half the distance, and in a part of the
+plain entirely destitute of vegetation, we discovered a male and
+female ostrich, with a brood of young ones, about the size of
+ordinary barn-yard fowls. We forthwith dismounted from out
+oxen, and gave chase, which proved of no ordinary interest.</p>
+
+<p>"The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention,
+they set off at full speed&mdash;the female leading the way, and the
+cock, though at some little distance, bringing up the rear of the
+family party. It was very touching to observe the anxiety the
+birds evinced for the safety of their progeny. Finding that we
+were quickly gaining upon them, the male at once slackened his
+pace and diverged somewhat from his course; but, seeing that we
+were not to be diverted from our purpose, he again increased his
+speed, and, with wings drooping so as almost to touch the ground,
+he hovered round us, now in wide circles, and then decreasing
+the circumference until he came almost within pistol-shot, when
+he abruptly threw himself on the ground, and struggled desperately
+to regain his legs, as it appeared, like a bird that has been
+badly wounded.</p>
+
+<p>"Having previously fired at him, I really thought he was disabled,
+and made quickly towards him. But this was only a
+ruse on his part, for, on my nearer approach, he slowly rose, and
+began to run in a different direction to that of the female, who
+by this time was considerably ahead with her charge." Nor is
+this a solitary instance of the care which the Ostrich will take of
+her young. Thunberg mentions that on one occasion, when he
+happened to ride near a place where an Ostrich was sitting on
+the eggs, the bird jumped up and pursued him, evidently with
+the object of distracting his attention from the eggs. When he
+faced her, she retreated; but as soon as he turned his horse, she
+pursued him afresh.</p>
+
+<p>The care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed
+with the Ostrich than with most birds. The young are able to
+run with such speed that ordinary animals are not able to overtake
+them, and, besides, they are protected by their colour as
+long as they are comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[530]</a></span>
+harmonizes completely with the sandy and stony ground, even
+when they run, and when they crouch to the earth, as is their
+manner when alarmed, even the most practised eye can scarcely
+see them. Mr. Andersson, an experienced hunter, states that
+when the Ostrich chicks were crouching almost under his feet,
+he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing their forms.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid, the young
+are often very numerous, between thirty and forty chicks sometimes
+belonging to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has
+already been described, the brood were eighteen in number, and
+so great was their speed that, in spite of their youth and diminutive
+size, Mr. Andersson only succeeded in capturing nine of
+them after an hour's severe chase.</p>
+
+<p>We find, therefore, that we must acquit the Ostrich of neglecting
+its young, much more of cruelty towards them; and we will
+now turn to the next charge against the bird, that of stupidity.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense, the bird certainly may be considered stupid.
+Like nearly all wild creatures which live on large plains, it
+always runs against the wind, so as to perceive by scent if any
+enemies are approaching. Its nostrils are very sensitive, and
+can detect a human being at a very great distance. So fastidious
+is it in this respect, that no hunter who knows his business ever
+attempts to approach the Ostrich except from leeward. If a
+nest is found, and the discoverer wishes the birds to continue
+laying in it, he approaches on the leeward side, and rakes out
+the eggs with a long stick.</p>
+
+<p>The little Bushman, who kills so many of these birds with
+his tiny bow and arrow, makes use of this instinct when he goes
+to shoot the Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds.
+Should an Ostrich attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only
+shifts his position to windward, so as to allow the birds to catch
+the scent of a human being, when they instantly make off in
+terror.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, the Ostriches are alarmed, they always run
+to windward, instinctively knowing that, if an enemy should
+approach in that direction, their powers of scent will inform
+them of the danger. Being aware of this habit, the hunters
+manage so that while one of them goes round by a long detour
+to frighten the game, the others are in waiting at a considerable
+distance to windward, but well on one side, so that no indication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[531]</a></span>
+of their presence may reach the sensitive nostrils of the birds.
+As soon as the concealed hunters see the Ostriches fairly settled
+down to their course, they dash off at right angles to the line
+which the birds are taking, and in this way come near enough
+to use their weapons. The antelopes of the same country have
+a similar instinct, and are hunted in precisely the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, then, in one sense the Ostrich may be considered as
+open to the charge of stupidity, inasmuch as it pursues a course
+which can be anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be
+unable to overtake it. But it must be remembered that instinct
+cannot be expected to prove a match for reason, and that,
+although its human enemies are able to overreach it, no others
+can do so, the instinct of running against the wind serving to
+guard it from any foe which it is likely to meet in the desert.</p>
+
+<p>When captured alive and tamed, it certainly displays no particular
+amount of intellect. The Arabs often keep tame Ostriches
+about their tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their
+quarters as the horses. In all probability they did so in ancient
+times, and the author of the Book of Job was likely to be
+familiar with tame Ostriches, as well as with the wild bird.</p>
+
+<p>Stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in consequence
+of the habit possessed by the Ostrich of picking up and
+eating substances which cannot be used as food. For example,
+it will eat knives, bits of bone or metal, and has even been
+known to swallow bullets hot from the mould. On dissecting
+the digestive organs of an Ostrich, I have found a large quantity
+of stones, pieces of brick, and scraps of wood. These articles
+are, however, not intended to serve as food, but simply to aid
+digestion, and the bird eats them just as domestic fowls pick up
+gravel, and smaller birds grains of sand. In swallowing them,
+therefore, the Ostrich does not display any stupidity, but merely
+obeys a natural instinct.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we come to the speed of the Ostrich: "What time
+she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his
+rider."</p>
+
+<p>This statement is literally true. When the Ostrich puts forth
+its full speed, there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase.
+It may be killed by the ruse which has already been described,
+but an adult Ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse.
+When it runs at full speed, it moves its long legs with astonishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[532]</a></span>
+rapidity, covering at each stride an average of twenty-four
+feet, a fact from which its rate of speed may be deduced. In
+consequence of this width of stride, and the small impression
+made in the sand by the two-toed foot, the track of a running
+Ostrich is very obscure. Perhaps no better proof of the swiftness
+of the bird can be given than the extreme value set upon
+it by the Arabs. Although they are bred to the desert as much
+as the Ostrich itself, and are mounted on horses whose swiftness
+and endurance are proverbial, they set a very high value on the
+Ostrich, and to have captured one of these birds establishes an
+Arab's fame as a hunter.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Arabs employ the plan of cutting across the
+course of the bird, but at others they pursue it in fair chase,
+training their horses and themselves specially for the occasion.
+They furnish themselves with a supply of water, and then start
+in pursuit of the first flock of Ostriches they find. They take
+care not to alarm the birds, lest they should put out their full
+speed and run away out of sight, but just keep sufficiently near
+to force the birds to be continually on the move. They will
+sometimes continue this chase for several days, not allowing
+their game time to eat or rest, until at last it is so tired that it
+yields itself an easy prey.</p>
+
+<p>In Southern Africa, snares are used for taking the Ostrich.
+They are in fact ordinary springes, but of strength suitable to the
+size of the bird. The cord is made fast to a sapling, which is
+bent down by main strength, and the other end is then formed
+into a noose and fastened down with a trigger. Sometimes the
+bird is enticed towards the snare by means of a bait, and sometimes
+it is driven over it by the huntsmen. In either case, as
+soon as the Ostrich puts its foot within the fatal noose, the
+trigger is loosed, the sapling is released, and, with a violent jerk,
+the Ostrich is caught by the leg and suspended in the air.</p>
+
+<p>Why the flesh of the Ostrich should have been prohibited to
+the Jews is rather a mystery. It is much valued by most
+natives, though some of the Arab tribes still adhere to the
+Jewish prohibition, and those Europeans who have tried it pronounce
+it to be excellent when the bird is young and tender, but
+to be unpleasantly tough when it is old. Mr. Andersson says
+that its flesh resembles that of the zebra, and mentions that the
+fat and blood are in great request, being mixed together by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[533]</a><br /><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[534]</a></span>
+cutting the throat of the bird, passing a ligature round the neck
+just below the incision, and then shaking and dragging the bird
+about for some time. Nearly twenty pounds of this substance
+are obtained from a single Ostrich.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 330px;"><a name="arabs" id="arabs"></a>
+<img src="images/i_532.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="arabs" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ARABS HUNTING THE OSTRICH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ancient Romans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird.
+We are told that Heliogabalus once had a dish served at his
+table containing six hundred Ostrich brains, and that another
+emperor ate a whole Ostrich at a meal. As an adult Ostrich
+weighs some three hundred and fifty pounds, we may presume that
+the bird in question was a young one.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are most valuable articles of food, both on account of
+their excellent flavour and their enormous size. It is calculated
+that one Ostrich egg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary
+hen's eggs. Cooking the Ostrich egg is easily performed. A
+hole is made in the upper part of the egg, and the lower end is
+set on the fire. A forked stick is then introduced into the egg,
+and twirled between the hands, so as to beat up the whole of
+the interior. Europeans usually add pepper and salt, and
+say that this simple mode of cooking produces an excellent
+omelette.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary food of the Ostrich consists of the seeds, buds,
+and tops of various plants. It seems strange, however, that in
+the deserts, where there is so little vegetation, the bird should be
+able to procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body.
+Each of the specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens
+eats on an average a pint of barley, the same quantity of oats,
+four pounds' weight of cabbage, and half a gallon of chaff,
+beside the buns, bread, and other articles of food which are
+given to them by visitors.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Ostrich, like many other inhabitants of the
+desert, can live for a long time without water, yet it is forced to
+drink, and like the camel, which it resembles in so many of its
+ways, drinks enormously, taking in the water by a succession
+of gulps. When the weather has been exceptionally hot, the
+Ostrich visits the water-springs daily, and is so occupied in
+quenching its thirst that it will allow the hunter to come within
+a very short distance. It appears, indeed, to be almost intoxicated
+with its draught, and, even when it does take the alarm, it
+only retreats step by step, instead of scudding off with its
+usually rapid strides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[535]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The camel-like appearance of the Ostrich has already been
+mentioned. In the Arabic language the Ostrich is called by a
+name which signifies camel-bird, and many of the people have
+an idea that it was originally a cross between a bird and a
+camel.</p>
+
+<p>The cry of the Ostrich is a deep bellow, which, according to
+travellers in Southern Africa, so resembles the roar of the lion
+that even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distinguish
+the roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. The resemblance
+is increased by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich
+utter their cry by night. It is evidently to this cry that the
+prophet Micah alludes: "Therefore I will wail and howl, I
+will go stripped and naked: I will make a wailing like the
+dragons, and mourning as the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading).
+The cry of the variety of Ostrich which inhabits Northern
+Africa is said to bear more resemblance to the lowing of an ox
+than the roar of the lion; but as the bird is smaller than its
+southern relative, the difference is probably accounted for.</p>
+
+<p>It has been mentioned that the Ostrich has no weapons
+wherewith to fight for its young; still, though it be destitute of
+actual weapons, such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak
+and talons of the eagle, it is not entirely defenceless. Its long
+and powerful legs can be employed as weapons, and it can kick
+with such force that a man would go down before the blow, and
+probably, if struck on the leg or arm, have the limb broken.
+The blow is never delivered backward, as is the kick of the
+horse, but forward, like that of the kangaroo. The natives of
+the countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its kick
+the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyæna
+and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[536]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_535.jpg" width="400" height="257" alt="bitter" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BITTERN.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Bittern and its general appearance&mdash;The bird of solitude&mdash;Difficulty of detecting
+the Bittern in its haunts&mdash;Mudie's description of the Bittern and its home&mdash;Nest
+of the Bittern&mdash;Scarcity of the bird at the present day&mdash;Food of the
+Bittern.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The Bittern belongs to the same family as the herons, the
+cranes, and the storks, and has many of the habits common to
+them all. It is, however, essentially a bird of solitude, hating
+the vicinity of man, and living in the most retired spots of
+marshy ground. As it sits among the reeds and rushes, though
+it is a large bird, it is scarcely visible even to a practised eye, its
+mottled plumage harmonizing with surrounding objects in such a
+way that the feathers of the bird can scarcely be distinguished
+from the sticks, stones, and grass tufts among which it sits. The
+ground colour of the plumage is dark buff, upon which are
+sprinkled mottlings and streaks of black, chestnut, grey, and
+brown. These mottled marks harmonize with the stones and
+tufts of withered grass, while the longitudinal dashes of buff
+and black on the neck and breast correspond with the sticks and
+reeds.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner the tiger, though so large an animal, can
+lie in a very small covert of reeds without being detected, its
+striped fur corresponding with the reeds themselves and the
+shadows thrown by them; and the leopard can remain hidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[537]</a></span>
+among the boughs of a tree, its spotted coat harmonizing with
+the broken light and shade of the foliage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bittern" id="bittern"></a>
+<img src="images/i_536.jpg" width="400" height="482" alt="bittern" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BITTERN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following powerful description of the Bittern's home is
+given by Mudie: "It is a bird of rude nature, where the land
+knows no character save that which the untrained, working of
+the elements impresses upon it; so that when any locality is in
+the course of being won to usefulness, the bittern is the first to
+depart, and when any one is abandoned, it is the last to return.
+'The bittern shall dwell there' is the final curse, and implies
+that the place is to become uninhabited and uninhabitable. It
+hears not the whistle of the ploughman, nor the sound of the
+mattock; and the tinkle of the sheep-bell, or the lowing of the
+ox (although the latter bears so much resemblance to its own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[538]</a></span>
+hollow and dismal voice, that it has given foundation to the
+name), is a signal for it to be gone.</p>
+
+<p>"Extensive and dingy pools&mdash;if moderately upland, so much
+the better&mdash;which lie in the hollows, catching, like so many
+traps, the lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash
+and the winds blow from the naked heights around, and converting
+it into harsh and dingy vegetation, and the pasture of
+those loathsome things which wriggle in the ooze, or crawl and
+swim in the putrid and mantling waters, are the habitation of
+the bittern.</p>
+
+<p>"Places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb
+which is more delicate than a sedge, a carex, or a rush, and
+consume every wooded plant that is taller than the sapless and
+tasteless cranberry or the weeping upland willow; which shed
+murrain over the quadrupeds, chills which eat the flesh off their
+bones, and which, if man ventures there, consume him by putrid
+fever in the hot and dry season, and shake him to pieces with
+ague when the weather is cold and humid.</p>
+
+<p>"Places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof, and
+where even the raven, lover of disease, and battener upon all
+that expires miserably and exhausted, comes rarely and with
+more than wonted caution, lest that death which he comes to
+seal and riot upon in others should unawares come upon himself.
+The raven loves carrion on the dry and unpoisoning moor,
+scents it from afar, and hastens to it upon his best and boldest
+wing; but 'the reek o' the rotten fen' is loathsome to the sense
+of even the raven, and it is hunger's last pinch ere he come nigh
+to the chosen habitation, the only loved abode, of the bittern."</p>
+
+<p>Secure in its retreat, the Bittern keeps its place even if a
+sportsman should pass by the spot on which it crouches. It
+will not be tempted to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone
+throwing, for it knows instinctively that the quaking bogland
+which it selects as its home is unsafe for the step of man.</p>
+
+<p>The very cry of the Bittern adds to this atmosphere of desolation.
+By day the bird is silent, but after the sun has gone
+down it utters its strange wild cry, a sound which exactly suits
+the localities in which it loves to make its habitation. During
+part of the year it only emits a sharp, harsh cry as it rises on
+the wing, but during the breeding season it utters the cry by
+which it summons its mate, one of the strangest love-calls that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[539]</a><br /><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[540]</a></span>
+can be imagined. It is something between the neighing of a
+horse, the bellow of a bull, and a shriek of savage laughter. It
+is very loud and deep, so that it seems to shake the loose and
+marshy ground. There was formerly an idea that, when the
+Bittern uttered this booming cry, it thrust its bill into the soft
+ground, and so caused it to shake. In reality, the cry is uttered
+on the wing, the bird wheeling in a spiral flight, and modulating
+its voice in accordance with the curves which it describes in
+the air. This strange sound is only uttered by the male bird.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 335px;"><a name="cormorant" id="cormorant"></a>
+<img src="images/i_538.jpg" width="335" height="600" alt="cormorant" />
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p class="center">
+BITTERN.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CORMORANT.<br />
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like most of the long-legged wading birds, the Bittern is able
+to change its shape, and apparently to alter its size, in an astonishing
+manner. When it is walking over the ground, with
+head erect and eye glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects, it
+looks a large, bold, vigorous, and active bird. Next minute it
+will sink its head in its shoulders, so that the long beak seems to
+project from them, and the neck totally disappears, the feathers
+enveloping each other as perfectly and smoothly as if it never
+had had a neck. In this attitude it will stand for an hour at a
+time on one leg, with the other drawn close to its body, looking
+as dull, inert, and sluggish a bird as can well be imagined, and
+reduced apparently to one half of its former size. The Bittern
+is represented in one of its extraordinary attitudes on the plate
+which illustrates the cormorant.</p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, and near the
+water, though the bird always takes care to build it on an
+elevated spot which will not be flooded if the water should rise
+by reason of a severe rain. There is, however, but little reason
+for the Bittern to fear a flood, as at the time of year which is
+chosen for nest-building the floods are generally out, and the
+water higher than is likely to be the case for the rest of the
+year. The materials of the nest are found in marshes, and
+consist of leaves, reeds, and rushes.</p>
+
+<p>As if to add to the general effect of its character, it is essentially
+a solitary bird, and in this characteristic entirely unlike its
+relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly sociable,
+and love to gather themselves together in multitudes. But the
+Bittern is never found except alone, or at the most accompanied
+for a time by its mate and one or two young ones.</p>
+
+<p>The localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of
+the nature of its food. Frogs appear to be its favourite diet, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[541]</a></span>
+it also feeds on various fish, insects, molluscs, worms, and similar
+creatures. Dull and apathetic as it appears to be, it can display
+sufficient energy to capture tolerably large fish. Though the
+Bittern is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds
+was killed, in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd
+eight inches in length and two in depth, together with the remains
+of another fish, of a full-grown frog, and of an aquatic
+insect. In another instance, a Bittern had contrived to swallow
+an eel as long as itself; while in many cases the remains of five
+or six full-grown frogs have been found in the interior of the
+bird, some just swallowed, and others in various stages of
+digestion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="wetland" id="wetland"></a>
+<img src="images/i_540.jpg" width="400" height="245" alt="wetland" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[542]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_541.jpg" width="350" height="379" alt="herons" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HERON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE HERON.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird&mdash;Nesting of the Heron&mdash;The papyrus
+marshes and their dangers&mdash;Description of the papyrus&mdash;Vessels of bulrushes.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The name of the Heron is only mentioned twice in the Scriptures&mdash;namely,
+in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and
+Deut. xiv. 18; in both of which places the Heron is ranked
+among the unclean birds that might not be eaten.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as
+food, the prohibition seems scarcely needed. To us of the
+present day this seems to be the case with the Heron, as it
+is never brought to table. The reason for this disuse of the
+Heron as food is not that it is unfit for the table, but that it
+has become so scarce by the spread of cultivation and housebuilding,
+that it has been gradually abandoned as a practically
+unattainable article of diet. The flesh of the Heron, like that
+of the bittern, is remarkably excellent, and in the former days,
+when it was comparatively plentiful, and falconry was the ordinary
+amusement of the rich, the Heron formed a very important
+dish at every great banquet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[543]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sharon" id="sharon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_542.jpg" width="400" height="403" alt="sharon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HERON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bird, however, must be eaten when young. A gentleman
+who liked to try experiments for himself in the matter of food,
+found that, if young Herons were properly cooked, they formed
+a most excellent dish, equal, in his opinion, to grouse. Wishing
+to have his own judgment confirmed by that of others, he
+had several of them trussed and dressed like wild geese, and
+served up at table under that name. The guests approved
+greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare, the resemblance
+being further increased by the dark colour of the flesh. There
+was not the slighest fishy flavour about the bird. This, however,
+is apt to be found in the older birds, but can be removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[544]</a></span>
+by burying them in the earth for several days, just as is done
+with the solan goose and one or two other sea-birds.</p>
+
+<p>The abundance of birds belonging to the Heron tribe is well
+shown by some of the paintings and carvings on Egyptian
+monuments, in which various species of Herons and other
+water-birds are depicted as living among the papyrus reeds,
+exactly the locality in which they are most plentiful at the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the bittern, the Heron is a most sociable bird, and
+loves not only to live, but even to feed, in company with others
+of its own species.</p>
+
+<p>I have watched the Herons feeding in close proximity to each
+other. The birds were fond of wading stealthily along the edge
+of the lake until they came to a suitable spot, where they would
+stand immersed in the water up to the thighs, waiting patiently
+for their prey. They stood as still as if they were carved out
+of wood, the ripples of the lake reflected on their plumage as
+the breeze ruffled the surface of the water. Suddenly there
+would be a quick dive of the beak, either among the reeds or in
+the water, and each stroke signified that the Heron had caught
+its prey.</p>
+
+<p>Frogs and small fishes are the usual food of the Heron, though
+it often grapples with larger prey, having been seen to capture
+an eel of considerable size in its beak. Under such circumstances
+it leaves the water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats
+it violently against a stone so as to kill it. Now and then the bird
+is vanquished in the struggle by the fish, several instances
+being known in which an eel, in its endeavours to escape, has
+twisted itself so tightly round the neck of the bird that both
+have been found lying dead on the shore.</p>
+
+<p>In one such case the Heron's beak had struck through the
+eyes of the eel, so that the bird could not disengage itself. In
+another the Heron had tried to swallow an eel which was
+much too large for it, and had been nearly choked by its
+meal. The eel must necessarily have been a very large one,
+as the Heron has a wonderful capacity for devouring fish. Even
+when quite young, it can swallow a fish as large as a herring,
+and when it is full grown it will eat four or five large herrings
+at a meal.</p>
+
+<p>Now when we remember that a man of average appetite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[545]</a><br /><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[546]</a></span>finds one herring to form a very sufficient breakfast, we can
+easily imagine what must be the digestive power of a bird
+which, though very inferior to man in point of bulk, can
+eat four times as much at a meal. Even though the fish be
+much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird, the Heron
+can swallow it as easily as a small snake swallows a large
+frog. The neck merely seems to expand as if it were made of
+Indiarubber, the fish slips down, and the bird is ready for
+another.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="homerun" id="homerun"></a>
+<img src="images/i_544.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="homerun" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HOME OF THE HERON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally the Herons feed after sunset, but I have frequently
+seen them busily engaged in catching their prey in full daylight,
+when the sunbeams were playing in the water so as to
+produce the beautiful rippling effect on the Heron's plumage
+which has already been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles, but,
+like the bittern, feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal
+which comes within its reach. When it lives near tidal rivers,
+it feeds largely on the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and
+various other crustacea; and when it lives far inland, it still
+makes prey of the fresh-water shrimps, the water-beetles, and
+the boat-flies, and similar aquatic creatures. In fact, it acts
+much after the fashion of the lions, tigers, and leopards,
+which put up with locusts and beetles when they can find no
+larger prey.</p>
+
+<p>The long beak of the Heron is not merely an instrument by
+which it can obtain food, but is also a weapon of considerable
+power. When attacked, it aims a blow at the eye of its opponent,
+and makes the stroke with such rapidity that the foe is
+generally blinded before perceiving the danger. When domesticated,
+it has been known to keep possession of the enclosure in
+which it lived, and soon to drive away dogs by the power of its
+beak. When it is young, it is quite helpless, its very long legs
+being unable to support its body, which is entirely bare of
+plumage, and has a very unprepossessing appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The flight of the Heron is very powerful, its wings being very
+large in proportion to its slender body. Sometimes the bird
+takes to ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as
+beautiful as it is strong. When chased by the falcon it mostly
+ascends in this manner, each of the two birds trying to rise
+above the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[547]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Heron is always made on the top of some
+lofty tree, whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be
+found; and as the bird is an eminently sociable one, a single
+nest is very seldom found, the Heron being as fond of society as
+the rook. In some parts of Palestine, however, where trees are
+very scarce, the Heron is obliged to choose some other locality for
+its nest, and in that case prefers the great thickets of papyrus
+reeds which are found in the marshes, and which are even more
+inaccessible than the tops of trees.</p>
+
+<p>One of these marshes is well described by Mr. Tristram in his
+"Land of Israel." "The whole marsh is marked in the map as
+impassable; and most truly it is so. I never anywhere have met
+with a swamp so vast and utterly impenetrable.</p>
+
+<p>"The papyrus extends right across to the east side. A false
+step off its roots will take the intruder over head in suffocating
+peat-mud. We spent a long time in attempting to effect an
+entrance, and at last gave it up, satisfied that the marsh birds
+were not to be had. In fact, the whole is simply a floating bog of
+several miles square; a very thin crust of vegetation covers an
+unknown depth of water; and, if the explorer breaks through
+this, suffocation is imminent. Some of the Arabs, who were
+tilling the plain for cotton, assured us that even a wild boar
+never got through it. We shot two bitterns, but in endeavouring
+to retrieve them I slipped from the root on which I was standing,
+and was drawn down in a moment, only saving myself from
+drowning by my gun, which had providentially caught across a
+papyrus stem."</p>
+
+<p>It may here be mentioned that the bulrush of Scripture is
+undoubtedly the papyrus. The ark or basket of bulrushes, lined
+with slime and pitch, in which Moses was laid, was made of
+the papyrus, which at the present day is used for the manufacture
+of baskets, mats, sandals, and for the thatching of houses.
+Many tribes which inhabit the banks of the Nile make simple
+boats, or rather rafts, of the papyrus, which they cut and tie in
+bundles; and it is worthy of notice that the Australian native
+makes a reed boat in almost exactly the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>Compare Is. xviii. 1, 2: "Woe to the land shadowing with
+wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia.</p>
+
+<p>"That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of
+bulrushes." Did we not know that vessels are actually made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[548]</a></span>
+bulrushes at the present day, a custom which has survived from
+very ancient times, we might find a difficulty in understanding
+this passage, while the meaning is intelligible enough when it is
+viewed by the light of the knowledge that the Ethiopian of the
+present day takes gold, and ivory, and other merchandise down
+the Nile in his boat of papyrus (or bulrush) reeds tied together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 275px;"><a name="papyrus" id="papyrus"></a>
+<img src="images/i_547.jpg" width="275" height="306" alt="papyrus" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PAPYRUS PLANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height,
+so that the Herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to
+place their nests. From the name "papyrus" our word paper
+is derived. The stems of the plant, after having been split into
+thin slices, joined together, and brought to a smooth surface,
+formed the paper upon which the ancient Egyptians wrote.</p>
+
+<p>The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic
+title of Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season
+are plentiful in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble
+the heron in general form, and in general habits both birds are
+very much alike, haunting the marshes and edges of lakes and
+streams, and feeding upon the frogs and other inhabitants of the
+water. In countries where rice is cultivated, the Egret may
+generally be seen in the artificial swamps in which that plant is
+sown. The colour of the Egret is pure white, with the exception
+of the train. This consists of a great number of long slender
+feathers of a delicate straw colour. Like those which form the
+train of the peacock, they fall over the feathers of the tail, and
+entirely conceal them.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[549]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter borf" style="width: 400px;"><a name="chrome" id="chrome"></a>
+<img src="images/i_548.jpg" width="400" height="438" alt="chrome" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CRANE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned&mdash;Its migratory habits, and loud
+voice&mdash;Geographical range of the Crane&mdash;Its favourite roosting-places&mdash;Size of
+the Crane, and measurement of the wings&mdash;The Crane once used as food&mdash;Plumes
+of the Crane and their use&mdash;Structure of the vocal organs&mdash;Nest and eggs of
+the Crane.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the description of the dove and the swallow two passages
+have been quoted in which the name of the <span class="smcap">Crane</span> is mentioned,
+one referring to its voice, and the other to its migratory
+instinct. The first passage occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14: "Like a
+crane or swallow, so did I chatter;" and the other in Jer. viii. 7:
+"The turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time of
+their coming."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[550]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="crane" id="crane"></a>
+<img src="images/i_549.jpg" width="400" height="407" alt="crane" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE CRANE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word
+"Crane" is used in connexion with the swallow, or rather the
+swift, and that in both instances the names of the birds should
+have been interchanged. If we refer to the original of these
+passages, we shall find that the former of them would run
+thus, "Like a <em>sis</em> or an <em>agur</em>," and the latter thus, "The turtle
+and the <em>sis</em> and the <em>agur</em>." That in these passages the interpretation
+of the words <em>sis</em> and <em>agur</em> have been interchanged has
+already been mentioned, and, as the former has been described
+under the name of swallow or swift, we shall now treat of the
+latter under the title of Crane.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[551]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The species here mentioned is the common Crane, a bird which
+has a very wide range, and which seeks a warm climate on the
+approach of winter.</p>
+
+<p>The Crane performs its annual migrations in company, vast
+flocks of many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at
+an immense height, whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for
+a great distance round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to
+them. Thus we have at a glance both the characteristics to
+which reference is made in the Scriptures, namely, the noisy cry
+and the habit of migration.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very gregarious bird, associating with its comrades in
+flocks, just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country,
+and, like these birds, has favourite roosting-places in which it
+passes the night. When evening approaches, the Cranes may
+be seen in large flocks passing to their roosting-places, and, on
+account of their great size, having a very strange effect. A fair-sized
+Crane will measure seven feet across the expanded wings,
+so that even a solitary bird has a very imposing effect when
+flying, while that of a large flock of Cranes on the wing is
+simply magnificent.</p>
+
+<p>The spots which the Crane selects for its roosting-places are
+generally of the same character. Being in some respects a wary
+bird, though it is curiously indifferent in others, it will not roost
+in any place near bushes, rocks, or other spots which might
+serve to conceal an enemy. The locality most favoured by the
+Crane is a large, smooth, sloping bank, far from any spot wherein
+an enemy may be concealed. The birds keep a careful watch
+during the night, and it is impossible for any foe to approach
+them without being discovered. The Crane is noisy on the wing,
+and, whether it be soaring high over head on its long migratory
+journeys, or be merely flying at dusk to its roosting-place, it
+continually utters its loud, clangorous cry.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Crane is much like that of the heron, but in
+addition to the frogs, fish, worms, and insects, it eats vegetable
+substances. Sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds,
+and then does much damage to the crops, pecking up the
+ground with its long beak, partly for the sake of the worms,
+grubs, and other creatures, and partly for the sake of the
+sprouting seeds.</p>
+
+<p>Although by reason of its scarcity the Crane has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[552]</a></span>
+abandoned as food, its flesh is really excellent, and in former days
+was valued very highly.</p>
+
+<p>Like the egret, the Crane is remarkable for the flowing
+plumes of the back, which fall over the tail feathers, and form
+a train. These feathers are much used as plumes, both for
+purposes of dress and as brushes or flappers wherewith to drive
+off the flies. By reason of this conformation, some systematic
+zoologists have thought that it has some affinity to the ostrich,
+the rh&oelig;a, and similar birds, and that the resemblance is
+strengthened by the structure of the digestive organs, which
+are suited to vegetable as well as animal substances, the
+stomach being strong and muscular.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar voice of the Crane, which it is so fond of
+using, and to which reference is made in the Scriptures, is
+caused by a peculiar structure of the windpipe, which is exceedingly
+long, and, instead of going straight to the lungs, undergoes
+several convolutions about the breast-bone, and then
+proceeds to the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>The Crane makes its nest on low ground, generally among
+osiers or reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive in colour,
+dashed profusely with black and brown streaks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_551.jpg" width="350" height="437" alt="side" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[553]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="stork" id="stork"></a>
+<img src="images/i_552.jpg" width="400" height="556" alt="stork" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE STORK.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Signification of the Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Chasidah</i>&mdash;Various passages in which it is mentioned&mdash;The
+Chasidah therefore a large, wide-winged, migratory bird&mdash;Its identification
+with the Stork&mdash;The Stork always protected.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the Old Testament there are several passages wherein is
+mentioned the word <em>Chasidah</em>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[554]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Authorized Version invariably renders the word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Chasidah</i>
+as "Stork" and is undoubtedly right.</p>
+
+<p>In Buxtorf's Lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word.
+He says that the word <i lang="he" xml:lang="i">Chasidah</i> is derived from <em>chesed</em>, a word
+that signifies benevolence.</p>
+
+<p>According to some writers, the name was given to the Stork
+because it was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial
+piety; "for the storks in their turn support their parents in
+their old age: they allow them to rest their necks on their bodies
+during migration, and, if the elders are tired, the young ones
+take them on their backs." According to others, the name is
+given to the Stork because it exercises kindness towards its
+companions in bringing them food; but in all cases the derivation
+of the word is acknowledged to be the same.</p>
+
+<p>Partly in consequence of this idea, which is a very old and
+almost universal one, and partly on account of the great services
+rendered by the bird in clearing the ground of snakes, insects,
+and garbage, the Stork has always been protected through the
+East, as it is to the present day in several parts of Europe. The
+slaughter of a Stork, or even the destruction of its eggs, would
+be punished with a heavy fine; and in consequence of the
+immunity which it enjoys, it loves to haunt the habitations
+of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>In many of the Continental towns, where sanitary regulations
+are not enforced, the Stork serves the purpose of a scavenger,
+and may be seen walking about the market-place, waiting for
+the offal of fish, fowls, and the like, which are simply thrown on
+the ground for the Storks to eat. In Eastern lands the Stork
+enjoys similar privileges, and we may infer that the bird was
+perfectly familiar both to the writers of the various Scriptural
+books in which it was mentioned, and to the people for whom
+these books were intended.</p>
+
+<p>When they settle upon a tract of ground, the Storks divide it
+among themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of
+system in it, spreading themselves over it with wonderful regularity,
+each bird appearing to take possession of a definite amount
+of ground. By this mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly
+cleared of all vermin; the Storks examining their allotted space
+with the keenest scrutiny, and devouring every reptile, mouse,
+worm, grub, or insect that they can find on it. Sometimes they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[555]</a><br /><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[556]</a></span>
+will spread themselves in this manner over a vast extent of
+country, arriving suddenly, remaining for several months, and
+departing without giving any sign of their intention to move.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 331px;"><a name="storker" id="storker"></a>
+<img src="images/i_554.jpg" width="331" height="600" alt="storker" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">STORKS AND THEIR NESTS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wings of the Stork, which are mentioned in Holy Writ,
+are very conspicuous, and are well calculated to strike an imaginative
+mind. The general colour of the bird is white, while the
+quill feathers of the wings are black; so that the effect of the
+spread wings is very striking, an adult bird measuring about
+seven feet across, when flying. As the body, large though it
+may be, is comparatively light when compared with the extent
+of wing, the flight is both lofty and sustained, the bird flying at
+very great height, and, when migrating, is literally the "stork in
+the heavens."</p>
+
+<p>Next we come to the migratory habits of the Stork.</p>
+
+<p>Like the swallow, the Stork resorts year after year to the same
+spots; and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest, that
+place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season
+comes round. The same pair are sure to return to their well-known
+home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which
+they pass, and the many lands in which they sojourn. Should
+one of the pair die, the other finds a mate in a very short time,
+and thus the same home is kept up by successive generations of
+Storks, much as among men one ancestral mansion is inhabited
+by a series of members of the same family.</p>
+
+<p>So well is this known, that when a pair of Storks have made
+their nest in a human habitation their return is always expected,
+and when they arrive the absentees are welcomed on all
+sides. In many countries breeding-places are specially provided
+for the Storks; and when one of them is occupied for the first
+time, the owner of the house looks upon it as a fortunate omen.</p>
+
+<p>The localities chosen by the Stork for its nest vary according
+to the surrounding conditions. The foundation which a Stork
+requires is a firm platform, the more elevated the better, but the
+bird seems to care little whether this platform be on rocks,
+buildings, or trees. If, for example, it builds its nest in craggy
+places, far from the habitations of man, it selects some flat ledge
+for the purpose, preferring those that are at the extreme tops of
+the rocks. The summit of a natural pinnacle is a favourite spot
+with the Stork.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases the Stork breeds among old ruins, and under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[557]</a></span>
+such circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of
+pillars or towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities.
+When it takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects
+the breeding-places which have been built for it by those who
+know its taste, but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney,
+or some such locality.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, however, it is obliged to build in spots where it
+can find neither rocks nor buildings, and in such cases it builds
+on trees, and, like the heron, is sociable in its nesting, a whole
+community residing in a clump of trees. It is not very particular
+about the kind of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall,
+and strong enough to bear the weight of its enormous nest; and
+the reader will at once see that the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted
+to be the houses for the Stork.</p>
+
+<p>As may be expected from the localities chosen by the Stork
+for its breeding-place, its nest is very large and heavy. It is
+constructed with very little skill, and is scarcely more than a
+huge quantity of sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped
+together, and having in the middle a slight depression in which
+the eggs are laid. These eggs are usually three, or perhaps four
+in number, and now and then a fifth is seen, and are of a very
+pale buff or cream colour.</p>
+
+<p>As is the case with the heron, the young of the Stork are
+quite helpless when hatched, and are most ungainly little beings,
+with their long legs doubled under them, unable to sustain their
+round and almost naked bodies, while their large beaks are ever
+gaping for food. Those of my readers who have had young
+birds of any kind must have noticed the extremely grotesque
+appearance which they possess when they hold up their heads
+and cry for food, with their bills open to an almost incredible
+extent. In such birds as the Stork, the heron, and others of the
+tribe, the grotesque appearance is exaggerated in proportion to
+the length and gape of the bill.</p>
+
+<p>The Stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving
+parent to its young, in that point fully deserving the derivation
+of its Hebrew name, though its love manifests itself towards
+the young, and not towards the parent.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. H. B. Tristram mentions from personal experience an
+instance of the watchful care exercised by the Stork over its
+young. "The writer was once in camp near an old ruined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[558]</a></span>
+tower in the plains of Zana, south of the Atlas, where a pair of
+storks had their nest. The four young might often be seen from
+a little distance, surveying the prospect from their lonely height,
+but whenever any of the human party happened to stroll near
+the tower, one of the old storks, invisible before, would instantly
+appear, and, lighting on the nest, put its feet gently on the necks
+of all the young, so as to hold them down out of sight till the
+stranger had passed, snapping its bill meanwhile, and assuming a
+grotesque air of indifference, as if unconscious of there being anything
+under its charge."</p>
+
+<p>The snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound
+produced by the Stork, which is an absolutely silent bird, as far
+as voice is concerned.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There is another species of Stork found in Palestine, to which
+the fir-trees are especially a home. This is the Black Stork
+(<em>Ciconia nigra</em>), which in some parts of the country is even more
+plentiful than its white relative, which it resembles in almost
+every particular, except that it has a dark head and back, the
+feathers being glossed with purple and green like those of the
+magpie. This species, which is undoubtedly included in the
+Hebrew word <em>chasidah</em>, always makes its nest on trees whenever
+it can find them, and in some of the more densely wooded parts
+of Palestine is in consequence plentiful, placing its nest in the
+deepest parts of the forests. When it cannot obtain trees, it will
+build its nest on rocky ledges. It lays two or three eggs of a
+greenish white colour.</p>
+
+<p>Like the preceding species, the Black Stork is easily domesticated.
+Colonel Montague kept one which was very tame, and
+would follow its keeper like a dog. Its tameness enabled its
+proceedings to be closely watched, and its mode of feeding was
+thereby investigated. It was fond of examining the rank grass
+and mud for food, and while doing so always kept its bill a little
+open, so as to pounce down at once on any insect or reptile that
+it might disturb.</p>
+
+<p>Eels were its favourite food, and it was such an adept at
+catching them that it was never seen to miss one, no matter how
+small or quick it might be. As soon as it had caught one of
+these active fish, it went to some dry place, and then disabled
+its prey by shaking and beating it against the ground before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[559]</a></span>
+swallowing it, whereas many birds that feed on fish swallow
+their prey as soon as it is caught. The Stork was never seen to
+swim as the heron sometimes does, but it would wade as long as
+it could place its feet on the bed of the stream, and would strain
+its head and the whole of its neck under water in searching
+for fish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="white" id="white"></a>
+<img src="images/i_558.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt="white" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A NEST OF THE WHITE STORK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was of a mild and peaceable disposition, and, even if
+angered, did not attempt to bite or strike with its beak, but
+only denoted its displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its
+lungs, and nodding its head repeatedly. After the manner of
+Storks, it always chose an elevated spot on which to repose,
+and took its rest standing on one leg, with its head so sunk
+among the feathers of its shoulders that scarcely any part of it
+was visible, the hinder part of the head resting on the back, and
+the bill lying on the fore-part of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>Though the bird is so capable of domestication, it does not of
+its own accord haunt the dwellings of men, like the White
+Stork, but avoids the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the
+most retired places it can find.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[560]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE SWAN.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Signification of the word <em>Tinshemeth</em>&mdash;The Gallinule and the Ibis&mdash;Appearance
+and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule&mdash;A strange use for the bird&mdash;The
+White or Sacred Ibis.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the two parallel chapters of Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 16,
+the Hebrew word <em>tinshemeth</em> is found, and evidently signifies
+some kind of bird which was forbidden as food. After stating
+(Lev. xi. 13) that "these are they which ye shall have in abomination
+among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an
+abomination," the sacred lawgiver proceeds to enumerate a
+number of birds, nearly all of which have already been described.
+Among them occurs the name of <em>tinshemeth</em>, between
+the great owl and the pelican.</p>
+
+<p>What was the precise species of bird which was signified by
+this name it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that it
+could not have been the Swan, according to the rendering of the
+Authorized Version. The Swan is far too rare a bird in Palestine
+to have been specially mentioned in the law of Moses, and
+in all probability it was totally unknown to the generality of the
+Israelites. Even had it been known to them, and tolerably
+common, there seems to be no reason why it should have been
+reckoned among the list of unclean birds.</p>
+
+<p>On turning to the Hebrew Bible, we find that the word is left
+untranslated, and simply given in its Hebrew form, thereby
+signifying that the translators could form no opinion whatever of
+the proper rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the
+Tinshemeth as the Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the
+same rendering. Later naturalists have agreed that the Septuagint
+and Vulgate have the far more probable reading; and, as
+two birds are there mentioned, they will be both described.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[561]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ibis" id="ibis"></a>
+<img src="images/i_560.jpg" width="400" height="398" alt="ibis" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">IBIS AND GALLINULE (SWAN OF SCRIPTURE).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first is the Porphyrio, by which we may understand the
+<span class="smcap">Hyacinthine Gallinule</span> (<em>Porphyrio veterum</em>). All the birds of
+this group are remarkable for the enormous length of their toes,
+by means of which they are enabled to walk upon the loose
+herbage that floats on the surface of the water as firmly as if
+they were treading on land. Their feet are also used, like those
+of the parrots, in conveying food to the mouth. We have in
+England a very familiar example of the Gallinules in the common
+water-hen, or moor-hen, the toes of which are of great proportionate
+length, though not so long as those of the Purple Gallinule,
+which almost rivals in this respect the jacanas of South<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[562]</a></span>
+America and China. The water-rail, and corncrake or land-rail,
+are also allied to the Gallinules.</p>
+
+<p>The Hyacinthine Gallinule derives its name from its colour,
+which is a rich and variable blue, taking a turquoise hue on the
+head, neck, throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back.
+The large bill and the legs are red. Like many other birds,
+however, it varies much in colour according to age.</p>
+
+<p>It has a very wide geographical range, being found in many
+parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is common in the marshy
+districts of Palestine, where its rich blue plumage and its large
+size, equalling that of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The
+large and powerful bill of this bird betokens the nature of its
+food, which consists almost entirely of hard vegetable substances,
+the seeds of aquatic herbage forming a large portion of
+its diet. When it searches for food on the seashore, it eats the
+marine vegetation, mixing with this diet other articles of an
+animal nature, such as molluscs and small reptiles.</p>
+
+<p>Though apparently a clumsy bird, it moves with wonderful
+speed, running not only swiftly but gracefully, its large feet
+being no hindrance to the rapidity of its movements. It is
+mostly found in shallow marshes, where the construction of its
+feet enables it to traverse both the soft muddy ground and the
+patches of firm earth with equal ease. Its wings, however, are
+by no means equal to its legs either in power or activity; and,
+like most of the rail tribe, it never takes to the air unless absolutely
+obliged to do so.</p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Hyacinthine Gallinule is made on the sedge-patches
+which dot the marshes, much like that of the coot. The
+nest, too, resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds,
+sedges, and other aquatic plants. The eggs are three or four in
+number, white in colour, and nearly spherical in form.</p>
+
+<p>As the Ibis has an equal claim to the title of Tinshemeth
+we will devote a few lines to a description of the bird.
+The particular species which would be signified by the word
+<em>tinshemeth</em> would undoubtedly be the <span class="smcap">White</span> or <span class="smcap">Sacred Ibis</span>
+(<em>Ibis religiosa</em>), a bird which derives its name of Sacred from
+the reverence with which it was held by the ancient Egyptians,
+and the frequency with which its figure occurs in the monumental
+sculptures. It was also thought worthy of being embalmed,
+and many mummies of the Ibis have been found in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[563]</a></span>
+old Egyptian burial-places, having been preserved for some three
+thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>It is about as large as an ordinary hen, and, as its name imports,
+has the greater part of its plumage white, the ends of
+the wing-feathers and the coverts being black, with violet reflections.
+The long neck is black and bare, and has a most curious
+aspect, looking as if it were made of an old black kid glove,
+very much crumpled, but still retaining its gloss.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird
+was regarded by the ancient Egyptians seems rather obscure.
+It is probable, however, that the partial migration of the bird
+was connected in their minds with the rise of the Nile, a river
+as sacred to the old Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern
+Hindoo. As soon as the water begins to rise, the Ibis makes its
+appearance, sometimes alone, and sometimes in small troops. It
+haunts the banks of the river, and marshy places in general,
+diligently searching for food by the aid of its long bill. It can
+fly well and strongly, and it utters at intervals a rather loud cry,
+dipping its head at every utterance.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CORMORANT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The word <em>Shâlâk</em> and its signification&mdash;Habits of the Cormorant&mdash;The bird trained
+to catch fish&mdash;Mode of securing its prey&mdash;Nests and eggs of the Cormorant&mdash;Nesting
+in fir-trees&mdash;Flesh of the bird.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Although in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures the word
+Cormorant occurs three times, there is no doubt that in two of
+the passages the Hebrew word ought to have been rendered as
+Pelican, as we shall see when we come presently to the description
+of that bird.</p>
+
+<p>In the two parallel passages, Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17,
+a creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited
+meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the
+context, and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of
+bird it may be. On looking at the etymology of the word we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[564]</a></span>
+find that it is derived from a root which signifies hurling or
+casting down, and we may therefore presume that the bird is one
+which plunges or sweeps down upon its prey.</p>
+
+<p>Weighing, carefully, the opinions of the various Hebraists and
+naturalists, we may safely determine that the word <em>shâlâk</em> has
+been rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew
+Bible gives the same reading, and does not affix the mark of
+doubt to the word, though there are very few of the long list of
+animals in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. which are not either distinguished
+by the mark of doubt, or, like the Tinshemeth, are left
+untranslated.</p>
+
+<p>The Cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans, the relationship
+between them being evident to the most unpractised
+eye; and the whole structure of the bird shows its admirable
+adaptation for the life which it leads.</p>
+
+<p>Its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish, while the
+hook at the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping. The
+long snake-like neck gives the bird the power of darting its
+beak with great rapidity, and at the same time allows it to seize
+prey immediately to the right or left of its course. Its strong,
+closely-feathered wings enable it to fly with tolerable speed, while
+at the same time they can be closed so tightly to the body that
+they do not hinder the progress of the bird through the water;
+while the tail serves equally when spread to direct its course
+through the air, and when partially or entirely closed to act as a
+rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful legs, with their
+broadly-webbed feet, act as paddles, by which the bird urges
+itself through the water with such wonderful speed that it can
+overtake and secure the fishes even in their own element. Besides
+these outward characteristics, we find that the bird is able
+to make a very long stay under water, the lungs being adapted so
+as to contain a wonderful amount of air.</p>
+
+<p>The Cormorant has been trained to play the same part in
+the water as the falcon in the air, and has been taught to
+catch fish, and bring them ashore for its master. So adroit
+are they, that if one of them should catch a fish which is too
+heavy for it, another bird will come to its assistance, and the
+two together will bring the struggling prey to land. Trained
+birds of this description have been employed in China from time
+immemorial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[565]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent it from swallowing the fish which it takes,
+each bird has a ring or ligature passed round its neck.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Cormorant is a most voracious bird, swallowing a considerable
+weight of fish at a meal, and digesting them so rapidly
+that it is soon ready for another supply. Although it is essentially
+a marine bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to
+places where there are lakes or large rivers.</p>
+
+<p>While the ducks and teal and widgeons may be stationary on the
+pool, the cormorant is seen swimming to and fro, as if in quest
+of something. First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down
+he plunges into the deep, and, after staying there a considerable
+time, he is sure to bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows
+head foremost. Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can
+manage to accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach.</p>
+
+<p>You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp
+it; and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully
+disposed of, all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards
+from its dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape. The
+cormorant swallows it again, and up again it comes, and shows
+its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mouth. At length,
+worn out with ineffectual writhings and slidings, the eel is
+gulped down into the cormorant's stomach for the last time,
+there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Fortune gives a very interesting account of the feeding
+of tame Cormorants in China. The birds preferred eels to all
+other food, and, in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the
+slippery and active creature, would not touch another fish as
+long as an eel was left. The bird is so completely at home in the
+water that it does not need, like the heron and other aquatic birds,
+to bring its prey ashore in order to swallow it, but can eat fish
+in the water as well as catch them. It always seizes the fish
+crosswise, and is therefore obliged to turn it before it can swallow
+the prey with the head downwards. Sometimes it contrives to
+turn the fish while still under water, but, if it should fail in so
+doing, it brings its prey to the surface, and shifts it about in its
+bill, making a series of little snatches at it until the head is in
+the right direction. When it seizes a very large fish, the bird
+shakes its prey just as a dog shakes a rat, and so disables it. It
+is said to eat its own weight of fish in a single day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[566]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, when it has been very successful or exceptionally
+hungry, it loads itself with food to such an extent that it becomes
+almost insensible during the process of digestion, and,
+although naturally a keen-eyed and wary bird, allows itself to
+be captured by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The nest of the Cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge, and
+generally on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised
+climbers furnished with ropes, poles, hooks, and other appurtenances.
+Mr. Waterton mentions that when he descended the
+Raincliff, a precipice some four hundred feet in height, he saw
+numbers of the nests and eggs, but could not get at them except
+by swinging himself boldly off the face of the cliff, so as to be
+brought by the return swing into the recesses chosen by the
+birds.</p>
+
+<p>The nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other,
+and are made of sticks and seaweeds, and, as is usual with such
+nests, are very inartificially constructed. The eggs are of a
+greenish white on the outside, and green on the inside. When
+found in the nest, they are covered with a sort of chalky crust,
+so that the true colour is not perceptible until the crust is
+scraped off. Two to four eggs are generally laid in, or rather on,
+each nest. As may be imagined from the character of the birds'
+food, the odour of the nesting-place is most horrible.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, when rocks cannot be found, the Cormorant is
+obliged to select other spots for its nest. It is mentioned in the
+"Proceedings of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in
+the midst of a large lake there were a number of Scotch fir-trees,
+upon the branches of which were about eighty nests of
+the Cormorant.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Cormorant is very seldom eaten, as it has a
+fishy flavour which is far from agreeable. To eat an old Cormorant
+is indeed almost impossible, but the young birds may be
+rendered edible by taking them as soon as killed, skinning them,
+removing the whole of the interior, wrapping them in cloths,
+and burying them for some time in the ground.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[567]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE PELICAN.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Pelican of the wilderness&mdash;Attitudes of the bird&mdash;Its love of solitude&mdash;Mode
+of feeding the young&mdash;Fables regarding the Pelican&mdash;Breeding-places of the
+bird&mdash;The object of its wide wings and large pouch&mdash;Colour of the Pelican.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It has been mentioned that in two passages of Scripture, the
+word which is translated in the Authorized Version as Cormorant,
+ought to have been rendered as <span class="smcap">Pelican</span>. These, however,
+are not the first passages in which we meet with the word
+<em>kaath</em>. The name occurs in the two parallel passages of Lev.
+xi. and Deut. xiv. among the list of birds which are proscribed
+as food. Passing over them, we next come to Ps. cii. 6. In
+this passage, the sacred writer is lamenting his misery: "By
+reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave to my
+skin.</p>
+
+<p>"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of
+the desert."</p>
+
+<p>In these sentences, we see that the Kaath was a bird of
+solitude that was to be found in the "wilderness," <em>i.e.</em> far from
+the habitations of man. This is one of the characteristics of the
+Pelican, which loves not the neighbourhood of human beings,
+and is fond of resorting to broad, uncultivated lands, where it
+will not be disturbed.</p>
+
+<p>In them it makes its nest and hatches its young, and to them
+it retires after feeding, in order to digest in quiet the ample meal
+which it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor
+of the Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican
+and its kin, of sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged
+itself with food, its head sunk on its shoulders, and its bill
+resting on its breast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[568]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This is but one of the singular, and often grotesque, attitudes
+in which the Pelican is in the habit of indulging.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="pelican" id="pelican"></a>
+<img src="images/i_567.jpg" width="400" height="403" alt="pelican" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE PELICAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are before me a number of sketches made of the
+Pelicans at the Zoological Gardens, and in no two cases does
+one attitude in the least resemble another. In one sketch the
+bird is sitting in the attitude which has just been described. In
+another it is walking, or rather staggering, along, with its head
+on one side, and its beak so closed that hardly a vestige of its
+enormous pouch can be seen. Another sketch shows the same
+bird as it appeared when angry with a companion, and scolding
+its foe in impotent rage; while another shows it basking in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[569]</a></span>
+sun, with its magnificent wings spread and shaking in the warm
+beams, and its pouch hanging in folds from its chin.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird
+squatting on the ground, with its head drawn back as far as
+possible, and sunk so far among the feathers of the back and
+shoulders that only a portion of the head itself can be seen,
+while the long beak is hidden, except an inch or two of the end.
+In this attitude it might easily be mistaken at a little distance
+for an oval white stone.</p>
+
+<p>The derivation of the Hebrew word <em>kaath</em> is a very curious
+one. It is taken from a verb signifying "to vomit," and this
+derivation has been explained in different ways.</p>
+
+<p>The early writers, who were comparatively ignorant of natural
+history, thought that the Pelican lived chiefly on molluscs, and
+that, after digesting the animals, it rejected their shells, just as
+the owl and the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their
+prey.</p>
+
+<p>They thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament,
+and that the molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the
+stomach.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, however, knowing as we do the habits of
+the Pelican, we find that, although the reasons just given are
+faulty, and that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on
+molluscs, the derivation of the word is really a good one, and
+that those who gave the bird the name of Kaath, or the vomiter,
+were well acquainted with its habits.</p>
+
+<p>The bird certainly does eat molluscs, but the principal part
+of its diet is composed of fish, which it catches dexterously by
+a sort of sidelong snatch of its enormous bill. The skin under
+the lower part of the beak is so modified that it can form, when
+distended, an enormous pouch, capable of holding a great quantity
+of fish, though, as long as it is not wanted, the pouch is so
+contracted into longitudinal folds as to be scarcely perceptible.
+When it has filled the pouch, it usually retires from the water,
+and flies to a retired spot, often many miles inland, where it
+can sit and digest at its ease the enormous meal which it has
+made.</p>
+
+<p>As it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots, far
+from the water, it has to carry the food with which it nourishes
+its young for many miles. For this purpose it is furnished, not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[570]</a></span>
+only with the pouch which has been just mentioned, but with
+long, wide, and very powerful wings, often measuring from twelve
+to thirteen feet from tip to tip. No one, on looking at a Pelican
+as it waddles about or sits at rest, would imagine the gigantic
+dimensions of the wings, which seem, as the bird spreads them,
+to have almost as unlimited a power of expansion as the pouch.</p>
+
+<p>In these two points the true Pelicans present a strong contrast
+to the cormorants, though birds closely allied. The cormorant
+has its home close by the sea, and therefore needs not to carry
+its food for any distance. Consequently, it needs no pouch,
+and has none. Neither does it require the great expanse of
+wing which is needful for the Pelican, that has to carry such
+a weight of fish through the air. Accordingly, the wings, though
+strong enough to enable the bird to carry for a short distance
+a single fish of somewhat large size, are comparatively short and
+closely feathered, and the flight of the cormorant possesses
+neither the grace nor the power which distinguishes that of the
+Pelican.</p>
+
+<p>When the Pelican feeds its young, it does so by pressing its
+beak against its breast, so as to force out of it the enclosed fish.
+Now the tip of the beak is armed, like that of the cormorant,
+with a sharply-curved hook, only, in the case of the Pelican, the
+hook is of a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses
+the beak against the white feathers of the breast, like a large
+drop of blood. Hence arose the curious legend respecting the
+Pelican, which represented it as feeding its young with its own
+blood, and tearing open its breast with its hooked bill. We find
+that this legend is exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the
+"Pelican feeding its young" in ecclesiastical art, as an emblem
+of Divine love.</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the many instances in which the inventive,
+poetical, inaccurate Oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of
+form, and based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends. As
+long as they restricted themselves to the appearance and habits
+of the animals with which they were familiarly acquainted, the
+old writers were curiously full, exact, and precise in their details.
+But as soon as they came to any creature of whose mode of life
+they were entirely or partially ignorant, they allowed their
+inventive faculties full scope, and put forward as zoological facts
+statements which were the mere creation of their own fancy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[571]</a></span>
+We have already seen several examples of this propensity, and
+shall find more as we proceed with the zoology of the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>The fabulous legends of the Pelican are too numerous to be
+even mentioned, but there is one which deserves notice, because
+it is made the basis of an old Persian fable.</p>
+
+<p>The writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge
+of the bird. He knew that it had a large pouch which could
+hold fish and water; that it had large and powerful wings; and
+that it was in the habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose
+of digesting its food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the
+Pelican is in the habit of choosing solitary spots in which it may
+bring up its young in safety, but not knowing the precise mode
+of its nesting, the writer in question has trusted to his imagination,
+and put forward his theories as facts.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing that the bird dwells in "the wilderness," he has
+assumed that the wilderness in question is a sandy, arid desert,
+far from water, and consequently from vegetation. Such being
+the case, the nurture of the Pelican's young is evidently a difficult
+question. Being aquatic birds, the young must needs require
+water for drink and bathing, as well as fish for food; and, though
+a supply of both these necessaries could be brought in the ample
+pouches of the parents, they would be wasted unless some mode
+of storing were employed.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, the parent birds were said to make their nest
+in a hollow tree, and to line it with clay, or to build it altogether
+of clay, so as to leave a deep basin. This basin the parent birds
+were said to use as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies
+of fish and water in their pouches, and pouring them into the
+pond. The wild beasts who lived in the desert were said to be
+acquainted with these nests, and to resort to them daily in order
+to quench their thirst, repaying their entertainers by protecting
+their homes.</p>
+
+<p>In real fact, the Pelican mostly breeds near water, and is fond
+of selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached
+without danger. The nest is made on the ground, and is formed
+in a most inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass
+of the nest being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed
+of grass. The eggs are white, of nearly the same shape at both
+ends, and are from two to five in number. On an average,
+however, each nest will contain about two eggs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[572]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs or
+young, and, according to Le Vaillant, when approached they are
+"like furious harpies let loose against us, and their cries rendered
+us almost deaf. They often flew so near us that they
+flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we fired our pieces
+repeatedly, we were not able to frighten them." When the well-known
+naturalist Sonnerat tried to drive a female Pelican
+from her nest, she appeared not to be frightened, but angry.
+She would not move from her nest, and when he tried to
+push her off, she struck at him with her long bill and uttered
+cries of rage.</p>
+
+<p>In order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with
+which it loads itself, the whole skeleton is permeated with air,
+and is exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system
+of the bird is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of
+the bird can be greatly increased, while its weight remains
+practically unaltered, and the Pelican becomes a sort of living
+balloon.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so
+characteristic of the Pelican that other birds take advantage of
+it. In some countries there is a large hawk which robs the
+Pelican, just as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the
+osprey. Knowing instinctively that when a Pelican is flying
+inland slowly and heavily and with a distended pouch it is
+carrying a supply of food to its home, the hawk dashes at it,
+and frightens it so that the poor bird opens its beak, and gives
+up to the assailant the fish which it was bearing homewards.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting
+such weights, and which, as we have seen, exceed twelve feet in
+length from tip to tip, would be useless in the water, and would
+hinder rather than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the
+close-winged cormorant does. Accordingly, we find that the
+Pelican is not a diver, and, instead of chasing its finny prey
+under water, after the manner of the cormorant, it contents
+itself with scooping up in its beak the fishes which come to the
+surface of the water. The very buoyancy of its body would
+prevent it from diving as does the cormorant, and, although it
+often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a moment
+submerged, it almost immediately rises, and pursues its course
+on the surface of the water, and not beneath it. Like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[573]</a></span>
+cormorant, the Pelican can perch on trees, though it does not
+select such spots for its roosting-places, and prefers rocks to
+branches. In one case, however, when some young Pelicans
+had been captured and tied to a stake, their mother used to
+bring them food during the day, and at night was accustomed
+to roost in the branches of a tree above them.</p>
+
+<p>Though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it
+is yet fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume
+at peace the prey that it has captured; and, as it sits motionless
+and alone for hours, more like a white stone than a bird, it
+may well be accepted as a type of solitude and desolation.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the common Pelican is white, with a very slight
+pinky tinge, which is most conspicuous in the breeding season.
+The feathers of the crest are yellow, and the quill feathers of
+the wings are jetty black, contrasting well with the white
+plumage of the body. The pouch is yellow, and the upper
+part of the beak bluish grey, with a red line running across
+the middle, and a bright red hook at the tip. This plumage
+belongs only to the adult bird, that of the young being ashen
+grey, and four or five years are required before the bird puts on
+its full beauty. There is no difference in the appearance of the
+sexes. The illustration represents a fine old male Crested Pelican.
+The general colour is a greyish white, with a slight yellowish tint
+on the breast. The pouch is bright orange, and the crest is formed
+of curling feathers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_572.jpg" width="300" height="259" alt="scene" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[574]</a><br /><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[575]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 349px;"><a name="lizards" id="lizards"></a>
+<img src="images/i_574.jpg" width="349" height="600" alt="lizards" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[576]</a></span></p>
+<h2>REPTILES.</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_575.jpg" width="400" height="346" alt="pic" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[577]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="tortoises" id="tortoises"></a>
+<img src="images/i_576.jpg" width="400" height="215" alt="tortoises" />
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE TORTOISE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as Tortoise&mdash;Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise&mdash;Its
+slow movements&mdash;Hibernation dependent on temperature&mdash;The Water-Tortoises&mdash;Their
+food and voracity&mdash;Their eggs&mdash;Their odour terrifying the
+horses&mdash;The Dhubb lizard and its legends&mdash;Its food, and localities which it
+prefers.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to a different class of animated beings. In Levit.
+xi. 29, there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word which
+is translated in the Authorized Version as "tortoise." The word
+is <em>Tzab</em>, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but
+with the mark of doubt affixed to it. As the correct translation
+of the word is very dubious, we shall examine it in both these
+senses.</p>
+
+<p>The common Tortoise is very common in Palestine, and is so
+plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the Israelites
+as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present day
+it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who
+are not Jews, and its eggs are in as great request as those of the
+fowl.</p>
+
+<p>These eggs are hard, nearly spherical, thick-shelled, and
+covered with minute punctures, giving them a roughness like
+that of a file. In captivity the Tortoise is very careless about
+the mode in which they are deposited, and I have seen a large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[578]</a></span>
+yard almost covered with eggs laid by Tortoises and abandoned.
+The white or albumen of the egg is so stiff and gelatinous that
+to empty one of them without breaking the shell is a difficult
+task, and the yolk is very dark, and covered with minute spots
+of black. When fresh the eggs are as good as those of the fowl,
+and many persons even think them better; the only drawback
+being that their small size and thick shell cause considerable
+trouble in eating them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="dhubb" id="dhubb"></a>
+<img src="images/i_577.jpg" width="400" height="397" alt="dhubb" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE DHUBB OR LIZARD AND THE TORTOISE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings,
+but by birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the
+flesh of the Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on
+the ground so as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile
+fall on a stone or rock. If, as is not often the case in such a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[579]</a></span>
+rocky land as that of Palestine, it should fall on a soft spot, the
+bird picks it up, soars aloft, and drops it again.</p>
+
+<p>The Tortoises have no teeth, but yet are able to crop the
+herbage with perfect ease. In lieu of teeth the edges of the
+jaws are sharp-edged and very hard, so that they cut anything
+that comes between them like a pair of shears. Leaves that are
+pulpy and crisp are bitten through at once, but those that are
+thin, tough, and fibrous are rather torn than bitten, the Tortoise
+placing its feet upon them, and dragging them to pieces with its
+jaws. The carnivorous Tortoises have a similar habit, as we shall
+presently see.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="wasser" id="wasser"></a>
+<img src="images/i_578.jpg" width="400" height="194" alt="wasser" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">WATER TORTOISE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements
+the familiar metaphor of "slow as a Tortoise" was derived, and
+it is this species which is the hero of the popular fable of the
+"Hare and the Tortoise." Many of the reptiles are very slow
+in some things and astonishingly quick in others. Some of the
+lizards, for example, will at one time remain motionless for
+many hours together, or creep about with a slow and snail-like
+progress, while at others they dart from spot to spot with such
+rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow their movements. This
+however is not the case with the Tortoise, which is always slow,
+and, but for the defensive armour in which it is encased, would
+long ago have been extirpated.</p>
+
+<p>During the whole of the summer months it may be seen
+crawling deliberately among the herbage, eating in the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[580]</a></span>
+deliberate style which characterises all its movements, and occasionally
+resting in the same spot for many hours together,
+apparently enjoying the warm beams of the sunshine.</p>
+
+<p>As winter approaches, it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the
+ground, and buries itself until the following spring awakes it
+once more to active life. The depth of its burrow depends on
+the severity of the winter, for, as the cold increases, the Tortoise
+sinks itself more deeply into the earth.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Mention has been made of a species of Tortoise that inhabits
+the water. This is the <span class="smcap">Caspian Emys</span> (<em>Emys caspica</em>), a small
+species, measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the
+large family of the Terrapins, several of which are so well known
+in America, and has a long, retractile neck, very sharp jaws, and
+webbed feet, and a well-developed tail.</p>
+
+<p>The body is flattish, and the colour is olive, with lines of
+yellow edged with black, and the head is marked with longitudinal
+streaks of bright yellow. After the death of the creature
+these yellow streaks fade away gradually, and at last become
+nearly black. The skin of the head is thin, but very hard. In
+general appearance it is not unlike the chicken Tortoise of
+America, a species which is often brought to England and kept
+in captivity, on account of its hardy nature and the little trouble
+which is needed for keeping it in health.</p>
+
+<p>I have kept specimens of the Caspian Emys for some time,
+and found them to be more interesting animals than they at first
+promised to be. They were active, swimming with considerable
+speed, and snatching quickly at anything which they fancied
+might be food.</p>
+
+<p>They were exceedingly voracious, consuming daily a quantity
+of meat apparently disproportioned to their size, and eating it in
+a manner that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged
+on a piece of meat or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise
+would plant its fore-paws firmly at each side of the meat, seize
+a mouthful in its jaws, and, by retracting its head violently,
+would tear away the piece which it had grasped.</p>
+
+<p>They are most destructive among fish, and are apt to rise
+quietly underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the
+water, grasp it beneath with its sharp-edged jaws, and tear away
+the piece, leaving the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[581]</a></span>
+the Lepidosiren, or mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a
+precisely similar manner, though, as its jaws are much sharper
+than those of the Emys, it does not need the aid of fore-paws in
+biting out its mouthful of flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Like the land Tortoise, it is one of the hibernators, and during
+the winter months buries itself deeply in the earth, choosing
+for this purpose the soft, muddy bed or bank of the pond in
+which it lives.</p>
+
+<p>Its eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than
+those of the land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In
+fact, its egg might well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon.
+The shell has a porcelain-like look, and is very liable to crack, so
+that the resemblance is increased.</p>
+
+<p>There is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets.
+They give out a very unpleasant odour, which is disagreeable to
+human nostrils, but is absolutely terrifying to many animals.
+The monkey tribe have the strongest objection to these aquatic
+Tortoises. I once held one of them towards a very tame
+chimpanzee, much to his discomfiture. He muttered and remonstrated,
+and retreated as far as he could, pushing out his
+lips in a funnel-like form, and showing his repugnance to the
+reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>Horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror, not only
+by the sight, but by the odour of these Tortoises. In Southern
+Africa there are Tortoises closely allied to the Caspian Emys,
+and having the same power of frightening horses.</p>
+
+<p>I have read an account of an adventure there with one of
+those Tortoises, which I will give. This variety is described as
+being of an olive colour. When adult, there is a slight depression
+on either side of the vertebral line.</p>
+
+<p>"Some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from
+the terror caused by the fresh-water turtle (<em>Pelamedusa subrufa</em>).
+Carts have been smashed to fragments, riders thrown, and the
+utmost confusion caused by them. It is their smell, and it is
+certainly very disagreeable.</p>
+
+<p>"My first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise. I
+was out shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered
+as markers; and, as you know, all our shooting is done from
+horseback. I had jumped off for a shot at some francolins
+near a knill, or water-hole, and, after picking up my birds, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[582]</a></span>
+coming round the knoll to windward of the horses. In my path
+scrambled a turtle. I called out to my young friends, and told
+them of my find, on which one of them, in a hasty voice, said,
+'Oh, please, Mr. L., don't touch it; you will frighten the
+horses!'</p>
+
+<p>"Of course I laughed at the idea, and picked up the reptile,
+which instantly emitted its pungent odour&mdash;its means of defence.
+Though a long way off, the moment the horses caught
+the scent, away they flew, showing terror in every action. The
+girls, luckily splendid riders, tugged in vain at the reins; away
+they went over the Veldt, leaving me in mortal fear that the
+yawning 'aard-vark' holes (<em>Orycteropus capensis</em>) would break
+their necks. My own horse, which I had hitched to a bush,
+tore away his bridle, and with the ends streaming in the wind
+and the stirrups clashing about him, sped off home at full
+gallop, and was only recovered after a severe chase by my
+gallant young Amazons, who, after a race of some miles, succeeded
+in checking their affrighted steeds and in securing my runaway.
+But for some hours after, if I ventured to windward, there were
+wild-looking eyes and cocked ears&mdash;the smell of the reptile
+clung to me."</p>
+
+<p>Should any of my readers keep any of those water Tortoises,
+they will do well to supply them plentifully with food, to give
+them an elevated rocky perch on which they can scramble,
+and on which they will sit for hours so motionless that at a
+little distance they can scarcely be distinguished from the stone
+on which they rest. They should also be weighed at regular
+intervals, as decrease of weight is a sure sign that something is
+wrong, and, as a general rule, is an almost certain precursor
+of death.</p>
+
+<p>This little reptile is not without its legends. According to
+the old writers on natural history, it is of exceeding use to vine-growers
+in the season when there is excess of rain or hail.
+Whenever the owner of a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching,
+all he has to do is, to take one of these Tortoises, lay it on
+its back, and carry it round the vineyard. He must then go
+into the middle of the ground and lay the reptile on the earth,
+still on its back; and the effect of this proceeding would be that
+the cloud would pass aside from a place so well protected.</p>
+
+<p>"But," proceeds the narrator, not wishing to be responsible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[583]</a></span>
+for the statement, "such diabolical and foolish observations
+were not so muche to be remembered in this place, were it not
+for their sillinesse, that by knowing them men might learn the
+weaknesse of human wisdom when it erreth from the fountain of
+all science and true knowledge (which is Divinity), and the
+most approved assertions of nature. And so I will say no more
+in this place of the sweet-water tortoise."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE DHUBB.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the second animal, which may probably be
+the Tzab of the Old Testament.</p>
+
+<p>This creature is one of the lizards, and is a very odd-looking
+creature. It is certainly not so attractive in appearance that
+the Jews might be supposed to desire it as food; but it often
+happens that, as is the case with the turtle and iguana, from
+the most ungainly, in the latter animal even repulsive, forms are
+produced the most delicate meats.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Dhubb</span>, or <span class="smcap">Egyptian Mastigure</span>, as the lizard is indifferently
+called, grows to a considerable size, measuring when adult
+three feet in length. Its colour is green, variegated with brown,
+and is slightly changeable, though not to the extent that distinguishes
+the chameleon. The chief peculiarity of this lizard
+consists in its tail, which is covered with a series of whorls or
+circles of long, sharply-pointed, hard-edged scales. The very
+appearance of this tail suggests its use as a weapon of defence,
+and it is said that even the dreaded cerastes is conquered by it,
+when the lizard and the snake happen to find themselves
+occupants of the same hole.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of
+the spiny tail possessed by the Dhubb and its kin. They had
+an idea that, comparatively small though it was, it fed upon
+cattle, and that it was able to take them from the herd and
+drive them to its home. For this purpose, when it had selected
+an ox, it jumped on its back, and by the pricking of its sharp
+claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of ridding himself of
+his tormentor. In order to guide him in the direction of its
+home, it made use of its tail, lashing the ox "to make him go
+with his rider to the place of his most fit execution, free from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[584]</a></span>
+all rescue of his herdsman, or pastor, or the annoyance of passengers,
+where, in most cruel and savage manner, he teareth the
+limbs and parts one from another till he be devoured."</p>
+
+<p>This very absurd account is headed by an illustration, which,
+though bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and
+truthful that there is no doubt that it was sketched from the
+living animal.</p>
+
+<p>As it haunts sandy downs, rocky spots, and similar localities,
+it is well adapted for the Holy Land, which is the home of a
+vast number of reptiles, especially of those belonging to the
+lizards. In the summer time they have the full enjoyment of
+the hot sunbeams, in which they delight, and which seem to
+rouse these cold-blooded creatures to action, while they deprive
+the higher animals of all spirit and energy. In the winter time
+these very spots afford localities wherein the lizards can hibernate
+until the following spring, and in such a case they furnish the
+reptiles with secure hiding-places.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen
+and other cattle, it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile, and will
+kill and devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. Usually,
+however, its food consists of beetles and other insects, which it
+takes deliberately.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_583.jpg" width="400" height="190" alt="rocks" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[585]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE LEVIATHAN OR CROCODILE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Signification of the word <em>Leviathan</em>&mdash;Description in the Book of Job&mdash;Structure
+and general habits of the Crocodile&mdash;The throat-valve and its use&mdash;Position
+of the nostrils&mdash;Worship of the Crocodile&mdash;The reptile known in the Holy
+Land&mdash;Two legends respecting its presence there&mdash;Mode of taking prey&mdash;Cunning
+of the Crocodile&mdash;The baboons and the Crocodile&mdash;Speed of the
+reptile&mdash;Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their enemies&mdash;Curious story
+of the ichneumon and ibis&mdash;Modes of capturing the Crocodile&mdash;Analysis of
+Job's description&mdash;The Crocodile also signified by the word <em>Tannin</em>. Aaron's
+rod changed into a Tannin&mdash;Various passages in which the word occurs&mdash;Use
+of the word by the prophet Jeremiah.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The word <em>Leviathan</em> is used in a rather loose manner in the Old
+Testament, in some places representing a mammalian of the sea,
+and in others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in
+the most important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently
+signified, we will accept that rendering, and consider the Crocodile
+as being the Leviathan of Scripture. The Jewish Bible
+accepts the word Crocodile, and does not add the mark of doubt.</p>
+
+<p>The fullest account of the Leviathan occurs in Job xli., the
+whole of which chapter is given to the description of the terrible
+reptile. As the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some
+points from that of the Authorized Version, I shall here give
+the former, so that the reader may be able to compare them with
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>
+"Canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook, or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down?<br />
+<br />
+"Canst thou put a reed into his nose, or bore his jaw through with a thorn?<br />
+<br />
+"Will he make many supplications unto thee? will he speak soft words unto thee?<br />
+<br />
+"Will he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him as a servant for ever?<br />
+<br />
+"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens?<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[586]</a></span>"Shall the companions make a banquet of him? shall they part him among the merchants?<br />
+<br />
+"Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with fish-spears?<br />
+<br />
+"Lay thine hand upon him, thou wilt no more remember the battle.<br />
+<br />
+"Behold, the hope of him is in vain; shall not one be cast down at the sight of him?<br />
+<br />
+"None is so fierce that dare stir him up; who then is able to stand before Me?<br />
+<br />
+"Who hath forestalled Me that I should repay him? whatsoever is under the whole heaven is Mine.<br />
+<br />
+"I will not be silent of his parts, nor of the matter of his power, nor of his comely proportion.<br />
+<br />
+"Who can uncover the face of his garment? who would enter the double row in his jaw?<br />
+<br />
+"Who can open the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round about.<br />
+<br />
+"The strength of his shields are his pride, shut up together as with a close seal.<br />
+<br />
+"One is so near to another that no air can come between them.<br />
+<br />
+"They are joined one to another, they stick together that they cannot be sundered.<br />
+<br />
+"His snortings make light to shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning dawn.<br />
+<br />
+"Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or caldron.<br />
+<br />
+"His breath kindleth live coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth.<br />
+<br />
+"In his neck abideth strength, and before him danceth terror.<br />
+<br />
+"The flakes of his flesh are joined together, they are firm in themselves; yea, as hard as nether millstone.<br />
+<br />
+"When he raiseth himself up, the mighty are afraid; by reason of breakings they lose themselves.<br />
+<br />
+"The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon.<br />
+<br />
+"He esteemeth iron as straw, and copper as rotten wood.<br />
+<br />
+"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into stubble.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[587]</a></span>"Clubs are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear.
+</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[588]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 327px;"><a name="crocodile" id="crocodile"></a>
+<img src="images/i_586.jpg" width="327" height="600" alt="crocodile" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CROCODILE ATTACKING HORSES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+"His under parts are like sharp points of potsherd; he speaketh sharp points upon the mire.<br />
+<br />
+"He maketh the deep to boil like a pot; he maketh the sea like a pot of ointment.<br />
+<br />
+"He maketh a path to shine after him; one would think the deep to be hoary.<br />
+<br />
+"Upon earth there is not his like, who is made without fear.<br />
+<br />
+"He beholdeth all high things; he is a king over all the children of pride."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This splendid description points as clearly to the Crocodile
+as the description of the Behemoth which immediately precedes
+it does to the hippopotamus, and it is tolerably evident that the
+sacred poet who wrote these passages must have been personally
+acquainted with both the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In
+both descriptions there are a few exaggerations, or rather, poetical
+licences. For example, the bones of the hippopotamus are said
+to be iron and copper, and the Crocodile is said to kindle live
+coals with his breath. These, however, are but the natural
+imagery of an Oriental poet, and, considering the subject, we
+may rather wonder that the writer has not introduced even more
+fanciful metaphors.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Description of the Crocodile.</span></p>
+
+<p>There are several species of Crocodile in different parts of
+the world, ten species at least being known to science.</p>
+
+<p>Some inhabit India, some tropical America, some Asia, and
+some Africa, so that the genus is represented in nearly all the
+warmer parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>They are all known by the formation of the teeth, the lower
+canines fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw.
+The feet are webbed to the tips, and though the reptile mostly
+propels itself through the water by means of its tail, it can also
+paddle itself gently along by means of its feet.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth are all made for snatching and tearing, but not for
+masticating, the Crocodile swallowing its prey entire when possible;
+and when the animal is too large to be eaten entire, the
+reptile tears it to pieces, and swallows the fragments without
+attempting to masticate them.</p>
+
+<p>In order to enable it to open its mouth under water, the back<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[589]</a></span>
+of its throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful contrivance,
+whereby the water is received on a membranous valve
+and, in proportion to its pressure, closes the orifice of the throat.
+As the Crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and
+hold it under water until drowned, it is evident that without
+such a structure as has been described the Crocodile would be
+as likely to drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve
+enables it to keep its mouth open while the water is effectually
+prevented from running down its throat, and the nostrils, placed
+at the end of the snout, enable it to breathe at its ease, while
+the unfortunate animal which it has captured is being drowned
+beneath the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>This position of the nostrils serves another purpose, and
+enables the Crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is
+under the water, and only an inch or two of the very end of the
+snout is above the surface. As, moreover, the Crocodile, as is
+the case with most reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable
+time without breathing, it only needs to protrude its nostrils for
+a few moments, and can then sink entirely beneath the water.
+In this way the reptile is able to conceal itself in case it should
+suspect danger; and as, in such instances, it dives under the
+herbage of the river, and merely thrusts its nose into the air
+among the reeds and rushes, it is evident that, in spite of its
+enormous size, it baffles the observation of almost every foe.</p>
+
+<p>Among reptiles, the mailed Crocodiles may be mentioned as
+most formidable foes to man. Vast in bulk, yet grovelling with
+the belly on the earth; clad in bony plates with sharp ridges;
+green eyes with a peculiar fiery stare, gleaming out from below
+projecting orbits; lips altogether wanting, displaying the long
+rows of interlocking teeth even when the mouth is closed, so
+that, even when quiet, the monster seems to be grinning with
+rage,&mdash;it is no wonder that the Crocodile should be, in all the
+countries which it inhabits, viewed with dread.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is this terror groundless. The Crocodiles, both of the Nile
+and of the Indian rivers, are well known to make man their
+victim, and scarcely can a more terrible fate be imagined than
+that of falling into the jaws of this gigantic reptile. Strange as
+it may appear, the Crocodile is one of the many animals to which
+divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians. This we learn
+from several sources. Herodotus, for example, in "Euterpe,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[590]</a></span>
+chapter 69, writes as follows: "Those who dwell about Thebes and
+Lake M&oelig;ris, consider them to be very sacred; and they each of
+them train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and
+they put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets
+on their fore-paws; and they give them appointed and sacred
+food, and treat them as well as possible while alive and when
+dead, they embalm them, and bury them in sacred vaults."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 381px;"><a name="crocpool" id="crocpool"></a>
+<img src="images/i_589.jpg" width="381" height="600" alt="crocpool" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A CROCODILE POOL OF ANCIENT EGYPT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reasons for this worship are several. At the root of them
+all lies the tendency of man to respect that which he fears<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[591]</a></span>
+rather than that which he loves; and the nearer the man
+approaches the savage state, the more is this feeling developed.
+By this tendency his worship is regulated, and it will be found
+that when man is sufficiently advanced to be capable of worship
+at all, his reverence is invariably paid to the object which has
+the greatest terrors for him. The Crocodile, therefore, being the
+animal that was most dreaded by the ancient Egyptians, was
+accepted as the natural type of divinity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="nile" id="nile"></a>
+<img src="images/i_590.jpg" width="400" height="369" alt="nile" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CROCODILES OF THE UPPER NILE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to the accuracy of the description in the Book of Job,
+which is evidently written by one who was personally acquainted
+with the Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the
+writer must have been acquainted with the Nile, in which river
+both the Crocodile and hippopotamus are found at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, however, that the hippopotamus and the Crocodile
+have had at one time a much wider range than they at
+present enjoy. Even within the memory of man the hippopotamus
+has been driven further and further up the Nile by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[592]</a></span>
+the encroachments of man. It has long been said that even at the
+present day the Crocodile exists in Palestine in the river which
+is called "Nhar Zurka," which flows from Samaria through the
+plains of Sharon. Several of the older writers have mentioned
+its existence in this river, and, since this work was commenced,
+the long-vexed question has been set at rest; a Crocodile, eight
+feet in length, having been captured in the Nhar Zurka.</p>
+
+<p>No description of the Crocodile would be complete without allusion
+to the mode in which it seizes its prey. It does not attack
+it openly, neither, as some have said, does it go on shore for that
+purpose. It watches to see whether any animal comes to drink,
+and then, sinking beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly,
+rises unexpectedly beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it
+with a sudden snap of its huge jaws, and drags it beneath the
+water. Should the intended prey be too far from the water to
+be reached by the mouth, or so large that it may offer a successful
+resistance, the Crocodile strikes it a tremendous blow
+with its tail, and knocks it into the water. The dwellers on the
+Nile bank say that a large Crocodile will with a single blow of
+its tail break all the four legs of an ox or a horse.</p>
+
+<p>These cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they
+come for water. On the banks of the Nile the smaller birds
+drink in a very peculiar manner. They settle in numbers on
+the flexible branches that overhang the stream, and when, by
+their weight, the branch bends downwards, they dip their beaks
+in the water. The Crocodile sees afar off a branch thus loaded,
+swims as near as possible, and then dives until it can see the
+birds immediately above it, when it rises suddenly, and with a
+snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful of the unsuspecting
+birds.</p>
+
+<p>Sir S. Baker, in his travels on the Nile, gave much attention
+to the Crocodile, and has collected a great amount of interesting
+information about the reptile, much of which is peculiarly
+valuable, inasmuch as it illustrates the Scriptural notices of
+the creature. He states that it is a very crafty animal, and that
+its usual mode of attack is by first showing itself, then swimming
+slowly away to a considerable distance, so as to make its
+intended victim think that danger is over, and then returning
+under water. It is by means of this man&oelig;uvre that it captures
+the little birds. It first makes a dash at them, open-mouthed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[593]</a></span>
+causing them to take to flight in terror. It then sails slowly
+away as if it were so baffled that it did not intend to renew the
+attack. When it is at a considerable distance, the birds think
+that their enemy has departed, and return to the branch, which
+they crowd more than ever, and in a minute or two several dozen
+of them are engulfed in the mouth of the Crocodile, which has
+swiftly dived under them.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion, Sir S. Baker was walking near the edge of
+the river, when he heard a great shrieking of women on the
+opposite bank. It turned out that a number of women had
+been filling their "gerbas" (water-skins), when one of them was
+suddenly attacked by a large Crocodile. She sprang back, and
+the reptile, mistaking the filled gerba for a woman, seized it, and
+gave the owner time to escape. It then dashed at the rest of
+the women, but only succeeded in seizing another gerba.</p>
+
+<p>A short time previously a Crocodile, thought by the natives
+to be the same individual, had seized a woman and carried her
+off; and another had made an attack on a man in a very curious
+manner. A number of men were swimming across the river,
+supported, after their custom, on gerbas inflated with air, when
+one of them felt himself seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which
+tried to drag him under water. He, however, retained his hold
+on the skin, and his companions also grasped his arms and hair
+with one hand, while with the other they struck with their
+spears at the Crocodile. At last they succeeded in driving the
+reptile away, and got their unfortunate companion to land, where
+they found that the whole of the flesh was stripped from the
+leg from the knee downwards. The poor man died shortly
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Another traveller relates that three young men who were obliged
+to cross a branch of a river in their route, being unable to procure
+a boat, endeavoured to swim their horses to the opposite shore.
+Two of them had reached the bank in safety, but the third loitered
+so long on the brink as only to have just entered the water at the
+moment his comrades had reached the opposite side. When he
+was nearly half-way across, they saw a large Crocodile, which was
+known to infest this pass, issuing from under the reeds. They
+instantly warned their companion of his danger; but it was too
+late for him to turn back. When the Crocodile was so close as
+to be on the point of seizing him, he threw his saddle-bag to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[594]</a></span>
+it. The ravenous animal immediately caught the whole bundle
+in its jaws, and disappeared for a few moments, but soon discovered
+its mistake, and rose in front of the horse, which, then seeing
+it for the first time, reared and threw its rider. He was an
+excellent swimmer, and had nearly escaped by diving towards
+the bank; but, on rising for breath, his pursuer also rose, and
+seized him by the middle. This dreadful scene, which passed
+before the eyes of his companions, without the least possibility
+of their rendering any assistance, was terminated by the Crocodile,
+having previously drowned the unfortunate man, appearing on
+an opposite sand-bank with the body, and there devouring it.</p>
+
+<p>The crafty Crocodile tries to catch the baboons by lying in
+wait for them at their drinking places; but the baboons are
+generally more than a match for the Crocodile in point of
+cunning and quickness of sight. Sir S. Baker witnessed an
+amusing example of such an attempt and its failure.</p>
+
+<p>"The large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally
+full of the dog-faced baboons (<em>Cynocephalus</em>) at their drinking
+hour. I watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water
+and lie in waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place
+before they arrived, but the baboons were too wide awake to be
+taken in so easily.</p>
+
+<p>"A young fellow was the first to discover the enemy. He
+had accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to
+the extremity of a bough that at a considerable height overhung
+the river; from this post they had a bird's eye view,
+and reconnoitred before one of the numerous party descended
+to drink. The sharp eyes of the young one at once detected
+the Crocodile, who matched in colour so well with the rocks
+that most probably a man would not have noticed it until
+too late.</p>
+
+<p>"At once the young one commenced shaking the bough and
+screaming with all his might, to attract the attention of the
+Crocodile and to induce it to move. In this he was immediately
+joined by the whole party, who yelled in chorus, while the large
+old males bellowed defiance, and descended to the lowest branches
+within eight or ten feet of the Crocodile. It was of no use&mdash;the
+pretender never stirred, and I watched it until dark. It
+remained still in the same place, waiting for some unfortunate
+baboon whose thirst might provoke his fate, but not one was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[595]</a></span>
+sufficiently foolish, although the perpendicular bank prevented
+them from drinking except at that particular spot."</p>
+
+<p>It may be imagined that if the Crocodile were to depend
+entirely for its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank
+or in the river, it would run a risk of starving. The fact is, that
+its principal food consists of fish, which it can chase in the water.
+The great speed at which the Crocodile darts through the water
+is not owing to its webbed feet, but to its powerful tail, which
+is swept from side to side, and thus propels the reptile after
+the manner of a man "sculling" a boat with a single oar in
+the stern. The whales and the fishes have a similar mode of
+propulsion.</p>
+
+<p>On land, the tail is the Crocodile's most formidable weapon.
+It is one mass of muscle and sinew, and the force of its lateral
+stroke is terrible, sweeping away every living thing that it may
+meet. Fortunately for its antagonists, the Crocodile can turn
+but very slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a
+much faster pace than its appearance indicates, there is no great
+difficulty in escaping, provided that the sweep of its tail be
+avoided. As the Crocodile of the Nile attains when adult a
+length of thirty feet, one moiety of which is taken up by the
+tail, it may easily be imagined that the power of this weapon
+can scarcely be exaggerated.</p>
+
+<p>As if to add to the terrors of the animal, its head, back, and
+tail are shielded by a series of horny scales, which are set so
+closely together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way
+through them, and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes
+them obliquely. Like many other reptiles, the Crocodile is
+hatched from eggs which are laid on shore and vivified by the
+warmth of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>These eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the
+gigantic lizard which deposited them, scarcely equalling in
+dimensions those of the goose. There is now before me an egg
+of the cayman of South America, a fresh-water lizard but little
+smaller than the Crocodile of the Nile, and this is barely equal
+in size to an ordinary hen's egg. It is longer in proportion to
+its width, but the contents of the two eggs would be as nearly
+as possible of the same bulk. On the exterior it is very rough,
+having a granulated appearance, not unlike that of dried sharkskin,
+and the shell is exceedingly thin and brittle. The lining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[596]</a></span>
+membrane, however, is singularly thick and tough, so that the
+egg is tolerably well defended against fracture.</p>
+
+<p>When first hatched, the young Crocodile is scarcely larger
+than a common newt, but it attains most formidable dimensions
+in a very short time. Twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one
+spot, and, were they not destroyed by sundry enemies, the
+Crocodiles would destroy every living creature in the rivers.
+Fortunately, the eggs and young have many enemies, chiefly
+among which is the well-known ichneumon, which discovers the
+place where the eggs are laid and destroys them, and eats any
+young Crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed in making
+their way to the water.</p>
+
+<p>The old writers were aware of the services rendered by the
+ichneumon, but, after their wont, exaggerated them by additions
+of their own, saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth
+of the Crocodile as it lies asleep, and eats its way through the
+body, "putting the Crocodile to exquisite and intolerable torment,
+while the Crocodile tumbleth to and fro, sighing and weeping,
+now in the depth of water, now on the land, never resting till
+strength of nature faileth. For the incessant gnawing of the
+ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the unrest of
+every part, herb, element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all in
+vain, for the enemy within her breatheth through her breath,
+and sporteth herself in the consumption of those vital parts
+which waste and wear away by yielding to unpacificable teeth,
+one after another, till she that crept in by stealth at the mouth,
+like a puny thief, comes out at the belly like a conqueror,
+through a passage opened by her own labour and industry."</p>
+
+<p>The author has in the long passage, a part of which is here
+quoted, mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of
+entering the jaws of the Crocodile as it lies with its mouth open
+against the beams of the sun. It is very true that the Crocodile
+does sleep with its mouth open; and, in all probability, the
+older observers, knowing that the ichneumon did really destroy
+the eggs and young of the Crocodile, only added a little amplification,
+and made up their minds that it also destroyed the
+parents. The same writer who has lately been quoted ranks the
+ibis among the enemies of the Crocodile, and says that the bird
+affects the reptile with such terror that, if but an ibis's feather
+be laid on its back, the Crocodile becomes rigid and unable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[597]</a><br /><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[598]</a></span>
+move. The Arabs of the present time say that the water-tortoises
+are enemies to the eggs, scratching them out of the sand and eating
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 600px;"><a name="ich" id="ich"></a>
+<img src="images/i_596.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="ich" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ICHNEUMON DEVOURING THE EGGS OF THE CROCODILE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As this reptile is so dangerous a neighbour to the inhabitants
+of the river-banks, many means have been adopted for its destruction.</p>
+
+<p>One such method, where a kind of harpoon is employed, is
+described by a traveller in the East as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The most favourable season for thus hunting the Crocodile is
+either the winter, when the animal usually sleeps on sand-banks,
+luxuriating in the rays of the sun, or the spring, after the pairing
+time, when the female regularly watches the sand islands where
+she has buried her eggs.</p>
+
+<p>"The native hunter finds out the place and conceals himself by
+digging a hole in the sand near the spot where the animal usually
+lies. On its arrival at the accustomed spot the hunter darts his
+harpoon or spear with all his force, for, in order that its stroke
+may be successful, the iron should penetrate to a depth of at least
+four inches, in order that the barb may be fixed firmly in the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>"The Crocodile, on being wounded, rushes into the water, and
+the huntsman retreats into a canoe, with which a companion has
+hastened to his assistance.</p>
+
+<p>"A piece of wood attached to the harpoon by a long cord swims
+on the water and shows the direction in which the Crocodile is
+moving. The hunters pull on this rope and drag the beast to the
+surface of the water, where it is again pierced by a second harpoon.</p>
+
+<p>"When the animal is struck it by no means remains inactive;
+on the contrary, it lashes instantly with its tail, and endeavours to
+bite the rope asunder. To prevent this, the rope is made of about
+thirty separate slender lines, not twisted together, but merely placed
+in juxtaposition, and bound around at intervals of every two feet.
+The thin strands get between the Crocodile's teeth, and it is unable
+to sever them.</p>
+
+<p>"In spite of the great strength of the reptile, two men can drag
+a tolerably large one out of the water, tie up his mouth, twist his
+legs over his back, and kill him by driving a sharp steel spike into
+the spinal cord just at the back of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>"There are many other modes of capturing the Crocodile, one
+of which is the snare portrayed in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[599]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 287px;"><a name="croctrap" id="croctrap"></a>
+<img src="images/i_598.jpg" width="287" height="600" alt="croctrap" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A CROCODILE TRAP</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[600]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Two elastic saplings are bent down and kept in position by
+stout cords, one of which, bears a baited hook, while the other is
+fashioned into a noose. These cords are so arranged as to release
+the bent saplings as soon as the Crocodile pulls upon the baited
+hook. If all works properly, the animal suddenly finds himself
+suspended in the air, where he remains helpless and at the mercy
+of the hunter, who soon arrives and despatches him.</p>
+
+<p>"The extreme tenacity of life possessed by the Crocodile is well
+exemplified by an incident which occurred in Ceylon. A fine
+specimen had been caught, and to all appearance killed, its interior
+parts removed, and the aperture kept open by a stick placed
+across it. A few hours afterwards the captors returned to their
+victim with the intention of cutting off the head, but were surprised
+to find the spot vacant. On examining the locality it was
+evident that the creature had retained sufficient life to crawl back
+into the water. From this it may be imagined that it is no easy
+matter to drive the breath out of a Crocodile. Its life seems to
+take a separate hold of every fibre in the creature's body, and
+though pierced through and through with bullets, crushed by
+heavy blows, and its body converted into a very pincushion for
+spears, it writhes and twists and struggles with wondrous strength,
+snapping savagely with its huge jaws, and lashing its muscular
+tail from side to side with such vigour that it requires a bold
+man to venture within range of that terrible weapon."</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes combats occur between this creature and the tiger,
+one of the fiercest and most terrible of all quadrupeds. Tigers
+frequently go down to the rivers to drink, and, upon these occasions,
+the Crocodile, if near, may attempt to seize them. The
+ferocious beast, however, seldom falls unrevenged; for the instant
+he finds himself seized, he turns with great agility and fierceness
+on his enemy, and endeavours to strike his claws into the Crocodile's
+eyes, while the latter drags him into the water, where they
+continue to struggle until the tiger be drowned, and his triumphant
+antagonist feasts upon his carcass. Such a combat is depicted in
+the illustration which appears on an accompanying page.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[601]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="life" id="life"></a>
+<img src="images/i_600.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="life" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">A FIGHT FOR LIFE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[602]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="cyprius" id="cyprius"></a>
+<img src="images/i_601.jpg" width="400" height="329" alt="cyprius" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Difficulty of identifying the Letââh&mdash;Probability that it is a collective and not a
+specific term&mdash;Various Lizards of Palestine&mdash;The Green or Jersey Lizard&mdash;The
+Cyprius, its appearance and habits&mdash;The Glass Snake or Scheltopusic&mdash;Translation
+of the word <em>chomet</em>&mdash;Probability that it signifies the Skink&mdash;Medicinal
+uses of the Lizard&mdash;The Seps tribe&mdash;The common Cicigna, and the popular
+belief concerning its habits&mdash;The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In Leviticus xi. 30, the word <span class="smcap">Lizard</span> is used as the rendering of
+the Hebrew word <em>letââh</em> (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are
+one or two difficulties about the word, but, without going into
+the question of etymology, which is beside the object of this
+work, it will be sufficient to state that the best authorities accept
+the rendering, and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is
+retained, but with the mark of doubt appended to it.</p>
+
+<p>A very common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be
+one of those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[603]</a></span>
+is the <span class="smcap">Cyprius</span> (<em>Plestiodon auratum</em>). This handsome Lizard is
+golden-yellow in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and
+scarlet, and may be distinguished, even when the colours have
+fled after death, by the curiously formed ears, which are strongly
+toothed in front. It is very plentiful in Palestine, and, like
+others of its kin, avoids cultivated tracts, and is generally found
+on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be tilled. It is active,
+and, if alarmed, hides itself quickly in the sand or under stones.</p>
+
+<p>It belongs to the great family of the Skinks, many of which,
+like the familiar blind-worm of our own country, are without
+external legs, and, though true Lizards, progress in a snake-like
+manner, and are generally mistaken for snakes. One of these is
+the <span class="smcap">Glass Snake</span> or <span class="smcap">Scheltopusic</span> (<em>Pseudopus pallasii</em>), which
+has two very tiny hind legs, but which is altogether so snake-like
+that it is considered by the natives to be really a serpent.
+They may well be excused for their error, as the only external
+indications of limbs are a pair of slightly-projecting scales at the
+place where the hind legs would be in a fully-developed Lizard.</p>
+
+<p>Though tolerably plentiful, the Scheltopusic is not very often
+seen, as it is timid and wary, and, when it suspects danger, glides
+away silently into some place of safety. When adult, the colour
+of this Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black
+or deep brown, the edge of each scale being of the darker colour.
+It feeds upon insects and small reptiles, and has been known to
+devour a nest full of young birds.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In Levit. xi. 30 is a Hebrew word, <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">chomet</i>, which is given in
+the Authorized Version as <span class="smcap">Snail</span>. There is, however, no doubt
+that the word is wrongly translated, and that by it some species
+of Lizard is signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized
+Version, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word. There is
+another word, <em>shablul</em>, which undoubtedly does signify the snail,
+and will be mentioned in its proper place.</p>
+
+<p>It is most probable that the word <em>chomet</em> includes, among
+other Lizards, many of the smaller Skinks which inhabit Palestine.
+Among them we may take as an example the <span class="smcap">Common
+Skink</span> (<em>Scincus officinalis</em>), a reptile which derives its specific
+name from the fact that it was formerly used in medicine,
+together with mummy, and the other disgusting ingredients
+which formed the greater part of the old Pharmacop&oelig;ia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[604]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Even at the present day, it is used for similar purposes in the
+East, and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians,
+the body being simply dried in the sun, and then sent to market
+for sale. It is principally employed for the cure of sunstroke,
+nettle-rash, sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and physician
+have the greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by
+some European physicians that the flesh of the Skink really
+does possess medicinal powers, and that it has fallen into disrepute
+chiefly because those powers have been exaggerated. In
+former days, the head and feet were thought to possess the
+greatest efficacy, and were valued accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Like all its tribe, the Skink loves sandy localities, the soil
+exactly suiting its peculiar habits. Although tolerably active, it
+does not run so fast or so far as many other Lizards, and, when
+alarmed, it has a peculiar faculty for sinking itself almost instantaneously
+under the sand, much after the fashion of the shore-crabs
+of our own country. Indeed, it is even more expeditious
+than the crab, which occupies some little time in burrowing
+under the wet and yielding sand, whereas the Skink slips
+beneath the dry and comparatively hard sand with such rapidity
+that it seems rather to be diving into a nearly excavated burrow
+than to be scooping a hollow for itself.</p>
+
+<p>The sand is therefore a place of safety to the Skink, which
+does not, like the crab, content itself with merely burying its
+body just below the surface, but continues to burrow, sinking
+itself in a few seconds to the depth of nearly a yard.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the Skink is about eight inches, and its very
+variable colour is generally yellowish brown, crossed with several
+dark bands. Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of
+banded with brown, while some are banded with white, and
+others are spotted with white. In all, however, the under-surface
+is silver grey.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[605]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 375px;"><a name="chameleon" id="chameleon"></a>
+<img src="images/i_604.jpg" width="375" height="384" alt="chameleon" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE CHAMELEON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">Demeanour of the Chameleon on the ground&mdash;The independent eyes&mdash;Its frequent
+change of colour&mdash;The Nilotic Monitor.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In Levit. xi. 30 there occurs a word which has caused great
+trouble to commentators. The word is <em>koach</em>.</p>
+
+<p>There are two lizards to which the term may possibly be
+applied&mdash;namely, the Chameleon and the Monitor; and, as the
+Authorized Version of the Scriptures accepts the former interpretation,
+we will first describe the Chameleon.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>This reptile is very plentiful in the Holy Land, as well as in
+Egypt, so that the Israelites would be perfectly familiar with it,
+both during their captivity and after their escape. It is but a
+small reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting
+strength should be given to it. I think that we may find the
+reason for its name in the extraordinary power of its grasp, as it
+is able, by means of its peculiarly-formed feet and prehensile tail,
+to grasp the branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed
+without damage.</p>
+
+<p>I once saw six or seven Chameleons huddled up together, all
+having clasped each other's legs and tails so firmly that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[606]</a></span>
+formed a bundle that might be rolled along the ground without
+being broken up. In order to show the extraordinary power of
+the Chameleon's grasp, I have had a figure drawn from a sketch
+taken by myself from a specimen which I kept for several
+months.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gecko" id="gecko"></a>
+<img src="images/i_605.jpg" width="400" height="413" alt="gecko" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">GECKO AND CHAMELEON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the Chameleon wished to pass from one branch to
+another, it used to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one
+hind-foot, and stretch out its body nearly horizontally, feeling
+about with the other three feet, as if in search of a convenient
+resting-place. In this curious attitude it would remain for a
+considerable time, apparently suffering no inconvenience, though
+even the spider-monkey would have been unable to maintain
+such an attitude for half the length of time.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of the grasp is really astonishing when contrasted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[607]</a></span>
+with the size of the reptile, as any one will find who
+allows the Chameleon to grasp his finger, or who tries to detach
+it from the branch to which it is clinging. The feet are most
+curiously made. They are furnished with five toes, which are
+arranged like those of parrots and other climbing birds, so as to
+close upon each other like the thumb and finger of a human
+hand. They are armed with little yellow claws, slightly curved
+and very sharp, and when they grasp the skin of the hand they
+give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch.</p>
+
+<p>The tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey, to
+which the Chameleon bears a curious resemblance in some of
+its attitudes, though nothing can be more different than the
+volatile, inquisitive, restless disposition of the spider-monkey
+and the staid, sober demeanour of the Chameleon. The reptile
+has the power of guiding the tail to any object as correctly as if
+there were an eye at the end of the tail. When it has been
+travelling over the branches of trees, I have often seen it direct
+its tail to a projecting bud, and grasp it as firmly as if the bud
+had been before and not behind it.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, when it rests on a branch, it allows the tail to
+hang down as a sort of balance, the tip coiling and uncoiling
+unceasingly. But, as soon as the reptile wishes to move, the
+tail is tightened to the branch, and at once coiled round it.
+There really seems to be almost a separate vitality and consciousness
+on the part of the tail, which glides round an object
+as if it were acting with entire independence of its owner.</p>
+
+<p>On the ground the Chameleon fares but poorly. Its walk is
+absolutely ludicrous, and an experienced person might easily
+fail to identify a Chameleon when walking with the same
+animal on a branch. It certainly scrambles along at a tolerable
+rate, but it is absurdly awkward, its legs sprawling
+widely on either side, and its feet grasping futilely at every
+step. The tail, which is usually so lithe and nimble, is then
+held stiffly from the body, with a slight curve upwards.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes are strange objects, projecting far from the head,
+and each acting quite independently of the other, so that one
+eye may often be directed forwards, and the other backwards.
+The eyeballs are covered with a thick wrinkled skin, except a
+small aperture at the tip, which can be opened and closed like
+our own eyelids.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[608]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The changing colour of the Chameleon has been long known,
+though there are many mistaken ideas concerning it.</p>
+
+<p>The reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any
+object on which it is placed, but sometimes takes a totally
+different colour. Thus, if my Chameleon happened to come
+upon any scarlet substance, the colour immediately became
+black, covered with innumerable circular spots of light yellow.
+The change was so instantaneous that, as it crawled on the
+scarlet cloth, the colour would alter, and the fore-part of the
+body would be covered with yellow spots, while the hinder
+parts retained their dull black. Scarlet always annoyed the
+Chameleon, and it tried to escape whenever it found itself
+near any substance of the obnoxious hue.</p>
+
+<p>The normal colour was undoubtedly black, with a slight tinge
+of grey. But in a short time the whole creature would become
+a vivid verdigris green, and, while the spectator was watching it,
+the legs would become banded with rings of bright yellow, and
+spats and streaks of the same colour would appear on the head
+and body.</p>
+
+<p>When it was excited either by anger or by expectation&mdash;as,
+for example, when it heard a large fly buzzing near it&mdash;the
+colours were singularly beautiful, almost exactly resembling in
+hue and arrangement those of the jaguar. Of all the colours,
+green seemed generally to predominate, but the creature would
+pass so rapidly from one colour to another that it was scarcely
+possible to follow the various gradations of hue.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons have imagined that the variation of colour
+depends on the wants and passions of the animal. This is not
+the case. The change is often caused by mental emotion, but is
+not dependent on it; and I believe that the animal has no
+control whatever over its colour. The best proof of this assertion
+may be found in the fact that my own Chameleon changed
+colour several times after its death; and, indeed, as long as
+I had the dead body before me, changes of hue were taking
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies,
+which it catches by means of its tongue, which can be protruded
+to an astonishing distance. The tongue is nearly cylindrical,
+and is furnished at the tip with a slight cavity, which is filled
+with a very glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609">[609]</a><br /><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[610]</a></span>
+fly or other insect, it gently protrudes the tongue once or twice,
+as if taking aim, like a billiard-player with his cue, and then,
+with a moderately smart stroke, carries off the insect on the
+glutinous tip of the tongue. The force with which the Chameleon
+strikes is really wonderful. My own specimen used to look for
+flies from my hand, and at first I was as much surprised with
+the force of the blow struck by the tongue as I was with the
+grasping power of the feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="under" id="under"></a>
+<img src="images/i_608.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="under" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE GECKO.<br />
+
+FOOT OF THE GECKO&mdash;UNDER SIDE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So much for the Chameleon. We will now take the <span class="smcap">Nilotic
+Monitor</span> and the <span class="smcap">Land Monitor</span>, the other reptiles which have
+been conjectured to be the real representatives of the Koach.</p>
+
+<p>These lizards attain to some size, the former sometimes measuring
+six feet in length, and the latter but a foot or so less. Of
+the two, the Land Monitor, being the more common, both in
+Palestine and Egypt, has perhaps the best claim to be considered
+as the Koach of Scripture. It is sometimes called the Land
+Crocodile. It is a carnivorous animal, feeding upon other reptiles
+and the smaller mammalia, and is very fond of the eggs of
+the crocodile, which it destroys in great numbers, and is in consequence
+much venerated by the inhabitants of the country
+about the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The theory that this reptile may be the Koach of Leviticus is
+strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is
+cooked and eaten by the natives, whereas the chameleon is so
+small and bony that scarcely any one would take the trouble of
+cooking it.</p>
+
+<p>The Gecko takes its name from the sound which it utters,
+resembling the word "geck-o." It is exceedingly plentiful, and
+inhabits the interior of houses, where it can find the flies and
+other insects on which it lives. On account of the structure of
+the toes, each of which is flattened into a disk-like form, and
+furnished on the under surface with a series of plates like those
+on the back of the sucking-fish, it can walk up a smooth, perpendicular
+wall with perfect ease, and can even cling to the ceiling
+like the flies on which it feeds.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration the reader will observe the flat, fan-like
+expansions at the ends of the toes, by which the Gecko is able
+to adhere to flat surfaces, and to dart with silent rapidity from
+place to place.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[611]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[612]</a><br /><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[613]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;"><a name="serpents" id="serpents"></a>
+<img src="images/i_610.jpg" width="300" height="198" alt="serpents" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="constrictor" id="constrictor"></a>
+<img src="images/i_612.jpg" width="400" height="465" alt="constrictor" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SERPENTS</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>SERPENTS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Serpents in general&mdash;The fiery Serpents of the wilderness&mdash;Explanation of the
+words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents&mdash;Haunts of the Serpent&mdash;The
+Cobra, or Asp of Scripture&mdash;The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent&mdash;Appearance
+and habits of the reptile&mdash;The "Adder in the path."</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>As we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature prevailed
+among the Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia,
+birds, and lizards, we can but expect that the names of the
+Serpents will be equally difficult to identify.</p>
+
+<p>No less than seven names are employed in the Old Testament
+to denote some species of Serpent; but there are only two which
+can be identified with any certainty, four others being left to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[614]</a></span>
+mere conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like our
+snake or serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular
+species, but signifying Serpents in general. This word is <em>nâchâsh</em>
+(pronounced nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so
+variously translated in different passages of Scripture, and we
+cannot do better than to follow it through the Ola Testament, so
+as to bring all the passages under our glance.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the
+well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle
+than all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the
+Serpent having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical
+signification. We find the same symbolism employed in the
+New Testament, the disciples of our Lord being told to be "wise
+as serpents, and harmless as doves."</p>
+
+<p>Allusion is made to the gliding movement of the Serpent tribe
+in Prov. xxx. 19. On this part of the subject little need be said,
+except that the movements of the Serpent are owing to the
+mobility of the ribs, which are pushed forward in succession and
+drawn back again, so as to catch against any inequality of the
+ground. This power is increased by the structure of the scales.
+Those of the upper part of the body, which are not used for
+locomotion, are shaped something like the scales of a fish; but
+those of the lower part of the body, which come in contact with
+the ground, are broad belts, each overlapping the other, and each
+connected with one pair of ribs.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, the Serpent pushes forward the ribs, the
+edges of the scaly belts will catch against the slightest projection,
+and are able to give a very powerful impetus to the
+body. It is scarcely possible to drag a snake backwards over
+rough ground; while on a smooth surface, such as glass, the
+Serpent would be totally unable to proceed. This, however, was
+not likely to have been studied by the ancient Hebrews, who
+were among the most unobservant of mankind with regard to
+details of natural history: it is, therefore, no wonder that the
+gliding of the Serpent should strike the writer of the proverb in
+question as a mystery which he could not explain.</p>
+
+<p>The poisonous nature of some of the Serpents is mentioned in
+several passages of Scripture; and it will be seen that the ancient
+Hebrews, like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison
+lay in the forked tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[615]</a></span>
+poison is like the poison of a serpent" (<em>nâchâsh</em>). Also Prov.
+xxiii. 32, in which the sacred writer says of wine that it brings
+woe, sorrow, contentions, wounds without cause, redness of eyes,
+and that "at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like
+an adder."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="asp" id="asp"></a>
+<img src="images/i_614.jpg" width="400" height="409" alt="asp" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">COBRA AND CERASTES, THE ASP AND ADDER OF SCRIPTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The idea that the poison of the Serpent lies in the tongue is
+seen in several passages of Scripture. "They have sharpened
+their tongues like a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips"
+(Ps. cxl. 3). Also in Job xx. 16, the sacred writer says of the
+hypocrite, that "he shall suck the poison of asps: the viper's
+tongue shall slay him."</p>
+
+<p>As to the fiery Serpents of the wilderness, it is scarcely needful
+to mention that the epithet of "fiery" does not signify that the
+Serpents in question produced real fire from their mouths, but
+that allusion is made to the power and virulence of their poison,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[616]</a></span>
+and to the pain caused by their bite. We ourselves naturally
+employ a similar metaphor, and speak of a "burning pain," of a
+"fiery trial," of "hot anger," and the like.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="brass" id="brass"></a>
+<img src="images/i_615.jpg" width="400" height="346" alt="brass" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE ISRAELITES ARE BITTEN BY SERPENTS IN THE WILDERNESS, AND MOSES LIFTS
+UP THE SERPENT OF BRASS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The epithet of "flying" which is applied to these Serpents is
+explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a
+Serpent which they called the Dart Snake, and which they
+believed to lie in wait for men and to spring at them from a
+distance. They thought that this snake hid itself either in
+hollows of the ground or in trees, and sprang through the air
+for thirty feet upon any man or beast that happened to pass by.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will now take the various species of Serpents mentioned
+in the Bible, as nearly as they can be identified.</p>
+
+<p>Of one species there is no doubt whatever. This is the Cobra
+di Capello, a serpent which is evidently signified by the Hebrew
+word <em>pethen</em>.</p>
+
+<p>This celebrated Serpent has long been famous, not only for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[617]</a></span>
+deadly power of its venom, but for the singular performances in
+which it takes part. The Cobra inhabits many parts of Asia, and
+in almost every place where it is found, certain daring men take
+upon themselves the profession of serpent-charmers, and handle
+these fearful reptiles with impunity, cause them to move in time
+to certain musical sounds, and assert that they bear a life charmed
+against the bite of these deadly playmates.</p>
+
+<p>One of these men will take a Cobra in his bare hands, toss it
+about with perfect indifference, allow it to twine about his naked
+breast, tie it around his neck, and treat it with as little ceremony
+as if it were an earth-worm. He will then take the same Serpent&mdash;or
+apparently the same&mdash;make it bite a fowl, which soon dies from
+the poison, and will then renew his performance.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons say that the whole affair is but an exhibition of
+that jugglery in which the natives of the East Indies are such
+wondrous adepts; that the Serpents with which the man plays are
+harmless, having been deprived of their fangs, and that a really
+venomous specimen is adroitly substituted for the purpose of killing
+the fowl. It is, moreover, said, and truly, that a snake thought
+to have been rendered harmless by the deprivation of its fangs,
+has bitten one of its masters and killed him, thus proving the
+imposture.</p>
+
+<p>Still, neither of these explanations will entirely disprove the
+mastery of man over a venomous Serpent.</p>
+
+<p>In the first instance, it is surely as perilous an action to substitute
+a venomous Serpent as to play with it. Where was it hidden,
+why did it not bite the man instead of the fowl, and how did the
+juggler prevent it from using its teeth while he was conveying it
+away?</p>
+
+<p>And, in the second instance, the detection of one impostor is by
+no means a proof that all who pretend to the same powers are
+likewise impostors.</p>
+
+<p>The following narrative by a traveller in the East seems to
+prove that the serpent-charmer possessed sufficient power to induce
+a truly poisonous Serpent to leave its hole, and to perform certain
+antics at his command:</p>
+
+<p>"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow, requesting me to
+allow him to show his snakes. As I had frequently seen his
+performance, I declined to witness a repetition of it, but told
+him that if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[618]</a></span>
+Cobra, that I knew frequented the place, I would give him a
+present of money. He was quite willing, and as I was anxious
+to test the truth of the charm he claimed to possess, I carefully
+counted his tame snakes, and put a guard over them until we
+should return.</p>
+
+<p>"Before starting I also examined his clothing, and satisfied
+myself that he had no snake about his person. When we arrived
+at the spot, he commenced playing upon a small pipe, and, after
+persevering for some time, out crawled a large Cobra from an
+ant-hill which I knew it occupied.</p>
+
+<p>"On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he quickly caught it
+by the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bungalow.
+He then laid it upon the ground and made it raise and
+lower its head to the sound of his pipe.</p>
+
+<p>"Before long, however, it bit him above the knee. He immediately
+bandaged the leg tightly above the wound, and applied a piece
+of porous stone, called a snake-stone, to extract the poison. He was
+in great pain for a few minutes, but afterwards it gradually subsided,
+the stone falling from the wound just before he was relieved.</p>
+
+<p>"When he recovered he held up a cloth, at which the snake flew
+and hung by its fangs. While in this position the man passed his
+hand up its back, and having seized it tightly by the throat, he
+pulled out the fangs and gave them to me. He then squeezed out
+the poison, from the glands in the Serpent's mouth, upon a leaf.
+It was a clear, oily substance, which when rubbed with the hand
+produced a fine lather.</p>
+
+<p>"The whole operation was carefully watched by me, and was
+also witnessed by several other persons."</p>
+
+<p>How the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very
+intelligible. That they handle the most venomous Serpents with
+perfect impunity is evident enough, and it is also clear that they
+are able to produce certain effects upon the Serpents by means
+of musical (or unmusical) sounds. But these two items are
+entirely distinct, and one does not depend upon the other.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the handling of venomous snakes has been
+performed by ordinary men without the least recourse to any
+arts except that of acquaintance with the habits of Serpents.
+The late Mr. Waterton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake
+in his bare hand without feeling the least uneasy as to the
+behaviour of his prisoner. He once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[619]</a><br /><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[620]</a></span>
+out of a box, carried them into another room, put them
+into a large glass case, and afterwards replaced them in the
+box. He described to me the manner in which he did it, using
+my wrist as the representative of the Serpent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 383px;"><a name="charmer" id="charmer"></a>
+<img src="images/i_618.jpg" width="383" height="600" alt="charmer" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE SERPENT-CHARMER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The nature of all Serpents is rather peculiar, and is probably
+owing to the mode in which the blood circulates. They are
+extremely unwilling to move, except when urged by the wants of
+nature, and will lie coiled up for many hours together when
+not pressed by hunger. Consequently, when touched, their
+feeling is evidently like that of a drowsy man, who only tries
+to shake off the object which may rouse him, and composes
+himself afresh to sleep.</p>
+
+<p>A quick and sudden movement would, however, alarm the
+reptile, which would strike in self-defence, and, sluggish as are
+its general movements, its stroke is delivered with such lightning
+rapidity that it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound
+before it was seized.</p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to
+catch, he would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle,
+slow movement place his fingers round its neck just behind the
+head. If it happened to be coiled up in such a manner that he
+could not get at its neck, he had only to touch it gently until it
+moved sufficiently for his purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When he had once placed his hand on the Serpent, it was
+in his power. He would then grasp it very lightly indeed,
+and raise it gently from the ground, trusting that the reptile
+would be more inclined to be carried quietly than to summon
+up sufficient energy to bite. Even if it had tried to use its
+fangs, it could not have done so as long as its captor's fingers
+were round its neck.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, a great amount of provocation is needed before a
+venomous Serpent will use its teeth. One of my friends, when
+a boy, caught a viper, mistaking it for a common snake. He
+tied it round his neck, coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet,
+and so took it home, playing many similar tricks with it as he
+went. After arrival in the house, he produced the viper for the
+amusement of his brothers and sisters, and, after repeating his
+performances, tried to tie the snake in a double knot. This, however,
+was enough to provoke the most pacific of creatures, and in
+consequence he received a bite on his finger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[621]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The poison was not slow to take effect; first, the wound looked
+and felt like a nettle sting, then like a wasp sting, and in the
+course of a few minutes the whole finger was swollen. At this
+juncture his father, a medical man, fortunately arrived, and set
+the approved antidotes, ammonia, oil, and lunar caustic, to the
+wound, having previously made incisions about the punctured
+spot, and with paternal affection attempted to suck out the poison.
+In spite of these remedies a serious illness was the result of the
+bite, from which the boy did not recover for several weeks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="viper" id="viper"></a>
+<img src="images/i_620.jpg" width="400" height="235" alt="viper" />
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to
+this sluggish nature of the reptile, but they certainly go through
+some ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be rendered
+impervious to snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round
+their naked bodies, they will irritate the reptile until it is in a
+state of fury; they will even allow it to bite them, and yet be
+none the worse for the wound. Then, as if to show that the
+venomous teeth have not been abstracted, as is possibly supposed
+to be the case, they will make the cobra bite a fowl,
+which speedily dies from the effects of the poison.</p>
+
+<p>Even if the fangs were extracted, the Serpents would lose
+little of their venomous power. These reptiles are furnished
+with a whole series of fangs in different stages of development,
+so that when the one in use is broken or shed in the course of
+nature, another comes forward and fills its place. There is now
+before me a row of four fangs, which I took from the right upper
+jawbone of a viper which I recently caught.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[622]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In her interesting "Letters from Egypt," Lady Duff-Gordon
+gives an amusing account of the manner in which she was
+formally initiated into the mysteries of snake-charming, and
+made ever afterwards impervious to the bite of venomous
+Serpents:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his
+basket of tame snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to
+initiate me: and so we sat down and held hands like people
+marrying. Omar [her attendant] sat behind me, and repeated
+the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee twisted a cobra
+round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on it; he did
+the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped in snakes.
+My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put out
+their tongues; the darweesh and I smiled at each other like
+Roman augurs."</p>
+
+<p>She believed that the snakes were toothless; and perhaps on
+this occasion they may have been so. Extracting the teeth of
+the Serpent is an easy business in experienced hands, and is
+conducted in two ways. Those snake-charmers who are confident
+of their own powers merely grasp the reptile by the neck,
+force open its jaws with a piece of stick, and break off the fangs,
+which are but loosely attached to the jaw. Those who are not
+so sure of themselves irritate the snake, and offer it a piece of
+cloth, generally the corner of their mantle, to bite. The snake
+darts at it, and, as it seizes the garment, the man gives the cloth
+a sudden jerk, and so tears away the fangs.</p>
+
+<p>Still, although some of the performers employ mutilated
+snakes, there is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves
+to remove the fangs of the Serpents, but handle with impunity
+the cobra or the cerastes with all its venomous apparatus in
+good order.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the second branch of the subject, namely,
+the influence of sound upon the cobra and other Serpents. The
+charmers are always provided with musical instruments, of
+which a sort of flute with a loud shrill sound is the one which
+is mostly used in the performances. Having ascertained, from
+slight marks which their practised eyes easily discover, that
+a Serpent is hidden in some crevice, the charmer plays upon his
+flute, and in a short time the snake is sure to make its
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[623]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As soon as it is fairly out, the man seizes it by the end of the
+tail, and holds it up in the air at arm's length. In this position
+it is helpless, having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in
+fruitless struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its
+strength by its efforts, the man lowers it into a basket, where it
+is only too glad to find a refuge, and closes the lid. After a
+while, he raises the lid and begins to play the flute.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="dance" id="dance"></a>
+<img src="images/i_622.jpg" width="400" height="444" alt="dance" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">TEACHING COBRAS TO DANCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Serpent tries to glide out of the basket, but, as soon as it
+does so, the lid is shut down again, and in a very short time the
+reptile finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears
+the sound of the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporting
+itself on the lower portion of its tail, and continues to wave its
+head from side to side as long as it hears the sound of the music.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[624]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extraordinary,
+the charmers being as willing to show their mastery
+over newly-caught Serpents as over those which have been
+long in their possession.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the Cobra is in most cases a brownish olive. The
+most noted peculiarity is the expansion of the neck, popularly
+called the hood. This phenomenon is attributable not only to
+the skin and muscles, but to the skeleton. About twenty pairs of
+the ribs of the neck and fore part of the back are flat instead of
+curved, and increase gradually from the head to the eleventh or
+twelfth pair, from which they decrease until they are merged into
+the ordinary curved ribs of the body. When the snake is excited,
+it brings these ribs forward so as to spread the skin, and then displays
+the oval hood to best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cobra di Capello the back of the hood is ornamented by
+two large eye-like spots, united by a curved black stripe, so formed
+that the whole mark bears a singular resemblance to a pair of
+spectacles.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CERASTES, OR SHEPHIPHON OF SCRIPTURE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The word <em>shephiphon</em>, which evidently signifies some species
+of snake, only occurs once in the Scriptures, but fortunately
+that single passage contains an allusion to the habits of the
+serpent which makes identification nearly certain. The passage
+in question occurs in Gen. xlix. 17, and forms part of the
+prophecy of Jacob respecting his children: "Dan shall be a
+serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's
+heels, so that his rider shall fall backward."</p>
+
+<p>Putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy, there
+is here an evident allusion to the habits of the <span class="smcap">Cerastes</span>,
+or <span class="smcap">Horned Viper</span>, a species of venomous serpent, which is
+plentiful in Northern Africa, and is found also in Palestine
+and Syria. It is a very conspicuous reptile, and is easily
+recognised by the two horn-like projections over the eyes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[625]</a></span>
+name Cerastes, or horned, has been given to it on account of
+these projections.</p>
+
+<p>This snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand,
+awaiting the approach of some animal on which it can feed.
+Its usual diet consists of the jerboas and other small mammalia,
+and as they are exceedingly active, while the Cerastes is slow
+and sluggish, its only chance of obtaining food is to lie in wait.
+It will always take advantage of any small depression, such as
+the print of a camel's foot, and, as it finds many of these
+depressions in the line of the caravans, it is literally "a serpent
+by the way, an adder in the path."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="horned" id="horned"></a>
+<img src="images/i_624.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="horned" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">HORNED VIPER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the accounts of travellers, the Cerastes is much
+more irritable than the cobra, and is very apt to strike at any
+object which may disturb it. Therefore, whenever a horseman
+passes along the usual route, his steed is very likely to disturb a
+Cerastes lying in the path, and to be liable to the attack of the
+irritated reptile. Horses are instinctively aware of the presence
+of the snake, and mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[626]</a></span>
+Its small dimensions, the snake rarely exceeding two feet in
+length, enable it to conceal itself in a very small hollow, and its
+brownish-white colour, diversified with darker spots, causes it to
+harmonize so thoroughly with the loose sand in which it lies
+buried, that, even when it is pointed out, an unpractised eye
+does not readily perceive it.</p>
+
+<p>Even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake,
+whose bite is so deadly, and whose habits are such as to cause
+travellers considerable risk of being bitten.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the Viper affords a very good example of the
+venomous apparatus of the poisonous serpents, and is well worthy
+of description. The poison fangs or teeth lie on the sides of the
+upper jaw, folded back, and almost undistinguishable until lifted
+with a needle. They are singularly fine and delicate, hardly
+larger than a lady's needle, and are covered almost to their tips
+with a muscular envelope, through which the points just peer.</p>
+
+<p>The poison bags or glands, and the reservoir in which the venom
+is stored, are found at the back and sides of the head, and give to
+the venomous serpents that peculiar width of head which is so
+unfailing a characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>On examining carefully the poison fangs, the structure by which
+the venom is injected into the wound will be easily understood.
+Under a magnifying glass they will be seen to be hollow, thus
+affording a passage for the poison.</p>
+
+<p>When the creature draws back its head and opens its mouth to
+strike, the deadly fangs spring up with their points ready for action,
+and fully charged with their poisonous distillment.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[627]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="epheh" id="epheh"></a>
+<img src="images/i_626.jpg" width="350" height="367" alt="epheh" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE VIPER, OR EPHEH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa&mdash;Its appearance and habits&mdash;Adder's poison&mdash;The
+Cockatrice, or Tsepha&mdash;The Yellow Viper&mdash;Ancient ideas concerning the Cockatrice&mdash;Power
+of its venom.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the species of snake which cannot be identified
+with any certainty, and will first take the word <em>epheh</em>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tristram believes that he has identified the Epheh of the
+Old Testament with the Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa. This reptile,
+though very small, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, is a
+dangerous one, but its bite is not so deadly as that of the cobra
+or cerastes. It is variable in colour, and has angular white
+streaks on its body, with a row of whitish spots along the back.
+The top of the head is dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped
+white marks.</p>
+
+<p>The Toxicoa is very plentiful in Northern Africa, Palestine,
+Syria, and the neighbouring countries, and, as it is exceedingly
+active, is held in some dread by the natives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[628]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in
+the Old Testament. The word is <em>tsepha</em>, or <em>tsiphôni</em>, and it is
+sometimes translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The
+word is rendered as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that
+wine "biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even
+in this case, however, the word is rendered as Cockatrice in the
+marginal translation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="toxicoa" id="toxicoa"></a>
+<img src="images/i_627.jpg" width="400" height="330" alt="toxicoa" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE TOXICOA. (Supposed to be the viper of Scripture.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is found three times in the Book of Isaiah. Ch. xi. 8: "The
+weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." Also,
+ch. xiv. 29: "Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod
+of him that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent's
+(<em>nachash</em>) nest shall come forth a cockatrice (<em>tsepha</em>), and his fruit
+shall be a fiery flying serpent." The same word occurs again
+in ch. lix. 5: "They hatch cockatrice' eggs." In the prophet
+Jeremiah we again find the word: "For, behold, I will send
+serpents, cockatrices among you, which will not be charmed, and
+they shall bite you, saith the Lord."</p>
+
+<p>Around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been
+accumulated. The Cockatrice was said to kill by its very look,
+"because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[629]</a></span>
+visible spirit of a man, which visible spirit corrupted all the
+other spirits coming from the brain and life of the heart, are
+thereby corrupted, and so the man dyeth."</p>
+
+<p>The subtle poison of the Cockatrice infected everything near
+it, so that a man who killed a Cockatrice with a spear fell dead
+himself, by reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear
+and passing into his hand. Any living thing near which the
+Cockatrice passed was instantly slain by the fiery heat of its
+venom, which was exhaled not only from its mouth, but its sides.
+For the old writers, whose statements are here summarized, contrived
+to jumble together a number of miscellaneous facts in
+natural history, and so to produce a most extraordinary series of
+legends.</p>
+
+<p>I should not have given even this limited space to such puerile
+legends, but for the fact that such stories as these were fully
+believed in the days when the Authorized Version of the Bible
+was translated. The translators of the Bible believed most
+heartily in the mysterious and baleful reptile, and, as they saw
+that the Tsepha of Scripture was an exceptionally venomous
+serpent, they naturally rendered it by the word Cockatrice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_628.jpg" width="350" height="233" alt="viper" />
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[630]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="frog" id="frog"></a>
+<img src="images/i_629.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="frog" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE FROG.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with the plagues of
+Egypt&mdash;The severity of this plague explained&mdash;The Frog detestable to the
+Egyptians&mdash;The Edible Frog and its numbers&mdash;Description of the species.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Plentiful as is the <span class="smcap">Frog</span> throughout Egypt, Palestine, and Syria,
+it is very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books
+of the Old Testament the word is only mentioned thrice, and
+each case in connexion with the same event.</p>
+
+<p>In Exod. viii. we find that the second of the plagues which
+visited Egypt came out of the Nile, the sacred river, in the form
+of innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on
+perusing the consecutive account of these plagues, that the two
+first plagues were connected with that river, and that they were
+foreshadowed by the transformation of Aaron's rod.</p>
+
+<p>When Moses and Aaron appeared before Pharaoh to ask him
+to let the people go, Pharaoh demanded a miracle from them, as
+had been foretold. Following the divine command, Aaron threw
+down his rod, which was changed into a serpent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[631]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Next, as was most appropriate, came a transformation wrought
+on the river by means of the same rod which had been transformed
+into a Serpent, the whole of the fresh-water throughout
+the land being turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting
+the venerated river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a
+partially rainless country, such a calamity as this was doubly
+terrible, as it at the same time desecrated the object of their
+worship, and menaced them with perishing by thirst.</p>
+
+<p>The next plague had also its origin in the river, but extended
+far beyond the limits of its banks. The frogs, being unable to
+return to the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread
+themselves in all directions, so as to fulfil the words of the prediction:
+"If thou refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all
+thy borders with frogs:</p>
+
+<p>"And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall
+go up and come into thine house, and into thy bed-chamber, and
+upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy
+people, and into thine ovens, and into thy kneading-troughs"
+(or dough).</p>
+
+<p>Supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the
+present day, we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance,
+yet scarcely worthy of the name of plague, and certainly not to
+be classed with the turning of a river into blood, with the hail
+and lightning that destroyed the crops and cattle, and with the
+simultaneous death of the first-born. But the Egyptians suffered
+most keenly from the infliction. They were a singularly fastidious
+people, and abhorred the contact of anything that they
+held to be unclean. We may well realize, therefore, the effect
+of a visitation of Frogs, which rendered their houses unclean by
+entering them, and themselves unclean by leaping upon them;
+which deprived them of rest by getting on their beds, and of
+food by crawling into their ovens and upon the dough in the
+kneading-troughs.</p>
+
+<p>And, as if to make the visitation still worse, when the plague
+was removed, the Frogs died in the places into which they had
+intruded, so that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses
+of the dead carcases, and to pile them up in heaps, to be dried
+by the sun or eaten by birds and other scavengers of the East.</p>
+
+<p>As to the species of Frog which thus invaded the houses of
+the Egyptians, there is no doubt whatever. It can be but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[632]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Green</span>, or <span class="smcap">Edible Frog</span> (<em>Rana esculenta</em>), which is so well known
+for the delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to be the only
+aquatic Frog of Egypt, and therefore must be the species which
+came out of the river into the houses.</p>
+
+<p>Both in Egypt and Palestine it exists in very great numbers,
+swarming in every marshy place, and inhabiting the pools in
+such numbers that the water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs.
+Thus the multitudes of the Frogs which invaded the Egyptians
+was no matter of wonder, the only miraculous element being
+that the reptiles were simultaneously directed to the houses, and
+their simultaneous death when the plague was taken away.</p>
+
+<p>Frogs are also mentioned in Rev. xvi. 13: "And I saw three
+unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon,
+and out of the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the
+false prophet." With the exception of this passage, which is a
+purely symbolical one, there is no mention of Frogs in the New
+Testament. It is rather remarkable that the Toad, which might
+be thought to afford an excellent symbol for various forms of
+evil, is entirely ignored, both in the Old and New Testaments.
+Probably the Frogs and Toads were all classed together under
+the same title.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_631.jpg" width="350" height="218" alt="creek" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[633]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 357px;"><a name="fishes" id="fishes"></a>
+<img src="images/i_632.jpg" width="357" height="600" alt="fishes" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[634]</a><br /><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[635]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="river" id="river"></a>
+<img src="images/i_634.jpg" width="400" height="276" alt="river" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>FISHES.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of Fishes&mdash;The fishermen
+Apostles&mdash;Fish used for food&mdash;The miracle of the loaves and Fishes&mdash;The Fish
+broiled on the coals&mdash;Clean and unclean Fishes&mdash;The Sheat-fish, or Silurus&mdash;The
+Eel and the Muræna&mdash;The Long-headed Barbel&mdash;Fish-ponds and preserves&mdash;The
+Fish-ponds of Heshbon&mdash;The Sucking-fish&mdash;The Lump-sucker&mdash;The
+Tunny&mdash;The Coryphene.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the <span class="smcap">Fishes</span>, a class of animals which are
+repeatedly mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, but
+only in general terms, no one species being described so as to
+give the slightest indication of its identity.</p>
+
+<p>This is the more remarkable because, although the Jews were,
+like all Orientals, utterly unobservant of those characteristics by
+which the various species are distinguished from each other, we
+might expect that St. Peter and other of the fisher Apostles would
+have given the names of some of the Fish which they were in
+the habit of catching, and by the sale of which they gained
+their living.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the Jews, as a nation, would not distinguish
+between the various species of Fishes, except, perhaps, by comparative
+size. But professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[636]</a></span>
+one species from another, if only for the fact that they
+would sell the best-flavoured Fish at the highest price.</p>
+
+<p>We might have expected, for example, that the Apostles and
+disciples who were present when the miraculous draught of Fishes
+took place would have mentioned the technical names by which
+they were accustomed to distinguish the different degrees of the
+saleable and unsaleable kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="peter" id="peter"></a>
+<img src="images/i_635.jpg" width="400" height="548" alt="peter" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PETER CATCHES THE FISH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Or we might have expected that on the occasion when St. Peter
+cast his line and hook into the sea, and drew out a Fish holding
+the tribute-money in his mouth, we might have learned the particular
+species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves
+would assuredly have done so. It would not have been thought
+sufficient merely to say that a Fish was caught with money in
+its mouth, but it would have been considered necessary to mention
+the particular fish as well as the particular coin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[637]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought
+differs in Orientals and Europeans, and that the exactness required
+by the one has no place in the mind of the other. The
+whole of the Scriptural narratives are essentially Oriental in
+their character, bringing out the salient points in strong relief,
+but entirely regardless of minute detail.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We find from many passages both in the Old and New Testaments
+that Fish were largely used as food by the Israelites, both
+when captives in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised
+Land. Take, for example, Numb. xi. 4, 5: "And the children of
+Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?</p>
+
+<p>"We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely."
+Then, in the Old Testament, although we do not find many such
+categorical statements, there are many passages which allude to
+professional fishermen, showing that there was a demand for the
+Fish which they caught, sufficient to yield them a maintenance.</p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament, however, there are several passages in
+which the Fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food.
+Take, for example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the
+loaves and the Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage in
+John xxi. 9: "As soon then as they were come to land, they
+saw a fire of coals there, and fish laid thereon, and bread."</p>
+
+<p>We find in all these examples that bread and Fish were eaten
+together. Indeed, Fish was eaten with bread just as we eat
+cheese or butter; and St. John, in his account of the multiplication
+of the loaves and Fishes, does not use the word "fish," but
+another word which rather signifies sauce, and was generally
+employed to designate the little Fish that were salted down and
+dried in the sunbeams for future use.</p>
+
+<p>As to the various species which were used for different purposes,
+we know really nothing, the Jews merely dividing their
+Fish into clean and unclean.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the species to which the prohibition would extend
+are evident enough. There are, for example, the Sheat-fishes,
+which have the body naked, and which are therefore taken out
+of the list of permitted Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers
+in many parts of the world, and often grow to a very considerable
+size. They may be at once recognised by their peculiar
+shape, and by the long, fleshy tentacles that hang from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[638]</a></span>
+mouth. The object of these tentacles is rather dubious, but as
+the fish have been seen to direct them at will to various objects,
+it is likely that they may answer as organs of touch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="barbel" id="barbel"></a>
+<img src="images/i_637.jpg" width="400" height="408" alt="barbel" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">1. <span class="smcap">Muræna.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2. <span class="smcap">Long-headed barbel.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3. <span class="smcap">Sheat-fish.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As might be conjectured from its general appearance, it is one
+of the Fishes that love muddy banks, in which it is fond of
+burrowing so deeply that, although the river may swarm with
+Sheat-fishes, a practised eye is required to see them.</p>
+
+<p>As far as the Sheat-fishes are concerned, there is little need
+for the prohibition, inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable
+in flavour, and is difficult of digestion, being very fat and gelatinous.
+The swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is used in some
+countries for making a kind of isinglass, similar in character to
+that of the sturgeon, but of coarser quality.</p>
+
+<p>The lowermost figure in the above illustration represents a species
+which is exceedingly plentiful in the Sea of Galilee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[639]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On account of the mode in which their body is covered, the
+whole of the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of permitted
+Fish, as, although they have fins, they have no scales, their
+place being taken by shields varying greatly in size. The same
+rule excludes the whole of the lamprey tribe, although the excellence
+of their flesh is well known.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the
+Muræna and Eel tribe are also unclean, because, although it has
+been proved that these Fishes really possess scales as well as
+fins, and are therefore legally permissible, the scales are hidden
+under a slimy covering, and are so minute as to be practically
+absent.</p>
+
+<p>The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated
+Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which
+sea it is tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman
+empire, the Muræna was very highly valued for the table. The
+wealthier citizens built ponds in which the Murænæ were kept
+alive until they were wanted. This Fish sometimes reaches four
+feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illustrations
+belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as
+food. The figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish
+is the Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form.</p>
+
+<p>The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily
+known by the barbs or beards which hang from their lips.
+Like the sheat-fishes, the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud,
+for the purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of
+aquatic insects that are always to be found in such places. The
+Barbels are rather long in proportion to their depth, a peculiarity
+which, owing to the length of the head, is rather exaggerated in
+this species.</p>
+
+<p>The Long-headed Barbel is extremely common in Palestine, and
+may be taken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in
+some places, the fish are so numerous that a common sack
+answers nearly as well as a net.</p>
+
+<p>It has been mentioned that the ancient Romans were in the
+habit of forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is
+evident, from several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were
+accustomed to preserve fish in a similar manner, though they
+would not restrict their tanks or ponds to one species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[640]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The accompanying illustration represents Fishes of the Mediterranean
+Sea, and it is probable that one of them may be
+identified, though the passage in which it is mentioned is only
+an inferential one. In the prophecy against Pharaoh, king of
+Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel writes as follows: "I will put hooks
+in thy jaws, and I will cause the fish of thy rivers to stick unto
+thy scales, and I will bring thee up out of the midst of thy
+rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick unto thy scales"
+(xxix. 4).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="sucking" id="sucking"></a>
+<img src="images/i_639.jpg" width="400" height="397" alt="sucking" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FISHES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.<br />
+
+1. <span class="smcap">Sucking-fish.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2. <span class="smcap">Tunny.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3. <span class="smcap">Coryphene.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some believe that the prophet made allusion to the Sucking-fish,
+which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious
+apparatus of adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at
+will to any smooth object, and hold so tightly to it that it can
+scarcely be torn away without injury.</p>
+
+<p>The common Sucking-fish is shown in the upper part of the
+illustration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[641]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are, however, other fish which have powers of adhesion
+which, although not so remarkable as those of the Sucking-fish,
+are yet very strong. There is, for example, the well-known
+Lump-sucker, or Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modified
+into a sucker so powerful that, when one of these fishes has
+been put into a pail of water, it has attached itself so firmly to
+the bottom of the vessel that when lifted by the tail it raised
+the pail, together with several gallons of water.</p>
+
+<p>The Gobies, again, have their ventral fins united and modified
+into a single sucker, by means of which the fish is able to secure
+itself to a stone, rock, or indeed any tolerably smooth surface.
+These fishes are popularly known as Bull-routs.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the
+Mediterranean fishes. This is the well-known Tunny, which furnishes
+food to the inhabitants of the coasts of this inland sea, and
+indeed constitutes one of their principal sources of wealth. This
+fine fish is on an average four or five feet in length, and sometimes
+attains the length of six or seven feet.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Tunny is excellent, and the fish is so conspicuous,
+that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence
+shows the utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed
+among the various writers.</p>
+
+<p>The other figure represents the Coryphene, popularly, though
+very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, under that
+name, for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface of the
+body as it dies.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Coryphene is excellent, and in the times of
+classic Rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish
+alive, and at the beginning of a feast to lay them before the
+guests, so that they might, in the first place, witness the magnificent
+colours of the dying fish, and, in the second place, might
+be assured that when it was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even
+during life, the Coryphene is a most lovely fish, and those who
+have witnessed it playing round a ship, or dashing off in chase
+of a shoal of flying-fishes, can scarcely find words to express
+their admiration of its beauty.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[642]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="galilees" id="galilees"></a>
+<img src="images/i_641.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="galilees" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>FISHES.</h2>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Various modes of capturing Fish&mdash;The hook and line&mdash;Military use of the hook&mdash;Putting
+a hook in the jaws&mdash;The fishing spear&mdash;Different kinds of net&mdash;The
+casting-net&mdash;Prevalence of this form&mdash;Technical words among fishermen&mdash;Fishing
+by night&mdash;The draught of Fishes&mdash;The real force of the miracle&mdash;Selecting
+the Fish&mdash;The Fish-gate and Fish-market&mdash;Fish killed by a draught&mdash;Fishing
+in the Dead Sea&mdash;Dagon, the fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and
+Siam&mdash;Various Fishes of Egypt and Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take
+the simplest plan, that of the hook and line.</p>
+
+<p>Sundry references are made to angling, both in the Old and
+New Testaments. See, for example, the well-known passage
+respecting the leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst thou draw
+out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which
+thou lettest down?</p>
+
+<p>"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through
+with a thorn?"</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[643]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to
+the actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they
+were kept in the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook
+and line, so that it might be taken when wanted.</p>
+
+<p>On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher
+Apostles used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27:
+"Go thou to the sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish
+that first cometh up." Now this passage explains one or two
+points.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is one among others which shows that,
+although the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not
+throw away their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy,
+nor exist ever afterwards on the earnings of others. On the
+contrary, they retained their fisher equipment, whether boats,
+nets, or hooks; and here we find St. Peter, after the way of
+fishermen, carrying about with him the more portable implements
+of his craft.</p>
+
+<p>Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly
+expressive of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea
+and large pieces of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The
+fisherman does not require a rod, but takes his line, which has
+a weight just above the hook, coils it on his left arm in lasso
+fashion, baits the hook, and then, with a peculiar swing, throws
+it into the water as far as it will reach. The hook is allowed to
+sink for a short time, and is then drawn towards the shore in
+a series of jerks, in order to attract the Fish, so that, although the
+fisherman does not employ a rod, he manages his line very much
+as does an angler of our own day when "spinning" for pike
+or trout.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage,
+and in this case he acts in a slightly different manner. After
+throwing out the loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a
+short stick, notched at one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts
+the sharp end into the ground at the margin of the water, and
+hitches the line on the notch.</p>
+
+<p>He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession,
+and when he has flung the last hook into the water, he
+sits down on a heap of leaves and grass which he has gathered
+together, and watches the lines to see if either of them is moved
+in the peculiar jerking manner which is characteristic of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[644]</a></span>
+"bite." After a while, he hauls them in successively, removes
+the Fish that may have been caught, and throws the lines into
+the water afresh.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a
+custom to which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer,
+sometimes in course of historical narrative, and sometimes by
+way of allegory or metaphor. The reader will remember that
+the net was also used on land for the purpose of catching wild
+animals, and that many of the allusions to the net which occur
+in the Old Testament refer to the land and not to the water.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden
+times as it is now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is
+circular, and is loaded all round its edge with weights, and suspended
+by the middle to a cord. When the fisherman throws
+this net, he gathers it up in folds in his arms, and, with a peculiar
+swing of the arms, only to be learned by long practice,
+flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its circular form upon
+the surface of the water. It rapidly sinks to the bottom, the
+loaded circumference causing it to assume a cup-like form,
+enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that happen to be
+under it as it falls. When it has reached the bottom, the
+fisherman cautiously hauls in the rope, so that the loaded edges
+gradually approach each other, and by their own weight cling
+together and prevent the Fish from escaping as the net is slowly
+drawn ashore.</p>
+
+<p>This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in
+nearly all parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme
+in their management of it. They have a net of extraordinary
+size, and cast it by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle
+spreading itself out in the most perfect manner as it falls on the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they
+wade into the sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In
+consequence of this custom, the fishermen are always naked
+while engaged in their work, wearing nothing but a thick cap in
+order to save themselves from sun-stroke. It is probable that
+on the memorable occasion mentioned by St. John, in chap. xxi.,
+all the fishermen were absolutely, and not relatively naked, wearing
+no clothes at all, not even the ordinary tunic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[645]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is
+evident from the fact that there are no less than ten words to
+signify different kinds of net. At the present day we have
+very great difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation
+of these technical terms, especially as in very few cases are
+we assisted either by the context or by the etymology of the
+words. It is the same in all trades or pursuits, and we can
+easily understand how our own names of drag-net, seine, trawl,
+and keer-drag would perplex any commentator who happened
+to live some two thousand years after English had ceased to be
+a living language.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="dragging" id="dragging"></a>
+<img src="images/i_644.jpg" width="400" height="293" alt="dragging" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MODE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE-NET.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of
+which could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of
+water. The upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by
+floats, and the lower edge sunk by weights.</p>
+
+<p>This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when
+"shot" the various lengths were joined together, and the net
+extended in a line, with a boat at each end. The boats then
+gradually approached each other, so as to bring the net into a
+semicircle, and finally met, enclosing thereby a vast number of
+Fishes in their meshen walls. The water was then beaten, so as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[646]</a></span>
+to frighten the Fishes and drive them into the meshes, and the
+net was then either taken ashore, or lifted by degrees on board
+the boats, and the Fish removed from it.</p>
+
+<p>As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the
+contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for
+eating are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is
+taken in the selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen
+were still more cautious, every Fish having to be separately
+examined in order that the presence both of fins and scales
+might be assured before the captors could send it to the market.</p>
+
+<p>It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known
+parable of the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto
+a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind;</p>
+
+<p>"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down,
+and gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious,
+part played by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians
+employed Fish as material symbols of Divine attributes we learn
+from secular writers, such as Herodotus and Strabo.</p>
+
+<p>The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to
+idolatry, and to have adopted the idols of every people with
+whom they came in contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of
+Egypt as soon as they found themselves among the Philistines.
+We might naturally imagine that as the Israelites were bitterly
+opposed to their persistent enemy, who trod them under foot
+and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more than three
+hundred years, they would repudiate the worship as well as the
+rule of their conquerors. But, on the contrary, they adopted the
+worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was the principal deity
+of the Philistines, and erected temples in his honour.</p>
+
+<p>We find precisely the same worship at the present day in
+Siam, where Dagon has exactly the same form as among the
+Philistines of old. There is now before me a photograph of
+a great temple at Ayutia, the entrance to which is guarded by
+two huge images of the Fish-god. They are about sixty feet in
+height, and have both legs and feet like man, but in addition
+the lower part of the body is modified into the tail of a Fish,
+which, in common with the whole of the body, is covered with
+gilded scales.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[647]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish
+which are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added
+three more species, which are represented in the following illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="perch" id="perch"></a>
+<img src="images/i_646.jpg" width="400" height="398" alt="perch" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">FISHES OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE.<br />
+
+1. <span class="smcap">Nile Perch.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2. <span class="smcap">Surmullet.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3. <span class="smcap">Star-gazer.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The uppermost figure represents the <span class="smcap">Nile Perch</span>. This Fish is
+plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic rivers.
+It is brown above, silvery white below, and may be distinguished
+by the armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of the anal
+fin. The tongue is smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately below the Nile Perch is the <span class="smcap">Star-gazer</span>.</p>
+
+<p>This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name
+from the singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head,
+so that it looks upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[648]</a></span>
+mud-lovers, a fact which accounts for the peculiar position of
+the eyes. It is said to feed after the fashion of the fishing-frog&mdash;<em>i.e.</em>
+by burying itself in the mud and attracting other Fishes
+by a worm-like appendage of its mouth, and pouncing on them
+before they are aware of their danger.</p>
+
+<p>This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not
+pleasant to the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much
+valued by those who can obtain it.</p>
+
+<p>The last Fish to be noticed is the <span class="smcap">Surmullet</span>, a Fish that is
+equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the excellence
+of its flesh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_647.jpg" width="300" height="396" alt="manly" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[649]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>MOLLUSCS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The purple of Scripture&mdash;The sac containing the purple dye&mdash;Curious change of
+colour&mdash;Mode of obtaining the dye&mdash;The Tyrian purple&mdash;The king of the
+Ethiopians and the purple robe&mdash;The professional purple dyers&mdash;Various words
+expressive of different shades of purple.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the
+Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture.</p>
+
+<p>As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature
+which prevails among the higher animals, the species
+which can be identified are comparatively few, and of them but
+a very few details are given in the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the
+<span class="smcap">Molluscs</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the value which was set by the
+ancients upon the peculiar dye which may be called by the
+name of Imperial Purple. In the first place, it was exceedingly
+costly, not only for its richness of hue, but from the great
+difficulty with which a sufficient quantity could be procured for
+staining a dress. Purple was exclusively a royal colour, which
+might not be worn by a subject. Among the ancient Romans,
+during the times of the Cæsars, any one who ventured to appear
+in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of his life. In
+the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was white,
+striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in
+luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the
+term "purple," <em>i.e.</em> a mixture of blue and red. It has but very
+little blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to
+the colour of newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[650]</a></span>
+Shell Fish belonging to the great Whelk family, the chief of
+which is the <em>Murex brandaris</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is
+very smooth and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented
+with several coloured bands. It is, however, one of the
+most variable of shells, differing not only in colour but in form.
+It always inhabits the belt of the shore between tide-marks, and
+preys upon other Molluscs, such as the mussel and periwinkle,
+literally licking them to pieces with its long riband tongue.</p>
+
+<p>This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like
+the shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders,
+and with it the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of
+mussels and similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal.
+It is very destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through
+the mouth of the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which
+the entrance is closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate
+inmate.</p>
+
+<p>Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between
+two shells, fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping
+a hole in the hard shell in eight-and-forty hours.</p>
+
+<p>In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with
+a sharp blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the
+colouring matter can then be seen behind the head, and recognised
+by its lighter hue.</p>
+
+<p>When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is
+yellowish, and gives no promise of its future richness of hue.
+There is only one drop of this matter in each animal, and it is
+about sufficient in quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a
+dime.</p>
+
+<p>The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to
+take a number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as
+possible. The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays
+of the sun, when it will go through a most curious series of
+colours. The yellow begins to turn green, and, after a while, the
+stained portions of the linen will be entirely green, the yellow
+having been vanquished by the blue. By degrees the blue predominates
+more and more over the yellow, until the linen is no
+more green, but blue. Then, just as the yellow yielded to the
+blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes first violet, then purple,
+and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[651]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time,
+seems rather to brighten.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves
+with the complicated operation of taking the animal out
+of the shell, opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents
+on the fabric to be dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the
+Mollusc, so as to set the colouring matter free, and steeped the
+cloth in the pulp. Tyre was one of the most celebrated spots
+for this manufacture, the "Tyrian dye" being celebrated for its
+richness. Heaps of broken shells remain to the present day as
+memorials of the long-perished manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by
+many passages in various books. Among others we may refer
+to Herodotus.</p>
+
+<p>Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three
+nations, the Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians.
+He determined to invade the first by land, and the second by
+sea; but, being ignorant of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians,
+he dispatched messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors,
+but practically as spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia
+valuable presents&mdash;namely, a purple mantle, a golden necklace
+and bracelet, an elaborate box of perfumed ointment, and a
+cask of palm-wine, these evidently being considered a proof of
+imperial magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine,
+and asked curiously concerning the dye with which the purple
+mantle was stained. On being told the mode of preparation, he
+refused to believe the visitors, and, referring to the changing
+hues of the mantle and to the perfume of the ointment, he
+showed his appreciation of their real character by saying that
+the goods were deceptive, and so were the bearers.</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">argaman</i>, which signifies the regal purple,
+occurs several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different
+form according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom.</p>
+
+<p>For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering
+which ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass,</p>
+
+<p>"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a
+man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in
+iron, and in purple, and crimson, and blue."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[652]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE SNAIL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Snail which melteth&mdash;Rendering of the Jewish Bible&mdash;Theory respecting the
+track of the Snail&mdash;The Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Shablul</i>&mdash;Various Snails of Palestine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage
+in Ps. lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them
+pass away." The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way
+which explains the idea which evidently prevailed at the time
+when the Psalms were composed: "As a snail let him melt as
+he passeth on."</p>
+
+<p>The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a
+Snail as it crawled along was subtracted from the substance of
+its body, and that in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller
+it became, until at last it wasted entirely away. The commentators
+on the Talmud took this view of the case. The
+Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">shablul</i>, which undoubtedly does signify a Snail
+of some kind, is thus explained: "The Shablul is a creeping
+thing: when it comes out of its shell, saliva pours from itself,
+until it becomes liquid, and so dies."</p>
+
+<p>Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but
+there is no doubt that the view taken by these commentators is
+the correct one, and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the
+terrible series of denunciations in which the passage in question
+occurs, had in his mind the popular belief regarding the gradual
+wasting away of the Snail as it "passeth on."</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is
+mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine
+there are many species of Snails, to any or all of which these
+words are equally applicable.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[653]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="oyster" id="oyster"></a>
+<img src="images/i_652.jpg" width="400" height="426" alt="oyster" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">PEARL OYSTER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE PEARL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Pearl of Scripture&mdash;Wisdom compared to Pearl&mdash;Metaphorical uses of the
+Pearl&mdash;The Pearl of great price&mdash;Casting Pearls before swine.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can
+be found the word which is translated as <span class="smcap">Pearl</span>, and it is certain
+that the word in question may have another interpretation.</p>
+
+<p>The word in question is <em>gabish</em>, and occurs in Job xxviii. 18.
+Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning, "But
+where shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding?"
+the sacred writer uses these words, "No mention
+shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for the price of wisdom is
+above rubies."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[654]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking
+wisdom, it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense
+we must understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls
+before swine. The "pearl of great price" is another form of the
+same metaphor.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The substance of Pearls is essentially the same as that which
+lines many shells, and is known as "mother of pearl."</p>
+
+<p>Although a large number of shell-fish secrete "mother of pearl,"
+only a few of them yield true Pearls. The finest are obtained
+from the so-called Pearl oyster, an illustration of which is given
+on the preceding page.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancients obtained their Pearls chiefly from India and the
+Persian Gulf, where to this day the industry of Pearl-fishing is
+still carried on by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>The oysters containing the Pearls are brought up from the
+bottom of the sea by divers, who go out in boats to the fishing-grounds,
+which are some distance from the shore.</p>
+
+<p>Leaping naked into the water, carrying a heavy stone to enable
+him to sink quickly to the bottom, the diver descends to where the
+oysters lie, and secures as many of them as possible during the
+limited time that his breath lasts. On an average the divers
+remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though some
+can endure a much longer period.</p>
+
+<p>Sharks are the special dread of Pearl-divers, and many are
+carried off by this fierce monster of the deep. To arm himself
+against their attack the diver carries a sharp knife, and instances
+are known of his having attacked and fairly defeated the dread
+destroyer in its own element.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is the diver exposed to the danger of attack from
+sharks, but his hazardous calling is necessarily exhausting, and,
+as a rule, he is a short-lived man.</p>
+
+<p>There are some kinds of fresh-water mussels which contain
+Pearls of an inferior quality; perhaps the most celebrated of
+these is the Pearl Mussel of the Chinese, who make a singular
+use of it. They string a number of globular pellets, and introduce
+them between the valves of the mussel, so that in course
+of time the creature deposits a coating of pearly substance upon
+them, and forms a very good imitation of real Pearls.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[655]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 363px;"><a name="insects" id="insects"></a>
+<img src="images/i_654.jpg" width="363" height="600" alt="insects" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_656" id="Page_656">[656]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_655.jpg" width="300" height="219" alt="butterfly" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657">[657]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>INSECTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE LOCUST.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Insects&mdash;The Locust-The two migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing&mdash;The
+Locust swarms&mdash;Gordon Cumming's account&mdash;Progress of the insect hosts&mdash;Vain
+attempts to check them&mdash;Tossed up and down as a Locust&mdash;Effect of the
+winds on the insect&mdash;The east and the west winds&mdash;Locusts used for food&mdash;Ancient
+and modern travellers&mdash;The food of John the Baptist.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Of the <span class="smcap">Locusts</span> there are several species in Palestine, two of
+which are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the
+ground are the common Migratory Locusts, while those on the
+wing, which have long heads, are a species of <em>Truxalis</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or
+straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed,
+four wings, the two front being thick and membraneous, while
+the two hinder wings are large, delicate, translucent, and
+folded longitudinally under the front pair of wings when the
+insect is at rest. In the Locusts these characteristics are
+admirably shown. The appearance of a Locust when at rest
+and when flying is so different that the creature is at first
+sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature. When at
+rest, it is a compact and tolerably stout insect, with a dull
+though delicately coloured body; but when it takes flight it
+appears to attain twice its previous dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they
+were expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the
+hinder pair, which were before invisible, became the most prominent
+part of the insect, their translucent folds being coloured
+with the most brilliant hues, according to the species. The body
+seems to have shrunk as the wings have increased, and to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[658]</a></span>
+diminished to half its previous size, while the long legs that previously
+were so conspicuous are stretched out like the legs of a
+flying heron.</p>
+
+<p>All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm
+wherever they happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws
+severing even the thick grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it
+is only when they invade a country that their real power is felt.
+They come flying with the wind in such vast multitudes that
+the sky is darkened as if by thunder-clouds; and when they
+settle, every vestige of green disappears off the face of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts.
+They flew about three hundred feet from the ground, and came
+on in thick, solid masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all
+sides nothing was to be seen but Locusts. The air was full of
+them, and the plain was covered with them, and for more than
+an hour the insect army flew past him. When the Locusts settle,
+they eat with such voracity that the sound caused by their jaws
+cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a great distance;
+and even the young Locusts, which have no wings, and are
+graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa
+"voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power of jaw
+to the fully-developed insect.</p>
+
+<p>As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the
+progress of the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast
+herds of antelopes that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that
+once blackened the prairies of America, and the progress of even
+the wingless young is as irresistible as that of the adult insects.
+Regiments of soldiers have in vain attempted to stop them.
+Trenches have been dug across their path, only to be filled up
+in a few minutes with the advancing hosts, over whose bodies
+the millions of survivors continued their march. When the
+trenches were filled with water, the result was the same; and
+even when fire was substituted for water, the flames were
+quenched by the masses of Locusts that fell into them. When
+they come to a tree, they climb up it in swarms, and devour
+every particle of foliage, not even sparing the bark of the smaller
+branches. They ascend the walls of houses that come in the
+line of their march, swarming in at the windows, and gnawing
+in their hunger the very woodwork of the furniture.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[659]</a><br /><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660">[660]</a></span>
+of Joel. "A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds
+and of thick darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains:
+a great people and a strong; there hath not been ever the like,
+neither shall be any more after it, even to the years of many
+generations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 332px;"><a name="swarm" id="swarm"></a>
+<img src="images/i_658.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="swarm" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">LOCUSTS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame
+burneth: the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and
+behind them a desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing shall
+escape them.</p>
+
+<p>"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His
+camp is very great" (Joel ii. 2-11).</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid
+description of the Locust armies. First we have the darkness
+caused by them as they fly like black clouds between the sun
+and the earth. Then comes the contrast between the blooming
+and fertile aspect of the land before they settle on it, and its
+utter desolation when they leave it.</p>
+
+<p>There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight
+seems rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand
+the character of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like
+the shadow when it declineth: I am tossed up and down as the
+locust" (Ps. cix. 23).</p>
+
+<p>Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to
+remain on the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over
+great distances, they have little or no command over the direction
+of their flight, and always travel with the wind, just as has
+been mentioned regarding the quail. So entirely are they at the
+mercy of the wind, that if a sudden gust arises the Locusts are
+tossed about in the most helpless manner; and if they should
+happen to come across one of the circular air-currents that are
+so frequently found in the countries which they inhabit, they are
+whirled round and round without the least power of extricating
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In the account of the great plague of Locusts, the wind is
+mentioned as the proximate cause both of their arrival and their
+departure. See, for example, Exod. x. 12, 13:</p>
+
+<p>"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over
+the land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon
+the land of Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, even all that
+the hail hath left.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[661]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt,
+and the Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day,
+and all that night; and when it was morning, the east wind
+brought the locusts."</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and
+entreated to remove the plague which had been brought upon
+the land, the west wind was employed to take the Locusts away,
+just as the east wind had brought them.</p>
+
+<p>"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord.</p>
+
+<p>"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took
+away the locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained
+not one locust in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19).</p>
+
+<p>Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies,
+which exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller
+mentions that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were
+destroyed in such multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort
+of wall, varying from three to four feet in height, fifty miles in
+length, and almost unapproachable, on account of the odour of
+their decomposing bodies.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We now come to the use of Locusts as food.</p>
+
+<p>Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food,
+even among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that
+the Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should
+have been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are,
+however, eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent,
+and in some places form an important article of diet, thus
+compensating in some way for the amount of vegetable food
+which they consume.</p>
+
+<p>When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they
+can manage to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize
+them between two stones, and keep the meal for future use,
+mixing it with water, or, if they can get it, with milk.</p>
+
+<p>We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the
+present day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave,
+in his "Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description
+of the custom of eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a
+short distance in front, we discerned certain large black patches,
+in strong contrast with the white glisten of the soil around, and
+at the same time our attention was attracted by a strange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662">[662]</a></span>
+whizzing, like that of a flight of hornets, close along the ground,
+while our dromedaries capered and started as though struck
+with sudden insanity.</p>
+
+<p>"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here
+alighted in their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in
+the Dahna; their camp extended far and wide, and we had
+already disturbed their outposts. These insects are wont to
+settle on the ground after sunset, and there, half-stupified by
+the night chill, await the morning rays, which warm them once
+more into life and movement.</p>
+
+<p>"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it
+would be hard to say which of the two were the most frightened,
+they or the locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a
+beast lose his wits for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless
+insect, for, of all timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the
+desert' for cowardice.</p>
+
+<p>"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters.
+I really thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts
+are here an article of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of
+them is begged of Heaven in Arabia....</p>
+
+<p>"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and
+boiled and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent.
+However, I never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever
+invitations the inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips
+over large dishes full of entomological 'delicatesses,' would make
+me to join them. Barakàt ventured on one for a trial. He
+pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor added a second to the
+first: it is caviare to unaccustomed palates.</p>
+
+<p>"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our
+Arabs, on no account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all
+were forgotten, and down the riders leaped from their starting
+camels. This one spread out a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a
+third his shirt, over the unlucky creatures, destined for the
+morning meal. Some flew away, whizzing across our feet;
+others were caught, and tied up in sacks."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions
+that the true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the
+negroes and Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being
+something between the burnt end of a quill and a crumb of
+linseed cake. The flavour, however, depends much on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[663]</a></span>
+mode of cooking, and, as some say, on the nature of the Locusts'
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of
+Palestine," that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he
+was accustomed to eat them, not from necessity, but from choice,
+and compares their flavour to that of shrimps.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine,
+Locusts are eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but,
+when preserved for future use, they are dried in the sun, their
+heads, wings, and legs picked off, and their bodies ground into
+dust. This dust has naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is
+corrected by mixing it with camel's milk or honey, the latter
+being the favourite substance.</p>
+
+<p>We may now see that the food of John the Baptist was, like his
+dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and
+that there was no more hardship in the one than in the other.
+Some commentators have tried to prove that he fed on the fruit
+of the locust or carob tree&mdash;the same that is used in some
+countries for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for
+such an explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires
+no explanation; Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary
+article of food even at the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;"><a name="locust" id="locust"></a>
+<img src="images/i_662.jpg" width="350" height="223" alt="locust" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[664]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_663.jpg" width="350" height="407" alt="flower" />
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE BEE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Honey Bee of Palestine&mdash;Abundance of Bees in the
+Holy Land&mdash;Habitations of the wild Bee&mdash;The honey of
+Scripture&mdash;Domesticated Bees and their hives&mdash;Stores of wild
+honey&mdash;The story of Jonathan&mdash;The Crusaders and the honey.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the
+Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">debôrah,</i> which has always been acknowledged
+to be rightly translated as "Bee."</p>
+
+<p>The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in
+some parts of the country multiplying to such an extent that
+the precipitous ravines in which it takes up its residence are
+almost impassable by human beings, so jealous are the Bees of
+their domains. Although the Bee is not exactly the same
+species as that of our own country, being the Banded Bee
+<em>(Apis fasciata),</em> and not the <em>Apis mellifica,</em> the two insects very
+much resemble each other in shape, colour, and habits. Both of
+them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and jealousy of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[665]</a></span>
+intrusion, and the Banded Bee of Palestine has as great an
+objection to intrusion as its congener in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in
+the character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And
+the Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against
+you, and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir,
+even unto Hormah." All those who have had the misfortune
+to offend Bees will recognise the truth of this metaphor, the
+Amorites swarming out of the mountain like wild Bees out
+of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives, and chasing the
+intruder fairly out of their domains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="bee" id="bee"></a>
+<img src="images/i_664.jpg" width="400" height="393" alt="bee" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE BEE</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed
+me about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the
+name of the Lord I will destroy them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_666" id="Page_666">[666]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as
+the fire of thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy
+them."</p>
+
+<p>The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier
+books of Scripture. The reader will remember that, after
+Samson had killed the lion which met him on the way, he
+left the carcase alone. The various carnivorous beasts and birds
+at once discover such a banquet, and in a very short time the
+body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow skeleton, partially
+or entirely covered with skin, the rays of the sun drying and
+hardening the skin until it is like horn.</p>
+
+<p>In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in
+this country. Some years before this account was written there
+was a very hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took
+place among the sheep. So many indeed died that at last
+their owners merely flayed them, and left their bodies to perish.
+One of the dead sheep had been thrown into a rather thick
+copse, and had fallen in a spot where it was sheltered from the
+wind, and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the summer's sun.
+The consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to a
+mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of
+flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it,
+while the whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent
+state, and was rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and
+other larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung
+to it, and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson
+received a simple elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the
+whole process would have been more rapid and more complete,
+and the skeleton of the lion, with the hard and horny
+skin strained over it, would afford exactly the habitation of
+which a wandering swarm of Bees would take advantage. At
+the present day swarms of wild Bees often make their habitations
+within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have
+perished on the way.</p>
+
+<p>As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must
+bear in mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in
+Palestine, when one person desires to attract the attention of
+another. A similar sound, which may perhaps be expressed by
+the letters <em>tst</em>, prevails on the Continent at the present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_667" id="Page_667">[667]</a></span>
+Signor Pierotti remarks that the inhabitants of Palestine are
+even now accustomed to summon Bees by a sort of hissing
+sound.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained
+from wild or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the
+manners of the East are much the same now as they were three
+thousand years ago, it is probable that Bees were kept then
+as they are now. The hives are not in the least like ours,
+but are cylindrical vases of coarse earthenware, laid horizontally,
+much like the bark hives employed in many parts of Southern
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>In some places the hives are actually built into the walls
+of the houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the
+interior, while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end,
+so that the insects have no business in the house. When the
+inhabitants wish to take the honey, they resort to the operation
+which is technically termed "driving" by bee-masters.</p>
+
+<p>They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the
+tapping until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive.
+They then take out the circular door that closes the end of the
+hive, remove as much comb as they want, carefully put back
+those portions which contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace
+the door, when the Bees soon return and fill up the gaps in
+the combs. As to the wasteful, cruel, and foolish custom of
+"burning" the Bees, the Orientals never think of practising it.</p>
+
+<p>In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very
+great extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled
+on one another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in
+order to defend them from the rays of the sun, which would
+soon melt the wax of the combs.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy
+Land, which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees
+in the rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast
+stores of bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no
+small part of the wealth of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable
+events recorded in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the
+people from eating until the evening. Jonathan, who had not
+heard the prohibition, was faint and weary, and, seeing honey
+dripping on the ground from the abundance and weight of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_668" id="Page_668">[668]</a></span>
+the comb, he took it up on the end of his staff, and ate sufficient
+to restore his strength.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if we refer again to the history of John the Baptist
+and his food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving
+for want of nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the
+desert places he frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply
+of the very material which was needed to correct the deficiencies
+of the dried locusts which he used instead of bread.</p>
+
+<p>The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has
+become proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to
+whom the words were spoken understood it as something more
+than a metaphor. In the work to which reference has already
+been made Signor Pierotti writes as follows:&mdash;"Let us now see
+how far the land could be said to flow with milk and honey
+during the latter part of its history and at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the
+Crusades, for the English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine,
+died in great numbers from the excessive heat, and from eating
+too much fruit and honey.</p>
+
+<p>"At the present day, after traversing the country in every
+direction, I am able to affirm that in the south-east and north-east,
+where the ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully
+preserved, and the effects of civilization have been felt least,
+milk and honey may still be said to flow, as they form a portion
+of every meal, and may even be more abundant than water,
+which fails occasionally in the heat of summer.... I have often
+eaten of the comb, which I found very good and of delicious
+fragrance."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Bee represented in the illustration is the common Bee of
+Palestine, <em>Apis fasciata</em>. The lowest figure in the corner, with
+a long body and shut wings, is the queen. The central figure
+represents the drone, conspicuous by means of his large eyes,
+that almost join each other at the top of the head, and for his
+thicker and stouter body, while the third figure represents the
+worker Bee. Near them is shown the entrance to one of the
+natural hives which are so plentiful in the Holy Land, and are
+made in the "clefts of the rocks." A number of Bees are
+shown issuing from the hole.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_669" id="Page_669">[669]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="hornet" id="hornet"></a>
+<img src="images/i_668.jpg" width="400" height="404" alt="hornet" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE HORNET AND ITS NEST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE HORNET.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture&mdash;Travellers driven away by Hornets&mdash;The
+Hornet used as a metaphor&mdash;Oriental symbolism&mdash;Sting of the Hornet.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the
+Hornet. There are three passages in which occurs the word
+<em>tzirah</em>, which has been translated as Hornet. In every case
+when the word is mentioned the insect is employed in a metaphorical
+sense. See, for example, Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will
+send my fear before thee, and will destroy all the people to
+whom thou shalt come; and I will make all thine enemies turn
+their backs unto thee.</p>
+
+<p>"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out
+the Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_670" id="Page_670">[670]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a
+promise as was made to the Israelites, and was one which they
+must have thoroughly comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine
+and the neighbouring countries are far more common than our
+own Hornets here, and they evidently infested some parts to such
+an extent that they gave their name to those spots. Thus the
+word <em>Zoreah</em>, which is mentioned in Josh. xv. 33, signifies the
+"place of Hornets."</p>
+
+<p>They make their nests in various ways; some species placing
+them underground, and others disposing them as shown in the
+illustration, and merely sheltering them from the elements by a
+paper cover. Such nests as these would easily be disturbed by
+the animals which accompanied the Israelites on their journeys,
+even if the people were careful to avoid them. In such a case,
+the irritated insects rush out at the intruders; and so great is
+the terror of their stings, that men and beasts fly promiscuously
+in every direction, each only anxious to escape from the winged
+foes.</p>
+
+<p>The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the
+memory of those who had taken part in them, and cause the
+metaphor to impress itself strongly upon them.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to say that the passages in question might be
+literal statements of facts, and that the various nations were
+actually driven out of their countries by Hornets. Let the
+insects be brought upon the land in sufficient numbers, and
+neither man nor beast could stay in it. It is not likely, however,
+that such a series of miracles, far exceeding the insect-plagues
+of Egypt, would have been worked without frequent
+references to them in the subsequent books of the Scriptures;
+and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong flight of the attack
+of Hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is
+mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long journeys which such
+a proceeding involved.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_671" id="Page_671">[671]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ants" id="ants"></a>
+<img src="images/i_670.jpg" width="400" height="348" alt="ants" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANTS ON THE MARCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE ANT.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Ant of Scripture&mdash;Habit of laying up stores of food&mdash;The Ants of Palestine,
+and their habits&mdash;The Agricultural or Mound-making Ant&mdash;Preparing ground,
+sowing, tending, reaping, and storing the crop&mdash;Different habits of Ants&mdash;The
+winged Ants.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>One of the best-known and most frequently quoted passages of
+Scripture is found in Proverbs, chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant,
+thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise:</p>
+
+<p>"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler,</p>
+
+<p>"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in
+the harvest."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous.
+Among them are found some species which do convey seeds
+into their subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted
+by the heavy rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring
+them to the outer air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry
+them in the sun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">[672]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when
+he alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only
+spoke the truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding
+wise. Any one who wishes to test the truth of his words can
+easily do so by watching the first Ants' nest which he finds, the
+species of the Ant not being of much consequence. The nests of
+the Wood-Ant are perhaps the best suited for investigation,
+partly because the insect and its habitation are comparatively
+large, and, secondly, because so much of the work is done above-ground.</p>
+
+<p>The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto
+is only known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is
+<em>Atta malefaciens</em>, and it has been called by various popular
+names, such as the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural
+Ant on account of its habits, and the Stinging Ant on account
+of the pungency of its venom. This characteristic has gained
+for it the scientific name of <em>malefaciens</em>, or villanous.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum
+for the space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations
+was communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq.
+It is so extraordinary an account that it must be given the
+narrator's own words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large
+brownish ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities,
+and, like a thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and
+timely arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short,
+endowed with skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to
+enable it successfully to contend with the varying exigencies
+which it may have to encounter in the life-conflict.</p>
+
+<p>"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on
+ordinary dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the
+surface three and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular
+mound having a very gentle inclination from the centre to the
+outer border, which on an average is three or four feet from the
+entrance. But if the location is chosen on low, flat, wet land
+liable to inundation, though the ground may be perfectly dry at
+the time the ant sets to work, it nevertheless elevates the
+mound, in the form of a pretty sharp cone, to the height of
+fifteen to twenty inches or more, and makes the entrance near
+the summit. Around the mound in either case the ant clears<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_673" id="Page_673">[673]</a></span>
+the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths the surface to
+the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city,
+giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as it
+really is.</p>
+
+<p>"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is
+allowed to grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass.
+Having planted this crop in a circle around, and two or three
+feet from, the centre of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates
+it with constant care, cutting away all other grasses and
+weeds that may spring up amongst it and all around outside of
+the farm-circle to the extent of one or two feet more.</p>
+
+<p>"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy
+crop of small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope
+very closely resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully
+harvested, and carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the
+granary cells, where it is divested of the chaff and packed away.
+The chaff is taken out and thrown beyond the limits of the
+paved area.</p>
+
+<p>"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that
+the provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and
+spoil. In this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the
+damp and damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry,
+when they carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds,
+leaving those that had sprouted to waste.</p>
+
+<p>"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable
+elevation, on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds
+overlying portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural
+ants, evidently very ancient. My observations on their
+manners and customs have been limited to the last twelve years,
+during which time the enclosure surrounding the orchard has
+prevented the approach of cattle to the ant-farms. The cities
+which are outside of the enclosure as well as those protected in
+it are, at the proper season, invariably planted with the ant-rice.
+The crop may accordingly always be seen springing up within
+the circle about the 1st of November every year.</p>
+
+<p>"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle
+has greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much
+closer than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I
+notice that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the
+turn-rows in the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_674" id="Page_674">[674]</a></span>
+&amp;c., where they can cultivate their farms without molestation
+from the cattle.</p>
+
+<p>"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species
+of grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted.
+In farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully
+divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it
+is growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry
+stubble cut away and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered
+until the ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice'
+reappears within the same circle, and receives the same
+agricultural attention as was bestowed upon the previous crop;
+and so on year after year, as I <em>know</em> to be the case, in all situations
+where the ants' settlements are protected from graminivorous
+animals."</p>
+
+<p>In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from
+Mr. Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for
+the ensuing crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it.
+And my conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or
+careless observation, nor from seeing the ants do something that
+looked a little like it, and then guessing at the results. I have
+at all seasons watched the same ant-cities during the last twelve
+years, and I know that what I stated in my former letter is
+true. I visited the same cities yesterday, and found the crop of
+ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also the signs of high
+cultivation, and not a blade of any other kind of grass or weed
+was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice."</p>
+
+<p>The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass
+anything that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too
+much to say that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured
+to speak of an Ant that not only laid up stores of grain, but
+actually prepared the soil for the crop, planted the seed, kept the
+ground free from weeds, and finally reaped the harvest, the
+statement would have been utterly disbelieved, and the credibility
+not only of that particular writer but of the rest of
+Scripture severely endangered.</p>
+
+<p>As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of
+Ants vary greatly according to their species and the climate in
+which they live. All, however, are wonderful creatures; and
+whether we look at their varied architecture, their mode of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_675" id="Page_675">[675]</a></span>
+procuring food, the system of slave-catching adopted by some,
+the "milking" of aphides practised by others, their astonishing
+mode of communicating thought to each other, and their perfect
+system of discipline, we feel how true were the words of the
+royal naturalist, that the Ants are "little upon earth, but are
+exceeding wise."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="ant" id="ant"></a>
+<img src="images/i_674.jpg" width="400" height="419" alt="palestine" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">ANT OF PALESTINE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is one point of their economy in which all known
+species agree. Only those which are destined to become perfectly
+developed males and females attain the winged state.
+Before they assume the transitional or pupal condition, each spins
+around itself a slight but tough silken cocoon, in which it lies
+secure during the time which is consumed in developing its full
+perfection of form.</p>
+
+<p>When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_676" id="Page_676">[676]</a></span>
+from the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions
+of these winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and,
+as they are not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed
+about by every gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish.
+Whole armies of them fall into the water and are drowned or
+devoured by fish, while the insectivorous birds hold great festival
+on so abundant a supply of food. As soon as they are
+mated they bend their wings forward, snap them off, and pass
+the rest of their lives on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the
+winged Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to
+those who are over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction
+of an ant, He permits wings to grow upon her."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE CRIMSON WORM.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The scarlet or crimson of Scripture&mdash;The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared
+with that of Mexico&mdash;Difference between the sexes&mdash;Mode of preparing
+the insect.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We now come to another order of insects.</p>
+
+<p>Just as the purple dye was obtained from a shell-fish, the
+scarcely less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an
+insect. This is an insect popularly known as the Crimson Worm.
+It is closely allied to the cochineal insect of Mexico, which gives a
+more brilliant dye, and has at the present day nearly superseded
+the native insect. It is, however, still employed as a dye in
+some parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much
+larger than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured.
+At the proper season of year the females are gathered
+off the trees and carefully dried, the mode of drying having
+some effect upon the quality of the dye. During the process of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_677" id="Page_677">[677]</a></span>
+drying the insect alters greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking
+to less than half its original dimensions, and assuming a greyish
+brown hue instead of a deep red. When placed in water it soon
+gives out its colouring matter, and communicates to the water
+the rich colour with which we are familiar under the name of
+carmine, or crimson. This latter name, by the way, is only a
+corruption of the Arabic <i lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">kermes</i>, which is the name of the
+insect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="crimson" id="crimson"></a>
+<img src="images/i_676.jpg" width="400" height="334" alt="crimson" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE CRIMSON WORM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reader will remember that this was one of the three
+sacred colours&mdash;scarlet, purple, and blue&mdash;used in the vestments
+of the priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not
+taking rank as a colour.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_678" id="Page_678">[678]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE CLOTHES MOTH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth&mdash;Moths and garments&mdash;Accumulation
+of clothes in the East&mdash;Various uses of the hoarded robes&mdash;The Moths,
+the rust, and the thief.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>One of the insects mentioned by name in the Scriptures is the
+<span class="smcap">Moth</span>, by which we must always understand some species of
+Clothes Moth. These are as plentiful and destructive in Palestine
+as in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures,
+and nearly all have reference to its destructive habits. The
+solitary exceptions occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put
+no trust in His servants; and His angels He charged with folly:
+how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation
+is in the dust, which are crushed before the moth?"</p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament reference is made several times to the
+Moth. "Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where
+moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through
+and steal" (Matt. vi. 19).</p>
+
+<p>Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but
+to the Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a
+force which we can hardly realize in this country. In the East
+large stores of clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for
+their own use, but as presents to others. At a marriage feast,
+for example, the host presents each of the guests with a wedding
+garment. Clothes are also given as marks of favour, and a present
+of "changes of raiment," <em>i.e.</em> suits of clothing, is one of the most
+common gifts. As at the present day, there was anciently no
+greater mark of favour than for the giver to present the very
+robe which he was wearing, and when that robe happened to be
+an official one, the gift included the rank which it symbolized.
+Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as well as with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_679" id="Page_679">[679]</a></span>
+royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in the king's
+robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth
+to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown
+royal which is set upon his head.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="mordecai" id="mordecai"></a>
+<img src="images/i_678.jpg" width="400" height="333" alt="mordecai" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPON THE KING'S HORSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of
+one of the king's most noble princes, that they may array the
+man withal whom the king delighteth to honour, and bring him
+on horseback through the street of the city, and proclaim before
+him, Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth
+to honour." (Esther vi. 8, 9.)</p>
+
+<p>The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the
+case with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits
+any man: so that the powerful and wealthy could lay up great
+stores of clothing, knowing that they would fit any person to
+whom they were given. An allusion to this practice of keeping
+great stores of clothing is made in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he
+heap up silver as the dust, and prepare raiment as the clay;</p>
+
+<p>"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the
+innocent shall divide the silver."</p>
+
+<p>So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_680" id="Page_680">[680]</a></span>
+that special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer,
+called the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was
+appointed to take charge of them.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression
+was a synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a
+man shall take hold of his brother of the house of his father,
+saying, Thou hast clothing, be thou our ruler."</p>
+
+<p>The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the
+Moth and the garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures.
+The Moth would not meddle with garments actually in use, so
+that a poor man would not be troubled with it. Only those
+who were rich enough to keep stores of clothing in their houses
+need fear the Moth.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SILKWORM MOTH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk&mdash;Present cultivation of the
+Silkworm&mdash;The Silk-farms of the Lebanon&mdash;Silkworms and thunder.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk
+is mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be
+correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And
+the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for
+no man buyeth their merchandise any more:</p>
+
+<p>"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones,
+and of pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii.
+11, 12.)</p>
+
+<p>That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early
+times is nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively
+late years they only knew the manufactured material, and
+were ignorant of the source whence it was derived. As to the
+date at which silk was introduced into Palestine, nothing certain
+is known; but it is most likely that Solomon's fleets brought
+silk from India, together with the other valuables which are
+mentioned in the history of that monarch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_681" id="Page_681">[681]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers
+of the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the
+crop which is annually produced. The greatest care is taken
+in rearing the worms. An excellent account of these farms
+is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in his "Druses of the
+Lebanon:"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of
+the sun's rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were
+continually encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the
+industry of the Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from
+hatching the silkworms' eggs till the moment that the worm
+becomes a cocoon, is one series of anxiety and labour to the
+peasant. The worms are so delicate that the smallest change of
+temperature exposes them to destruction, and the peasant can
+never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the cocoon
+is fairly set."</p>
+
+<p>After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and
+ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the
+armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements,
+the writer proceeds as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and
+watching operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated
+in him a dread of the evil eye. If we stop and admire the
+wisdom displayed by the worm, it will, in his opinion, be productive
+of evil results; either the cocoon will be badly formed,
+or the silk will be worthless. So, first clearing the place of all
+intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the door, and, locking the
+<em>khlook</em> (room in which the silkworms are kept), deposits the key
+in his <em>zinnar,</em> or waistband.</p>
+
+<p>"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and,
+separating them from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for
+breeding purposes, and all the rest are handed over to the
+women of his family. These first of all disentangle the cocoon
+from the rich and fibrous web with which it is enveloped, and
+which constitutes an article of trade by itself. The cocoons are
+then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else sold to
+some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they are
+immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and afterwards,
+being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of
+the factory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_682" id="Page_682">[682]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which
+we were continually encountering horseload after horseload.</p>
+
+<p>"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in
+the head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most
+agreeable; but this arises partly from the neglect and want of
+care of the peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after
+basketful of cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown
+about and accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and
+emit noxious vapours."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="butterflies" id="butterflies"></a>
+<img src="images/i_681.jpg" width="400" height="407" alt="butterflies" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Syrian Grayling.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="smcap">Syrian Orange-Tip.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Syrian Swallow-Tail.</span>
+
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the
+Silkworm to be described more fully, it may here be added that
+all silk-growers are full of superstition regarding the welfare of
+the caterpillars, and imagine that they are so sensitive that they
+will die of fear. The noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_683" id="Page_683">[683]</a></span>
+fatal to Silkworms; and the breeders were therefore accustomed
+to beat drums within the hearing of the Silkworms, increasing
+the loudness of the sound, and imitating as nearly as
+possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that the caterpillars
+might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm should happen
+to break near them.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>FLIES.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Flies of Scripture&mdash;Annoyance caused by the House-fly&mdash;Flies and ophthalmia&mdash;Signor
+Pierotti's account of the Flies&mdash;The sovereign remedy against Flies&mdash;Causes
+of their prevalence.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly."
+One is <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">zebub</i>, and the other is <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">arob</i>, the latter being applied to
+the flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague.
+It is probable that some different species is here signified, but
+there is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would
+be a sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which
+infest Egypt, and which at first make the life of a foreigner a
+burden to him. They swarm in such myriads, that he eats flies,
+drinks flies, and breathes flies.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the
+eyes of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia,
+which is so fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the
+infection with them. A stranger is always struck with the
+appearance of the children, who have quantities of these pests
+upon and about their eyes, and yet seem perfectly unaffected by
+a visitation which would wellnigh drive a European mad.</p>
+
+<p>Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine,
+as I can vouch from my own experience. However large or
+however small they may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack
+alike, and make themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in
+every season and place, in the house and in the field, by day and
+by night.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_684" id="Page_684">[684]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"While I was encamped near the tents of the Bedawîn, in the
+neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies
+were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts
+and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept
+into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My
+servant and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were
+spotted all over like lepers with the eruption caused by their
+bites: the Bedawîn themselves were not slow to follow our example.</p>
+
+<p>"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old,
+except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the
+chiefs of the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the
+Pentateuch and Joshua) to evacuate the country before them.</p>
+
+<p>"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked
+against these pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple
+was at Ekron. The reason of this is evident at the present day,
+for the ancient country of the Philistines is infested with insect
+plagues, as I experienced to my cost.</p>
+
+<p>"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged
+to arm ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many
+travellers bring with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe
+as a protection against these nuisances, and leave behind them
+this only efficacious remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend;
+it is very portable, very cheap, and equally useful in all
+climates.</p>
+
+<p>"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they
+are found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in
+the dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies
+about, the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage
+of cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing
+worn by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the
+country of Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still
+abundant and free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked
+assistants in the kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves
+in their gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired
+seasoning in every dish."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_685" id="Page_685">[685]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>GNATS.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Gnat of Scripture&mdash;Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the camel, a
+typographical error&mdash;Probable identity of the Gnat and the mosquito.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned
+by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name
+of which occurs in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which
+strain at a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="flies" id="flies"></a>
+<img src="images/i_684.jpg" width="400" height="334" alt="flies" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Mosquito.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Camel Fly.</span>
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought
+to have been printed "strain out," the substitution of one for
+the other being only a typographical error. The allusion is
+made to a custom which is explained by reference to the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_686" id="Page_686">[686]</a></span>
+article on the fly. In order to avoid taking flies and other
+insects into the mouth while drinking, a piece of thin linen stuff
+was placed over the cup, so that if any insects, as was usually
+the case, had got into the liquid, they would be "strained out"
+by the linen.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified
+by the word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the
+word is only used to express the contrast between the smallest
+known insects and the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially
+those species which are popularly known by the word "mosquito,"
+are very plentiful in many parts of Palestine, especially those
+which are near water, and are as annoying there as in other
+lands which they inhabit.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE LOUSE.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Insect parasites&mdash;The plague of Lice&mdash;Its effect on the magicians or priests&mdash;The
+Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Chinnim</i>&mdash;Probability that it may be represented by "tick"&mdash;Habits
+of the ticks, their dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and
+beast.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two
+parasites of a singularly disagreeable character.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in
+the account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues
+of the waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the
+magicians, i.e. the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which
+affected the magicians even more than the people, for a reason
+which we shall presently see:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out
+thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice,
+throughout all the land of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his
+rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_687" id="Page_687">[687]</a></span>
+and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout
+all the land of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring
+forth lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man and
+upon beast."</p>
+
+<p>Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would
+have told with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose
+advice Pharoah had resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron.</p>
+
+<p>Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest,
+were infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance
+of the laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one
+single noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing.
+The clothing, being linen, could be kept clean by frequent
+washing, while the possibility of the body being infested by
+parasites was prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of
+the body, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, at
+least once in every three days.</p>
+
+<p>It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation
+must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as
+the flesh of cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite
+to the Egyptian priest. He was degraded in his own estimation
+and in that of his fellows. He could perform no sacred offices:
+so that, in fact, all the idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until
+this particular plague had been withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified
+by the Hebrew word <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">chinnim</i>. Sir Samuel Baker is of
+opinion that the word ought to have been translated as "ticks,"
+and for the following reasons:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of
+Aaron's rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action,
+he proceeds as follows: "Now the louse that infests the human
+body and hair has no connexion whatever with dust, and, if
+subjected to a few hours' exposure to the dry heat of the burning
+sand, it would shrivel and die. But a tick is an inhabitant of
+the dust, a dry horny insect, without any apparent moisture in
+its composition. It lives in hot sand and dust, where it cannot
+possibly obtain nourishment until some wretched animal should
+lie down upon the spot, and become covered with these horrible
+vermin.</p>
+
+<p>"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_688" id="Page_688">[688]</a></span>
+ticks that the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it
+would have been impossible to have rested upon the earth. In
+such spots, the passage in Exodus has frequently seemed to me
+as bearing reference to these vermin, which are the greatest
+enemy to man and beast. It is well known that from the size
+of a grain of sand, in their natural state, they will distend to the
+size of a hazel nut after having preyed for some days on the
+body of an animal."</p>
+
+<p>Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly
+is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the
+words of Holy Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity,
+but would, if anything, be more horrible. Only those who have
+suffered from them can appreciate the miseries caused by the
+attack of these ticks, which cling so tightly that they can
+scarcely be removed without being torn in pieces, and without
+leaving some portion of their head beneath the skin of their
+victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is implied
+in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very cautiously
+removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their bites.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE FLEA.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="hanging">Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by them to travellers-Fleas
+of the Lebanon&mdash;The Bey's bedfellows&mdash;The Pasha at the bath&mdash;Use
+of the word in Scripture.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The
+inhabitants are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not
+touch them, or by long custom they become so inured to their
+attack that the bites are not felt.</p>
+
+<p>But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about
+the Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions
+of the country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity.
+Miss Rogers, for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine,"
+mentions how she was obliged to stand upon a box in order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_689" id="Page_689">[689]</a></span>
+to be out of the reach of a large company of Fleas that were
+hopping about on the floor!</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one
+occasion that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten
+his curtain, and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that
+marched steadily up the bed and took possession of their prey.
+The people were quite amused at his complaints, and said that
+their Bey could not sleep without a couple of hundred of them
+in his bosom. Mr. Urquhart suggests that these little creatures
+act as a wholesome irritant to the skin, and says that the last
+two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the Fleas.</p>
+
+<p>In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence
+of these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from
+Mr. Farley's "Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish
+bath, and was much amused at a scene which presented itself.</p>
+
+<p>"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was
+occupying himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of
+pursuing with great eagerness something that, from the movement
+of his hands, seemed continually to elude him, jumping
+about and taking refuge in the creases and folds of his shirt, that
+was spread out over his lap as he sat cross-legged on his bedstead
+like a tailor on his board. This oddity was no less a dignitary
+than a Pasha."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_690" id="Page_690">[690]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="scorpion" id="scorpion"></a>
+<img src="images/i_689.jpg" width="400" height="386" alt="scorpion" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">SCORPION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SCORPION.</h2>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="hanging">The Scorpions of Palestine&mdash;Habits of the Scorpion&mdash;Dangers of mud walls&mdash;Venom
+of the Scorpion&mdash;Scorpions at sea&mdash;The Scorpion whip, and its use&mdash;The
+Scorpion Pass.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice
+are a constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed
+to them. The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to
+need description, every one being aware that it is in reality a kind
+of spider that has the venom claw at the end of its body, and not
+in its jaw. As to the rendering of the word <em>akrabbim</em> as "Scorpions,"
+there has never been any doubt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_691" id="Page_691">[691]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves
+in some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious
+where the Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in
+the country until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are
+beneath the stones on or near which he is sitting. Holes in
+walls are favourite places of refuge for the Scorpion, and are very
+plentiful, the mud walls always tumbling down in parts, and
+affording homes for Scorpions, spiders, snakes, and other visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according
+to the species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions
+being able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and
+even to kill him if he should be a sensitive subject. So much
+feared were the Scorpions that one of the chief privileges of the
+Apostles and their immediate followers was their immunity from
+the stings of Scorpions and the bite of venomous serpents.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by
+a Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and
+that if he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he
+suffers arises from the puncture. Sailors also say that after
+a week at sea the poison of the Scorpion loses its power,
+and that they care nothing for the Scorpions which are sure
+to come on board inside the bundles of firewood.</p>
+
+<p>Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are
+numerous, though most, if not all, of them occur in the New
+Testament. See Rev. ix. 5: "And to them it was given that
+they should not kill them, but that they should be tormented five
+months, and their torment was as the torment of a scorpion,
+when he striketh a man." Also ver. 10 of the same chapter:
+"And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there were
+stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five
+months."</p>
+
+<p>There is, also, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son
+shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And
+in the preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are
+classed with serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give
+unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the
+power of the enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament,
+which requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_692" id="Page_692">[692]</a></span>
+counsel given to Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made
+your yoke heavy, and I will add to your yoke; my father also
+chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions."</p>
+
+<p>The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely,
+that he intended to be far more severe than his father had
+been. But his words assume a new force when we remember
+that there was a kind of whip called a Scorpion. This terrible
+instrument was made for the express purpose of punishing
+slaves, so that the mere mention of it was an insult. It consisted
+of several thongs, each of which was loaded with knobs of metal,
+and tipped with a metal hook, so that it resembled the jointed
+and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful instrument of
+torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was even used
+in combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a Scorpion
+being matched against one armed with a spear.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>THE SPIDER.</h2>
+
+<h3>Spiders of Palestine.</h3>
+
+
+<p>There are very many species of Spider in Palestine; some
+which spin webs, like the common Garden Spider, some which dig
+subterranean cells and make doors in them, like the well-known
+Trap-door Spider of Southern Europe, and some which have no
+webs, but chase their prey upon the ground, like the Wolf and
+Hunting Spiders.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_693" id="Page_693">[693]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE HORSE LEECH.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">Signification of the word Alukah&mdash;Leeches in Palestine&mdash;The horse and the
+Leech.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the
+Scriptures. This is <em>alukah,</em> which is translated as horse-leech.
+"The horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give."</p>
+
+<p>The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the
+rivers to such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals
+who come to drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger.
+The following anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy
+Land," gives us a good idea of the prevalence of the Leeches,
+and the tenacity with which they retain their hold:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the
+wheel and well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the
+troughs. To slip from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the
+fluid is the work of a second; but no sooner has she lapped up
+a mouthful of water, than one sees that the refuse falling back
+from her lips into the tank is dabbled and red. Opening her
+mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling from her gum. But the
+reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose dipt into the cooling
+stream, the blood still flows from between her teeth, and, forcing
+them open, I find two other leeches lodged in the roof of her
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how
+gay, how gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh,
+and soused the water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip
+yearns to descend upon the shoulders of that laughing and
+careless Nubian slave!"</p>
+
+<p>Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them,
+and, if they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_694" id="Page_694">[694]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;"><a name="coral" id="coral"></a>
+<img src="images/i_693.jpg" width="400" height="442" alt="coral" />
+<div class="caption"><p class="center">CORAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>SPONGE AND CORAL.</h2>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="hanging">Use of the Sponge in Scripture&mdash;Probability that the ancient Jews were acquainted
+with it&mdash;Sponges of the Mediterranean&mdash;The Coral, and its value&mdash;Signification
+of the word <em>Ramoth</em>.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There is little to be said on either of these subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the
+Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge
+upon hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (<em>i.e.</em> the acid wine issued to
+the Roman soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_695" id="Page_695">[695]</a></span>
+little doubt that the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the
+value of the Sponge, which they could obtain from the Mediterranean
+which skirted all their western coasts.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No
+mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18).
+The second occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They
+occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work,
+and fine linen, and coral, and agate."</p>
+
+<p>This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria,
+was probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and
+where it attains the greatest perfection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_694.jpg" width="400" height="384" alt="roses" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The End.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_696" id="Page_696">[696]</a><br /><a name="Page_697" id="Page_697">[697]</a></span></span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<div>
+A.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<small>PAGE</small><br />
+<br />
+Addax, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-173<br />
+<br />
+Adder, <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<br />
+Ant, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habits of, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cocoon, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Aoudad, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-215<br />
+<br />
+Ape, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brought by Solomon, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worshipped in India, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-395</span><br />
+<br />
+Apis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Ass, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domesticated, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saddle, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Cairo, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wild, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+B.<br />
+<br />
+Badger, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skins for tabernacle, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-112</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skins for robes and sandals, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nocturnal in habits, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barbel, long-headed, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<br />
+Bat, <a href="#Page_401">401</a><br />
+<br />
+Bear, Syrian, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omnivorous, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a dangerous enemy, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">robbed of whelps, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mode of fighting, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Beden, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-237<br />
+<br />
+Bee, <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banded, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hives, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">honey, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Behemoth, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">food, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunted, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bison, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Bittern, <a href="#Page_536">536</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">haunts waste places, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cry, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nest, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Blue thrush, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_698" id="Page_698">[698]</a></span>Boer hunting the lion, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-41<br />
+<br />
+Bottles, skin, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-225<br />
+<br />
+Bubale, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-175<br />
+<br />
+Buffalo, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Bull, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wild, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunted with nets, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+C.<br />
+<br />
+Calf, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fatted, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worshipped, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Camel, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabian, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bactrian, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>-290</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">milk of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of carrying water, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flesh, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as beast of burden, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-258</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riding, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-268</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speed, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">malice of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">food, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-280</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foot, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hair and skin, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">needle's eye, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caspian emys, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hibernates, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">terror to horses, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legends, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cattle, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+Cerastes, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<br />
+Chameleon, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strength of grasp, <a href="#Page_607">607</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eyes, <a href="#Page_607">607</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">change of color, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chamois, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<br />
+Chariots, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-311<br />
+<br />
+Chetah, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Cobra di capello, <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br />
+<br />
+Cockatrice, <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<br />
+Coney, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruminant, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">watchful, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Coral, <a href="#Page_695">695</a><br />
+<br />
+Cormorant, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fishing, <a href="#Page_564">564</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voracious, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nests, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Coryphene, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<br />
+Crane, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br />
+<br />
+Crocodile, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description in Job, <a href="#Page_586">586</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worshipped by Egyptians, <a href="#Page_589">589</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seizing its prey, <a href="#Page_592">592</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eggs, <a href="#Page_595">595</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting, <a href="#Page_598">598</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cuckoo, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">great spotted, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cyprius, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+D.<br />
+<br />
+Deer, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunted, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">watchfulness of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-246</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_699" id="Page_699">[699]</a></span>Deloul, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Dhubb, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+<br />
+Dishon, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Dove, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">turtle, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Noah's, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in sacrifice, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carrier, <a href="#Page_493">493</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blue rock, <a href="#Page_495">495</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collared turtle, <a href="#Page_497">497</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">palm, <a href="#Page_497">497</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barbary, <a href="#Page_497">497</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+E.<br />
+<br />
+Eagle, <a href="#Page_430">430</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">golden, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">short-toed, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Egret, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br />
+<br />
+Egyptian mastigure, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+<br />
+Elephant, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ivory, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in war, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in hunting, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+F.<br />
+<br />
+Falcon, peregrine, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lanner, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fallow deer, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-175<br />
+<br />
+Field-mouse, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-124<br />
+<br />
+Fishes, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>-648<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apostolic fishermen, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of catching, <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as symbols, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Flea, <a href="#Page_688">688</a><br />
+<br />
+Flies, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">god of, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Frogs, <a href="#Page_630">630</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plague of, <a href="#Page_631">631</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">green, <a href="#Page_632">632</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">edible, <a href="#Page_632">632</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fox, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plentiful in Palestine, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeds upon the slain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Samson's foxes, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-85</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+G.<br />
+<br />
+Gazelle, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mode of defence, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of capture, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chase of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-170</span><br />
+<br />
+Gecko, <a href="#Page_605">605</a><br />
+<br />
+Gier-eagle, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br />
+<br />
+Gnats, <a href="#Page_685">685</a><br />
+<br />
+Goad, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Goat, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-219</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">milking-scene, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hair for clothing, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skin bottles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-225</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kneading-troughs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scapegoat, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intractable, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_700" id="Page_700">[700]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from sheep, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-229</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H.<br />
+<br />
+Hamster, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Hare, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a ruminant, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two species in Palestine, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hart, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+<br />
+Hawk, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sparrow, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harrier, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">white, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dove, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blue, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ring-tailed, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">night, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Herdsmen, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arab, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Heron, <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_542">542</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sociable, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight, <a href="#Page_546">546</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nest, <a href="#Page_547">547</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hind, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+<br />
+Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
+<br />
+Honey, <a href="#Page_667">667</a><br />
+<br />
+Hoopoe, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legend of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hornet, <a href="#Page_669">669</a><br />
+<br />
+Horse, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arab, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hoofs, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sale of Arab, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>-300</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chariots, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Horse-leech, <a href="#Page_693">693</a><br />
+<br />
+House-top, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br />
+<br />
+Hyacinthine gallinule, <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br />
+<br />
+Hyæna, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as scavenger, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-88</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">haunting graves, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">odour of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">superstitions concerning, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hyrax, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+I.<br />
+<br />
+Ibex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-236<br />
+<br />
+Ibis, white or sacred, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br />
+<br />
+Ichneumon, <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+<br />
+Insects, <a href="#Page_657">657</a><br />
+<br />
+Ivory, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-352<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+J.<br />
+<br />
+Jackal, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Jerboa, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+K.<br />
+<br />
+Kestrel, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br />
+<br />
+Kite, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">black, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Kneading-troughs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+L.<br />
+<br />
+Lämmergeier, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">food, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_701" id="Page_701">[701]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bone-breaker, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lapwing, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br />
+<br />
+Leviathan, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+<br />
+Lizard, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<br />
+Locust, <a href="#Page_657">657</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">swarms, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plague of, <a href="#Page_660">660</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Louse, <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br />
+<br />
+Lump-fish, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+M.<br />
+<br />
+Mole, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hard to capture, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frequents ruins, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">food, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Molluscs, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br />
+<br />
+Monitor, <a href="#Page_605">605</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nilotic, <a href="#Page_610">610</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">land, <a href="#Page_610">610</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Monkey, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
+<br />
+Mosquito, <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br />
+<br />
+Mouflon, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Mouse, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voracity, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mule, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridden by kings, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perverse, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Muræna, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<br />
+Moth, clothes, <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silkworm, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+N.<br />
+<br />
+Night-hawk, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br />
+<br />
+Nightjar, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cry, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nile-perch, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br />
+<br />
+Nineveh, sculptures of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+O.<br />
+<br />
+Oryx, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-156<br />
+<br />
+Osprey, <a href="#Page_436">436</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fishing, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ossifrage, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
+<br />
+Ostrich, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neglect of young, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>-528</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nest in sand, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chase, <a href="#Page_529">529</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scent, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speed, <a href="#Page_531">531</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eggs, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cry, <a href="#Page_531">531</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ounce, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Owl, <a href="#Page_454">454</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use in bird-catching, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">little, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">barn, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">screech, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">great, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian eagle, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">European eagle, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virginian eared, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ox, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_702" id="Page_702">[702]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">stalled, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yoke, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plough, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goad, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threshing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cart, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pasturage, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worshipped, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+P.<br />
+<br />
+Palestine, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br />
+<br />
+Partridge, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desert, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Passover, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Samaritan, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-210</span><br />
+<br />
+Peacock, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br />
+<br />
+Pearl, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br />
+<br />
+Pelican, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pouch, <a href="#Page_569">569</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeding young, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legends, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crested, <a href="#Page_573">573</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pigeon, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br />
+<br />
+Plough, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Porcupine, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Poultry, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br />
+<br />
+Purple dye, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+<br />
+Pygarg, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Q.<br />
+<br />
+Quail, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Israelites, <a href="#Page_510">510</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mode of capture, <a href="#Page_512">512</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+R.<br />
+<br />
+Rams' horns, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-203<br />
+<br />
+Raven, <a href="#Page_516">516</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in ark, <a href="#Page_516">516</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Elijah, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">notices of, in Talmud, <a href="#Page_519">519</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ashy-necked, <a href="#Page_520">520</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_520">520</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+S.<br />
+<br />
+Scheltopusic, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<br />
+Scorpion, <a href="#Page_690">690</a><br />
+<br />
+Serpents, <a href="#Page_613">613</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motion, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">poison, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sluggish, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anecdotes of, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sheat-fishes, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheep, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pasturage, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">watering, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">folds, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-191</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dogs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">broad-tailed, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_703" id="Page_703">[703]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in sacrifice, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Shepherds, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sling, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">care of flock, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Shephiphon, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<br />
+Silkworm, <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+<br />
+Skink, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<br />
+Snail, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br />
+<br />
+Snake, glass, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dart, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">charmer, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sparrow, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on house-tops, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">caught with nets, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nests, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tree, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spider, <a href="#Page_692">692</a><br />
+<br />
+Sponge, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br />
+<br />
+Star-gazer, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br />
+<br />
+Stork, <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacred, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migratory, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">care of young, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">black, <a href="#Page_558">558</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sucking-fish, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br />
+<br />
+Surmullet, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br />
+<br />
+Swallow, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">swift, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Swan, <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br />
+<br />
+Swine, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prohibited to Jews, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hated, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wild, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+T.<br />
+<br />
+Threshing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Tortoise, <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_577">577</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slow-motioned, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Toxicoa, <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunny, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+U.<br />
+<br />
+Unicorn, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a real animal, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+V.<br />
+<br />
+Viper, horned, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sand, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Vulture, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scavengers, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">griffon, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+W.<br />
+<br />
+Wanderoo, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-400<br />
+<br />
+Weasel, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fond of eggs, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">story of owl and weasel, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Wild bull, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goat, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ass, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boar, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Wind-hover, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br />
+<br />
+Wolf, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">only mentioned symbolically, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting in packs, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fierceness of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special enemy of sheep, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_704" id="Page_704">[704]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tamed by a monk, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Wool, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Worm, crimson, <a href="#Page_676">676</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Y.<br />
+<br />
+Yoke, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+THE<br />
+<span class="b15">HOME EDITION</span><br />
+OF THE<br />
+<span class="b13">Story of the Bible</span><br />
+<br />
+Surpasses in Value and Completeness All Former Editions<br />
+of this Standard Work.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<blockquote>
+<p>It contains fine Colored Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>It contains a Map of the Bible Lands.</p>
+
+<p>It contains a Steel Plate Engraving after Rembrandt
+(engraved expressly for the Frontispiece).</p>
+
+<p>It is printed on extra heavy paper, and bound in rich
+and attractive style.</p></blockquote>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>THE HOME EDITION of the Story of the Bible.</b></p>
+
+<p>Gives admirers of the book an opportunity to procure
+it in a handsomer form, either for presentation to friends
+or for use at home.</p>
+
+<p>The <small>COVER</small> of this edition bears an appropriate and
+ornamental design in gold and color. The <small>INSIDE</small> is no
+less attractive than the outside. On opening it, the <span class="smcap">Illuminated
+Presentation Page</span> first meets the eye. This
+is followed by the beautiful <span class="smcap">Steel Plate Engraving of
+Jacob's Dream</span>, as a Frontispiece. A double page <span class="smcap">Colored
+Map</span> comes next, showing countries and places mentioned
+in the Bible. <span class="smcap">Six Richly Colored Plates</span>, with
+300 <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>, illustrating the principal scenes and
+events narrated in the book, are distributed throughout
+its pages, from beginning to end.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+FOR SALE<br />
+by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.</b>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center"><b><span class="b15">The Story of the Gospel.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>360 Pages. 16mo. With 150 Illustrations, and a
+Frontispiece in Colors.</b></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center"><b>The New Testament in simple form for Children. Written
+in Language easy to understand. Printed in large,
+plain type, and filled with Pictures.</b></p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>100th THOUSAND NOW SELLING.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The Author of the "<span class="smcap">Story of the Bible</span>," after publishing
+that work, found that a smaller and still simpler
+book on the New Testament alone, was needed.</p>
+
+<p>He therefore prepared the "<span class="smcap">Story of the Gospel</span>,"
+which contains the Life of Christ written in a style easily
+understood by children, and illustrated by a large number
+of excellent wood engravings.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b><em>From Rev. M. A. GOODELL, Northwood, Iowa.</em></b></p>
+
+<p>I am much pleased with the "<span class="smcap">Story of the Gospel</span>." The
+illustrations are excellent. The Story is told in beautiful language,
+and in such a way that very difficult points are made plain even to
+children. It is also a good commentary on the Word for older persons,
+and should be in every family.</p>
+
+<p>I lent my copy of the "<span class="smcap">Story of the Gospel</span>" to the teacher
+of the Primary Department in our public school, who used it instead
+of the Bible in opening school, and after a few days said she could
+not do without it.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+FOR SALE<br />
+by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.</b>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+<span class="b15">FIRST STEPS</span><br />
+<span class="b13">FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL PATHS.</span>
+<br />
+328 Pages. 16mo. With Colored Frontispiece and<br />
+140 Illustrations.</b></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>There still remained one class of learners whose wants
+were not supplied by either the <span class="smcap">Story of the Bible</span> or the
+<span class="smcap">Story of the Gospel</span>. These were the little ones in the Nursery,
+the Infant School, and the Kinder-Garten. For their
+instruction the author has prepared a third book, <span class="smcap">First
+Steps for Little Feet in Gospel Paths</span>. This book is
+arranged on a different plan from either of the preceding.
+Instead of being divided into Chapters, it consists of separate
+passages or Lessons, most of them quite short, and
+each one complete in itself. Each Lesson is followed by
+Questions so simple that the little hearers, if attentive when
+the passage is read, may readily answer them.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>From Robert W. Fenwick, President of the Washington Fröebel Society,
+Washington, D. C.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Publisher</span>: I am the grateful recipient of a nicely-bound,
+well-printed and illustrated work entitled "First Steps." Upon an
+examination of it, I feel that every Kinder-Garten teacher should possess
+this gem of a book for little children. Its simple presentation of
+great truths and facts, in words as well as in pictures, should be brought
+home to the heart of every child by the parent or teacher; and, this
+done, the coming generation will be wiser and better than the past.
+I am thankful (as President of the Washington Fröebel Society, having
+under its care the Bethany Free Kinder-Garten) that this book has
+reached me.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.</b><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="b15"><b>NEW LIGHTS</b></span><br />
+&mdash;ON&mdash;<br />
+<span class="b13">OLD PATHS.</span><br />
+<br />
+By Charles Foster, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.<br />
+<br />
+<b>QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.</b><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p>The author of the stories contained in this beautiful book
+has given life and power of speech to many of the inanimate
+objects which we meet in every-day life.</p>
+
+<p>The Well in the Yard, the Gate and Gate-Post, the Brook
+and Water-Wheel, with other familiar things, give their impressions,
+in these charming and original tales, of what takes place
+around them, and speak to one another with audible voice.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader will listen to what they say, he will learn some
+valuable lessons, and perhaps receive advice that will help him
+in days to come.</p>
+
+<p>Many familiar places and oft-trodden paths will be given a
+new interest by reading some of the stories contained in this
+book.</p>
+
+<p>Objects that have been familiar for years, and which have
+never caused a moment's reflection as they were carelessly passed
+by, will now have a new significance, and whenever seen will
+connect themselves with the imaginary parts they play in this
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>In appearance the book is an unusually handsome one,
+being TASTEFULLY BOUND AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED.
+It contains <strong>350</strong> PICTURES which in artistic
+merit, interest, and faithful portrayal of the scenes described
+in the text, are unsurpassed by any book of its class.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_708.jpg" width="400" height="490" alt="lights" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center space-above">
+<span class="b15">NEW LIGHTS</span><br />
+&mdash;ON&mdash;<br />
+<span class="b13">OLD PATHS.</span><br />
+<br />
+By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.<br />
+<br />
+<b>QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.</b><br />
+<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br  />
+
+Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="b15"><b>BIBLE PICTURES</b></span><br />
+<b>&mdash;AND&mdash;</b><br />
+<b>WHAT THEY TEACH US.</b><br />
+<br />
+Containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,<br />
+<small>WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS</small>
+<br />
+By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered paper, and<br />
+bound in English cloth, black side stamp, gilt title on back.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p>The Collection of Bible Pictures contained in this book is probably
+one of the most complete that has ever been brought together in one
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing the work, the greatest care has been observed to use
+only such designs as will adequately illustrate the Bible scenes and
+fittingly portray the principal events in Bible history.</p>
+
+<p>It has been a matter of great difficulty to obtain so large a number
+of pictures of the necessary merit, as illustrations of Bible subjects
+present peculiar difficulties to the artist. While preserving the freedom
+of style and vigor of treatment necessary to give life to his designs
+and reality to the varied scenes of the Scripture narrative, he
+must preserve for them a feeling of reverence and endow them with a
+dignity worthy of their sacred character.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of the pictures in this book are reproduced from
+designs by foreign artists who have been celebrated for their skill in
+this branch of art. Others are by artists in this country. All the pictures
+have been personally selected by, or else drawn under the
+direction of, the author, who has spent years of labor and thousands
+of dollars in forming this collection.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the engravings in "<span class="smcap">Bible Pictures</span>" were first obtained
+and used for illustrating the "Story of the Bible" and the "Story of
+the Gospel," two former books by the same author. Other new engravings
+have been added, and the whole set, <small>THREE HUNDRED AND
+TWELVE</small> in number, are now brought together in this one volume,
+in which the broad pages (8 × 9<sup><small>3</small></sup>&frasl;<sub><small>4</small></sub> inches), fine, heavy paper and careful
+printing, display their artistic excellence to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The book forms a complete pictorial history of the main portion of
+the Bible. Many parts are so fully illustrated that the narrative can
+be followed and understood by merely looking at the series of pictures
+which illustrate them, so that children unable to read may obtain
+a fair idea of the nature and sequence of Bible events, by simply
+turning over the pages. The book, however, is by no means merely
+a picture book. A lucid and brief explanation, written by the author
+of the "Story of the Bible," accompanies each picture, on the same
+page, or on the page immediately facing it, so that the picture and
+the explanation appear simultaneously to the eye.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.</b>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_710.jpg" width="400" height="472" alt="pictures" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+<span class="b15">BIBLE PICTURES</span>,</b><br />
+AND<br />
+<span class="b13">WHAT THEY TEACH US.</span><br />
+<br />
+A Book containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,<br />
+with brief descriptions.<br />
+<br />
+By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," etc.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered paper and bound<br />
+in English cloth, ornamental side and back stamp.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+&mdash;THE&mdash;<br />
+STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.<br />
+<br />
+704 Pages. 300 Illustrations.</b><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p>This book contains a description of each animal mentioned in the
+Bible, and tells of its appearance, its habits and the use to which it was
+put by mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of understanding the nature of these animals, as a
+means of making clear the Scriptures, will be readily seen when it is remembered
+how frequently they are mentioned in the Bible, and how different
+many of them must be from those which we are accustomed to see.</p>
+
+<p>Some passages in the Bible which have formerly possessed little or
+no meaning to the ordinary reader will have a new significance after
+the "<strong>Story of the Bible Animals</strong>" has been read, and the descriptions
+which it contains of the animals of the East, and the habits
+of Eastern people, have become familiar.</p>
+
+<p>The book is not only interesting and instructive from the stories
+which it contains on the ever-popular subject of Natural History, but it
+also presents a vivid description of life in the Bible lands.</p>
+
+<p>It describes the appearance at the present time of many of the places
+mentioned in the Bible, as well as the manners and customs of the people
+who dwell there.</p>
+
+<p>Adventures of modern travellers in these unfamiliar and seldom-trodden
+paths form an important part of the book and are of absorbing
+interest, presenting to the reader a graphic picture of life in the
+Holy Land as it is to-day.</p>
+
+<p>In the never-changing East this is in many respects a counterpart
+of the times in which the Bible was written. The Arab as he speeds
+across the desert upon his swift dromedary, or sits at the door of his
+tent watching his flocks and herds, retains many of the customs which
+prevailed in the time of Abraham.</p>
+
+<p>The wild animals of these countries still roam through the forests and
+are hunted and slain by mankind. The crocodile and hippopotamus of
+the Nile are yet found in that mighty river, and yield their lives to the
+courage and skill of modern hunters as did those of old.</p>
+
+<p>These scenes are vividly portrayed in the "<strong>Story of the Bible
+Animals</strong>" by travellers who have taken an active part in the adventures
+which they narrate, and who are thus able to adequately describe
+incidents that will be new and strange to most readers.</p>
+
+<p>The book is also a valuable commentary on many portions of the
+Bible, for without some knowledge of the matters upon which it treats,
+the point of many passages of Scripture must either be entirely missed
+or else wrongly interpreted.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>
+Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.</b><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="tn"><h3>Transcriber's note:</h3>
+<p>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.
+Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as
+printed.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+paragraphs, thus the page number of the illustration might not match
+the page number in the List of Illustrations.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44685 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:55:11 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:55:11 -0700
commit	91ed10a42bf9c7a822035773edbba816634e4abd (patch)
tree	77e009f8a10c8c0165bbea21c441b97133595b89 /44685-h