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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:55:01 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:55:01 -0700 |
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diff --git a/44678-h/44678-h.htm b/44678-h/44678-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e1761c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/44678-h/44678-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2381 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Penitente Moradas of Abiquiú, + by Richard Eighme Ahlborn. + </title> + + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .5em; text-indent: 1em; + text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .5em; + line-height: 120%; } /* allow room for fn anchors */ + + h1 {text-align: center; font-weight: normal; + clear: both; line-height: 125%; + font-size: 140%; } + h2 {text-align: center; font-weight: normal; + clear: both; line-height: 100%; + font-size: 110%; } + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;font-size: 100%; } + + /* styles for Transcriber's Note */ + .tnote {background-color: #EEE; color: inherit; + margin: 5% 15%; padding: 0.5em 1em; + border: 1px solid gray; font-size: small; } + .tnote p {text-indent: 0; text-align: left; margin-bottom: .25em; + margin-top: .25em; } + + /* style for front matter */ + .frontm p {text-align: right; } + + /* styles for printer detail */ + .printr p {text-align: center; font-size: 80%; } + .printr hr {width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } + + /* styles for images */ + .image-center {text-align: center; margin: 1.5em auto; } + .image-left {float: left; margin-right: 1.5em; } + .caption p {text-align: justify; font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0; margin: 0.25em 0; } + + /* styles for author and forward */ + .forwd {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; } + .forwd .auth {margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; text-align: center; } + + /* styles for footnotes; fnanchor styled to fit within line height */ + .footnote {margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%; + margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; font-size: 95%; } + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.3em; font-size: small; + font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; } + + /* misc styles */ + .nodent {text-indent: 0; } + .block {margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-indent: 0; } + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps; } + .gap-above {margin-top: 3em; } + #coverpage {border: 1px solid gray; } + + /* style for sidenotes on handheld devices */ + @media handheld { + .image-left {float: none; text-align: center; margin-right: 0; } + } + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44678 ***</div> + +<div class="tnote"> + +<p>Transcriber's Note:</p> + +<p>With the exception of Figure 26, which forms the frontispiece of +this work, the individual figures have been shifted next to their +first mention in the text.</p> + +<p>Apparent typographical errors have been corrected.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="frontm"> + +<p><span class="smcap">Contributions from<br />The Museum of History +and Technology<br />Paper 63</span></p> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">The Penitente Moradas of Abiquiú</span><br /> +<i>Richard E. Ahlborn</i></p> + +<p class="gap-above">Introduction</p> + +<p>Penitente Organization</p> + +<p>Origins of the Penitente Movement</p> + +<p>The History of Abiquiú</p> + +<p>The Architecture of the Moradas</p> + +<p>Interior Space and Artifacts</p> + +<p>Summary</p> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution +Press<br />Washington, D.C.</span><br />1968</p> + +</div> + +<div class="printr"> + +<p class="gap-above">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968 0—287-597</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office<br /> +Washington, D.C. 20402—Price 75 cents</p> + +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 447px;"> + <img src="images/fig_26.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 26.</span> + <span class="smcap">Cross</span> (<i>cruz</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 106.7 centimeters high, 73.6 wide. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First quarter of 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Abiquiú; Onésimo Martínez. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, center room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Indigo blue designs (stencilled?).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="forwd"> + +<p class="auth"><i>Richard E. Ahlborn</i></p> + +<h1><i>THE PENITENTE MORADAS OF ABIQUIÚ</i></h1> + +<p class="nodent"><i>By the early 19th century, Spanish-speaking residents of villages +in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado felt the need for a +brotherhood that would preserve their traditional social and religious +beliefs. Known as "brothers of light," or </i>penitentes<i>, these +Spanish-Americans centered their activities in a houselike building, +or </i>morada<i>, especially equipped for Holy Week ceremonies.</i></p> + +<p><i>For the first time, two intact </i>moradas<i> have been fully +photographed and described through the cooperation of the +</i>penitente<i> brothers of Abiquiú, New Mexico.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <i>Richard E. Ahlborn is associate curator in the +Division of Cultural History in the Smithsonian Institution's Museum +of History and Technology.</i></p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>Introduction</i></h2> + +<p class="nodent"><span class="smcap">This study describes</span> two +earthern buildings and their special furnishings—humble but unique +documents of Spanish-American culture. The two structures are located +in Abiquiú, a rural, Spanish-speaking village in northern New Mexico. +Known locally as <i>moradas</i>, they serve as meeting houses for +members of a flagellant brotherhood, the <i>penitentes</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>penitente</i> brotherhood is characteristic of Spanish culture +in New Mexico (herein called <i>Hispano</i> to indicate its derivation +from Hispanic traditions in Mexico). Although penitential activities +occurred in +Spain's former colonies—Mexico, Argentina, and the +Philippines—the <i>penitentes</i> in the mountainous region +that extends north of Albuquerque into southern Colorado +are remarkable for their persistence.</p> + +<p>After a century and a half of clerical criticism<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_1" id="Ref_1" href="#Foot_1">[1]</a></span> and +extracultural pressures against the movement, physical +evidence of <i>penitente</i> activity, although scattered +and diminished, still survives. As intact, functioning +artifacts, the <i>penitente moradas</i> at Abiquiú are valuable +records of an autonomous, socio-religious brotherhood +and of its place in the troubled history of +Spanish-American culture in the Southwest.</p> + +<p>This paper maintains that <i>penitentes</i> are not culturally deviant +or aberrant but comprise a movement based firmly in Hispanic +traditions as shown by their architecture and equipment found at +Abiquiú and by previously established religious and social practices. +Also, this paper presents in print for the first time a complete, +integrated, and functioning group of <i>penitente</i> artifacts +documented, in situ, by photographs.</p> + +<p>My indebtedness in this study to local residents is immense: first, +for inspiration, from Rosenaldo Salazar of Hernández and his son +Regino, who introduced me to <i>penitente</i> members at Abiquiú and +four times accompanied me to the <i>moradas</i>. The singular +opportunity to measure and to photograph interiors and individual +artifacts is due wholly to the understandably wary but proud, +<i>penitentes</i> themselves. The task of identifying religious images +in the <i>moradas</i> was expertly done by E. Boyd, Curator of the +Spanish-Colonial Department in the Museum of New Mexico at Santa Fe. +The final responsibility for accuracy and interpretation of data, of +course, is mine alone.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_1" id="Foot_1" href="#Ref_1">[1]</a> +Beginning in 1820 with the report of ecclesiastic visitor Niño de +Guevara, the Catholic Church has continued to frown upon +<i>penitente</i> activities, A modern critical study by a churchman: +<span class="smcap">Father Angélico Chavez</span>, "The Penitentes of New Mexico," +<i>New Mexico Historical Review</i> (April 1954), vol. 22, pp. 97-123.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>Penitente Organization</i></h2> + +<p class="nodent"><i>Penitente</i> brotherhoods usually are made up of Spanish-speaking +Catholic laymen in rural communities. Although the activities and +artifacts vary in specific details, the basic structure, ceremonies, +and aims of <i>penitentes</i> as a cultural institution may be +generalized. Full membership is open only to adult males. Female +relatives may serve <i>penitente</i> chapters as auxiliaries who +clean, cook, and join in prayer, as do children on occasion, but men +hold all offices and make up the membership-at-large.</p> + +<p><i>Penitente</i> membership comprises two strata distinguishable by +title and activity. In his study of <i>Hispano</i> institutional +values, Monro Edmonson notes that <i>penitente</i> chapters are +divided into these two groups: (1) common members or brothers in +discipline, <i>hermanos disciplantes</i>; and (2) officers, called +brothers of light, <i>hermanos de luz</i>.</p> + +<p>Edmonson names each officer and lists his duties:</p> + +<p class="block">The head of the chapter is the <i>hermano mayor</i>. He is assisted +in administrative duties by the warden (<i>celador</i>) and the +collector (<i>mandatario</i>), and in ceremonial duties by an +assistant (<i>coadjutor</i>), reader (<i>secretario</i>), +blood-letter (<i>sangredor</i>) and flutist (<i>pitero</i>). An +official called the nurse (<i>enfermero</i>) attends the flagellants, +and a master of novices (<i>maestro de novios</i>) supervises the +training of new members.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_2" id="Ref_2" href="#Foot_2">[2]</a></span></p> + +<p>In an early and apparently biased account of the <i>penitentes</i>, +Reverend Alexandar Darley,<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_3" id="Ref_3" href="#Foot_3">[3]</a></span> +a Presbyterian missionary in southern +Colorado, provides additional terms for three officers: <i>picador</i> +(the blood-letter), <i>regador</i> or <i>rezador</i> (a tenth officer, +who led prayers) and <i>mayordomo de la muerte</i> (literally "steward +of death"). As host for meetings between <i>penitente</i> chapters, +the <i>mayordomo</i> may be a late 19th-century innovation that bears +the political overtones of a local leader.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_4" id="Ref_4" href="#Foot_4">[4]</a></span></p> + +<p>Having less influence than individual officers are the +<i>penitente</i> members-at-large, numbering between thirty and fifty +in each chapter. Through the <i>Hispano</i> family system of extended +bilateral kinship, however, much of the village population is +represented in each local <i>penitente</i> group.</p> + +<p>Edmonson's study in the Rimrock district demonstrates the deep sense +of social responsibility felt by <i>penitentes</i> for members and +their extended family circles. "Special assistants were appointed from +time to time to visit the sick or perform other community services +which the brotherhood may undertake."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_5" id="Ref_5" href="#Foot_5">[5]</a></span> +At other times of need, +especially in sickness and death, the general <i>penitente</i> +membership renders invaluable service to the afflicted family. In +addition, <i>penitente</i> welfare efforts include spiritual as well +as physical comfort such as wakes, prayers and rosaries, and the +singing of funereal chants (<i>alabados</i>). At Española in November +of 1965, I witnessed <i>penitentes</i> contributing such help to +respected nonmembers: grave digging, financial aid, and a rosary +service with <i>alabados</i>.</p> + +<p>These spiritual services, however, are peripheral to the principal +religious activity of <i>penitentes</i>—the Lenten observance of the +Passion and death of Jesus. During Holy Week, prayer meetings, +rosaries, and <i>via crucis</i> processions with religious images are +held at the <i>morada</i> and at a site representing Calvary +(<i>calvario</i>), usually the local cemetery. On Good Friday, vigils +are kept and the <i>morada</i> is darkened for a service known as +<i>las tinieblas</i>. The ceremony of "the darkenings" consists of +silent prayer broken by violent noise making. Metal sheets and chains, +wooden blocks and rattles are manipulated to suggest natural +disturbances at the moment of Jesus' death on the cross. This emphatic +portrayal of His last hours is recalled also by acts of contrition and +flagellation in <i>penitente</i> initiation rites, punishments, and +Holy Week processions.</p> + +<p><i>Penitentes</i> use physical discipline and mortification as a +dramatic means to intensify their imitation of Jesus' suffering.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_6" id="Ref_6" href="#Foot_6">[6]</a></span> +Heavy timber crosses (<i>maderos</i>) and cactus whips +(<i>disciplinas</i>) are used in processions that often include a +figure of death in a cart (<i>la carreta de la muerte</i>). +Disciplinary and initiatory mortification in the <i>morada</i> makes +use of flint or glass blood-letting devices (<i>padernales</i>).<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_7" id="Ref_7" href="#Foot_7">[7]</a></span></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_2" id="Foot_2" href="#Ref_2">[2]</a> +<span class="smcap">Monro S. Edmonson</span>, <i>Los Manitos: A Study of +Institutional Values</i> (Publ. 25, Middle American Research +Institute; New Orleans: Tulane University, 1950), p. 43.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_3" id="Foot_3" href="#Ref_3">[3]</a> +<span class="smcap">Alexander M. Darley</span>, <i>The Passionists of the +Southwest</i> (Pueblo, <i>1893</i>).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_4" id="Foot_4" href="#Ref_4">[4]</a> +<span class="smcap">E. Boyd</span>, Curator of the Spanish-Colonial Department, +Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe, states that Jesús Trujjillo in 1947 +furnished information on other <i>penitente</i> officers, including +one man who uses the <i>matraca</i> and one who acts as a sergeant at +arms.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_5" id="Foot_5" href="#Ref_5">[5]</a> +<span class="smcap">Edmonson</span>, loc. cit.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_6" id="Foot_6" href="#Ref_6">[6]</a> +<span class="smcap">George Wharton James</span>, <i>New Mexico: Land of the Delight +Makers</i> (Boston, 1920), lists concisely the Biblical and historical +references to religious mortification practiced by New Mexican +<i>penitentes</i>.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_7" id="Foot_7" href="#Ref_7">[7]</a> +<span class="smcap">Darley</span> (op. cit., pp. 8 ff.) gives an exhaustive list of +methods of mortification said to be used by <i>penitentes</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>Origins of the Penitente Movement</i></h2> + +<p class="nodent">By 1833, bodily penance practiced in lay brotherhoods of +<i>Hispano</i> Catholics attracted criticism from the Church in New +Mexico and resulted in the pejorative name <i>penitentes</i>.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_8" id="Ref_8" href="#Foot_8">[8]</a></span> +Historically, however, within the traditional framework of Hispanic +Catholicism, the <i>penitentes</i> had precedents for their religious +practices, including flagellation.</p> + +<p><i>Penitente</i> rites were derived from Catholic services already +common in colonial New Mexico. Prayers and rosaries said before altars +comprised an important part of <i>Hispano</i> religious observances, +and processions of Catholics and <i>penitentes</i> alike were +announced by bell, drum, and rifle in <i>Hispano</i> villages. In +particular, +<i>penitentes</i> used <i>via crucis</i> processions to dramatize the +Passion, portrayed in every Catholic church by the +fourteen Stations of the Cross. <i>Penitentes</i> also maintained +Catholic Lenten practices by holding <i>tenebrae</i> +services, the <i>tinieblas</i> rites mentioned above, and by +flagellation.</p> + +<p>These parallels between Catholic and <i>penitente</i> religious +observances caused Edmonson to theorize that "the autonomous movement +originated within the Church."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_9" id="Ref_9" href="#Foot_9">[9]</a></span> +Variations, however, between the two +religious traditions led Edmonson to discover "an important thread of +religious independence and even apostasy in New Mexican history."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_10" id="Ref_10" href="#Foot_10">[10]</a></span> +Edmonson's study of 1950 has established the persistence of +<i>penitente</i> activity in <i>Hispano</i> culture.</p> + +<p>Three and a half centuries earlier, in 1598, Spanish settlers made a +courageous thrust into the inhospitable environment of New Mexico. +Through the 17th and 18th centuries, Spanish settlement along the +upper Rio Grande was a tenuous thread unraveled from a stronger fabric +in Mexico. Aridity and extremes in temperatures marked New Mexico's +climate. Arable land was scarce and could be extended back from +streams only by careful upkeep of the irrigation ditches. Plateaus +rose from 1500 to more than 2500 meters in altitude. Building timbers +were hard to obtain without roads or navigable rivers.</p> + +<p>Finally, distance itself was a challenge, sometimes insurmountable for +the supply caravans from Mexico. Outfitted over a thousand miles to +the south of Santa Fe, the Mexican caravans brought <i>presidio</i> +and mission supplies, but few goods for the common settler. By the end +of the 18th century, Spanish authorities thought of the northern +colonies (<i>provincias internas</i>) primarily as missionary fields +and military buffer zones.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_11" id="Ref_11" href="#Foot_11">[11]</a></span></p> + +<p>Cultural traditions and an insecure environment caused Spanish +colonists to turn to religion for comfort. Again, however, a supply +problem arose. Individual <i>ranchos</i> were too scattered for +clerical visits, and even settlements that were grouped for greater +security, <i>poblaciones</i> or <i>plazas</i>, became <i>visitas</i> +on little +more than an annual basis, sharing two dozen Franciscan +clergy with missions assigned to Indian <i>pueblos</i> +and Spanish villages. Before 1800, a shortage of friars +prompted the Bishop in Durango to send secular clergy +into the Franciscan enclave of New Mexico. In 1821 +the Mexican Revolution formalized secularization with +a new constitution. In brief, the traditional religious +patterns of the <i>Hispanos</i> were threatened. They needed +reinforcement if they were to survive.</p> + +<p>By 1850, other conditions in New Mexico endangered the status quo of +the Spanish-speaking residents. With the growing dominance of +Anglo-Americans in the commercial, military, political, and social +matters of Santa Fe, <i>Hispanos</i> recognized the threat of Anglo +culture to their own traditional way of life. This cultural challenge +turned many <i>Hispanos</i> back in upon themselves for physical and +social security and for spiritual comfort. By the second quarter of +the 19th century, <i>penitentes</i> were common in <i>Hispano</i> +villages such as Abiquiú.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_12" id="Ref_12" href="#Foot_12">[12]</a></span> +The immediate origins of penitentism +were clearly present in early 19th-century New Mexico.</p> + +<p>Despite this evidence, historians of the Spanish Southwest have +suggested geographically and culturally remote sources for the +<i>penitentes</i>. Dorothy Woodward has pointed out similarities +between New Mexican <i>penitentes</i> and Spanish brotherhoods +(<i>cofradías</i>) of laymen.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_13" id="Ref_13" href="#Foot_13">[13]</a></span> +<i>Cofradías</i> were not full +church orders like the Franciscan Third Order, but they did conduct +Lenten processions with flagellation.</p> + +<p>Somewhat nearer in miles but culturally more distant from <i>Hispano +penitente</i> experience was mortification practiced by Indians in New +Spain. In the 16th century, Spanish chroniclers reported incidents +ranging from sanguinary ceremonies of central Mexican tribes to +whippings witnessed in the northern provinces of Sonora and New +Mexico. While of peripheral interest to this study, these activities +of American Indians had no direct bearing on <i>Hispano</i> cultural +needs in early 19th-century New Mexico.</p> + +<p>It is more significant that <i>Hispanos</i> already knew a lay +religious institution that very easily could have served as a model +for the <i>penitente</i> brotherhood—the Third Order of St. Francis. +Established in 13th-century Italy and carried to Spain by the Gray +Friars, the Order is recorded in contemporary histories of New +Mexico before 1700. Materials in the archives of the +Archdiocese of Santa Fe also document the presence +of the Franciscan Third Order in New Mexico and +suggest to me its influence on <i>penitente</i> activity.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_14" id="Ref_14" href="#Foot_14">[14]</a></span></p> + +<p>In March 1776, Fray Domínguez, an ecclesiastic visitor, recorded +Lenten "exercises" of the Third Order under the supervision of the +resident priest at Santa Cruz and, two weeks later, in April, +Domínguez visited Abiquiú, where he commended the Franciscan friar, +Fray Sebastian Angel Fernández, for "feasts of Our Lady, rosary with +the father in church. Fridays of Lent, <i>Via Crucis</i> with the +father, and later, after dark, discipline attended by those who came +voluntarily."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_15" id="Ref_15" href="#Foot_15">[15]</a></span> +Domínguez, however, described the priest as "not at +all obedient to rule"<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_16" id="Ref_16" href="#Foot_16">[16]</a></span> +when Father Fernández, acting in an +independent manner, proceeded to build missions at Picuris and Sandia +without authorization. But in 1777, he again praised Fray Fernández +for special <i>Via Crucis</i> devotions and "scourging by the resident +missionary and some of the faithful."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_17" id="Ref_17" href="#Foot_17">[17]</a></span> +Domínguez thus documented +flagellant practices and <i>tinieblas</i> services at Abiquiú and his +approval, as an official Church representative, of these activities.</p> + +<p>Father Chavez, O.F.M., protests the theory of <i>penitente</i> origins +in the Third Order of St. Francis and counters with the idea that +"penitentism" was imported directly from Mexico in the early +1800s.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_18" id="Ref_18" href="#Foot_18">[18]</a></span> +I note, however, that the bishops seated in Santa Fe after +1848 recognized the strength of this lay socio-religious movement and +tried to deal with it in terms of the Order. At a synod in 1888, +Archbishop Salpointe pleaded for <i>penitentes</i> "to return" to the +Third Order. Some degree of direct influence of the Third Order on +"penitentism" seems fairly certain.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_8" id="Foot_8" href="#Ref_8">[8]</a> +<span class="smcap">Angélico Chavez</span>, <i>Archives of the Archdiocese of Santa +Fe, 1678-1900</i> (Washington, 1957): "Books of Patentes," 1833: books +xi, xii, xix, lxxiii, and lxxxii. (Original documents from archives +noted hereinafter as AASF.)</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_9" id="Foot_9" href="#Ref_9">[9]</a> +<span class="smcap">Edmonson</span>, p. 33.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_10" id="Foot_10" href="#Ref_10">[10]</a> +Ibid., p. 18.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_11" id="Foot_11" href="#Ref_11">[11]</a> +<span class="smcap">H. E. Bolton</span>, "The Spanish Borderlands and the Mission +as a Frontier Institution," <i>American Historical Review</i> (Santa +Fe, 1917), vol. 23, pp. 42-61, indicates that this policy was +developed after 1765 by Charles III of Spain in an attempt to +reorganize the administration of his vast colonial empire.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_12" id="Foot_12" href="#Ref_12">[12]</a> +AASF, Patentes, book lxxiii, box 6.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_13" id="Foot_13" href="#Ref_13">[13]</a> +"The Penitentes of the Southwest" (unpublished Ph. D. +dissertation, Yale University, 1935).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_14" id="Foot_14" href="#Ref_14">[14]</a> +<span class="smcap">Chavez</span>, <i>Archives</i>, p. 3 (ftn.).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_15" id="Foot_15" href="#Ref_15">[15]</a> +<span class="smcap">Fray Francisco Atanasio Domínguez</span>, <i>The Missions of +New Mexico, 1776</i>, transl. and annot. Eleanor B. Adams and Fray +Angelico Chavez (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1956), +p. 124.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_16" id="Foot_16" href="#Ref_16">[16]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, ms., from Biblioteca Nacional de Méjico, leg. +10, no. 46, p. 300.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_17" id="Foot_17" href="#Ref_17">[17]</a> +Ibid., no. 43, p. 321.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_18" id="Foot_18" href="#Ref_18">[18]</a> +<span class="smcap">Chavez</span>, "Penitentes," p. 100.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>The History of Abiquiú</i></h2> + +<div class="image-left" style="max-width: 177px;"> + <a href="images/fig_01_large.png"> + <img src="images/fig_01_thumb.jpg" alt=""/> + </a> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 1.</span> + Mid-19th-century New Mexico, showing pertinent geographical + features, Indian pueblos (indicated by solid triangles), and + Spanish villages cited in text.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="nodent">About three generations before the first <i>morada</i> was built at +Abiquiú, the conditions of settlement mentioned earlier and subsequent +historical events resulted in an environment conducive to the +development of +<i>penitente</i> activity. Shortly after 1740, civil authorities +in Santa Fe attempted to settle colonists along the +Chama River in order to create a buffer zone between +marauding Indians to the northwest and Spanish and +Pueblo villages on the Rio Grande (Figure 1). This +constant threat of annihilation produced self-reliant +and independent-minded settlers.</p> + +<p>Unorthodoxy appeared early in the religious history of Abiquiú. By +1744, settlers had installed Santa Rosa de Lima as their patroness in +a little riverside plaza near modern Abiquiú. After a decade, several +colonists from Santa Rosa were moved to the hilltop plaza of Abiquiú, +where the mission of Santo Tomás Apostol had been established. In his +1776 visit to Abiquiú, Domínguez noted, however, a continuing +allegiance to the earlier patroness: "... settlers use the name of +Santa Rosa, as the lost mission was called in the old days. Therefore, +they celebrate the feast of this female saint [August 30th] and not of +that masculine saint [St. Thomas the Apostle, December 21]."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_19" id="Ref_19" href="#Foot_19">[19]</a></span> +Loyalty to Saint Rose survived this official protest, and village +festivals have persisted in honoring Santa Rosa to this day. It is, +therefore, not surprising to find her image in the earlier east +<i>morada</i> of Abiquiú.</p> + +<p>A disturbing influence in the religious life of Abiquiú were +semi-Christianized servants <i>(genízaros)</i>, who had been ransomed +from the Indians by Spaniards.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_20" id="Ref_20" href="#Foot_20">[20]</a></span> +Often used to establish frontier +settlements, <i>genízaros</i> came to be a threat to the cultural +stability of Abiquiú. For example, in 1762, two <i>genízaros</i> +accused of witchcraft were taken to Santa Cruz for judicial action. +After the trial, Governor Cachupín sent a detachment from Santa Fe to +Abiquiú to destroy an inscribed stone said to be a relic of black +magic.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_21" id="Ref_21" href="#Foot_21">[21]</a></span> +Similar incidents with <i>genízaros</i> during the next +generation prolonged the unstable religious pattern at Abiquiú. In +1766, an Indian girl accused a <i>genízaro</i> couple of killing the +resident priest, Fray Felix Ordoñez y Machado, by witchcraft.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_22" id="Ref_22" href="#Foot_22">[22]</a></span> +And again in 1782 and 1786, charges of apostasy were entered against +Abiquiú <i>genízaros</i>.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_23" id="Ref_23" href="#Foot_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another disturbing element in the religious history of Abiquiú was the +disinterest of her settlers in the +building and furnishing of Santo Tomás Mission. Although +the structure was completed in the first generation +of settlement at Abiquiú, 1755 to 1776, Domínguez +could report only two contributions from colonists, both +loans: "In this room [sacristy] there is an ordinary table +with a drawer and key ... a loan from a settler called +Juan Pablo Martin ... the chalice is in three pieces, +and one of them, for it is a loan by the settlers, is used +for a little shrine they have."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_24" id="Ref_24" href="#Foot_24">[24]</a></span> +All mission equipment +was supplied by royal funds (<i>sínodos</i>) except some +religious articles provided by the resident missionary, +Fray Fernández, who finished the structure raised half +way by his predecessor, Fray Juan José Toledo. Both +Franciscans found settlers busy with everyday problems +of survival and resentful when called on to labor +for the mission. The settlers not only failed to supply +any objects, but when they were required to work at +the mission, all tools and equipment had to be supplied +to them.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_25" id="Ref_25" href="#Foot_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>Despite these detrimental influences, the mission at Abiquiú continued +to grow. Between 1760 and 1793, the population increased from 733 to +1,363, making Abiquiú the third largest settlement in colonial New +Mexico north of Paso del Norte [Ciudad Juarez].<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_26" id="Ref_26" href="#Foot_26">[26]</a></span> +(Only Santa Cruz with 1,650 and Santa Fe with 2,419 persons were larger.) In 1795, the +pueblo had maintained its size at 1,558, with Indians representing +less than 10 percent of the population.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_27" id="Ref_27" href="#Foot_27">[27]</a></span></p> + +<p>The increase in size brought the mission at Abiquiú more important and +longer-term resident missionaries: Fathers José de la Prada, from 1789 +to 1806, and Teodoro Alcina de la Borda, from 1806 to 1823. Both men +were elected directors (<i>custoses</i>) of the Franciscan mission +field in New Mexico, "The Custody of the Conversion of St. Paul." +<i>Custoses</i> Prada and Borda backed the Franciscans, who were +fighting for a missionary field that they had long considered their +own. Official directives (<i>patentes</i>) issued by <i>Custos</i> +Prada at Abiquiú warned all settlers against "new ideas of liberty" +and asked each friar for his personal concept of governmental +rights.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_28" id="Ref_28" href="#Foot_28">[28]</a></span> +In 1802, Fray Prada also complained to the new +<i>Custos</i>, Father Sanchez Vergara, about missions that had been +neglected under the secular clergy.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_29" id="Ref_29" href="#Foot_29">[29]</a></span> +In this period, Abiquiú's mission +was a center of clerical reaction to the revolutionary +political ideas and clerical secularization that had resulted +from Mexico's recent independence from Spain.</p> + +<p>In the year 1820, the strained relations between religious authorities +and the laity at Abiquiú clearly reflected the unstable conditions in +New Mexico. Eventually, charges of manipulating mission funds and +neglect of clerical duties were brought against Father Alcina de la +Borda by the citizens of Abiquiú.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_30" id="Ref_30" href="#Foot_30">[30]</a></span> +At the same time, Governor +Melgares informed the <i>Alcalde Mayor</i>, Santiago Salazar, that +these funds (<i>sínodos</i>) had been reduced and that an oath of +loyalty to the Spanish crown would be required.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_31" id="Ref_31" href="#Foot_31">[31]</a></span> +This situation produced a strong reaction in Abiquiú's next generation, which sought +to preserve its traditional cultural patterns in the <i>penitente</i> +brotherhoods.</p> + +<p>The great-grandsons of Abiquiú's first settlers witnessed a +significant change in organization of their mission—its +secularization in 1826. For three years, Father Borda had shared his +mission duties with Franciscans from San Juan and Santa Clara +<i>pueblos</i>, giving way in 1823 to the last member of the Order to +serve Santo Tomás, Fray Sanchez Vergara. Santo Tomás Mission received +its first secular priest in 1823, Cura Leyva y Rosas, who returned to +Abiquiú in 1832. Officially the mission at Abiquiú was secularized in +1826, along with those at Belén and Taos.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_32" id="Ref_32" href="#Foot_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first secular priest assigned to Santo Tomás reflected the now +traditional and self-sufficient character of <i>Hispano</i> culture at +Abiquiú.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_33" id="Ref_33" href="#Foot_33">[33]</a></span> +He was the independent-minded Don Antonio José Martínez. +Born in Abiquiú, Don Antonio later became an ambitious spiritual and +political leader in Taos, where he fought to preserve traditional +<i>Hispano</i> culture from Anglo-American influences.</p> + +<p>The mission served by Father Martínez in Taos bore resemblance to that +at Abiquiú. Both missions rested on much earlier Indian settlements, +but the Taos pueblo was still active. Furthermore, Taos and Abiquiú +were buffer settlements on the frontier, where Indian raids as well as +trade occurred. In 1827 a census by P. B. Pino listed nearly 3,600 +persons at +Taos and a similar count at Abiquiú; only Santa Fe +with 5,700 and Santa Cruz with 6,500 were larger +villages.</p> + +<p>At this time, an independent element appeared in the religious +activities of the Santa Cruz region. In 1831, Vicar Rascon gave +permission to sixty members of the Third Order of St. Francis at Santa +Cruz to hold Lenten exercises in Taos, provided that no "abuses" arose +to be corrected on his next visit.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_34" id="Ref_34" href="#Foot_34">[34]</a></span> +Apparently this warning proved +inadequate, for in 1833 Archbishop Zubiría concluded his visitation at +Santa Cruz by ordering that "pastors of this villa ... must never in +the future permit such reunions of <i>Penitentes</i> under any pretext +whatsoever."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_35" id="Ref_35" href="#Foot_35">[35]</a></span> +We have noted, however, that two generations earlier +Fray Domínguez had commended similar observances at Santa Cruz and +Abiquiú, and it was not until the visitation of Fray Niño de Guevara, +1817-1820, that Church officials found it necessary to condemn +penitential activity in New Mexico.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_36" id="Ref_36" href="#Foot_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p>In little more than two generations, from 1776 to 1833, the Franciscan +missions were disrupted by secularization and excessive acts of +penance. In the second half of the 19th century, the new, non-Spanish +Archbishops, Lamy and Salpointe, saw a relation between the Franciscan +Third Order and the brotherhood of <i>penitentes</i>. When J. B. Lamy +began signing rule books (<i>arreglos</i>) for the <i>penitente</i> +chapters of New Mexico,<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_37" id="Ref_37" href="#Foot_37">[37]</a></span> +he hoped to reintegrate them into accepted +Church practice as members of the Third Order. And at the end of the +century, J. B. Salpointe expressed his belief that the +<i>penitente</i> brotherhood had been an outgrowth of the Franciscan +tertiaries.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_38" id="Ref_38" href="#Foot_38">[38]</a></span></p> + +<p>Abiquiú shared in events that marked the religious history of New +Mexico in the last three quarters of the 19th century. We have noted +the secularization of Santo Tomás Mission in 1826; by 1856 the village +had its <i>penitente</i> rule book duly signed by Archbishop Lamy. +Entitled <i>Arreglo de la Santa Hermandad de la Sangre de Nuestro +Señor Jesucristo</i>, a copy was signed by Abiquiú's priest, Don Pedro +Bernal, on April 6, 1867.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_39" id="Ref_39" href="#Foot_39">[39]</a></span> +While officialdom worked out new religious and political +relations, villagers struggled to preserve a more +familiar tradition.</p> + +<p>Occupation of New Mexico in 1846 by United States troops tended to +solidify traditional <i>Hispano</i> life in Abiquiú. In that year, +Navajo harassments caused an encampment of 180 men under Major Gilpin +to be stationed at Abiquiú.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_40" id="Ref_40" href="#Foot_40">[40]</a></span> +Eventually, the Indian raids +slackened, and a trading post for the Utes was set up at Abiquiú in +1853.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_41" id="Ref_41" href="#Foot_41">[41]</a></span> +Neither the U.S. Army nor Indian trading posts, however, +became integrated into Abiquiú's <i>Hispano</i> way of life, and these +extracultural influences soon moved on, leaving only a few commercial +artifacts.</p> + +<p>With a new generation of inhabitants occupying Abiquiú between 1864 +and 1886, the village on the Rio Chama lost its primary function as a +buffer settlement against nomadic Indians and settled down into a +well-established cultural pattern, which in part was preserved by the +<i>penitentes</i>. Kit Carson had rounded up the Navajos at Bosque +Redondo, and two decades later, by 1883, the Utes had been moved +north. In preparation, the Indian trading post at Abiquiú was closed +in 1872 and moved to the new seat of Rio Arriba County, Tierra +Amarilla,<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_42" id="Ref_42" href="#Foot_42">[42]</a></span> +65 kilometers northward. Within two generations, +Abiquiú's population had fallen to fewer than 800 from a high of +nearly 3,600 in 1827.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_43" id="Ref_43" href="#Foot_43">[43]</a></span> +As a result, many <i>Hispanos</i> at Abiquiú +withdrew into the <i>penitente</i> organization, which promised to +preserve and even intensify their traditional ways of life and +beliefs. These attitudes were materialized in the building of the +<i>penitente moradas</i>.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_19" id="Foot_19" href="#Ref_19">[19]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, <i>Missions</i>, pp. 121 (ftn. 1), 200.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_20" id="Foot_20" href="#Ref_20">[20]</a> +AASF, Patentes, 1700, forbids friars to buy <i>genízaros</i> +even under the excuse of Christianizing them since the result would +likely be morally dangerous.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_21" id="Foot_21" href="#Ref_21">[21]</a> +<span class="smcap">H. H. Bancroft</span>, <i>History of Arizona and New Mexico</i> +(San Francisco, 1889), p. 258.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_22" id="Foot_22" href="#Ref_22">[22]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, <i>Missions</i>, p. 336.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_23" id="Foot_23" href="#Ref_23">[23]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Mission, 1782, no. 7.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_24" id="Foot_24" href="#Ref_24">[24]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, <i>Missions</i>, p. 122.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_25" id="Foot_25" href="#Ref_25">[25]</a> +Ibid., p. 123.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_26" id="Foot_26" href="#Ref_26">[26]</a> +<span class="smcap">Bancroft</span>, p. 279.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_27" id="Foot_27" href="#Ref_27">[27]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Mission, 1795, no. 13.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_28" id="Foot_28" href="#Ref_28">[28]</a> +Ibid., 1796, nos. 6, 7.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_29" id="Foot_29" href="#Ref_29">[29]</a> +Ibid., 1802, no. 18.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_30" id="Foot_30" href="#Ref_30">[30]</a> +Ibid., 1820, nos. 15, 21, 38; also <span class="smcap">R. E. Twitchell</span>, +<i>The Spanish Archives of New Mexico</i> (Cedar Rapids, 1914), vol. +2, pp. 630, 631.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_31" id="Foot_31" href="#Ref_31">[31]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Mission, 1820, nos. 12, 21.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_32" id="Foot_32" href="#Ref_32">[32]</a> +Ibid., 1826, no. 7.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_33" id="Foot_33" href="#Ref_33">[33]</a> +Don Antonio was less than eager to accept his first post; he had +to be ordered to report to duty (AASF, Accounts, book lxvi [box 6], +April 27, 1826).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_34" id="Foot_34" href="#Ref_34">[34]</a> +AASF, Patentes, 1831, book lxx, box 4, p. 25.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_35" id="Foot_35" href="#Ref_35">[35]</a> +Ibid., book lxxiii, box 7.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_36" id="Foot_36" href="#Ref_36">[36]</a> +AASF, Accounts, book lxii, box 5.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_37" id="Foot_37" href="#Ref_37">[37]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Diocesan, 1853, no. 17, for Santuario and +Cochiti; other rule books document <i>penitente</i> chapters at +Chimayo, El Rito, and Taos.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_38" id="Foot_38" href="#Ref_38">[38]</a> +<span class="smcap">Jean B. Salpointe</span>, <i>Soldiers of the Cross</i> +(Banning, Calif., 1898).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_39" id="Foot_39" href="#Ref_39">[39]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Diocesan, 1856, no. 12.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_40" id="Foot_40" href="#Ref_40">[40]</a> +<span class="smcap">Twitchell</span>, pp. 533-534.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_41" id="Foot_41" href="#Ref_41">[41]</a> +<span class="smcap">Bancroft</span>, p. 665.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_42" id="Foot_42" href="#Ref_42">[42]</a> +<span class="smcap">Twitchell</span>, p. 447.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_43" id="Foot_43" href="#Ref_43">[43]</a> +Ibid., p. 449, from <span class="smcap">P. B. Pino</span>, <i>Notícias +históricas</i> (Méjico, 1848); and <i>Ninth U.S. Census</i> (1870). +The later figure may represent only the town proper; earlier +statistics generally included outlying settlements.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>The Architecture of the Moradas</i></h2> + +<div class="image-left" style="max-width: 195px;"> + <a href="images/fig_02_large.png"> + <img src="images/fig_02_thumb.jpg" alt=""/> + </a> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span> + The Abiquiú area, showing the Chama River, U.S. Highway 84, and + siting of buildings (the mission of Santo Tomás and the two + <i>moradas</i> are circled).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="nodent">In a modern map (Figure 2), circles enclose the Mission of Abiquiú and +its two <i>penitente moradas</i>. The <i>moradas</i> lie 300 meters +east and 400 meters south of the main plaza onto which Santo Tomás +Mission faces from the north. Between the <i>moradas</i> rests the +local burial ground (<i>campo santo</i>), a cemetery that serves +<i>penitentes</i> as "Calvary" (<i>calvario</i>) in their Lenten +re-enactment of the Passion.</p> + +<p><i>Penitente moradas</i> share a common system of <i>adobe</i> +construction with the religious and domestic structures of New Mexico. +While the Indians set walls of puddled earth directly on the ground, +the Spaniards, following Moorish precedent, laid <i>adobe</i> bricks +on stone foundations. Standard house-size <i>adobes</i> average 15 by +30 by 50 centimeters. <i>Adobe</i> bricks are made by packing a +mixture of mud, sand, and straw into a wood frame from which the block +then is knocked out onto the ground to dry in the sun. Stones set in +<i>adobe</i> mortar provide a foundation. The sun-dried bricks, which +are also laid in <i>adobe</i> mortar, form exterior, load-bearing +walls and interior partitions.</p> + +<p>Spanish <i>adobe</i> construction also employs wood. Openings are +framed and closed with a lintel that +projects well into the wall. These recessed lintel faces +often are left exposed after the plastering of adjoining +surfaces. Roofs are transverse beams (<i>vigas</i>), which +in turn hold small cross branches (<i>savinos</i>) or planks +(<i>tablas</i>). A final layer of brush and <i>adobe</i> plaster closes +the surface cracks. Plank drains (<i>canales</i>), rectangular +in section, lead water from this soft roof surface (Figure 3).</p> + +<p>Domestic <i>adobe</i> structures differ from ecclesiastic buildings in +scale and in spatial arrangement. Colonial New Mexican churches are +relatively large, unicellular spaces. Their simple nave volume often +is made cruciform by a transept whose higher roof allows for a +clerestory. A choir loft over the entry and a narrowed, elevated +sanctuary further articulate the space at each end of the nave. In +contrast, <i>Hispano</i> houses consist of several low rooms set in a +line or grouped around a court (<i>placita</i>) in which a gate and +porch (<i>portal</i>) are placed. Rooms vary in width according to the +length of the transverse beams, which usually are from four to six +meters long.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_44" id="Ref_44" href="#Foot_44">[44]</a></span></p> + +<p>The everyday living spaces inside Spanish-New Mexican houses tend to +combine domestic activities and to appear similar in space and decor. +Inside a <i>Hispano</i> church, however, areas of special useage are +marked off clearly within the volume. Celebration of the mass requires +a special spatial treatment to indicate the sanctuary. This area is +emphasized by an arched entry, lateral pilasters, raised floor, and +characteristically convergent side walls. These slanting walls provide +better vision for the congregation and easier movement for the +celebrants. The convergent wall of sanctuaries is often visible from +the exterior. It is noteworthy that both the contracted sanctuary of +local churches and the linear arrangement of domestic interiors appear +in the <i>penitente moradas</i> of Abiquiú.</p> + +<p>In the plans of the Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> (Figure 4), the identical +arrangement of the three rooms reveals an origin in the typical +<i>Hispano</i> house form. George Kubler has observed that the design +of <i>moradas</i> "is closer to the domestic architecture of New +Mexico than to the churches."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_45" id="Ref_45" href="#Foot_45">[45]</a></span> +Bainbridge Bunting confirms the +houselike form of <i>moradas</i> but notes their lack of +uniformity.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_46" id="Ref_46" href="#Foot_46">[46]</a></span> +In comparison to <i>moradas</i> of the L-plan,<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_47" id="Ref_47" href="#Foot_47">[47]</a></span> +and +even of the pre-1856 T-plan structure at Arroyo Hondo,<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_48" id="Ref_48" href="#Foot_48">[48]</a></span> +the two <i>penitente</i> buildings at Abiquiú preserve a simple | shape with +one significant variation—a contracted chancel.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_03.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span> + North roofline of east <i>morada</i>, showing exposed ends of + ceiling beams (<i>vigas</i>), chimney of oratory stove, and + construction of water drain (<i>canal</i>).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_04.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span> + Plans of south <i>morada</i> (top) and east <i>morada</i> + (bottom): A=altar; B=standard; C=candelabra; D=sandbox; E=benches; + F=fireplace; G=stove; H=chest; I=tub.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The basic form of the Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> (Figures 5 and 6) is a +rectangular box that closely resembles nearby houses. Even the long, +windowless north facade of both Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> recalls the +unbroken walls of earlier <i>Hispano</i> houses in hostile frontier +regions. The Abiquiú <i>moradas</i>, however, possess one exception to +the domestic form—a narrowed, accented end. On each <i>morada</i> the +west end is blunted and buttressed by a salient bell tower of stones +laid in <i>adobe</i> mortar and strengthened by horizontal boards +(Figures 7 and 8). This innovation in the form of the Abiquiú +<i>moradas</i> appears to be ecclesiastic in origin.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_05.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span> + <span class="smcap">South</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 24.02 meters long, 5.41 wide, 3.51 high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: About 1900. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: 400 meters south of Santo Tomás + Church in main plaza; seen from southeast corner. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: <i>Adobe</i> bricks on stone + foundation; wood door and window frames.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_06.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span> + <span class="smcap">East</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 28.82 meters long, 4.88 wide, 3.58 high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: 300 meters east-southeast of Santo + Tomás Church in main plaza; seen from northeast corner. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: <i>Adobe</i> bricks set on stone + foundation; wood drains (<i>canales</i>) and beam (<i>viga</i>) ends at top + of wall.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 273px;"> + <img src="images/fig_07.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 7.</span> + West end of south <i>morada</i>, showing construction of bell + tower and contracted sanctuary walls.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_08.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 8.</span> + Northwest view of east <i>morada</i>, showing limestone slab bell + tower on contracted west end.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Plans of churches built close to Abiquiú in time, distance, and +orientation could have served as sources for the design of the +<i>moradas'</i> west ends (Figure 9). Only five kilometers east of +Abiquiú stood the chapel dedicated to Santa Rosa de Lima. As shown in +Figure 9<span class="smcap">f</span>, the sanctuary in its west end had +a raised floor and flanking entry pilasters, features found in the east +<i>morada's</i> west end. This chapel was dedicated about 1744 and was +still active as a <i>visíta</i> from Abiquiú in 1830.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_49" id="Ref_49" href="#Foot_49">[49]</a></span> +Through this period and to +the present, the popularity of Saint Rose of Lima has persisted at +Abiquiú. Her nearby chapel would have been a likely and logical choice +for the design of the <i>morada's</i> sanctuary end.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_09.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 9.</span> + Plans of two Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> compared to New Mexican + churches with contracted sanctuaries: A, south <i>morada</i>, B, + east <i>morada</i>; C, Zía Mission; D, San Miguel in Santa Fe; E, + Santa Cruz; F, Santa Rosa; G, Ranchos de Taos; H, the + <i>santuario</i> at Chimayo; I, Córdova. (From Kubler, + <i>Religious Architecture</i> [see ftn. 45]: C=his figure 8; D=28, + E=9, F=34, G=13, H=22, I=35.)</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>A second possible source for the contracted ends of the Abiquiú +<i>moradas</i> would be the south transept chapel of the Third Order +of St. Francis at Santa Cruz (Figure 9<span class="smcap">e</span>). It was completed +shortly before 1798<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_50" id="Ref_50" href="#Foot_50">[50]</a></span> +and served Franciscan tertiaries into the +1830s. Plans compared in Figure 9 indicate that the dimensions of this +left transept chapel at Santa Cruz measure only +five percent larger than the chapel room of the east +<i>morada</i> at Abiquiú, and the plans also reveal contracted +chancel walls at both locations.</p> + +<p>The concept of a constricted sanctuary as seen in Abiquiú +<i>moradas</i> originated in earlier Spanish and Mexican churches. In +1479, architect Juan Guas used a trapezoidal apse plan in San Juan de +los Reyes at Toledo and, by 1512, the design found its way into +America's first cathedral at Santo Domingo. Within the first century +of Spanish colonization, contracted sanctuary walls appeared on the +American mainland in Arciniega's revised plan for Mexico City's +Cathedral (post-1584)<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_51" id="Ref_51" href="#Foot_51">[51]</a></span> +and, again, in New Mexico, where it first +appeared at the stone mission of Zía, built about 1614 (Figure 9<span class="smcap">c</span>). +Once established in the Franciscan province, the concept of converging +sanctuary walls survived the 1680 Indian revolt and returned with the +reconquest of New Mexico in 1693. Spaniards raised and rebuilt +missions from the capital at Santa Fe (San Miguel, rebuilt 1710; +Figure 9<span class="smcap">d</span>) north to Taos (San Geronimo, 1706). Throughout the +18th century, in a three-to-one ratio, the churches of New Mexico used +the contracted, as opposed to the box, sanctuary.</p> + +<p>In the early 19th century, churches at Ranchos de Taos (1805-1815<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_52" id="Ref_52" href="#Foot_52">[52]</a></span>; +Figure 9<span class="smcap">g</span>), Chimayo (about 1810; Figure 9<span class="smcap">h</span>), and +Córdova (after 1830; Figure 9<span class="smcap">i</span>) continued to employ the trapezoidal +sanctuary form. By midcentury, <i>penitente</i> brotherhoods are known +to have been active in these villages, and the local ecclesiastic +structures could have acted as an influence in the design of the +<i>penitente moradas</i> at Abiquiú.</p> + +<p>In summary, the <i>moradas</i> at Abiquiú are traditional regional +buildings in material and in basic form. The pointed west end of each +building, however, is an ecclesiastic innovation in an otherwise +typical domestic design. These <i>moradas</i> provide a significant +design variant in the history of Spanish-American architecture in New +Mexico.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_44" id="Foot_44" href="#Ref_44">[44]</a> +The "Hall of Everyday Life in the American Past" in the Museum of +History and Technology (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.) +displays an interior typical of a Spanish-New Mexican <i>adobe</i> +house of about 1800.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_45" id="Foot_45" href="#Ref_45">[45]</a> +<span class="smcap">George Kubler</span>, <i>The Religious Architecture of New +Mexico</i> (Colorado Springs, 1940), p. viii.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_46" id="Foot_46" href="#Ref_46">[46]</a> +<span class="smcap">Bainbridge Bunting</span>, <i>Taos Adobes</i> (Santa Fe, 1964), +P. 54.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_47" id="Foot_47" href="#Ref_47">[47]</a> +L-plan <i>moradas</i> are pictured by Woodward [see ftn. 13] in a +1925 photograph at San Mateo, a different <i>morada</i> from that +illustrated in <span class="smcap">Charles F. Lummis</span>, <i>Land of Poco Tiempo</i> +(New York, 1897), as well as in another Woodward photograph [see ftn. +13] taken on the road to Chimayo. <span class="smcap">L. B. Prince</span>, <i>Spanish +Mission Churches of New Mexico</i> (Cedar Rapids, 1915), shows an +L-plan <i>morada</i> near Las Vegas. Was the L-plan house an +unconscious recall of the more secure structure that completely +enclosed a <i>placita</i>?</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_48" id="Foot_48" href="#Ref_48">[48]</a> +<span class="smcap">Bunting</span>, p. 56. After 1960 the Arroyo Hondo +<i>morada</i> became the private residence of Larry Franks.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_49" id="Foot_49" href="#Ref_49">[49]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Mission, 1829 (May 27).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_50" id="Foot_50" href="#Ref_50">[50]</a> +<span class="smcap">Kubler</span>, <i>Religious Architecture</i>, p. 103.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_51" id="Foot_51" href="#Ref_51">[51]</a> +<span class="smcap">George Kubler</span> and <span class="smcap">Martin Soria</span>, <i>The Art and +Architecture of Spain and Portugal and Their American Dominions, 1500 +to 1800</i> (Baltimore, 1959), pp. 3, 64, 74.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_52" id="Foot_52" href="#Ref_52">[52]</a> +<span class="smcap">E. Boyd</span>, interview, April 1966. Building date of about +1780 usually is given for the present church. Boyd, however, states +that documents in AASF support the tree-ring dates given in +<span class="smcap">Kubler</span>. <i>Religious Architecture</i>, p. 121, as 1816±10.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>Interior Space and Artifacts</i></h2> + +<p class="nodent">The plans of the two <i>penitente moradas</i> of Abiquiú (Figure 4) +reveal an identical arrangement of interior +space. There are three rooms in each <i>morada</i>: (1) the +longest is on the west end and, with its constricted +sanctuary space, acts as an oratory; (2) the center +room serves as a sacristy; and (3) the east room is for +storage. The only major difference between the two +<i>moradas</i> is the length of the storage room, which is +nearly twice as long in the east <i>morada</i>. The remarkable +similarities in design suggest that one served as the +model for the other; local oral tradition holds that the +east <i>morada</i> is older.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_53" id="Ref_53" href="#Foot_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>Internal evidence indicates that the east <i>morada</i> is indeed the +older one. As shown in Figure 2, the south <i>morada</i> is located +farther from the Abiquiú <i>plaza</i>, suggesting it was built at a +later date—perhaps nearer 1900, when public and official criticism +had prompted greater privacy for Holy Week processions, which were +considered spectacles by tourists. In addition, the lesser width of +the south <i>morada</i> rooms, the square-milled beams in the oratory, +and the fireplace in the east end storage room indicate that it was +built after the east <i>morada</i>. In contrast, the two corner +fireplaces of the east <i>morada</i> are set in the center room, while +another heating arrangement—an oil drum set on a low <i>adobe</i> +dais—appears to have been added at a later date.</p> + +<p>The east <i>morada</i> was the obvious model for the builders of the +later one on the south edge of Abiquiú. Local <i>penitentes</i> admit +that there was a division in the original chapter just prior to +1900<span class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_54" id="Ref_54" href="#Foot_54">[54]</a></span> +but deny that the separation was made because of political +differences, as suggested by one author.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_55" id="Ref_55" href="#Foot_55">[55]</a></span> +The older members say +that the first <i>morada</i> merely had become too large for +convenient use of the building.</p> + +<p>The three rooms in each <i>morada</i> are distinguished by bare, +whitewashed walls of <i>adobe</i> plaster, hard-packed dirt floors, +two exterior doors, and three windows. A locked door is located off +the oratory in the north face of the south <i>morada</i>. Figures 10 +and 11 show the sanctuaries in the south and east <i>morada</i>; and +Figure 12, the back of the east <i>morada</i> oratory. Its open door +leads into the center room, where the members would not remove the +boards on the windows for me to take photographs. The east end room in +each <i>morada</i> +serves for storage of processional and ceremonial equipment.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 10.</span> + <span class="smcap">Altar in South</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 10.05 meters long, 3.51 wide. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: West room in south <i>morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Looking west into sanctuary; + dirt floor with cotton rag rugs; side walls lined with benches and + hung with religious prints; square-milled timber ceiling; draped + arch with candelabra; altar and gradin with religious images. + (Numbers refer to subsequent illustrations.)</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_11.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 11.</span> + <span class="smcap">Altar in East</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Looking into sanctuary; + dirt floor and convergent <i>adobe</i> walls; sacristy entry + marked by drapes and raised floor; candelabra and sand boxes for + votive candles; draped altar table supplied with religious images. + (Numbers refer to subsequent illustrations.)</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_12.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 12.</span> + <span class="smcap">Rear of Oratory, East</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 10.98 meters long, 4.04 wide. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: Back of west room in east <i>morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Looking east, to rear of + oratory. Dirt floor, <i>adobe</i>-plastered walls, wooden benches, + iron stove, framed religious prints on walls, ceiling of round + beams (<i>vigas</i>).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">Storage Room in Both Moradas.</span>—In the south <i>morada</i> +(Figure 13), there are cactus scourges (<i>disciplinas</i>), +corrugated metal sheeting used for roofing, and three rattles +(<i>matracas</i>; Figure 14), also used for noise-making in +<i>tinieblas</i> services. Situated here also are black Lenten +candelabrum, a ladder, a cross with silvered Passion emblems, and +massive penitential crosses (<i>maderos</i>; Figure 15). The Lenten +ladder and cross are shown next to the exterior entry (Figure 16). A +corner fireplace is flanked by locally made tin candle sconces (Figure +17). Two 19th-century kerosene lamps appear on the fireplace mantle, +and a tin-shaded lantern with its silver-plated reservoir hangs from +the ceiling (Figure 15).</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 383px;"> + <img src="images/fig_13.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 13.</span> + <span class="smcap">Floor Tub in Storage Room.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: tub 53.3 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, + northwest corner of room. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Cement tub, dirt floor, + fire wood, galvanized tubs, enamelized buckets, braided cactus whips + (<i>disciplinas</i>), wooden box rattle (<i>matraca</i>), punched + tin wall sconce, corrugated metal roofing.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_14.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 14.</span> + <span class="smcap">Rattles</span> (<i>matracas</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 26 to 40 centimeters long. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i> storage (east) room. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Flexible tongue set + at one end of wooden frame, and notched cylinder on handle turning + in opposite end.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 379px;"> + <img src="images/fig_15.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 15.</span> + <span class="smcap">Penitente Crosses</span> (<i>maderos</i>) + <span class="smcap">in Storage Room</span>. + <span class="smcap">Sizes</span>: black cross 269.2 centimeters high + (Figure 16); ceiling boards 2.5 by 15; <i>maderos</i> 345 long. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified carpenter. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, + northeast corner. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: black candelabra + (<i>tenebrario</i>), kerosene lanterns, tin shades, wooden keg and + box under table.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 321px;"> + <img src="images/fig_16.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 16.</span> + <span class="smcap">Cross and Ladder</span> (<i>cruz</i> and <i>escalera</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 269.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified carpenter. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, storage (east) room. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Milled and carved wood + (painted), black cross and ladder, silvered nails (left arm), + hammer and pliers (right arm).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 415px;"> + <img src="images/fig_17.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 17.</span> + <span class="smcap">Corner Fireplace in Storage Room.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: mantel 106.7 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, southeast corner. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Walls, fireplace, + and flue of plastered <i>adobe</i>, kerosene lamps and tin wall + sconces, boarded up window to left (east).</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>In each <i>morada</i> storage area, there is a tub built +on the floor that serves to wash off blood after penance. +Figure 13 shows the tub in the south <i>morada</i>. In the +older, east <i>morada</i>, the tub (Figure 18) is a wood- and +tin-lined trough pushed against the north wall and +plastered with <i>adobe</i>.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_18.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 18.</span> + <span class="smcap">Storage Room, East</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Sizes</span>: Tub 112.6 centimeters long, 46 wide, + 25.6 high; ladder 175 high. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Detail of north wall showing + enamelized containers, tub built into the floor for washing after + penance, and ladder.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The storage room in the east <i>morada</i> also contains commercially +made lamps, such as the plated reservoir with stamped Neo-rococo +motifs (Figure 19). Nearby is a processional cross with two metal +faces and a small, cast corpus (Figure 20). While kerosene lanterns +are evidence of east-west rail commerce after 1880, the cross probably +indicates a southern contact, possibly through Parral or Chihuahua, +Mexico. Locally made, however, are the woven rag rugs (<i>jergas</i>) +hung over a pole (<i>varal</i>)<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_56" id="Ref_56" href="#Foot_56">[56]</a></span> +that drops from the ceiling. Also +in the east <i>morada</i> storage are two percussion rifles (Figure +21). Craddock Goins, Department of Armed Forces History, the +Smithsonian Institution, identifies both as common Indian trade +objects from midcentury Europe. These rifles probably were imports for +sale to the Utes at the Abiquiú trading post between 1853 and 1874. At +the rear of the room (Figure 22) rests a saw-horse table holding an +assortment of stocks for these "trade guns," of wooden rattles +(<i>matracas</i>), and of heavy crosses (<i>maderos</i>). On the +ground stands a large bell, which, in a photograph (Museum of New +Mexico, Photo No. 8550) taken by William Lippincott about 1945, +appears on the tower of the <i>morada</i>. The +silhouette dates the bell as being cast after 1760. Behind +the bell rests the <i>morada</i> death cart. Also in the +room are a plank ladder and the oil drum stove raised +on an <i>adobe</i> dais (Figure 23) to the east of the exterior +door.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 580px;"> + <img src="images/fig_19.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_20.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_21.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 19.</span> + <span class="smcap">Reservoir for Kerosene Lamp.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 25.4 centimeters wide. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported to New Mexico. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, storage (east) room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Silver-plated metal + stamped into Rococco revival decorations.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 20.</span> + <span class="smcap">Processional Cross.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 30.5 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported to New Mexico, probably from Mexico. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, storage (east) room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Punched trifoil ends in + metal face, cast corpus.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 21.</span> + <span class="smcap">Percussion Rifles.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 111.8 centimeters long. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Middle of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: European (Belgian?) exports. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>Morada</i>, storage (east) room.</p> + + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 351px;"> + <img src="images/fig_22.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 22.</span> + <span class="smcap">Storage Room, East</span> <i>Morada</i>. + <span class="smcap">Sizes</span>: Bell 64 centimeters wide (diameter), 47.4 + high; cart 122 long (frame), 70 wide (frame), 71 between axle centers; + wheels 45 high. + <span class="smcap">Description</span>: Detail of east wall showing + saw-horse table, corrugated sheeting, bell, and death + cart of cottonwood and pine.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 351px;"> + <img src="images/fig_23.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 23.</span> + <span class="smcap">Storage Room, East</span> <i>Morada</i>: View next to + exterior door showing low <i>adobe</i> dais supporting oil drum stove.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">Sacristy in Both Moradas.</span>—While a panelled wooden box in the +south <i>morada</i> stands inside the exterior door of the east room, +another type of chest, said to hold cooking utensils, rests in the +northwest corner of the center room of the east <i>morada</i>. Both +storage chests are located in rooms with corner fireplaces. An +informant said that these boxes held heating and cooking utensils and +ceremonial equipment, including the <i>penitentes'</i> rule book. As +noted above, the two fireplaces in the middle room of the east +<i>morada</i> suggest that it was built earlier than the south +<i>morada</i>, which has a single fireplace in the less active and +more convenient rear storage room. Further evidence of this point is +that the storage chest in the east <i>morada</i> is better constructed +than that in the south <i>morada</i>; the former displays a slanted +top and punch-decorated tin reinforcements on its corners. In the +center room there are several benches with lathe-turned legs (Figure +24).</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> + <img src="images/fig_24.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 24.</span> + <span class="smcap">Bench</span> (<i>banco</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 108 centimeters long, 51 high, 47 wide. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, center room.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The central room of the south <i>morada</i> also displays a number of +benches of an earlier style (Figure 25). Over the rear door appears an +unusual cross (Figure 26). The cross consists of two wood planks, 1.6 +centimeters thick, notched together and covered with paper. The +surface bears carefully drawn, or perhaps stenciled, floral and +religious designs in indigo blue: eleven Latin crosses appear among +flowering vases, oversize buds, and 4-, 5-, and 8-pointed stars. These +motifs probably are the result of copying from weaving or quilt +pattern books of the late 19th century. A local <i>penitente</i> +leader stated that the cross was made before 1925 by Onésimo Martínez +of Abiquiú, when the latter was in his thirties. (The strong religious +symbolism of the New Mexican designs reminds one of the stylized +motifs on Atlantic Coastal folk drawings and textiles of Germanic +origin.)</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> + <img src="images/fig_25.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 25.</span> + <span class="smcap">Bench</span> (<i>banco</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 128 centimeters long, 106 high at back, 45 wide. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, center room.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="nodent">(<i>Figure 26 is frontispiece.</i>)</p> + +<p>Snare drums appear in the central room of both <i>moradas</i> (Figures +27, 28). The drum in the east <i>morada</i> is mounted on top of a +truncated wicker basket. It is interesting to note that rifles and +drums commonly are recorded in mission choir lofts in 1776 by +Domínguez.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_57" id="Ref_57" href="#Foot_57">[57]</a></span> +In addition to marking significant moments in church +ritual, they are used in Indian and <i>Hispano</i> village <i>fiestas</i>.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 450px;"> + <img src="images/fig_27.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_28.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 27.</span> + <span class="smcap">Snare Drum</span> (<i>tambor</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 55.9 centimeters long. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported to New Mexico. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, center room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Commercially made, military + type, rope lines with leather drum ears [tighteners].</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 28.</span> + <span class="smcap">Snare Drum</span> (<i>tambor</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 58.4 centimeters long. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported to New Mexico. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, center room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Commercially made, military + type, reddish stain, rope tension lines with rope and leather + drum ears [tighteners].</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Before describing religious objects in the west end rooms of Abiquiú +<i>moradas</i>, a list of similar items in Santo Tomás Mission at an +earlier date (1776) is of interest:</p> + + <p class="block">a medium-sized bell ... altar table ... gradin ... altar cloth ... a + banner ... candleholders ... processional cross ... a painted wooden + cross ... ordinary single-leaved door ... image in the round of Our + Lady of the [Immaculate] Conception ... a wig ... silver crown ... + string of fine seed pearls ... ordinary bouquet ... painting on + copper of Our Lady of Sorrows (<i>Dolores</i>) in a black frame ... + <i>Via Crucis</i> in small paper prints on their little boards ... a + print of the Guadalupe.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_58" id="Ref_58" href="#Foot_58">[58]</a></span></p> + +<p>Comparable versions of each of these objects occur in Abiquiú's +<i>moradas</i>. In fact, virtually all objects found in the +<i>penitente moradas</i> of Abiquiú are recorded as typical artifacts +by church inventories and house wills of 18th- and 19th-century +Spanish New Mexico.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_59" id="Ref_59" href="#Foot_59">[59]</a></span></p> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">Oratory in the East Morada.</span>—In the rear of the oratory of +the older east <i>morada</i> (Figure 12), one sees a stove and lantern +on the right. Both are imported, extracultural items. The pierced, tin +candle-lantern (Figure 29) is a common artifact found throughout +Europe and America.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_60" id="Ref_60" href="#Foot_60">[60]</a></span></p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> + <img src="images/fig_29.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 29.</span> + <span class="smcap">Candle Lantern.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 30.5 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported to New Mexico. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, chapel. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Pierced tinwork.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Along the walls of the oratory hang imported religious prints framed +in local punch-decorated tinwork. Tin handicraft became more +widespread after 1850 when metal U.S. Army containers became available +to the <i>Hispanos</i>. Designs seen on three tin frames (Figure 30) +include twisted columns, crests, scallops, corner blocks, wings, and a +variety of simple repoussé patterns. Paper prints in the tin frame +suggest midcentury trade contacts between northern Mexico and the +Atlantic Coast. Even the Mexican War (1846-1848) did not discourage +American publishers such as Currier from appealing to Mexican +religious and national loyalties with lithographs of Our Lady of +Guadalupe (much in the same manner as the British, after the +Revolution and War of 1812, profited by selling Americans objects that +bore images of Yankee ships, eagles, and likenesses of +Franklin and Washington). A fourth piece of local +tinwork (Figure 31) in the east <i>morada</i> oratory is a +niche for a small figure of the Holy Child of Atocha, +<i>Santo Niño de Atocha</i>. This advocation of Jesus, like +that of His mother in the Guadalupe image, further +indicates Mexican influence.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_61" id="Ref_61" href="#Foot_61">[61]</a></span> +The image of the +<i>Atocha</i> is a product of local craftsmanship.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_30.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 30.</span> + <span class="smcap">Religious Prints in Tin Frames.</span> + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 52.1 centimeters high (center). + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First three-quarters of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Prints imported to New Mexico; frames + from New Mexico, unidentified tinsmiths. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, walls in chapel + (west) room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Tin frames: cut, repoussé, + stamped and soldered into Federal and Victorian designs. Prints: + left, <i>Guadalupe</i>, early 19th century, Mexican copperplate + engraving; center, <i>Guadalupe</i>, 1847, N. Currier, + hand-colored lithograph; right, <i>San Gregorio</i> [Pope St. + Gregory], mid-19th-century lithograph.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> + <img src="images/fig_31.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 31.</span> + <span class="smcap">Niche with Image of the Holy Child of Atocha</span> + (<i>nicho</i> and <i>El Santo Niño de Atocha</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: niche 44.4 centimeters high, image 21.6 high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified tinsmith + and <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, wall in chapel room. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Tin: cut, repoussé, + soldered into fan, shell, and guilloche designs. Image: carved + wood, gessoed and painted red and white. Rosary and artificial + flowers.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>These representations of religious personages are called +<i>santos</i>, and their makers, <i>santeros</i>. Flat panel paintings +are known locally as <i>retablos</i>, while sculptured forms are +<i>bultos</i>. George Kubler, distinguished art historian at Yale, +suggests that <i>bultos</i>, because of their greater dimensional +realism, are more popular than planar <i>retablos</i> with the +<i>Hispanos</i>.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_62" id="Ref_62" href="#Foot_62">[62]</a></span> +Supporting this theory is the fact that +<i>bultos</i> in the Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> outnumber prints and +<i>retablos</i> two to one.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most distinctive three-dimensional image in any +<i>morada</i> is not a <i>santo</i> by definition, but a unique figure +that represents death (<i>la muerte</i>). Also known as <i>La Doña +Sebastiana</i>, her image clearly marks a building as a +<i>penitente</i> sanctuary. Personifying death with a sculptured image +and dragging her cart to a cemetery called <i>calvario</i>, the +<i>penitentes</i> of New Mexico reflect the sense of fate common to +Spanish-speaking cultures, the recognition that death is life's one +personal certainty.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_63" id="Ref_63" href="#Foot_63">[63]</a></span> +The figure of death in the east <i>morada</i> +hangs in the corner at the rear of the oratory. Placed outside for +examination, this <i>muerte</i> (Figure 32) presents a flat, oval face +with blank eyes. The black gown and bow and arrow are typical of +<i>muerte</i> figures.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_64" id="Ref_64" href="#Foot_64">[64]</a></span> +Turning toward the altar (Figure 11), one sees +that death is outnumbered by images of hope and compassion: +Jesus, His mother, and the saints who intercede +for man.</p> + +<p>On the lower step of the altar appear a host of small, commercial +products, mostly crucifixes, in plaster, plastic, and cheap metal +alloys as well as numerous glass cups for candles. Above the upper +ledge (<i>gradin</i>) appear five locally made images of Jesus +crucified, <i>El Cristo</i>.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_65" id="Ref_65" href="#Foot_65">[65]</a></span> +At the side of this central +<i>Cristo</i> (Figure 33) hangs a small angel, <i>angelito</i>, which +traditionally held a chalice to catch blood from the spear wound. +Other <i>Cristos</i>, at the Taylor Museum in Colorado Springs and at +the Museum of New Mexico (McCormick Collection A.7.49-24) in Santa Fe, +repeat the weightless corpus and stylized wounds used by the anonymous +<i>santero</i> who, after 1850, made these <i>bultos</i>.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 550px;"> + <img src="images/fig_32.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_33.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 32.</span> + <span class="smcap">Death</span> (<i>la muerte</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 76.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Early 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, back of oratory. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved and whitewashed + wood, glass eyes and wood teeth, dressed in black fabric with + white lace border, bow and arrow.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 33.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix with Angel</span> (<i>Cristo</i> and <i>angelito</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 139.7 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, center of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood gessoed and + painted, over-painted in oil; crown of thorns, rosaries, crucifix; + wooden plank, H-shape platform; black cross with <i>iNRi</i> + plaque; <i>angelito</i> with white cotton skirt.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Additional <i>Cristo</i> figures appear on the convergent walls of the +east <i>morada</i> sanctuary. There are two pairs, large and small, +perhaps dating as late as 1900, one pair to the right (Figures 34, +35), the other, on the Gospel side (plates 36, 37).</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_34-37.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><i>top left</i></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 34.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix</span> (<i>Cristo</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 170.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, right wall behind altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted, over-painted in oils; black gauze shroud over head; + rosary and <i>iNRi</i> plaque.</p> + + <p><i>bottom left</i></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 35.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix</span> (<i>Cristo</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 64.8 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, right wall behind altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dressed in white skirt with rosary.</p> + + <p><i>top right</i></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 36.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix</span> (<i>Cristo</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 71.1 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left wall behind altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted, repainted in oil colors, yellow and red strips on black; + dressed in white cotton skirt; rosary.</p> + + <p><i>bottom right</i></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 37.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix</span> (<i>Cristo</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: cross 177.8 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left wall behind altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; crown of thorns and rosary; dressed in white cotton waist + cloth.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>To the far left stands an important image: the scourged Jesus (Figure 38) +prominent in <i>penitente</i> activity as "Our Father Jesus the +Nazarene" (<i>Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno</i>). By 1918, Alice Corbin +Henderson<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_66" id="Ref_66" href="#Foot_66">[66]</a></span> +reports, this same figure appeared in <i>penitente</i> +Holy Week processions at Abiquiú. She claims it was made originally +for the Mission of Santo Tomás. E. Boyd points out stylistic traits +shared by this Abiquiú <i>bulto</i> and the <i>retablo</i> figures in +the San José de Chama Chapel at nearby Hernández, which was the work +of <i>santero</i> Rafael Aragon, active from 1829 to after 1855.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_67" id="Ref_67" href="#Foot_67">[67]</a></span> +Symbolic of man's physical suffering, the image of the <i>Jesus +Nazareno</i> is essential to <i>penitente</i> enactments of the +Passion.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> + <img src="images/fig_38.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 38.</span> + <span class="smcap">Man of Sorrows</span> (<i>Ecce Homo, Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 1.60 meters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, Rafael Aragon, active 1829-55. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, to left of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Dressed in red fabric + gown, palm clusters and rosaries, leather crown of thorns, + horsehair wig, bright border painted on platform.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>On the left side of the east <i>morada</i> altar, two carved images +represent the grieving mother of Jesus as "Our Lady of Sorrows" +(<i>Nuestra Señora de los Dolores</i>), one image (Figure 39) in pink +equipped with her attribute, a dagger; the other (Figure 40), like +many processional figures, has been constructed by draping a pyramidal +frame of four sticks with gesso-dipped cloth, +which, when dry, is painted to represent a skirt. The +apron-like design that appears on the skirt, now hidden +under a black dress, indicates that the original identity +probably was "Our Lady of Solitude" (<i>Nuestra Señora +de la Soledad</i>).<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_68" id="Ref_68" href="#Foot_68">[68]</a></span></p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_39-40.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 39.</span> + <span class="smcap">Our Lady of Sorrows</span> (<i>Nuestra Señora de los Dolores</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 99.1 centimeters base to crown. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Early 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dressed in pink cotton gown and veil; tin crown and metal + dagger; artificial flowers, rosaries.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 40.</span> + <span class="smcap">Our Lady of Sorrows or Solitude</span> + (<i>Nuestra Señora de los Dolores</i> or <i>la Soledad</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 81.3 centimeters base to crown. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood head and + hands, gessoed, painted, and repainted; body of gesso-wetted + cloth, draped on stick frame to dry, painted; dressed in black + satin habit with white lace border; tin halo, rosary, artificial + flowers.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Also on the left side of the east <i>morada</i> altar, there are two +male saints (<i>santos</i>) who fill vital roles in the +<i>penitente</i> Easter drama. One, St. Peter (San Pedro) with the +cock (Figure 41), is a <i>bulto</i> whose frame construction +duplicates that of Our Lady (Figure 40). The cock apparently was made +by another hand, and, despite its replaced tail, is a fine expression +of local art. This group represents Peter's triple denial of Jesus +before the cock announced dawn of the day of the Crucifixion. The +<i>bulto</i> of San Pedro has special meaning for <i>penitentes</i> +who, through their penance, bear witness to "Jesus the Nazarene."</p> + +<p>With the other <i>bulto</i>, <i>penitentes</i> have also recalled the +crucifixion by representing St. John the Evangelist (San Juan) at the +foot of the cross, where Jesus charged the disciple with the care of +His mother. The image of John (Figure 42) bears distinctive stylistic +features: blunt fingers; protruding forehead, cheek bones, and chin; +and a full-lipped, open mouth.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 460px;"> + <img src="images/fig_41.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_42.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 41.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint Peter and Cock</span> (<i>San Pedro</i> and <i>Gallo</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 61 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First quarter of 19th century, and 19th century cock. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: St. Peter's head (later): + carved wood, gessoed and painted. Body: cloth dipped in wet gesso, + draped over stick frame to dry, and painted, later over-painted. + Blue gown and orange cape. Cock of carved wood, gessoed and + painted; orange body with green haunch. Carved wood tail, + replacement.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 42.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint John the Evangelist</span> (<i>San Juan</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 137.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, "Abiquiú <i>morada</i>" <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; black horsehair wig; dressed in white cotton fabric; palm + clusters and rosary. </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Since these stylistic traits also occur in a <i>Cristo</i> figure in +the Taylor Museum collection<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_69" id="Ref_69" href="#Foot_69">[69]</a></span> +and in two other <i>bultos</i>—a +<i>Cristo</i> and <i>Jesus Nazareno</i> in the south <i>morada</i> at +Abiquiú—it seems reasonable to designate the anonymous image-maker as +the "Abiquiú <i>morada santero</i>."</p> + +<p>A <i>bulto</i> that Alice Henderson identifies as St. Joseph is +probably this figure of St. John (Figure 42) now resting in the east +<i>morada</i>. She has reported that this image and that of St. Peter +were in the mission of Santo Tomás before 1919.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_70" id="Ref_70" href="#Foot_70">[70]</a></span> +The shift in residence for these <i>santos</i> was substantiated by José Espinosa, +who stated that several images "were removed to one of the local +<i>moradas</i> ... when the old church was torn down."<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_71" id="Ref_71" href="#Foot_71">[71]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the right side of the east <i>morada</i> altar, images of two male +saints reflect the intense affection felt by <i>penitentes</i> for the +Franciscan saints Anthony of Padua and John of Nepomuk. The most +popular New Mexican +saint, San Antonio (Figure 43), customarily carries +the young Jesus, <i>El Santo Niño</i>. This image has been +painted dark blue to represent the traditional Franciscan +habit of New Mexico before the 1890s.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_72" id="Ref_72" href="#Foot_72">[72]</a></span></p> + +<p>The 14th-century saint, John of Nepomuk, Bohemia (Figure 44), is known +from a legend that states he was killed by King Wenceslaus for +refusing to reveal secrets of the Queen, for whom he was confessor. +The story notes that, after torture, John was drowned in the Moldau +River, but that his body floated all night and, in the morning, was +taken to the Church of the Holy Cross of the Penitents in Prague. +After the martyred chaplain was canonized in 1729, his cult spread to +Rome, then Spain, and, by 1800, into New Mexico.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_43-44.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 43.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint Anthony of Padua and the Infant Jesus</span> (<i>San Antonio y Niño</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 43.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, right side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted with repainted head; dark blue habit; dressed in light + blue cotton fabric with white border, artificial flowers.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 44.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint John of Nepomuk</span> (<i>San Juan Nepomuceno</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: base to hat 78.7 centimeters. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: East <i>morada</i>, right side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dark blue robe with white border; dressed in black hat + and robe under white alblike coat; rosary.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Among the <i>Hispanos</i>, local Franciscans promoted this cult of St. +John as a prognosticator and as a respecter of secrecy.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_73" id="Ref_73" href="#Foot_73">[73]</a></span> +Due in part to this promotion, <i>San Juan Nepomuceno</i> became a favorite +of New Mexican <i>penitentes</i>. E. Boyd suggests that the image of +St. John (Figure 44) may have first represented St. Francis or St. +Joseph. She also notes a stylistically similar <i>bulto</i> of St. +Joseph in Colorado Springs, manufactured not long after 1825.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_74" id="Ref_74" href="#Foot_74">[74]</a></span></p> + +<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">Oratory in South Morada.</span>—Turning to the south <i>morada</i> +chapel, we find numerous parallels to the earlier east <i>morada</i> +in <i>santo</i> identities and in religious artifacts. (Figure 10 +presents a previously unphotographed view of this active +<i>penitente</i> chapel with its fully equipped altar.) The walls of +the west chamber of the south <i>morada</i> are lined with benches +over which hang religious prints in frames of commercial plaster and +local tin work (Figure 45).</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_45.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 45.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint Joseph and Christ Child</span> (<i>San José y el Santo Niño</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: frame 45.7 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported commercial products. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, chapel wall. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Plaster frame, molded and gilded. + Chromo-lithograph on paper. + <span class="smcap">Saint Peter</span> (<i>San Pedro</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: frame 25.4 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Third quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: Imported, commercially made print. + New Mexico, unidentified tinsmith. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, chapel wall. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Tin frame: cut, repoussé, stamped, + and soldered. Chromo-lithograph on paper.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The tin frame for a lithograph of St. Peter reveals repoussé designs +found on east <i>morada</i> frames (Figure 30, center). Other examples +of local tinwork are seen in Figure 46. On the right is a cross of +punched tinwork with pomegranate ends and corner fillers that reflect +Moorish characteristics in Spanish arts known as <i>mudéjar</i>. The +frame dates from after 1850, as indicated by glass panes painted with +floral patterns suggesting Victorian wallpaper. To the left is a niche +made of six glass panels painted with wavy lines and an early +19th-century woodcut of the Holy Child of Atocha. +Here again, twisted half-columns repeat a motif seen +on a tin frame in the east <i>morada</i> chapel. In front of +the draped entry to the south <i>morada</i> sanctuary stand +two candelabra, one of which is shown in the doorway +to the oratory (Figure 47) with tin reflectors and +hand-carved sockets.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_75" id="Ref_75" href="#Foot_75">[75]</a></span> +There are also vigil light boxes, +kerosene lanterns with varnished tin shades, commercial +religious images and ornaments that are similar to +items in the east <i>morada</i> sanctuary.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 500px;"> + <img src="images/fig_46.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 46.</span> + <span class="smcap">Niche with Print of Christ Child</span> (<i>Nicho</i> + and <i>Santo Niño de Atocha</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 35.5 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified tinsmith. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, chapel walls. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Tin frame: cut, repoussé, + and soldered. Glass: cut and painted. Woodcut on paper. + <span class="smcap">Cross</span> (<i>cruz</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 43.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origins</span>: New Mexico, unidentified tinsmith. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, chapel walls. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Tin frame: cut, repoussé, and + soldered. Glass: cut and painted.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> + <img src="images/fig_47.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 47.</span> + <span class="smcap">Candelabrum</span> (<i>candelabro</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 157.5 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Early 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, in front of altar in oratory. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Mill-cut wood stand, + hand-carved pegs to hold candles, and hand-worked tin crosses. + Painted white. One of a pair. </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Embroidered textiles portray the Last Supper, and a chapter banner, +made up for the brotherhood after 1925, shows the Crucifixion in oil +colors. This banner bears the words "Fraternidad Piadosa D[e] +N[uestro] P[adre] J[esus] D[e] Nazareno, Sección No. 12, Abiquiú, New +Mexico." The title <i>fraternidad</i> is that assumed by +<i>penitente</i> chapters that incorporated in New Mexico around 1930, +although the term <i>cofradía</i> often appears in transfers of +private land to <i>penitente</i> organizations.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_76" id="Ref_76" href="#Foot_76">[76]</a></span> +A second banner, this one on the left, reads "Sociedad de la Sagrada Familia," which is +a Catholic women's organization that often supports <i>penitente</i> +groups.</p> + +<p>In the oratory of the south <i>morada</i>, locally made images merit +special notice. Two carved images flank the entry to the south +<i>morada</i> sanctuary. The <i>bulto</i> on the right, St. Francis of +Assisi (Figure 48), has a special significance. As we noted in the +east <i>morada</i>, many Spanish settlers in New Mexico honored San +Francisco as the founder of the Franciscans, the order whose +missionaries long had served the region. The second <i>bulto</i> +(Figure 49) reveals clues that it originally had been a representation +of the Immaculate Conception (<i>Inmaculata Concepción</i>). In +Abiquiú, however, this figure is called <i>la mujer de San Juan</i> +("the woman of St. John"), a phrase that indicates the major role Mary +holds for the <i>penitentes</i>. With this image they refer to the +moment in the Crucifixion when Jesus committed the care of His mother +to St. John. As introductions to the south <i>morada</i> chancel, St. +Francis and the Marian image are excellent specimens of pre-1850 +<i>santero</i> craftsmanship.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 450px;"> + <img src="images/fig_48-49.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 48.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint Francis of Assisi</span> (<i>San Francisco</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 53.3 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, right wall of chapel. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; blue habit with brown collar; wood cross and skull, tin + halo; rosary beads with fish pendants.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 49.</span> + <span class="smcap">The Immaculate Conception</span> (<i>la mujer de San Juan</i> [local name]). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 55.9 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: First half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, left wall of chapel. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; oil colors over earlier tempera; red gown and crown; blue + cape and base.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Two more images of Mary occur on the altar of the south <i>morada</i> +sanctuary. The first (Figure 50) takes its proper ecclesiastic +position on the Gospel side, to the viewer's left of the crucifix. The +second "Marian" +image (Figure 51) is less orthodox. Not only does this +<i>bulto</i> stand on the Epistle side of the crucifix but, like +the Marian advocation cited above as <i>la mujer de San +Juan</i>, this figure's identity has been changed to suit +local taste. <i>Penitentes</i> at Abiquiú refer to the image as +Santa Rosa, the traditional patroness of the area following +its first settlement by Spaniards.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 460px;"> + <img src="images/fig_50.jpg" alt=""/> + <img src="images/fig_51.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 50.</span> + <span class="smcap">Our Lady of Sorrows</span> (<i>Nuestra Señora de los Dolores</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 104.1 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Third quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dressed in pink satin; artificial flowers, tin crown.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 51.</span> + <span class="smcap">Virgin and Child or Saint Rita</span> (<i>Santa Rosa de Lima</i> [local name]). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 68 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, right side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dressed in pink satin; cross of turned wood; artificial + flowers, shell crown.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Between these Marian images there are two large <i>bultos</i> that are +examples of the work of the "Abiquiú <i>morada santero</i>" suggested +earlier. Both are figures of Jesus. The first, a <i>Cristo</i> (Figure 52), +is the central crucifix on the altar. As in the east <i>morada</i>, +the focal image is accompanied by an <i>angelito</i>, this time with +tin wings.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_77" id="Ref_77" href="#Foot_77">[77]</a></span> +To the right stands the other image of Jesus, the +Nazarene, <i>Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno</i> (Figure 53). Along with +the nearby crucifix (Figure 52) and the figure of St. John the +Evangelist (Figure 42) in the east <i>morada</i>, this representation +of the scourged Jesus reflects the style of the "Abiquiú <i>morada +santero</i>." This Nazarene <i>bulto</i> embodies the <i>penitente</i> +concept of Jesus as a Man of suffering Who must be followed.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 450px;"> + <img src="images/fig_52-53.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 52.</span> + <span class="smcap">Crucifix with Angel</span> (<i>Cristo</i> and <i>angelito</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: Cross 144.8 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Early 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, "Abiquiú <i>morada</i>" <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, center of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; purple fabric, waist cloths; tin wings on + <i>angelito</i>; black cross with <i>iNRi</i> plaque.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 53.</span> + <span class="smcap">Man of Sorrows</span> (<i>Ecce Homo, Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 122 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Second half of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, "Abiquiú <i>morada</i>" <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, right side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; black horsehair wig, crown of thorns; purple fabric gown; + palm clusters, rosaries.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The special character of the <i>penitente</i> brotherhood is +demonstrated also in the last two <i>bultos</i> on the south +<i>morada</i> altar. The prominent size and position of St. John of +Nepomuk (Figure 54) on the altar indicate again the importance given +by the <i>penitentes</i> to San Juan as a keeper of secrets. The other +figure is the south <i>morada</i>'s personification of death (Figure +55), <i>la muerte</i>, here even more gaunt than the image in the east +<i>morada</i>. Probably made after 1900, this figure demonstrates the +persistent artistic and religious heritage of <i>Hispano</i> culture.</p> + +<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 450px;"> + <img src="images/fig_54-55.jpg" alt=""/> + <div class="caption"> + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 54.</span> + <span class="smcap">Saint John of Nepomuk</span> (<i>San Juan Nepomuceno</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size</span>: 90.2 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Early 20th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, left side of altar. + <span class="smcap">Manufacture</span>: Carved wood, gessoed and + painted; dressed in black gown and cap; white cotton cassock; + artificial flowers; horsehair wig.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Figure 55.</span> + <span class="smcap">Death</span> (<i>la muerte</i>). + <span class="smcap">Size:</span> 111.8 centimeters high. + <span class="smcap">Date</span>: Fourth quarter of 19th century. + <span class="smcap">Origin</span>: New Mexico, unidentified <i>santero</i>. + <span class="smcap">Location</span>: South <i>morada</i>, left side of altar.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_53" id="Foot_53" href="#Ref_53">[53]</a> +Interviews with Abiquiú inhabitants: Delfino Garcia in summer +1963 and Agapita Lopez in fall 1966.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_54" id="Foot_54" href="#Ref_54">[54]</a> +Interviews with <i>penitente</i> members at Abiquiú, summers of +1965 and 1967.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_55" id="Foot_55" href="#Ref_55">[55]</a> +<span class="smcap">José Espinosa</span>, <i>Saints in the Valley</i> (Albuquerque, +1960), p. 75.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_56" id="Foot_56" href="#Ref_56">[56]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, <i>Missions</i>, p. 50 (ftn. 5), defines +<i>varal</i> and its customary use.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_57" id="Foot_57" href="#Ref_57">[57]</a> +Ibid., pp. 107, 131 (ftn. 4), 167.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_58" id="Foot_58" href="#Ref_58">[58]</a> +Ibid., pp. 121-123.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_59" id="Foot_59" href="#Ref_59">[59]</a> +AASF, Loose Documents, Mission, 1680-1850, and Accounts, +books xxxxv and lxiv. Also in Wills and Hijuelas, State Records +Center, and in Twitchell documents, Land Management Bureau, both +offices in Santa Fe, New Mexico.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_60" id="Foot_60" href="#Ref_60">[60]</a> +<span class="smcap">Walter Hough</span>, <i>Collections of Heating and Lighting</i> +(Smithsonian Inst. Bull. 141, Washington, D.C., 1928), pl. 28a, no. 3.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_61" id="Foot_61" href="#Ref_61">[61]</a> +<span class="smcap">Stephen Borhegyi</span>, <i>El Santuario de Chimayo</i> (Santa +Fe, 1956); also <span class="smcap">E. Boyd</span>, <i>Saints and Saint Makers</i> +(Santa Fe, 1946), pp. 126-132.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_62" id="Foot_62" href="#Ref_62">[62]</a> +<span class="smcap">George Kubler</span>, in <i>Santos: An Exhibition of the +Religious Folk Art of New Mexico with an Essay by George Kubler</i> +(Fort Worth, Tex.: Amon Carter Museum of Western Art, June 1964).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_63" id="Foot_63" href="#Ref_63">[63]</a> +A fuller discussion of the <i>penitente</i> death cart and +further illustrations are found in <span class="smcap">Mitchell A. Wilder</span> and +<span class="smcap">Edgar Breitenbach</span>, <i>Santos: The Religious Folk Art of New +Mexico</i> (Colorado Springs, 1943), pl. 30 and text. Relevant to this +study is the death cart with immobile wheels recorded by +<span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, p. 32 [see ftn. 64], as having been used in +processions before 1919. It is likely that this is the same cart +described above in the storage room of the east <i>morada</i> (Figure +22); it is important because its measurements and construction details +are nearly identical to the death cart in the collections of the +Museum of New Mexico, reputed to have come from Abiquiú.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_64" id="Foot_64" href="#Ref_64">[64]</a> +<span class="smcap">Alice Corbin Henderson</span>, <i>Brothers of Light</i> +(Chicago, 1962), p. 32, describes a <i>muerte</i> figure: chalk-white +face, obsidian eyes, black outfit.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_65" id="Foot_65" href="#Ref_65">[65]</a> +<span class="smcap">E. Boyd</span>, "Crucifix in Santero Art," <i>El Palacio</i>, +vol. LX, no. 3 (March 1953), pp. 112-115, indicates the significance +of this image form.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_66" id="Foot_66" href="#Ref_66">[66]</a> +<span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, pp. 13 (red gown, blindfolded, flowing black +hair), 26 (red gown, bound hands, made for mission), and 43-46 (tall, +almost life size, blindfolded, carried on small platform in procession +from lower [east] <i>morada</i>, horsehair rope).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_67" id="Foot_67" href="#Ref_67">[67]</a> +<span class="smcap">Boyd</span>, in litt., Nov. 13, 1965.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_68" id="Foot_68" href="#Ref_68">[68]</a> +<span class="smcap">Boyd</span>, loc. cit. Regarding +construction, see <span class="smcap">E. Boyd</span>, "New Mexican +Bultos with Hollow Skirts: How They Were Made," <i>El Palacio</i>, +vol. LVIII, no. 5 (May, 1951), pp. 145-148.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_69" id="Foot_69" href="#Ref_69">[69]</a> +<span class="smcap">Wilder</span> and <span class="smcap">Breitenbach</span>, pls. 24, 25.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_70" id="Foot_70" href="#Ref_70">[70]</a> +<span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, p. 26.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_71" id="Foot_71" href="#Ref_71">[71]</a> +<span class="smcap">José Espinosa</span>, op. cit., p. 75.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_72" id="Foot_72" href="#Ref_72">[72]</a> +<span class="smcap">Domínguez</span>, <i>Missions</i>, p. 264 (ftn. 59). The brown +robe worn by Franciscans today is a late 19th-century innovation.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_73" id="Foot_73" href="#Ref_73">[73]</a> +<span class="smcap">Boyd</span>, <i>Saints</i>, p. 133.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_74" id="Foot_74" href="#Ref_74">[74]</a> +<span class="smcap">Boyd</span>, in litt., Nov. 13, 1965. For a comparative +illustration of St. Joseph, see <span class="smcap">Wilder</span> and +<span class="smcap">Breitenbach</span>, pl. 42.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_75" id="Foot_75" href="#Ref_75">[75]</a> +<span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, p. 51, notes this pair of candelabra with the +13 sockets. Fifteen is the ecclesiastically correct number for +<i>tenebrae</i> services.</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_76" id="Foot_76" href="#Ref_76">[76]</a> +<i>Acts of Incorporation</i>, microfilm, Corporation Bureau, +State Capitol, Santa Fe; see also Land Records, <i>General Indirect +Index</i>, Rio Arriba County Court House, vols. I (1852-1912) and II +(1912-1930).</p> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_77" id="Foot_77" href="#Ref_77">[77]</a> +<span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, p. 51, describes the <i>angelito</i>, in the +dim light of the <i>morada</i> ceremony, as a "dove like a wasp." +Another angel figure was given me through Regino Salazar by one of the +<i>penitente</i> brothers of Abiquiú. According to E. Boyd, it appears +to be the work of José Rafael Aragon, who worked in the Santa Cruz +area after 1825.</p> + +</div> + +<h2><i>Summary</i></h2> + +<p class="nodent">The two Abiquiú <i>moradas</i> are clearly parallel in their +architectural design (including the constricted chancels), in their +artifacts—especially <i>bulto</i> identities such as Jesus +(<i>Cristo</i>, <i>Nazareno</i>, <i>Ecce Homo</i>, <i>Santo Niño de +Atocha</i>), Mary (<i>Dolores</i>, <i>Immaculata Concepción</i>, +<i>Soledad</i>, <i>Guadalupe</i>), Saint John of Nepomuk, Saint Peter, +and death—and lastly, in the ceremonies held +in the buildings, which link rather than separate the +<i>penitente</i> movement and the common social values of +<i>Hispano</i> culture.</p> + +<p>Edmonson uses six institutional values to define <i>Hispano</i> +culture.<span +class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_78" id="Ref_78" href="#Foot_78">[78]</a></span> +All six can be found in the <i>penitente</i> brotherhood. +"Paternalism" is found in the relation of the members-at-large to the +officers and of all the <i>penitente</i> brothers to <i>Nuestro Padre +Jesus</i>, "Our Father Jesus." "Familism" is reflected in the +structure of the <i>penitente</i> organization and especially in the +extension of its social benefits to the entire community. "Dramatism" +is an essential ingredient of <i>penitente</i> ceremonies such as the +<i>tinieblas</i>. "Personalism" is revealed in the immediate and +individual participation of all +members in <i>penitente</i> activities. "Fatalism" is the focus +of Holy Week and of funerals and is personified by the +<i>muerte</i> figure in each <i>morada</i>.</p> + +<p>Finally, Edmonson cited "traditionalism" as definitive of +<i>Hispano</i> culture, a characteristic that is clearly evident in +the <i>penitente</i> forms of shelter, ceremonies, and artifacts. +These commonplace objects and activities had been established at +Abiquiú before and during the period of <i>morada</i> building and +furnishing. Literary and pictorial documents presented in this study +of Abiquiú and the <i>penitente moradas</i> reveal that their physical +structure, furnishings, membership, and the brotherhood itself are +related intimately to, and drawn from, the traditional and persistent +Hispanic culture of New Mexico.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_78" id="Foot_78" href="#Ref_78">[78]</a> +<span class="smcap">Edmondson</span>, p. 62.</p> + +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44678 ***</div> +</body> + +</html> diff --git a/44678-h/images/cover.jpg b/44678-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c3aa046 --- /dev/null +++ b/44678-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/44678-h/images/fig_01_large.png b/44678-h/images/fig_01_large.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d82b9b --- /dev/null +++ b/44678-h/images/fig_01_large.png diff --git a/44678-h/images/fig_01_thumb.jpg b/44678-h/images/fig_01_thumb.jpg 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