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diff --git a/44548-h/44548-h.htm b/44548-h/44548-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f2a7d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/44548-h/44548-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,22016 @@ + +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Englishman in China During the Victorian Era, Vol. 2, by Alexander Michie. + </title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/i-title.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + + body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + h1{ + text-align: center; + clear: both; + margin-top: 6em; + } + + h2 {text-align: center; + clear: both; + margin-top: 4em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 1.2em; + } + + h3 {text-align: center; + clear: both; + font-size: 1.0em; + margin-top: 4em; } + + .chap1 {margin-top: 2em;} + p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: left; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } + hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-left: 33%; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + hr.l15 { width: 15%; + margin-left: 42%; } + + .center { text-align: center; } + + .smcap { font-variant: small-caps; } + + .caption { + font-weight: bold; + margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + text-align: center; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + .index {margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%;} + ul.none { list-style-type:none; } + ul.idx {list-style-type: none; + margin-left: .5em; + padding-left: 1em; + text-indent: -1em; } + li.alpha {margin-top: 1em;} + + .figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + } + + .footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; + margin-top: .75em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + .footnotes { border: dashed 1px; + margin-top: 6em; } + + .footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; + } + + .fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; + } + + .p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + .p4 {margin-top: 4em;} + .p6 {margin-top: 6em;} + + .b20 {font-size:2.0em;} + .b15 {font-size:1.5em;} + .b13 {font-size:1.3em;} + .s08 {font-size:.8em;} + .blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 90%; + } + + table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + empty-cells: show; + } + td {padding-left: 2em; + padding-top: .5em; + vertical-align: top;} + + .tdh { text-indent: -1em; + margin-left: 1em; + } + + .tdr { text-align: right; } + .tnbox { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-bottom: 8em; + margin-top: auto; + text-align: center; + border: 1px solid; + padding: 1em; + color: black; + background-color: #f6f2f2; + width: 25em; + } + + .ch_summ { + font-size: .85em; + margin-left: 1em; + text-indent: -1em; + margin-bottom: 1.5em; + } + + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44548 ***</div> + +<div class="tnbox"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> +<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. +Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original +document have been preserved.</p> + +<p>Index inconsistencies with the text have been regularized with the + text.</p> + + <p>The index to this book contains links to Volume I of this two-volume work. + The links are designed to work when the book is read on line. If you want to download + both volumes and use the index, you will need to change the links to point to the file name of Volume I + on your own device.</p> + <p>Download Volume I from <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm">http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/42732</a></p> + +</div> + +<h1> +THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA +</h1> + +<div class="blockquot p6"> +<p> +<span class='smcap'>Chap. xxiii.</span>: <i>Tsze-kung asked, saying, "Is there one word which +may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?" The Master +said, "Is not <span class='smcap'>Reciprocity</span> such a word? What you do not +want done to yourself, do not do to others."</i> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter p6"><a name="fp" id="fp"></a> +<img src="images/i-fp.jpg" width="368" height="600" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">Very truly yours<br /> +Rutherford Alcock<br /> +<span class="s08">J. Thomson, photo.</span><br /> +<span class="s08">Walker & Cockerell, ph. sc.</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="center p6"> +<span class="b20">THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA</span><br /> +<br /> + +<span class="b13">DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA</span></p> + +<p class="center p4"><span class="s08">AS ILLUSTRATED IN</span><br /> +THE CAREER OF<br /> +<br /> +<span class="b13">SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK, K.C.B., D.C.L.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">MANY YEARS CONSUL AND MINISTER IN</span><br /> +<span class="s08">CHINA AND JAPAN</span></p> + +<p class="center p4"><span class="s08">BY</span><br /> + +<span class="b13">ALEXANDER MICHIE</span><br /> + +<span class="s08">AUTHOR OF</span><br /> +<span class="s08">'THE SIBERIAN OVERLAND ROUTE,' 'MISSIONARIES</span><br /> +<span class="s08">IN CHINA,' ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="center p4">VOL. II.</p> + +<p class="center p4">WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS<br /> +EDINBURGH AND LONDON<br /> +MDCCCC</p> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_v' name='Page_v'>[v]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. +</h2> +<hr class="l15" /> + +<table summary="Table of Contents"> +<col width="5%" /> +<col width="5%" /> +<col width="5%" /> +<col width="75%" /> +<col width="10%" /> + <tr> + <td><span class="s08">CHAP.</span></td> + <td colspan="4" class="tdr"><span class="s08">PAGE</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XIX.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">JAPAN—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE TREATIES AND THEIR NEGOTIATORS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1" >1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE OPERATION OF THE TREATIES</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12" >12</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">ASSASSINATION PERIOD, 1860-61</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34" >34</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">NEGOTIATIONS AND RENEWED ASSASSINATIONS, 1862-64</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44" >44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">V.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE TYCOON'S DILEMMA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60" >60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VI.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE CRISIS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75" >75</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VII.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE BIRTH OF NEW JAPAN</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92" >92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE DIPLOMATIC BODY—TSUSHIMA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104" >104</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IX.</td> + <td class="tdh">TRADE AND TRADERS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115" >115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XX.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK IN PEKING, 1865-1869—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE BRITISH LEGATION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_130" >130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">FOREIGN LIFE IN PEKING</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138" >138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE FOREIGN CUSTOMS UNDER THE PEKING CONVENTION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156" >156</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">EMIGRATION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168" >168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">V.</td> + <td class="tdh">KOREA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175" >175</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXI.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">THE REVISION OF THE TREATY—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">PREPARATION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180" >180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE BURLINGAME MISSION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192" >192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">CHINESE OUTRAGES—YANGCHOW AND FORMOSA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_198" >198</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">REVISION NEGOTIATIONS AND CONCLUSION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_210" >210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">MISSIONARY PROBLEM—TIENTSIN MASSACRE OF 1870</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_223" >223</a><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_vi' name='Page_vi'>[vi]</a></span></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">THE EXPANSION OF INTERCOURSE—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">RUSSIA AND FRANCE ADVANCING</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250" >250</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">JAPAN AGGRESSIVE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_255" >255</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">KOREA OPENED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256" >256</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE FIRST IMPERIAL AUDIENCE—SUCCESSION OF KWANGHSU</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260" >260</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">THE MURDER OF MR MARGARY, 1875—CHEFOO CONVENTION, 1876—RATIFICATION, 1885—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE MURDER OF MR MARGARY, 1875</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_265" >265</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">CHEFOO CONVENTION, 1876</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_275" >275</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE RATIFICATION, 1885</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282" >282</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXV.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">A CHAIN OF INCIDENTS—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">DISPUTE WITH RUSSIA RE KULDJA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290" >290</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">KOREAN IMBROGLIO, 1882-85</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293" >293</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE PORT HAMILTON EPISODE, 1885-87</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303" >303</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">TIBET</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_305" >305</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">V.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE CRUISE OF THE SEVENTH PRINCE, 1886</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_312" >312</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VI.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE EMPEROR ASSUMES THE GOVERNMENT, 1889</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318" >318</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VII.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE VISIT OF THE CZAREVITCH, 1891</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_321" >321</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVI.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">THE TONGKING QUARREL</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324" >324</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">THE FRENCH PROTECTORATE OF CHRISTIANS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_336" >336</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVIII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">BRITISH SERVICES: DIPLOMATIC, CONSULAR, AND JUDICIAL</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_353" >353</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIX.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">CHINA AND HER RULERS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_368" >368</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXX.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">CHINA'S AWAKENING</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_388" >388</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXI.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">THE COLLAPSE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_403" >403</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">THE RESETTLEMENT OF THE FAR EAST</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_417" >417</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXIII.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="4">THE OUTCOME—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE SITUATION IN PEKING</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_435" >435</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE CHRONIC CAUSE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_440" >440</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">III.</td> + <td class="tdh">IMMEDIATE PROVOCATION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_447" >447</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">IV.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE DYNASTIC FACTOR</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_455" >455</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">V.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE CHINESE OUTBREAK</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_461" >461</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">VI.</td> + <td class="tdh">THE CRUX</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_464" >464</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXIV.</td> + <td class="tdh" colspan="3">SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK'S LATER YEARS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_476" >476</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4">INDEX</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_490" >490</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_vii' name='Page_vii'>[vii]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE SECOND VOLUME. +</h2> + +<table summary="Illustrations"> +<col width="90%" /> +<col width="10%" /> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdr"><span class="s08">PAGE</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#fp"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>LORD ELGIN</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i006">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>PRINCE KUNG</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i134">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>WÊNSIANG</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i136">136</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>MANCHU (TARTAR) WOMEN</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i138">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>MANCHU WOMEN</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i140">140</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>CHINESE WOMEN</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i142">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>CHINESE STREET SCENE DURING RAINY SEASON</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i144">144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>LI HUNG-CHANG AT THE AGE OF FIFTY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i184">184</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>RUINS OF FRENCH CATHEDRAL AT TIENTSIN, BURNED JUNE 20, 1870</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i240">240</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>PEI-T'ANG CATHEDRAL IN PEKING, PURCHASED BY CHINESE GOVERNMENT</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i340">340</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>MINISTERS OF THE YAMÊN OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS: H.E. SHÊN KUEI-FÊN; H.E. TUNG HSÜN; H.E. MAO CHANG-TSI</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i416">416</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<h3> +MAPS. +</h3> + +<table summary="maps"> +<col width="90%" /> +<col width="10%" /> + <tr> + <td>BAY OF YEDO</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i004">4</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>MAP OF EASTERN ASIA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#map"><i>At end</i></a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="p6"> +In the contents under chapter +xix. the date of Commodore Perry's +expedition is by a misprint given +as 1883-84 instead of 1853-54. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_1' name='Page_1'>[1]</a></span> +</p> + +<p class="center p6 b15"> +THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. +</p> +<hr class="l15" /> + +<h2 class="chap1"> +CHAPTER XIX.<br /> +<br /> + +<span class="s08">JAPAN</span>.</h2> + +<h3 class="chap1"> +I. THE TREATIES AND THEIR NEGOTIATORS. +</h3> + +<p class="ch_summ"> +Commodore Perry's expedition, 1853-54—Townsend Harris—Count Poutiatine—Lord +Elgin—The treaties of 1858—The solidarity of Western +Powers—The practical attitude of the Japanese—Their yielding to +circumstances—The condition of the country—The character of the +people—Nagasaki—The Dutch—Their two hundred years' imprisonment. +</p> + +<p> +A mystery hung over the island empire, which had +been sealed against foreign intercourse for two hundred +years, and its mere seclusion, apart from the weird +romance that gilded such fragments of its history +as were known, invested the efforts to reopen the +country with a romantic charm. It was in Japan +that Lord Elgin achieved the real diplomatic success +of his life, in the briefest possible time, at the least +possible cost, and with the most far-reaching consequences; +for undoubtedly he hastened the entry +of the Land of the Rising Sun into the family of +nations. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_2' name='Page_2'>[2]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The poetical side of the mission was done ample +justice to by Laurence Oliphant in his 'Narrative,' +by Captain Sherard Osborn in the pages of 'Blackwood,' +and elsewhere. The prosaic side and the +practical issues of this rediscovery of an old world +were not so clearly apprehended by them or by any +other contemporary writer. The Powers of Europe +and America had long been watching for opportunities +to effect an opening in the barrier, but all +tentatives proved in vain until force was resorted to. +This was first done by the United States, whence +a naval squadron under Commodore Perry appeared +off the coast in 1853, repeating the visit, on a still +more imposing scale, in 1854. The apparition deeply +impressed the minds of the Japanese Government +and people, who, Lafcadio Hearn tells us, speak to +this day of the "black ships," birds of omen foreshadowing +events for which it behoved them to prepare +themselves. Black, indeed, they were, grim +of aspect, huge in bulk, and looming larger than they +really were, with their high sides, great paddle-boxes, +and "smoke-stacks." The ships were armed with a +few guns of such calibre and power as had not till +then been placed on any floating battery. Jonathan +is never second-best in naval artillery. Commodore +Perry with his three black ships, the steamers Powhattan, +Susquehanna, and Mississippi, and his squadron +of sailing-vessels, opened the door of Japan—not very +wide, it is true, yet so that it could never again be +closed. The rudimentary treaty he made was little +more than a covenant to supply wood and water to +needy ships and to be merciful to their crews. A +similar treaty was made by the English Admiral Stirling +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_3' name='Page_3'>[3]</a></span> +in 1854, and it included the "most-favoured-nation" +clause, only excepting from its application +the privileges enjoyed by China and Holland. +</p> + +<p> +To carry the work forward to a more practical stage +a man of affairs was required, and he was found in +the person of Townsend Harris, who was accredited +to Japan under the title of Consul-General for the +United States. Mr Harris had been nearly two years +in the country when Lord Elgin, with his modest +escort, arrived and made his acquaintance. With +infinite patience Mr Harris had been prosecuting +his negotiations, against wind and current, it would +seem, until a propitious gale wafted his venture +into port. The black ships had gone, but another +fleet more numerous was assembled on the neighbouring +coast, whence their fame had reached the +secluded empire. Riding on the shoulders of the +Anglo-French exploits in China, and not obscurely +hinting at the prospect of the allies shortly visiting +Japan, Mr Harris induced his Japanese friends to +"hurry up" with his treaty, that it might not only +serve as a model of moderation for the other Powers +when they also should come to negotiate, but provide +in advance friendly mediation between them and +Japan. Lord Elgin justified the forewarnings of +Mr Harris by appearing in the Bay of Yedo within +a few weeks after the signature of the American +treaty. +</p> + +<p> +How much both Mr Harris's treaty and the one +which Lord Elgin was about to sign owed to the +previous Russian negotiations cannot be estimated. +Admiral Count Poutiatine concluded a treaty in 1855, +and improved it in 1857, on the basis of Sir James +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_4' name='Page_4'>[4]</a></span> +Stirling's opening the ports of Nagasaki, Hakodate, +and Shimoda for ship's supplies, with sundry minor +privileges. When Lord Elgin reached the Bay of +Yedo in August 1858 he found Count Poutiatine +already there with a frigate and a gunboat. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i004" id="i004"></a> +<img src="images/i-p004.jpg" width="298" height="400" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">BAY OF YEDO.<br /> + +<span class="s08"> +<i>Walker & Cockerell sc.</i></span> +</p> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_5' name='Page_5'>[5]</a></span> +This convergence of the great Powers of the world +upon a single object, that of breaking down the +seclusion of Japan, was clearly recognised, and its +proximate effect weighed, by the Japanese statesmen +of the day. Too wise to oppose an uncompromising +resistance to the pressure, they employed their skill +more profitably in deflecting its course. In accordance +with this policy, Lord Elgin's demand, backed as it was +by the prestige of his recent achievements in China, +was promptly conceded, and within the short space +of fourteen days from his arrival in the bay a treaty +was concluded of the same tenor as the American, of +which Lord Elgin had obtained a copy from Mr Harris, +who also lent him the invaluable services of his Dutch +interpreter, Mr Heusken. By the two treaties three +of the chief ports of the empire were opened to foreign +trade within one year, and two more at later dates. +In some respects the English was an advance on the +American treaty. By the latter the import tariff had +been reduced from the old Dutch rate of 35 per cent +to a general rate of 5 per cent <i>ad valorem</i>. The +British treaty specifically provided that cotton and +woollen manufactured goods should be included in the +class of merchandise paying 5 per cent. The immunities +of extra-territoriality were unreservedly conceded, +and were only rescinded by the revised treaties, the +first of which was made with Great Britain in 1894, +coming into force in July 1899. +</p> + +<p> +One general remark applies to all treaties made +between foreign powers and China or Japan, that +the interests of each separate Power were safeguarded +by the virtual solidarity which existed among them, +through the operation of that convenient diplomatic +save-all, the "most-favoured-nation" clause. This +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_6' name='Page_6'>[6]</a></span> +comprehensive provision inserted in the treaties secured +for all the Powers the advantages gained by any one +of their number. Faith in this ultimate protection +may have led occasionally to slipshod negotiations. +There might even be a temptation in some cases to +seek special credit for moderation, with the foreknowledge +that the exactions of any of the Powers +would inure to the benefit of all. Lord Elgin wrote +the simple truth when he said that, "as regards +all these important commercial privileges, I have +to fight the battles of the Western trading nations +single-handed." This feature had been particularly +noticeable in the negotiations in China, where it was +so well understood that the English treaty would +be the common standard that it mattered little that +the signature of some of the others was hurried forward +so as to take priority of the British in point +of date. The treaty which Lord Elgin negotiated +with Japan was destined to occupy the same ruling +position as the treaty with China, and therefore it +devolved upon him to make provision for all manner +of contingencies which no experience could enable him +to foresee. Considering that these treaties were drawn +up with so little knowledge of the circumstances of +the country and of the future exigencies of trade, +the fact that they have stood the test of forty +years' experience redounds greatly to the credit of +the negotiants. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i006" id="i006"></a> +<img src="images/i-p006.jpg" width="381" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">LORD ELGIN. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Lord Elgin had to learn what a Daimio was from +Count Poutiatine, who probably had but just acquired +the knowledge himself. It is strange at the present +day to read the solemn preamble, "Her Majesty the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_7' name='Page_7'>[7]</a></span> +Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and +Ireland and his Majesty the Tycoon of Japan." "It +was not till some time later that it was discovered +that there was a still higher power than the Shôgun," +said Earl Russell in 1865. The imperfect knowledge, +however, attests the general soundness of the principles +adopted. +</p> + +<p> +It must be admitted that on the Japanese side, +also, nothing seemed wanting to render the treaty a +workable instrument. The Japanese negotiators were +animated by a more practical spirit than any Chinese +diplomatist with whom foreigners had had dealings. +There was no idea in their minds of blind obstruction; +they were bent, if not upon efficient working, +at least on the minimising of friction and risk. +And though it is probable, indeed quite certain, that +no treaty whatever could have been made without +substantial force in the background, intelligently +apprehended by the Japanese Government, yet, that +being conceded, it was clearly their object to make +the best of the position in which they actually +found themselves. Under no other circumstances +could treaties so complete in detail and so effective +for their purpose have been concluded. +</p> + +<p> +To judge of the acts of the pioneers of foreign +intercourse, or to form a just opinion of the conditions +under which the treaties came into force, +it would be necessary for the critic to regard the +whole surroundings as a painter does his subject, +not representing what he knows or may afterwards +discover to be there, but considering only what +actually meets his eye. This, of course, is next to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_8' name='Page_8'>[8]</a></span> +impossible in the case of Japan, where the transformation +resulting from the contact with foreigners +was so rapid and so kaleidoscopic, and while foreign +knowledge of things Japanese has increased at so +marvellous a rate, that only a series of mutoscopic +photographs could have preserved the sequence. +Opinions were at first, and for some time after, +unduly affected by the preconception of a certain +analogy between China and Japan founded on geographical +propinquity, and in a measure on language: +this bias influenced the first influx of foreigners in +1859, who were largely drawn from the commercial +ports of China. Yet those who had been habituated +to the manners and customs of the Chinese +were at once struck, not by the similarities, but by +the violent contrasts, which the two peoples presented. +These visitants had left behind them filth +and squalor; they met cleanliness and tidiness of +an extreme type. They left behind vagueness of +thought, slovenliness of action; and they encountered +pedantic precision. They left behind indifference and +stolidity, with ignorance cherished as a proud possession; +and they encountered a keen and intelligent +appetite for knowledge. These features met the +stranger before even his ship had cast anchor, or +he had set foot on shore. He soon perceived, also, +that existence was carried on under an elaborate +prescription which left but a narrow margin to spontaneous +action, and such a minute supervision that +a sparrow could hardly cross the road without being +noted by the official guardians of the peace; that +every function, whether of official or private life, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_9' name='Page_9'>[9]</a></span> +was under the undisputed control of the same +vigilant organisation.<a name='FA_1' id='FA_1' href='#FN_1' class='fnanchor'>[1]</a> On entering the narrow +waters approaching the harbour of Nagasaki, he +would pass under forts where through a telescope +he could see guns and gunners' quarters all spick +and span. If there happened to be another vessel +approaching from seaward, he would know it by +the booming of two guns from the outermost fort, +the signal being taken up and passed on by those +inland, and so all the way to Yedo. This, he learned, +was the mode of announcing to the capital the +appearance of any foreign craft off the coast. On +entering the inner harbour he would see boats full of +men who looked like women, pushing off to his ship; +and then a posse of officers, each armed with two +sharp swords, would come on board. They, by means +of a very imperfect interpreter, would at once ply the +master with questions on every conceivable subject, as +if he were competing in an examination in universal +knowledge. The tedious catechism, with its admixture +of seeming frivolity, would have been exasperating +but for the imperturbable suavity of the catechists. +Every answer was promptly, yet deliberately, committed +to writing. Such was, and is, the custom of +the race. +</p> + +<p> +Nagasaki being still, in the first half of 1859, the +gate of Japan, and the only sample of the country +known to foreigners, the bright welcome with which +it greeted the new arrivals was of happy augury. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_10' name='Page_10'>[10]</a></span> +It was there, also, that the first observations of the +ways of Japanese commerce were made, for Nagasaki +had carried on trade with China and with Holland +for two hundred years,—a trade which was conducted +on the one side by officials of the Government, who +fixed the prices of the commodities exchanged, and +which was all but strangled by monopoly. The restricted +annual "turn-over" must have required a +high percentage of profit to support the Dutch +factory, and the privilege of trading on so petty a +scale seemed to be dearly bought by the perpetual +imprisonment of the agents. The unfortunate Dutchmen +were confined, with their whole establishment +of warehouses, residences, &c., within an area of less +than three acres of reclaimed foreshore called Deshima, +thus described by Sir Rutherford Alcock in 'The +Capital of the Tycoon':— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +A low fan-shaped strip of land, dammed out from the waters +of the bay, the handle being towards the shore and truncated. +One large wide street, with two-storeyed houses on each side, +built in European style, gives an air of great tidiness; but they +look with large hollow eyes into each other's interiors in a +dismal sort of way, as if they had been so engaged for six +generations at least, and were quite weary of the view.... +But the view from the Dutch commissioner's residence, with its +quaint Japanese garden and its fine sweep down the bay, is +very charming.... There flitted before me a vision of the +solitary chiefs of the factory in long succession taking up their +present station in long rotation and looking forward upon the +fair bay with which their sight alone may be gladdened. How +often must the occupants of this lone post have strained their +eyes looking in vain for the solitary ship bringing tidings from +Europe and home! +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The imprisonment of the Dutch was aggravated by +many degrading conditions imposed by the Japanese +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_11' name='Page_11'>[11]</a></span> +Government. Their position bore some analogy to that +of the English and other foreigners in Canton previous +to 1839. In both cases the Europeans endured indignities +at the hands of Asiatics for the sake of profit, +but beyond that point it is the differences rather than +the resemblances which are significant. The humiliation +of the Dutch in the island of Deshima was indeed +unmitigated so far as it went, but it was neither +capricious nor spiteful. Once the yoke was peacefully +adjusted, what remained of life to the Dutchman +was made as agreeable to him as to a cockatoo in a +cage. His jailors had no particular animus against +him; they had a purpose of their own to serve in +keeping open, through the foreigners, a channel of +communication with the West, and they had as valid +reasons of State for tethering him as one may have +for tying up his ox or his ass. These purposes once +served, however, the Japanese did not revel in harshness +or cruelty.<a name='FA_2' id='FA_2' href='#FN_2' class='fnanchor'>[2]</a> With the Chinese it was otherwise. +They also had a political object in restricting the barbarians, +only they were never satisfied with its attainment, +but continued heaping up insults on their victims +to the utmost limits of their submissiveness. +</p> + +<p> +The petty trade which the new-comers were able +to do at Nagasaki was, in the beginning, managed +through the existing agency of the Dutch, from whom, +however, there was nothing useful to be learned, much +indeed to be unlearned; and in a few months it was +the Dutch themselves who had to go to school to the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_12' name='Page_12'>[12]</a></span> +interlopers. As commerce had been kept entirely in +the hands of the Government officials, there had been +no opportunity for the rise of any mercantile class +among the natives: that was to be a product of the +new era. +</p> + +<h3> +II. THE OPERATION OF THE TREATIES. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Japanese preparations for trade at Yokohama—Mr Alcock's arrival as +consul-general—Assumes the rank of Minister—The situation as +he found it—The establishment of diplomatic intercourse at the +capital—The location of the foreign settlement—The currency—The +low value of gold—Its rapid exportation—Friction caused by +conditions of exchange—Efforts of Mr Alcock to set matters right—Report +by Secretary of H.B.M. Treasury—Japanese double standard, +gold and copper—Japanese courage in meeting difficulties—The +Daimios' coinage—Beginnings of trade—Amenities of residence—The +charm of the people—The two Japans, official and non-official—Complete +despotism and complete submission. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The treaties of 1858 took their proper effect at the +two ports of Hakodate and Kanagawa; but the former +being remote from any centre of population, and its +trading resources so obviously limited, it attracted +little attention in commercial circles. It was in the +more southerly port that the new foreign interests +became concentrated; and it was so near the capital—only +seventeen miles distant—that the political and +commercial currents soon acted and reacted on each +other with direct, and sometimes violent, effect. To +Kanagawa, therefore, the merchants of all nations +gathered in anticipation of the official opening of the +port on the 1st of July 1859. +</p> + +<p> +We say "Kanagawa," to follow the official nomenclature, +but in reality the adventurers who came there +to seek their fortunes did not land at that place, but +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_13' name='Page_13'>[13]</a></span> +three miles away from it, at an obscure village called +Yokohama. There the Japanese Government had +decided should be the future settlement for foreigners, +and they had made costly preparations, according to +their lights, for the accommodation of the strangers. +Roads were marked out, a certain number of wooden +bungalows had been run up, a few shops had been +opened in the quarter which was designed for native +occupation, a custom-house was built, with warehouses +attached, and stone landing-places had been constructed +for boats and lighters. The area thus marked out +for the native and foreign business quarter was a +narrow strip along the sea-shore, having in its flank +and rear an immense lagoon, or, as it was called, +"the swamp," intersected by boat channels, where +punting after wildfowl provided amusement for idle +foreigners. Being an inlet of the bay, the swamp made +a peninsula of Yokohama, which had just been connected +with the <i>tokaido</i>, the great trunk road between +the capital of the Tycoon and that of the Mikado, by +a new causeway and several good bridges, admitting +of boat traffic between the swamp and the sea. +</p> + +<p> +In the middle of the swamp, in rear of Yokohama, +was a reclaimed portion whereon was erected an extensive +range of buildings connected by a causeway with +the dry land of the settlement. From its balconies +there waved pendants of cotton cloth bearing the +legend, "This place is designed for the amusement +of foreigners," a class of amusement of which there +has never been any lack in Japan. +</p> + +<p> +Such were some of the outward and visible preparations +made by the Japanese Government, on its own +initiative, for the reception of the foreigners under the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_14' name='Page_14'>[14]</a></span> +new treaties,—preparations which surprised and somewhat +disconcerted the representatives of the Western +Governments when they arrived on the eve of the +opening of the port. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Alcock, who had recently returned to his post +as consul at Canton, was chosen as the first representative +of Great Britain in Japan, with the rank +of consul-general. As this rank placed the representative +of the leading Power in an inferior position to +his colleagues, and consequently derogated from the +influence he could exercise on the Japanese, Mr Alcock +took it upon himself to assume the title of Plenipotentiary, +placing his resignation in the hands of his +Government in case they should disavow his action. +At the same time he recommended that the future +British representative should bear the title of Minister +Resident. So far from disavowing his action, the +Government appointed him Envoy Extraordinary and +Minister Plenipotentiary, a higher rank than that +suggested by him, and he was authorised to at once +assume the title, although so unusual a proceeding as +the transfer of a consular official to the diplomatic +service involved considerable delay while the needful +formalities were being arranged. The appointment, +however, was coupled with the conditions that the +step should not be made a precedent, and that it +should confer no claim to future diplomatic employment +in the countries of the West. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Alcock was conveyed from China in one of her +Majesty's ships, arriving at the port of Nagasaki +in June 1859. There he found a fleet of foreign merchantmen +already in the harbour, and some fifteen +British subjects resident on shore, under the ægis of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_15' name='Page_15'>[15]</a></span> +the old Dutch conventions supplemented by more +recent enactments. Mr Alcock remained some days, +and having made arrangements for the carrying on of +trade under the new treaties, left a consul in charge +of British interests and proceeded to Yedo, where he +arrived on June 26. +</p> + +<p> +It is a date to be remembered as that of the practical +initiation of diplomatic intercourse with the ruling +Power in Japan. The difference between a mission to +negotiate treaties and one to carry them into effect is +thus set forth by Sir Rutherford Alcock in the preface +to his valuable work, 'The Capital of the Tycoon,' in +terms the simple truth of which must commend itself +to every candid reader:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +The Ambassadors Extraordinary had only to extort certain +privileges on paper; it was the business of the resident Ministers +to make of these paper-concessions realities—practical, +everyday realities. As this was the very thing the rulers of +the country had determined to prevent, it cannot be matter of +wonder that there was not, and never could be, any real +accord, whatever the outward professions of good faith and +amity. Hence also it naturally followed that, although the +original negotiators were received with smiles, and their path +was strewn with flowers, their successors had only the poisoned +chalice held to their lips, thorns in their path, and the scowl +of the two-sworded braves and Samurai to welcome them +whenever they ventured to leave their gates—while the +assassin haunted their steps, and broke their rest in the still +hours of the night with fell intent to massacre. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +To say the situation was novel is to say little. The +forces at work in the Japanese state economy were +either unknown to, or, what was perhaps even worse, +misunderstood by, foreign Powers. The lurid history +of previous intercourse, followed by rigid exclusion for +two centuries, would have sufficed to establish one +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_16' name='Page_16'>[16]</a></span> +factor in the problem, the iron resolution of the Japanese +rulers. With such men neutrality or indifference +was out of the question, while there was nothing as +yet to indicate what was henceforth to be the ruling +motive of Japanese policy. Both parties were embarking +on an unknown voyage, and the avoidance of +shipwreck depended in a very large measure on the +character of those who had to discover for themselves +the winds and currents, the rocks and shoals, through +which they had to steer. The leadership among the +foreign Powers was tacitly assigned to Great Britain, +and it was a born leader who was commissioned to +represent her. Mr Alcock had had fifteen years' experience +of Asiatic relations, during which time he +had proved himself the possessor of those qualities +which were now in special request. These were +indomitable energy, earnestness of purpose much beyond +the common run of official service, fearlessness +of responsibility, and alertness to grasp the nettle +danger in order to avert greater evils, and a spirit +which would neither shirk nor postpone an unpleasant +duty nor tolerate lukewarmness nor dilatoriness in +others. He was fifty years old—matured in character +and experience, while yet in the prime of his intellectual +vigour. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Alcock arrived in Yedo Bay in time to arrange +for the opening of trade at the appointed date, July 1. +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Nagasaki to Yedo! Two centuries lie between these points, +so near on the map, but so far and completely separated by +the determined policy of the Japanese rulers. A policy of +isolation so effectually carried out that no foreigner, though he +might under the Dutch flag gain access to Nagasaki, could +force or find his way to the capital. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_17' name='Page_17'>[17]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Steaming up the Bay of Yedo, and leaving Kanagawa +unvisited, Mr Alcock anchored as close to the capital as +the depth of water would allow, and at once informed +the Foreign Minister that he had come to stay. This +was done advisedly, as he has explained, to obviate all +discussion as to his place of residence, for he knew that +efforts had been made—<i>more Sinico</i>—through Lord +Elgin to induce her Majesty's Government to postpone +the residence in Yedo for a couple of years, and to keep +their representative at a distance. His first object was +to obtain a suitable residence for himself and the Legation +staff, in which assistance was cheerfully rendered +by the Government officials, as soon as they saw he was +resolved to remain in the capital. Diplomatic intercourse +became thus an established fact. +</p> + +<p> +The opening of the trading-port did not prove quite +so simple, for the consul-general found he had been +forestalled in the choice of a site for the merchants' +residence, which the Government had, as we have seen, +prepared at great expense some three miles away from +Kanagawa, the port named in the treaty. Interpreting +this hurried action of the Japanese as covering the +ulterior design of segregating the foreigners from the +natives by thrusting them to a distance from the +trunk road which led through Kanagawa, of keeping +them in a kind of imprisonment like the Dutch at +Deshima, and of retaining the power to stop their +supplies, whether of the materials of trade or of +sustenance, Mr Alcock warmly contested the action +of the Government. In the end he extorted from +them the concession of a commercial site at Kanagawa +itself, which, however, was never taken up. +Events proved too strong for the consul-general, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_18' name='Page_18'>[18]</a></span> +for the merchants of all nations as they arrived +settled in Yokohama, where there was deep water for +shipping and every convenience for business. And it +soon began also to be felt that there was an element of +safety in this foreign settlement being removed from +the great imperial road along which armed processions +were continually passing to and from the capital. +Within a year the controversy had died a natural +death, and Yokohama speaks for itself. +</p> + +<p> +The second obstacle to the free course of trade was +a more deep-rooted one, being nothing less than that +chronic bugbear of commerce and finance, the currency. +There was no circulating medium in Japan in the least +degree adequate for the service of international commerce. +The trade in miniature that had been carried +on in Nagasaki had been a simple exchange of commodities +without the intervention of the precious metals. +Mr Consul Winchester says that neither in the Dutch +nor in the Chinese factories was a Japanese coin ever +seen. But the commerce inaugurated in 1859 could +brook no such limitations, while the extent of its requirements +was of course absolutely unknown to the +negotiators of the treaties. In this state of doubt and +ignorance on both sides it seemed that the best temporary +provision that the circumstances admitted of +was for the Tycoon's Government to undertake, after +twelve months, to make all foreign money current in +Japan at its natural value, and that until the expiration +of that period Japanese coin should be supplied +in exchange for foreign, weight for weight. Yet it was +a monstrous stipulation to insert in any international +treaty, and could never, in fact, be enforced. +</p> + +<p> +The amazing laxity in this respect with which +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_19' name='Page_19'>[19]</a></span> +the treaties of 1858 were drawn opened the door to +unfathomed abuses in the matter of currency. The +coin which was in the minds of the American and +English negotiators was what was then current on +the coast of China, the dollar, or more specifically +the Mexican dollar. Yet, as was afterwards pointed +out by Mr G. Arbuthnot, Secretary to her Majesty's +Treasury, no provision was made in the treaties expressly +for exchanging that, but only British and +American money. In his opinion the Tycoon's Government +might have refused altogether to receive the +Mexican dollar, which was the only coin tendered to +them, and thus the currency clause in the treaty +would have been a dead letter from the first. But +since they did not know the weakness of the ground +which the foreigners had chosen, they had to fight +out the question under all the disadvantages of a +false position. +</p> + +<p> +By the treaty provisions, then, as interpreted by +both sides, the foreign merchants who chose to import +specie were to be supplied in exchange with current +coin of the realm whereby they could purchase the +produce of the country without awaiting the slow +and uncertain realisation of imported merchandise. +But the Japanese, apart from any question of good +faith, had vastly under-estimated the demand which +this agreement was to make on their mintage resources. +They could only supply tens where thousands +were required, and in consequence of their scarcity +native silver coins were soon run up to a high premium. +These coins were needed not alone for the purchase of +produce, but for the more lucrative investment in the +gold coinage of the country; for an extraordinary +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_20' name='Page_20'>[20]</a></span> +anomaly presented itself to the foreign traders in the +relative value of silver and gold in Japan. The ratio +between the two metals throughout the commercial +world was at that time about fifteen to one, but in +Japan, owing partly to the fact that the silver <i>ichibu</i> +was a token coin, and yet interchangeable, weight +for weight, with foreign silver coins, the ratio in the +market was reduced to five to one. Nothing could +better show how completely the country had been isolated +than this simple phenomenon. Since the seclusion +of Japan no such opportunity of profit without risk had +ever tempted merchant adventurers outside the dreams +of romance.<a name='FA_3' id='FA_3' href='#FN_3' class='fnanchor'>[3]</a> It could not be the intention of the +treaty-makers to deprive Japan of her gold, yet the +exportation of it was not only not prohibited, it was expressly +sanctioned by treaty, the export of copper coins +alone being forbidden; and once the conduit was opened +no power could arrest the flow from the higher to the +lower level. The currency question presented many +intricacies and anomalies against which the foreign +representatives struggled in the dark, but the ratio of +gold to silver was the ruling factor which underlay the +whole problem, and until every <i>koban</i> was exported, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_21' name='Page_21'>[21]</a></span> +or the relative value of gold and silver had been assimilated +to that of the outer world, there could be no +settlement of the currency question in Japan. +</p> + +<p> +In the mean time the friction caused by the unsatisfied +demands of the traders was considerable; it +became in time ludicrous. There was a daily exchange +held at the custom-house, and various arbitrary systems +of distribution were adopted by the officials there. +The discovery that a kind of manhood suffrage was recognised, +and that an employee received as much as his +employer, led to applications being made in the names +of servants and even of fictitious persons, to each of +whom an allotment was granted. Again, the discovery +that allotments were also made <span lang="la"><i>pro rata</i></span> according to +the amount applied for led to the applications being +sent in for ever larger and larger sums until billions +and quintillions were reached. By such devices, no +doubt, some of the applicants may have gained a +momentary advantage over their neighbours, but at +no time did the merchants receive a sufficiency of +Japanese coin to carry on the most restricted business. +At one time, about a year after the opening, it was +estimated that there was in the hands of foreign merchants +one million and a half of dollars which were not +exchangeable, and were a "drug in the market." +</p> + +<p> +Their wants were, however, partially supplied in +another manner. For among the anomalies of the +place and period one must be mentioned which had +a quite peculiar bearing on the supply of currency for +commercial purposes. The precious coin, which was +doled out homœopathically to merchants, was supplied +to foreign officials in liberal measure. Every minister, +consul, and assistant; every admiral, captain, and lieutenant; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_22' name='Page_22'>[22]</a></span> +every paymaster, for himself and for the service +of his ship, received his quota of Japanese money +on a scale graduated according to rank. The amount +put in circulation by these means was given by Mr +Winchester as $2,000,000 per annum. The recipients, +whether directly or through agents, were able to sell +their surpluses to the merchants, of course at a handsome +profit, and no doubt abuses grew out of what +was in its original intention a simple measure of +justice to salaried officers. The practice was condemned +by Mr Arbuthnot, and was discontinued by +order of the Foreign Office in 1864, on the initiative of +the Prussian Government, whose agent in Japan had +voluntarily renounced the privilege. But, oddly enough, +the official exchange was resumed by request of the +Japanese Government, and continued for several years +longer, until, in fact, foreign and native coin had found +their common level. +</p> + +<p> +Trade certainly suffered much in the beginning from +the incongruous state of the currency, which was greatly +more complicated than we have attempted to outline. +Even after the year of probation foreign coins were +neither received by traders at their value nor exchangeable +in accordance with the treaties. Whether the +Government was at the bottom of the obstruction or +was overruled by circumstances beyond its control +was uncertain, but the British consul-general made +masterful exertions to set the matter right. Currency +reform, however, has baffled so many generations of +expert economists that, even assuming the goodwill of +the native Government, an alien official new to the +country must have found it difficult to accomplish +much, with the time and means at his disposal. Earl +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_23' name='Page_23'>[23]</a></span> +Russell in 1862 "declined to pronounce on so large +and intricate a question," and would not even discuss +it with the Japanese envoys. +</p> + +<p> +Japanese currency formed the subject of four +elaborate reports by the Secretary to her Majesty's +Treasury, extending over twelve months, from December +1862 to December 1863, drawn up after personal +conference with Sir Rutherford Alcock and +on information derived from various other sources, +especially from a series of very able papers by Consul +Winchester. In each of these reports Mr Arbuthnot +remarks on the paucity of data, and in each he qualifies +the deductions of the preceding one. Had the series +been still further extended, it is even doubtful if +finality of judgment would have been reached; for in +his third report he says, "The whole question, both as +regards the condition of the currency and the real +intentions of the Japanese Government, is involved in +so much obscurity that no sound judgment can yet be +formed on the subject" (May 1863). +</p> + +<p> +It would be a mere weariness to the reader to +attempt to elucidate a problem which an expert +student found perplexing, but a few salient points +brought out in Mr Arbuthnot's review may repay +citation, as illustrative of the general state of relations +beyond the immediate question of the currency. "We +found," he says, "the Japanese with a carefully devised +system of coinage, presenting indeed anomalies, when +regarded from a European point of view, but apparently +well adapted to their domestic wants; and their coins +were found on assay in London to be well manufactured." +The Chinese had no such system, and the +evolution of a metallic currency entitled to such high +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_24' name='Page_24'>[24]</a></span> +praise, in a country from which the rest of the world +had been long shut off, is one of the most striking +evidences of the high originating faculty of the +Japanese. +</p> + +<p> +As to the stipulation in the treaties that foreign coin +should be current in Japan on a par with native, weight +for weight (not a word said about purity), it was not +only preposterous and absolutely unworkable, but it +was imposed by the ignorance of the foreign negotiators +against the superior knowledge of the Japanese; for it +is remarkable that in the negotiations carried on by +the Americans in 1854 the Japanese took up the impregnable +ground that "American coin was only +bullion to them." Force alone—or the fear of it—drove +them from that position in 1858, and in yielding +to the unreasoning pressure of the subsequent negotiators +the Japanese probably consoled themselves with +their resources of secret evasion to save them from the +worst consequences of the obligation—a characteristic +of the whole treaty-making campaign. +</p> + +<p> +It appeared to Mr Arbuthnot that the Japanese had +a double standard—itself "a contradiction in terms"—gold +and copper; silver occupying the position of a +token currency between the two, at a highly artificial +value, strictly governed by law. The fact was exemplified +in many ways. Art objects in silver +contained more metal than the coin paid for them, +the work of the artificer thrown into the bargain. +Gold and copper, on the other hand, bore about the +same relationship to each other as prevailed in other +countries. It was silver alone that was maintained at +a conventional level three times above its value in the +outer world. And the philosophy of this is explained +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_25' name='Page_25'>[25]</a></span> +by Mr Winchester, who tells us that, whereas the +supply of gold and copper was in many hands, the +sources of the supply of silver were in the exclusive +control of the Tycoon's Government, which derived +great advantage from maintaining the silver coinage at +a high fictitious level. +</p> + +<p> +The efforts of the Japanese to readjust the currency +to meet the demands of the treaty were naturally first +directed to silver, which was recoined and revalued, +but confusion was worse confounded by all these +attempts. Eventually the gold <i>koban</i>, worth intrinsically +18s. 4d. sterling, or 4 <i>bus</i> of the intrinsic +value of 1s. 4d., was reduced to a sterling value of +5s. 6d., but was still rated at 4 <i>bus</i>, while the copper +coinage was disestablished and iron substituted of no +intrinsic value. "I am aware of no other example," +says Mr Arbuthnot, "of so sudden and violent a +rending of the monetary regulations of a country; +certainly of none which has been produced by the +interference of foreigners." +</p> + +<p> +The effect of these inquiries by the Treasury was +to discourage further interference by foreign Governments, +to trust much to that great solvent of anomalies, +the silent operation of commerce; while the +only complete remedy was recognised as the establishment +of a mint under European regulations. +</p> + +<p> +The problem was still further complicated by the +separate coinage of the Daimios. Their <i>nibukin</i>, as +a general rule, passed only at first in their own provinces, +but gradually they filtered down to the open +ports, and at one time considerable embarrassment +arose from the mixture of the coinage thus caused. +In 1871-72 the Imperial Government, then just come +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_26' name='Page_26'>[26]</a></span> +to supreme power, took the matter up with the +thoroughness they showed in all their doings. They +gave secret notice to the foreign Ministers of their +intention to call in all princes' <i>nibukin</i>, and thereupon +issued an order that during one week these +coins should be brought into the custom-houses at +the treaty ports, where they would be fastened up +in sealed packets of $100 value, and notified that coins +so stamped within the week would be accepted by +the Government as legal tender, but that thereafter +their use would be prohibited. Now, as the Daimios' +money stood at about 90 per cent discount at the +time, the fact that some of the foreign officials who +had access to this confidential information were also +merchants created immediate speculation, with the result +that within a fortnight these silver-gilt <i>nibukin</i> +rose from 90 per cent discount to 2 or 3 per cent +premium, the officially sealed packets being a most +convenient form for the payment of duties. +</p> + +<p> +The alacrity with which the Government applied +heroic remedies to a disastrous predicament was typical +of the energy of the Japanese, which has been displayed +since in wider fields. They do not sit down +and bemoan their troubles, but at once arm themselves +against them. +</p> + +<p> +When to the inherent difficulties common to currency +problems generally were superadded the complexities +of the monetary system of a non-commercial +and long-secluded country, surprise should be felt +that the regulation of the circulating medium in +Japan was accomplished so soon, rather than that it +took so many years to arrive at the solution. The +Tycoon's Government did not live long enough to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_27' name='Page_27'>[27]</a></span> +settle the currency, but left the problem as a legacy +to the Restoration. A good many years elapsed before +the Mikado's Government succeeded in evolving +order out of chaos. +</p> + +<p> +In the mean time, in spite of many drawbacks, +trade was making headway in other directions besides +the exportation of gold, and quaint indeed were the +beginnings of it. The staple products happened to +be the same in Japan as in China, tea and silk, and +they soon began to be regularly brought down to +Yokohama for sale. But business was at first on +such a lilliputian scale, and was introduced in so +dainty a manner, that to merchants accustomed to +the large transactions of China the whole affair wore +something of the air of comic opera, or as if children +were playing at being merchants. This impression +was strengthened by the aspect of the fragile wooden +structures with their sliding doors and windows, but +without sitting accommodation, wherein business was +transacted, which to those habituated to the massive, +if inelegant, buildings of Hongkong and Shanghai +irresistibly suggested the idea of a doll's house. The +Chinese methods also were inverted. Instead of sending +samples of substantial quantities, such as a thousand +chests of tea or fifty bales of silk, and the owner +or his broker coming to chaffer in the silk-room or +the tea-room of the foreign merchant, the latter had to +go the round of the Japanese shops to find out what +they had got. Early every morning the leading merchants +might be seen booted to the thighs—for the +rain was frequent and the roads unmade—trudging +up and down the Japanese bazaar to see what novelties +had come to hand. The more zealous would +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_28' name='Page_28'>[28]</a></span> +sometimes make a second round in the afternoon, in +case there might be some late as well as early worms +to be picked up. The bodily fatigue and consumption +of time involved in this process would have rendered +a large business impossible. There were as yet no +Japanese merchants properly so called, and their endless +parley resembled more the tenacious higgling of +peasants than the negotiations of men of business. +Moreover, the native dealers seemed scarcely conscious +of any law which should hold them to a bargain in +the event of a more acceptable offer turning up. +</p> + +<p> +Conclusions unfavourable to Japanese commercial +morality have been drawn from some of those early—and +later—experiences; but commercial like other +kinds of specialised morality has necessarily something +of a professional character. The <i>akindo</i>, or merchant, +was a sort of pariah in Japan, his social status being +inferior to those of the peasant and the handicraftsman. +His sense of honour was not, therefore, sustained +by tradition or stimulated by <i>esprit de corps</i>. +There being no mercantile body in Japan, there was +no mercantile code, at least none applicable to international +trade, and those unwritten laws without +which large commerce is impossible had not yet been +called into being. Contrasts between the two neighbouring +nations have just been mentioned very much +to the advantage of the Japanese; but in matters of +commerce, it must be conceded, the advantage lay +entirely with the Chinese, a nation of traders from +their birth. +</p> + +<p> +In the sale of lacquer ware and objects of art the +Japanese were much more at home than in dealing in +raw products of foreign manufactures, and the treasures +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_29' name='Page_29'>[29]</a></span> +which were in the early days exposed in the shops of +Yokohama would make a modern dealer sigh for opportunities +which are no more. Speaking roundly, it +would have been safe to buy the stock indiscriminately +at the sellers' own prices, when fortune would have +awaited the investor as surely as if he had bought up +the gold coinage at the ratio of 5 to 1. The same +remark would apply to such of the raw produce of +Japan as had been in large demand in China; and +conversely the rule applied also to selected articles of +foreign manufacture, which the Japanese were satisfied +to buy at a price mid-way between the high level of +the Dutch monopoly and the low level of what would +remunerate the free importer. Therefore the sudden +inroad of open trade on a market artificially confined +resulted in profitable trading while a new equilibrium +was being found; but such prosperity was in its nature +evanescent. +</p> + +<p> +Irrespective of the material aims which attracted +foreign residents to Japan, the life itself presented +several novel and interesting features. Nothing could +have been pleasanter than the social relations which +sprang up between the foreign communities and the +unofficial natives. The strangers were received everywhere +with open arms, and the residence among a +smiling people (excluding altogether the meretricious +allurements of the country, which have also not been +without their influence) and amid enchanting scenery +was found to add a new pleasure to existence. Here +again we must resort for illustration to a comparison +with China, where strangers at the best were sullenly +tolerated, where one might live a lifetime without +entering a house, or seeing a respectable woman, or +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_30' name='Page_30'>[30]</a></span> +making a friend save on a business footing. The +Japanese of Yokohama and Kanagawa, as well as in +the surrounding villages and temples, never failed in +courtesy and hospitality to passers-by, and were eager +for conversation with foreigners. A useful smattering +of the language was soon acquired under the stimulus +of a quick-witted and sympathetic people alert to jump +at the meaning and patient to help the novice to find +his words. The women of the household were always +charming, and if their domestic conversation sometimes +startled the stranger by its freedom, there was neither +malice nor any such impropriety as leaves an evil +odour in its trail. Friendships were formed, not deep +perhaps, but genuine as far as they went, and certainly +not the less sincere on the Japanese than on +the foreign side. +</p> + +<p> +The intelligence also of the common people enhanced +both the pleasure and the value of friendly intercourse +with them: apt as they were to receive, they were no +less ready to impart, information. Their appreciation +of their country—its beauties, history, traditions, and +folk-lore—was conscious and unrestrained, indeed it +amounted to a passion. This afforded endless subject +for talk. Everything save the politics of the day +might be freely discussed, and though the first-arrived +foreigners came poorly prepared to assimilate +so much that was novel, they could not help carrying +away a good deal from their frequent confabulations. +The native guide-books formed a reservoir of suggestive +topics: surprisingly minute they were, noting +every gem of scenery or point of interest, with the +legends of history, romance, or mythology attaching +to them. So accurate were these itineraries that +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_31' name='Page_31'>[31]</a></span> +with their contents well studied foreigners might +make excursions inland lasting several days without +the aid of guide or the necessity of inquiring +the way. +</p> + +<p> +It need not, of course, be said that the mutual +intelligence of Japanese and foreigners did not penetrate +below the surface of every-day phenomena. Of +their festivals, their pilgrimages, their votive offerings +to temples and shrines, their ancestral worship, +and their whole relation to the Unseen—call it religion, +superstition, or idolatry—the strangers had no comprehension. +Although its outward symbols were passing +constantly under their eyes, esoteric Japan was +to them a sealed book, as the mental processes of the +Oriental always are to the Occidental, whose imagination +is cramped by the syllogism, and whose faith +languishes for demonstration. There was, however, +ample outside the region of mysticism, outside the +concerns of trade, and equally apart from political +questions, to nourish the best relations between +Japanese and foreigners. +</p> + +<p> +The impressions of the British Minister on his +journeys of relaxation are by no means the least interesting +portion of his important work, 'The Capital +of the Tycoon.' Having shaken off the official incubus, +and breathing the free air of the country, the intercourse +with the common people in which he was able +to indulge was fruitful of reflections of a brighter hue +than any that were prompted by his strenuous life in +the capital. He observes:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +They are really a kindly people when not perverted by their +rulers and prompted to hostility.... I had begun to forget I +was in Japan, so much goodwill was shown.... There may +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_32' name='Page_32'>[32]</a></span> +be a good deal of tyranny and oppression, but the people show +no marks of it.... The feudal lord is everything and the +lower and labouring classes nothing. Yet what do we see? +Peace, plenty, apparent content, and a country more perfectly +and carefully cultivated and kept, with more ornamental +timber everywhere, than can be matched even in England.... +The material prosperity of a population estimated at +thirty millions, which has made a garden of Eden of this +volcanic soil, and had grown in numbers and in wealth by +unaided native industry. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such were the observations made during a few days' +rest at the mineral springs of Atami, and they coincided +exactly with the opinions formed by those whose +daily intercourse lay with these same common people, +in which term, of course, were included such town +populations as foreigners had acquaintance with. A +contemporary writer, Nagasaki, 1859, remarked: "The +Government of Japan is the most absolute despotism +in the world, and perfectly successful.... For the +present it is consistent with great prosperity and +contentment on the part of the people, but it seems +to me it is only their exclusive policy that has kept +it so." +</p> + +<p> +The great, industrious, prosperous masses of Japan, +enjoying the gifts of the gods with thankful hearts, and +drinking the cup of life as presented to them without +any acidulating scruples, seemed to be happiest of all +in this, that they were not burdened with the dignity +of wearing swords. The storms that convulsed the +upper regions passed over their humble heads without +interrupting the cast of a fishing-net or hindering by a +day the gathering of their harvest. How different the +life of the nobles and their following! their humanity +dominated by an elaborate and intolerable ceremonial, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_33' name='Page_33'>[33]</a></span> +settling their quarrels at the sword's point, and ever +on the alert for bloody intrigue.<a name='FA_4' id='FA_4' href='#FN_4' class='fnanchor'>[4]</a> +</p> + +<p> +For there were two Japans, that of the people and +that of the ruling class, separated by an impassable +gulf. "The very existence of the plebeian seems +unrecognised by the patrician in his lordly progress," +wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock. "And for that very +reason there may be more real liberty among the mass +of the people than we imagine." +</p> + +<p> +The members of the official class were distinguished +by carrying in their girdle two heavy swords with a +razor's edge, one long, one short. The functionaries +of the custom-house, with whom alone the foreign +lay community had contact, also wore swords as +part of their official uniform, which they placed with +delicate ceremony on a rack in front of them as they +sat on their mats at the receipt of custom,—for there +were no chairs, and the habitual posture was squatting +on the hams and heels. To the aristocratic +caste the Japanese people were as absolutely submissive +as if every two-sworded man wielded the +power of life and death, which, so far as the common +people were concerned, was not far from the +simple truth.<a name='FA_5' id='FA_5' href='#FN_5' class='fnanchor'>[5]</a> The only great concourses of armed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_34' name='Page_34'>[34]</a></span> +men which the foreign residents were in the way of +seeing were the Daimio processions, which, hundreds, +sometimes thousands strong, were constantly travelling +along the highroad; and in the long town of Kanagawa +they could observe the people prostrated by the +sides of the road with heads abased while the great man +with his scowling retainers passed. Residents in Yedo—that +is, the <i>personnel</i> of the foreign Legations—had +less agreeable experience of these feudal swordsmen, +who, living in idleness during their prince's sojourn in +the capital, were quick in quarrel, especially in their +cups, and far from agreeable to meet in the streets. +</p> + +<h3> +III. ASSASSINATION PERIOD, 1860-61. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Storms begin—Russians murdered at Kanagawa—Two Dutchmen in +Yokohama—Prince regent assassinated—Servant of French Minister +attacked—Mr Heusken, secretary to American Legation, murdered—Ministers +withdraw to Yokohama—And return to Yedo—First +murderous attack on British Legation, 1861—Mr Oliphant wounded—Attempt +on a Japanese Minister—The causes of these outrages—Partly +anti-foreign feeling—Foreign treaties imposed by force on +Tycoon never received sanction of emperor—Hence universal hostility +to foreigners—Internecine jealousy—Mr Alcock makes ascent of +Fujiyama—Against the wish of Japanese Ministers—Makes a second +overland journey from Nagasaki to Yedo—Sullen attitude of Daimios. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The ports had not been many months opened when +storms began to disturb the political sky, and the +idyllic charm of the new life became tempered by +assassination. The why and the wherefore of these +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_35' name='Page_35'>[35]</a></span> +outrages was imperfectly understood at the time, +though it has since been copiously expounded. The +uncertainty as to the moving cause or causes rendered +precautions difficult, and the only safe resource was a +watchful eye and the nimble revolver. +</p> + +<p> +Much bad feeling had been displayed towards the +foreign diplomatic staff in Yedo, and assaults had been +frequent, but nothing of a tragic nature had occurred +until the arrival of a Russian squadron of ten ships, +with Count Mouravieff-Amurski on board. He landed +in August 1859 with an escort of 300 men in Yedo, +where he was safe; but an officer and two men at +Kanagawa, buying provisions, were cut to pieces by +armed Japanese. This was what Sir Rutherford +Alcock designated as "first blood." The next was +the assassination of a native linguist employed in the +British Legation. Early in 1860 two Dutch shipmasters, +one over sixty years of age, were hacked to +pieces in Yokohama. Next the prince regent himself +was, within the precincts of the castle, set upon by an +armed band of retainers of the Prince of Mito and +killed, his head being carried off to assure the said +prince of the accomplishment of an act of long-meditated +revenge. +</p> + +<p> +Before the end of the year 1860 the Italian servant +of the French Minister had to defend himself at the +entrance of the Legation from the murderous attack +of a couple of two-sworded men; and the year 1861 +was ushered in by the assassination of Mr Heusken, +secretary to the American Legation, on his way from +the Prussian Minister, whom he had been assisting +in the negotiation of his treaty. This crime filled +the cup for the time being. The Government proved +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_36' name='Page_36'>[36]</a></span> +itself unable or unwilling to protect the diplomatic +body from their bloodthirsty assailants, and three out +of the four foreign representatives—the Dutch minister +not being at the time resident in Yedo—made a protest +to the Tycoon's Government, struck their flags, +and withdrew to Yokohama. The American Minister +alone remained in Yedo. Soon the Prussian and Dutch +returned thither, leaving only the British and French +representatives in Yokohama, where they remained +until specially invited back to the capital under conditions +which they had demanded of the Government. +</p> + +<p> +The following summer witnessed the most desperate +attempt of all to exterminate the inmates of at least +one of the Legations. Mr Alcock had just returned +from a long, venturesome, dangerous, but most fruitful +journey overland from south to north—from Nagasaki +to Yedo—which included a sea passage through the +Inland Sea, when an assault was made on the Legation +at midnight on 4th July 1861. The Tycoon's guard of +150 men are charitably credited with having been +asleep, for they opposed no obstacle to the entrance of +a band of men who cut an opening through a substantial +bamboo stockade at the outer gate, and on +their way thence to the apartments of the Legation +staff, a distance of some three hundred yards, killed, +at intervals, four men, some of whom defended themselves, +and a barking dog. The scene is fully and +graphically described in 'The Capital of the Tycoon.' +The central object of the attack seems to have been the +Minister himself, who however escaped unhurt, while +two members of the Legation were wounded,—Laurence +Oliphant, who had recently come out as secretary of +Legation, having a very severe sword-cut in the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_37' name='Page_37'>[37]</a></span> +arm and another in the neck. Being more than +common tall, Mr Oliphant's head was saved by the +intervention of a low beam, in which a deep sword-cut +was found. If that brilliant writer had seen Yedo +rose-tinted in 1858, he had now at least a chance of +judging it in a greyer light. The guard did not put +in an appearance until after the assailants had been +beaten off from, or at least baffled in, their attempt +on that portion of the temple buildings which was +occupied by the Minister, and a fierce struggle ensued +in the precincts, in which two of the assailants were +killed and one badly wounded, while twelve of the +guard were wounded and one of the Tycoon's bodyguard +killed. The details of Japanese sword-play +are not pleasant matters to dwell upon, but a few +words from Mr Alcock's notes of the tragedy will +suffice to give an idea of the manner in which these +massacres were carried out. "I have seen many a +battlefield," he says, "but of sabre wounds I never +saw any so horrible. One man had his skull shorn +clean through from the back and half the head sliced +off to the spine, while his limbs only hung together +by shreds." "There is probably not in all the annals +of our diplomacy an example of such a bloodthirsty +and deliberate plot to massacre a whole Legation." +</p> + +<p> +This is a sufficiently full list of the outrages of what +may be called the Yedo period, to distinguish it from a +subsequent chapter of history which was opened in connection +with the new port in the Inland Sea, but which +is beyond the range of the present work. +</p> + +<p> +The only conclusions to be drawn from these occurrences, +and those yet to be related, were—(1) that +either the Tycoon's Government itself or some powerful +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_38' name='Page_38'>[38]</a></span> +faction was in deadly opposition to the admission +of foreigners into the country, and (2) that the +Tycoon's Government was either unable or unwilling +to protect the persons of foreigners either within the +capital or out of it; (3) that certain great Daimios +were concerned in these murderous outrages. The +Prince of Mito's men assassinated the regent, and +were most probably the assailants of the British Legation, +while the Prince of Satsuma's retainers killed +Richardson. Another great Daimio, whose forts commanded +the western gate of the Inland Sea, put himself +a year later in a state of war with all the foreign +nations. +</p> + +<p> +The motives of these powerful feudatories were not +free from ambiguity, for they might be animated by a +<span lang="la"><i>bonâ fide</i></span> desire to expel the foreigners, or they might +be plotting to embroil the Government with the +Western Powers. It was evident that the authority +of the Tycoon over the great Daimios was far from +absolute, and that at any rate he dared not enforce it +in defence of the hated foreigners.<a name='FA_6' id='FA_6' href='#FN_6' class='fnanchor'>[6]</a> Thus the Legations +were left to the mercy of a ferocity which has known +no parallel. The midnight attempt on the British Legation +on July 4, 1861, typified the whole situation. The +inmates were ignorant whence the several attacks on +them came, the imperial and Daimio's guard were +asserted to have slept through the crucial stage of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_39' name='Page_39'>[39]</a></span> +the assault, and the provoking cause of the attempt +to exterminate the English was unknown. In such a +maze of occult forces it was almost as difficult to adopt +precautions as against earthquakes. +</p> + +<p> +What lay at the root of all these troubles, according +to the deliberate opinion of Mr Alcock, was that the +foreign treaties had been forced on the Government +against its will and in violation of the fundamental laws +of the empire. He says the treaties were not sanctioned +by the Mikado, and that therefore the opposition of the +Daimios was on strictly legitimate lines. Also that the +law of the seventeenth century which made it a capital +offence for a foreigner to land in Japan had not been +repealed. The Tycoon's Ministers had been scared into +signing even Commodore Perry's almost platonic treaty; +for though that officer had strict orders to use no force, +he did not impart this information to the Japanese, and +they could not otherwise interpret the naval demonstration +than as an intimation that the ship's guns would +support the commodore's demands. The case of Mr +Harris's treaty of 1858 was even clearer. It had been +drawn up, but the signature postponed <i>sine die</i> until +the great nobles should have been gained over, and Mr +Harris retired to his retreat at Shimoda to wait events. +The news of the forcing of the Peiho forts by the Anglo-French +squadron and the imposing of a treaty on the +Emperor of China was conveyed express to Mr Harris +by the steam frigate Mississippi. Another vessel, the +Powhattan, arrived fortuitously at the same time, in +which Mr Harris proceeded to Kanagawa, where commissioners +were sent down at once to meet him, and in +three days the treaty was signed. Of course the Allies +who had forced the door of China, having no quarrel +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_40' name='Page_40'>[40]</a></span> +whatever with Japan, had no more thought of coercing +that country than the United States had in 1853 and +1854; but it was perhaps scarcely conceivable to the +oriental mind that any nation should deny itself the +exercise of a power it consciously possessed. Naturally, +therefore, the Japanese were predisposed to believe in +the aggressive purposes of the invaders of China. No +less natural was it that subsequent evidence of the +self-imposed limitation of their pressure on China +should lead the Tycoon's advisers to deplore the panic-haste +with which they had been hustled into making +treaties against the will of the great council of the +Empire. In the interval between the signing and the +execution of the treaties the Government had time for +reflection on all that: the malcontent majority of +Daimios had also time to consider what resistance they +could offer to innovations which they detested. +</p> + +<p> +The reactionary policy that had set in was also +clearly shown in the obstacles thrown in the way of +the negotiation of the Prussian treaty. Count Eulenberg +had been six months at work, and as his treaty +was but a copy of those already signed there was no +reason in the thing itself for the obstruction. But +Prussia was not then a nation from which there was +much to be feared at such a distance, and therefore the +true disposition of the Japanese Government had free +play. +</p> + +<p> +The Tycoonate itself was a perpetual cause of jealousy +among the three great families, one of which +was Mito, who had themselves pretensions to the +honour; and the combination of their private grievances +with a quasi-patriotic and probably sincere +hatred of foreign intruders raised a storm against +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_41' name='Page_41'>[41]</a></span> +the Tycoon with which his advisers found it hard to +cope. The Government being committed to the protection +of foreigners, massacres of the latter offered +a ready means of gratifying the double passion of +hatred of them and of the Tycoon. +</p> + +<p> +But although the foreign representatives and the +Tycoon were thus to an unknown extent the objects of +a common enmity, it was yet impossible for them to +make common cause, for they were not in harmony. +The Government would willingly have got rid of the +treaties or reduced them to a dead letter. The foreign +Ministers, on the other hand, had no choice but to +insist on the fulfilment of the engagements into which +the Government had entered. Not for them to count +the cost, the difficulties, or the danger: relaxation of +their demands would have aggravated all three. So +there was nothing for it but the "rigour of the game." +</p> + +<p> +The British Minister held decided views on the importance +of keeping alive all rights and privileges by +exercising them. China would have taught him, if +the knowledge did not come by nature, the value of +the modern principle of "effective occupation" as the +only valid sanction of an abstract title. The treaties +of 1858 conferred upon the representatives of Foreign +Powers the right of travelling throughout Japan. The +Tycoon's Government desired to restrict or nullify the +privilege, no doubt for reasons quite sufficient from +their point of view. Mr Alcock on his part saw good +reasons for opposing this tendency from the outset. +Consequently, as a first experiment, he organised a +journey by the <i>tokaido</i> to the "matchless" mountain, +Fujiyama, distant about eighty miles from the capital. +Every effort was made by the Government officials to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_42' name='Page_42'>[42]</a></span> +dissuade him from the undertaking; dangers natural +and supernatural were conjured up, a more convenient +season was recommended. At length their pleas for the +abandonment or delay of the expedition having been +exhausted without any effect on the resolution of the +Minister, the officials became helpful in the preparations +and most careful to provide for the success of +the journey. The party—eight Europeans in all with +a large native contingent—set out on September 4, +1860, rather late in the year for the ascent, which +was, nevertheless, successfully accomplished, and for +the first time the foot of the stranger trod the sacred +summit, the object of constant religious pilgrimages. +The whole journey, including a detour to the hot +springs of Atami, occupied one month: it was fruitful +in first-hand information, and replete with agreeable +experiences. +</p> + +<p> +A more important journey was undertaken eight +months later, on the occasion of a return voyage from +China and Hongkong, whither the Minister had gone +on certain legal business. Being at Nagasaki, Mr +Alcock arranged to travel in the company of Mr de +Wit, the head of the Dutch mission, across the island +of Kiusiu, then by junk up the Inland Sea to Hiogo, +thence by the highroad to Yedo. The proposal met +with the same kind of opposition from the Japanese +authorities as the going to Fujiyama the previous +year had done: the dangers of the journey were depicted +in strong colours, and the unsettled state of the +country was alleged as a cogent reason why a foreigner +should not trust himself on the highroad. When these +arguments proved unavailing, and the journey was +finally resolved upon, the authorities endeavoured to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_43' name='Page_43'>[43]</a></span> +minimise both its pleasure and its usefulness by an +attempt to extort from the two Ministers an undertaking +in writing never to go in advance of the escort +or to leave the highroad. The plea for the latter +restriction was that the road alone was under imperial +control, the land on either side belonging to the +Daimios. The feudatories on their part took effective +measures to enforce the condition by supplying guards +through their respective domains, who blocked up +every byway, and in the towns and villages where the +party rested screened off the side streets even from +view by means of large curtains stretched on high +poles, emblazoned with the Prince's arms. When the +party landed at Hiogo to resume the journey by the +<i>tokaido</i>, they were met by a "Governor" of Foreign +Affairs, sent expressly from Yedo to warn the foreign +Ministers once more of the dangers of the road, and to +persuade them to complete their journey by sea. This +had become such a stereotyped formula that the two +diplomats paid no attention to the warning, though +they had some reason afterwards to think that on this +single occasion the cry of wolf was genuine; for the +assassins who attacked the English Legation on the +night of the return of the party to Yedo were said to +have tracked the foreigners the whole way from Hiogo. +</p> + +<p> +These two interesting and—the second one especially—arduous +journeys, each of one month's duration, +settled the question of the right of the foreign representatives +to travel through the length and breadth of +Japan. They also afforded much insight into the state +of the country and the real feeling of the general +population. But they were only interludes in the +drama of sensational diplomacy, which had now to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_44' name='Page_44'>[44]</a></span> +be resumed with redoubled energy. The Legations +had been two years located in Yedo, and no progress +whatever had been made towards establishing +a state of security for foreign life. Matters were, +indeed, going from bad to worse. One point had +been gained after the murder of the American secretary +in January—the Government had formally +assumed the responsibility for the protection of the +foreigners. Moreover, strong guards of the Tycoon's +men were posted in the different Legations; but, +as we have seen, they added nothing to the sense +of security. The demonstration of the inadequacy of +all these precautions left the conditions of foreign +life in the capital in worse plight than ever. The +attack on the British Legation therefore called for +a fresh review of the position. +</p> + +<h3> +IV. NEGOTIATIONS AND RENEWED ASSASSINATIONS, +1862-64. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +British and French guards brought to Yedo—Marks a new era—Decided +position of British Government—Concessions asked by Japanese, refused +by Mr Alcock, granted by Earl Russell to Japanese envoys—Retrogression—Position +of foreign Ministers assimilating to that of +the Dutch at Deshima—Mr Alcock's departure for Europe, 1862—Bad +effects of Lord Russell's concessions to Japanese—Encouraged them to +make fresh demands—The building of a British Legation in Yedo—<span lang='fr_FR'><i>Chargé +d'affaires</i></span> resides mostly in Yokohama—Colonel Neale's account +of the system of guarding the Legation—Midnight attack on the +guards—British sentries murdered—Suspicious behaviour of Government—British +guard increased—Admiral Hope's opinion—Attack on +an English riding party and murder of Mr Richardson on highroad—Admiral +Hope's proposal to "nip assassination in the bud." +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The question now, therefore, entered on a new +phase. Since reliance on the Government afforded +no sense of security, the foreigners must abandon +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_45' name='Page_45'>[45]</a></span> +the position or find some more effective protection, +not to supersede, but to supplement, that which was +afforded by the Government. There was fortunately +a British despatch vessel, the Ringdove, at the +moment at Yokohama, to the commander of which +Mr Alcock appealed for a guard of marines and +bluejackets. These arrived the next day, twenty-five +all told, with Captain Craigie himself at their +head, and they were happily accompanied by a detachment +of fifteen men from the French transport +Dordogne, brought up by the French Minister, Mons. +de Bellecourt, always a staunch supporter of his +British colleague. That gentleman, on hearing the +tragic news at Yokohama, where he had been staying, +returned promptly to his post with this most +welcome reinforcement for the defence of the Legations. +This simple proceeding marked the beginning +of a new era in the foreign relations with Japan—the +era in which the Powers represented there took +the law into their own hands, with highly important +consequences to Japan and to the world. The +British naval guard was reinforced within a few +months by a mounted escort of twelve men drawn +from the force then in China. This step was strongly +objected to by the Tycoon's Ministers, but the answer +was complete: the Government's acknowledged incompetence +had forced this measure of self-defence +on the Legations. The position taken up by Mr +Alcock was confirmed in the most explicit manner +by Earl Russell a year later, who thus addressed the +Japanese envoys in London:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Her Majesty's Government will not agree to any proposal +which may be made by the Ministers of the Tycoon having for +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_46' name='Page_46'>[46]</a></span> +its object to preclude the representatives of the Queen in +Japan from maintaining a cavalry escort for the protection +of her Majesty's servants in that country. The Tycoon cannot +ensure the safety of the British officers within the precincts of +the capital and its immediate neighbourhood; and even if the +Tycoon were to engage to do so, it is notorious that he would +not have the power to fulfil his engagement. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This plain speaking defined the status of "old" +Japan, and gave the clue to the remarkable train +of events which followed. +</p> + +<p> +Much anxiety and many sinister rumours, but no +serious outrages, disturbed the peace of the Legations +and the general foreign community during the remainder +of the year 1861. Mr Oliphant was sent +home in consequence of his wounds, and the occasion +was taken advantage of to have certain private conferences +with the Japanese Foreign Ministers, at which +that gentleman assisted, when the "past, present, and +future" were confidentially discussed. Mr Oliphant, +thus thoroughly "posted," was able personally to explain +the state of affairs to her Majesty's Ministers, +which greatly assisted them in forming their decisions. +He was also the bearer of an autograph letter from +the Tycoon to her Majesty the Queen. +</p> + +<p> +The Japanese Government had long been pressing +the foreign representatives for the relaxation of some +of the articles in the treaties, which were not to come +into operation until a subsequent date. These provided +for the opening of Yedo for general residence +on 1st January 1862, and for the opening of the +trading ports of Hiogo, Osaka, and Ní-í-gata on +1st January 1863. The Tycoon's Government was +most anxious to postpone all these privileges to an +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_47' name='Page_47'>[47]</a></span> +indefinite period, nominally seven years, and as the +foreign Ministers in Yedo had no such authority—Mr +Alcock had been instructed to grant "no concessions +without equivalents"—the Government prepared +to despatch special envoys to the five Courts +of Europe with which they had treaties. A similar +mission to the United States the previous year had +been so well received as to encourage the second effort. +The principle involved in the Japanese plea was precisely +the same as that which had kept Canton +closed for so many years, notwithstanding the treaty +provision opening it; but there was this difference +of fact between the two cases, that whereas the +danger apprehended and alleged by the Japanese was +probably real, that which had been put forward by +the Chinese was false, and manufactured by the authorities +themselves. +</p> + +<p> +The Japanese were now in full retrogression, and +every point they might gain was certain to become +a new fulcrum for forcing more and more concessions +from the foreign Powers. This was proved in many +kinds of ways. For example, the restrictions placed +on the foreign envoys, by which they were kept +as prisoners in their Legations, and were attended in +their walks abroad by officious guards who prevented +them from seeing more than could be helped, and +forbade intercourse with the people, were almost +tantamount to those formerly imposed on the Dutch +in Deshima. Mr Oliphant frankly speaks of his +"jailors." Then repression, and yet more repression—as +much repression, in fact, as the foreigners could +be brought to endure—was the unvarying rule. +Even when they were themselves seeking favours, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_48' name='Page_48'>[48]</a></span> +and had therefore every inducement to show their +liberal side to the foreign Minister, the rule of repression +was rigorously maintained. Mr Alcock relates +how this determination prevented him from +presenting the Queen's reply to the Tycoon's letter. +First, the audience was delayed on frivolous grounds; +then the ceremonial was varied. Among other things +it was proposed to place the envoy at double the +distance from the Tycoon which had been observed +on a previous occasion. Being anxious to take his +leave, to present his <span lang="la"><i>locum tenens</i></span>, and to deliver +the Queen's autograph, Mr Alcock waived these innovations +under protest—"being reluctant at the +last moment to stand upon a point of mere etiquette"; +but "having found my desire was strong not to +raise difficulties on any minor points, it had been +resolved [by the Japanese] to profit by the circumstance +to gain some further advantages derogatory +to the position of the British Minister," and +so after everything had been arranged according to +their own wishes the Court officials returned the +following day to say they had made a mistake, and +that, in fact, sundry further restrictions must be +observed. This was too much, and the Minister +quitted the capital without his audience, March 1862. +</p> + +<p> +The same tactics were observed by the envoys in +Europe. When the mission reached London and had +laid their case before the same Foreign Secretary who +had instructed the Minister in Japan to "make no +concessions without equivalents," he at once conceded +the whole of the Japanese demands unconditionally, +for the nominal conditions were merely that the rest +of the treaty should stand. A detailed memorandum of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_49' name='Page_49'>[49]</a></span> +the agreement was drawn up and formally signed by +Earl Russell and the three Japanese envoys on June 6, +1862. Having succeeded beyond all expectation in +their demands, the Japanese envoys evidently concluded +that the Foreign Office was of plastic substance, +and within two days they had formulated a list of +nine further concessions which they desired to discuss. +This, however, was too much for Lord Russell's patience, +and as the envoys had "completed their business +and taken their leave," he declined to enter on +any fresh questions. +</p> + +<p> +The effect of Lord Russell's concessions could not +be otherwise than detrimental, the only open question +being whether his insistence on opening the ports on +the agreed dates would have been a greater or a +lesser evil. Mr Alcock points out the family likeness +between the Japanese pleas for suspension of treaty +rights and those with which we had so long been +familiar in China. "The time," he says, allowed to +the authorities of Canton to "soothe the people and +prepare the way" was deliberately used by them to +"create the very difficulties which they alleged already +to exist, and make it each year more and more impossible +to admit the foreigners,"—a comment on the +Japanese proposal which leaves little doubt as to his +opinion of that transaction. Yet there were cogent +reasons for the course actually adopted, if the premisses +be granted that the ports could only be opened +by force, and that England would have been left alone +to employ the necessary force. The most that can be +said, then, for the concessions to the Japanese is that +they represented the choice of evils. No one was +benefited by them. They did not help the Tycoon +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_50' name='Page_50'>[50]</a></span> +or avert the catastrophe to his dynasty. They did +not lessen the friction, or the danger to foreign life +and interests, or interrupt the long series of assassinations +of foreigners in Japan; nor did they obviate the +necessity of using force in that country, to avoid which +was the principal inducement to her Majesty's Government +to violate its own principle. The analogy with +China was, in fact, complete; the old lesson was once +more driven home, that there is no safety in doing +wrong. As Sir Rutherford Alcock puts it, "To +retrograde safely and with dignity is often more +difficult for nations and their governments than to +advance." +</p> + +<p> +During the year 1861 an important improvement +was inaugurated in respect to the housing of the +foreign Legations. Hitherto they had been accommodated +in temples neither suited to Western modes +of living nor, as had been proved, adapted for defence. +Independent sites were now allotted on a commanding +ridge within the city, where the respective Ministers +might have buildings erected on their own plans. +These were promptly put in hand, and soon after +Mr Alcock was able to bring his first arduous campaign—a +term applicable in its double sense—to a +close. Having brought the various business of the +Legation into a state convenient for transfer to new +hands, he left Yedo in March 1862, a few days before +the arrival of the future <i>chargé d'affaires</i>, Lieutenant-Colonel +Edward St John Neale. The Minister was +accompanied to England by Moriyama, the chief interpreter +to the Japanese Foreign Office, who was +charged with special instructions to the three envoys +then in England. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_51' name='Page_51'>[51]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +From the time that Colonel Neale took charge of +the British Legation events chased each other rapidly. +While the new buildings were in progress the <i>chargé +d'affaires</i> divided his time between Yedo and Yokohama, +and while in the capital continued to reside in +the temple called To-zen-ji, where the Legation had +been located from the beginning. The inner buildings +were guarded by the mounted escort and by the naval +contingent, which had been renewed as one British +warship took the place of another during the year. +In the outer enclosure there was a guard of 500 +Japanese, the retainers of a certain Daimio who was +intrusted by the Tycoon with the protection of the +Legation. +</p> + +<p> +In order to understand what follows, it is necessary +to give Colonel Neale's account of the arrangements +which were in force for the protection of the British +Legation:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +I found on my arrival that the usual precautions had been +taken by the authorities, and which consisted in placing +numerous guards, entirely surrounding this residence, in detached +wooden huts: the number of these guards, according to +the Japanese return which I obtained, amounted to no less +than 535 men, partly of the Tycoon's bodyguard, but chiefly +composed of the retainers of a Daimio named Matsudaira +Temba no Kami, who had been chosen and charged by the +Government with the protection of this Legation. +</p> + +<p> +Small parties of these men came down at short intervals +during the night to the very doors of this residence, and remained +for a short time with our own sentries, leaving behind +them one man at each post to aid in challenging persons +approaching and demanding the parole, which was in the +Japanese language, and issued at sunset each evening. +</p> + +<p> +These dispositions were uninterruptedly observed up to the +evening of the 26th June. At midnight on that day the +several British sentinels were at their post, and challenging +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_52' name='Page_52'>[52]</a></span> +with vigilance the Japanese guards, who, in parties of two or +three, descended from the heights overhanging this building at +the back for the purpose of relieving their men. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +What took place at midnight on the 26th June +may also be best described in Colonel Neale's own +language:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +At half an hour after midnight the British sentry posted at +the door adjoining my bedroom challenged some approaching +object in my hearing, and received in answer the right parole; +but the sentry sharply challenged again in an anxious and +eager manner, as if some circumstance excited his suspicion, +after which he walked three or four steps towards the object +approaching. I rose in bed to hear the result, and in an +instant the deadened sound of a rapid succession of heavy +blows and cuts reached my ears, given in less than two +minutes, and at every one of which followed a cry of anguish +from the unfortunate sentry. Silence succeeded for the +moment, and was followed by the beating of drums from +the heights and the gathering of Japanese guards with their +red lanterns.... The assassin having left the sentry at my +door, went on towards the corner of the residence occupied by +the guard, a distance of twenty paces, where he met Corporal +Crimp, R.M., coming alone on his rounds to visit the sentry at +my door. A conflict appears instantly to have taken place +between them: a revolver-shot was heard about the moment +the guard was turning out, but nothing further. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The corporal was found dead with sixteen sword and +lance wounds: the sentry had nine sword-wounds—"every +cut had severed the member it was aimed at"; +but he survived long enough to tell of the instant +desertion of the Japanese sentry who was posted with +him. +</p> + +<p> +This attack was marked by several distinguishing +features:— +</p> + +<p> +1. The assassins belonged to the Legation guard, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_53' name='Page_53'>[53]</a></span> +or were their comrades; the only weapon found on the +ground was a lance of the precise pattern of those of +the Daimio's guard, which was twelve feet long, and, +according to Colonel Neale, no man carrying such a +weapon could have passed the strong barricade or +crawled through the brushwood: presumably, therefore, +the lance was supplied from the armoury within the +Legation. According to the Japanese Ministers, there +was but a single assassin. In their anxiety to maintain +their contention that the wounds were all inflicted by +the same man, the Ministers explained to Colonel Neale +a little of the science of Japanese sword-play. "They +have attained the climax of dexterity. The sword is +always carried at the side, and adepts in the use of it +wound the moment it is drawn." The fatal stroke, +upwards, is given in the act of drawing. Hence, placing +the hand on the hilt is equivalent to presenting a cocked +revolver, and if the assailant is not disabled in the act +it is too late for defence. One only, being wounded +by a pistol-bullet and having committed suicide, was +found, and though they could not help admitting that +the man was a retainer of the Daimio who supplied the +guard, the Ministers yet drew a vain distinction between +him and the men actually on duty. It could not, +however, be denied that he, or they, were allowed +free ingress and egress through hundreds of men carefully +posted as described by Colonel Neale, and already +alert and sounding the alarm, or that the huts of the +Japanese were within 150 feet of the spot where two +Englishmen were murdered, and while the assassin (or +assassins) was inflicting sixteen wounds on one victim +and nine on the other. +</p> + +<p> +2. The intended attack was publicly known beforehand: +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_54' name='Page_54'>[54]</a></span> +for several days the Japanese servants had refused +to remain in the Legation overnight, absenting +themselves against orders. The Government also were +aware of the plot, and of the day when it was to be +put in execution, which was on the recurrence of a +festival, and, according to the Japanese calendar, the +anniversary of the attack in 1861. The actual day +having passed, one of the Governors of Foreign Affairs +was deputed by the Council to call and congratulate +Colonel Neale on his escape. Colonel Neale remarked +that he had no reason for anxiety. The Governor +smiled and took leave. But the "ides of March ... +had not gone," In the darkness of that very night the +attack was made. Colonel Neale, recounting the circumstances +to the Council of Foreign Affairs, asked +why the Governor had not warned him of what was +impending, instead of congratulating him on his supposed +escape; but "the Gorogiu, to my great surprise, +replied that I was quite right in my observations, and +they regretted they had not thought of warning me." +</p> + +<p> +3. The Japanese Ministers treated the whole matter +with apparent indifference, months having elapsed before +any information was communicated to the British +Minister respecting either the cause of the attack or +the execution of justice on the instigators, and then it +was only such information as had been common property +for two months. All that the Japanese Ministers had +to say by way of explanation to the foreign envoys was +that the attack proceeded from the unsettled state of +public feeling and from the Japanese nation clinging to +the old <i>régime</i>; but that they, the Ministers, hoped +gradually to modify this national feeling so that the +foreigners might live in the country without apprehension, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_55' name='Page_55'>[55]</a></span> +&c. But in the meantime? Well, they "had +given strict orders to increase the protection." Tragicomedy +could not well go further. Evidently matters +must soon reach a climax. +</p> + +<p> +As the first outward and visible consequence of the +assassination of the two marines, an infantry guard of +twenty-five men from the 67th Regiment was sent over +from China in addition to the naval guard and the +cavalry escort; and thus another step was taken +towards the <span lang='fr_FR'><i>dénoûment</i></span> of the plot. Then the word +"retribution" was revived in the diplomatic correspondence, +after having been launched by the Foreign +Office in 1861 but arrested <span lang="la"><i>in transitu</i></span>, so that it did +not reach the Japanese authorities. It was Admiral +Hope, a man who never shrank from speaking his mind +or backing his opinion, who put the case in a pointed +form to the British Admiralty. "Deeply as I should +lament the adoption of hostile measures against the +Japanese," he wrote on August 28, "after the best +consideration I have been able to give to the subject I +cannot avoid the conclusion that it is absolutely necessary +to nip this assassination-system in the bud; and +that not to take effectual measures for doing so now +will be merely to postpone the evil day to a future, but +not far distant, occasion." +</p> + +<p> +If further impetus had been wanting to develop this +idea, the Japanese lost no time in supplying it; for the +next assassination which has left a dark blood-stain on +the annals of the time was perpetrated on the highroad +between Yedo and Kanagawa on September 14, 1862. +</p> + +<p> +The victims were a party of three gentlemen and +one lady from Yokohama who had crossed the bay +in a boat to Kanagawa, where their horses awaited +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_56' name='Page_56'>[56]</a></span> +them on the <i>tokaido</i>. This broad road not being +macadamised made an agreeable riding-course, and +it was beautified with lines of old trees, one section +in particular near where the tragedy occurred being +known as "The Avenue." The party proceeded +from Kanagawa towards Yedo, not intending to go +farther than Kawasaki, which was the limit of authorised +excursions in that direction. On the way they +met the <i>cortège</i> of a Daimio, the first indication of +which was several <i>norimono</i> (the heavy palanquin +in which the nobles of Japan travel) with armed +attendants, forming an irregular train with considerable +intervals between. When passing these +<i>norimono</i> the foreigners walked their horses. In the +intervals where the road was clear they cantered, +and this mode of alternate progression continued for +three or four miles. Then a regular procession was +met, preceded by about a hundred men marching +in single file on either side of the road. The foreign +party thereupon proceeded at a foot's pace, keeping +close to the left side, until they reached "the main +body, which was then occupying the whole breadth +of the road." The English party halted on approaching +the main body, according to one of the survivors; +but according to another, they were stopped "when +they had got about twelve men deep in the procession," +by "a man of large stature<a name='FA_7' id='FA_7' href='#FN_7' class='fnanchor'>[7]</a> issuing from +the main body," who, swinging his sword with both +hands, cut at the two leading foreigners, Mr Richardson +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_57' name='Page_57'>[57]</a></span> +and Mrs Borrodaile, as their horses were being turned +round, and then rushed on the other two. Whereupon +the advance-guard, who had been described as marching +in single file, closed in upon the retreating riders. +They were all able by the speed of their horses to +get clear of their assailants; but Mr Richardson was +so terribly hacked that after going some distance +he fell from his horse, dying, or, as his companions +thought, dead. He lived, however, until the Daimio's +procession reached the spot, when several of his retainers +proceeded to butcher and mutilate the dying +man in the most shocking manner. It speaks well +for all three gentlemen that Mrs Borrodaile escaped +substantially unhurt, though a sword-stroke aimed +at her head cut away her hat as she stooped to avoid +the blow. She saw Mr Richardson fall, and her two +wounded companions, unable to render help, urged +her to ride on. She miraculously arrived at Yokohama, +bespattered with blood and in a state of very natural +agitation. Mr Clarke and Mr Marshall, exhausted by +their wounds, managed to reach Kanagawa, where they +were properly cared for at the American consulate. +</p> + +<p> +This tragedy made a more vivid impression on the +world at large than previous ones had done, for +several reasons. The cumulative effect of so many +cold-blooded massacres was beginning to tell, and the +Japanese cup was nearly full. There was a lady +in the case who galloped seven miles for dear life, +her horse falling twice under her. The chief victim +was a fine specimen of a young Englishman, and very +popular. The crime touched the general foreign community +in Japan in a special manner, since the party +belonged to, or were the guests of, Yokohama, where +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_58' name='Page_58'>[58]</a></span> +there were also newspapers and press correspondents +to make literature of the event. +</p> + +<p> +Some friction was created between the foreign community +and the British representative by the ghastly +circumstances of this murder. The community, seeing +their own comrades slaughtered without mercy, +were incensed, and called for vengeance, which they +deemed to be within reach, for the Daimio's retinue +were sleeping at Hodogaya, a station but a few miles +off. There was force enough afloat and on shore to +effect the capture of the murderers red-handed, and +the residents called for this to be done. Reasons of +policy and expediency influenced Colonel Neale in a +contrary sense, in which he was fully supported by +the Foreign Office when the reports reached England. +</p> + +<p> +The Richardson murder, like that at the British +Legation, had its special characteristics, though of a +different order. The outrage was unpremeditated; +the Government was not implicated: it was a fortuitous +collision between the spirit and traditions of +two opposed civilisations. The deed might be construed +as the natural punishment of a breach of +good manners—for Japanese etiquette, of which the +party seemed to have been ignorant, required them +to dismount—or, as the spontaneous expression of +feudal Japan's deep hatred of the foreigner, concentrated +in the act of a single moment. There was +no need on this occasion to hazard guesses as to the +responsible author of the crime, or to keep up a long +train of make-believe negotiations. The <i>cortège</i> belonged +to the Prince of Satsuma, and was escorting +his father, Shimadso Saburo, who went afterwards +to the Mikado and said he had been grossly insulted +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_59' name='Page_59'>[59]</a></span> +by the foreigners on the road, and had ordered them +to be cut down.<a name='FA_8' id='FA_8' href='#FN_8' class='fnanchor'>[8]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The problem was thus reduced to its simplest +expression. The circumstances supplied precisely +what was wanting to give shape and point to +Admiral Hope's proposal to "nip this assassination-system +in the bud"; and a month after the event +he followed up his previous despatch to the Admiralty +by a detailed scheme of reprisals, with the amount +and precise distribution of the force required to give +effect to it. And he concludes his despatch appropriately +with the remark, that "should it be found +necessary to use measures of coercion especially +against Satsuma, ... the position and confirmation +of his principality render him peculiarly open +to attack." +</p> + +<p> +There were now two reclamations on the Japanese +Government—redress for the murder of the two +marines at the Legation in June, and for the killing +and wounding of the Richardson party in September. +The British <i>chargé d'affaires</i> pressed both demands, +without committing himself to specific threats until +the mind of her Majesty's Government should be +known. Lord Russell's instructions were sent on +24th December 1862, and would reach Japan some +time in February. They were peremptory as to the +use of force in case of need, whether against the +Government or the Prince of Satsuma. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_60' name='Page_60'>[60]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +V. THE TYCOON'S DILEMMA. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Strife of parties in Japan—Impotence of Tycoon—His prospective overthrow—Orders +issued by Mikado to drive foreigners out of Japan—Prevarications +of Tycoon—Plots and counterplots—French and English +troops in Yokohama—Compensation paid for the Richardson +murder, but assassin not yet brought to justice—Demand made on +Prince of Satsuma—Bombardment of his castle by Admiral Kuper—Happy +results—Offensive attitude of Prince of Nagato—Firing on +foreign ships of war—Sir R. Alcock's return from furlough—Publication +of his book 'The Capital of the Tycoon'—His exposition of the +political status of parties in Japan—Dubious attitude of Tycoon—And +Mikado—Utmost limit of concession to Japanese pleas of weakness +reached. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +During the interval that elapsed between the tragedy +of September 1862 and the expiation of the crime, +revelations of a startling character were made respecting +the strife which was raging among the various +parties in the State—the Tycoon, the Mikado, the +great Daimios, and the lesser Daimios, who followed +the Tycoon and the Mikado respectively. These revelations, +however, though they lit up as by lurid lightning-flashes +some corners of the landscape, left the whole +in a fog more treacherous than total darkness. The +foreign officials who were called upon to act in the +midst of it confessed themselves unable to unravel the +mystery that surrounded them, nor is it any part of our +task to make such an attempt. It was the chaos which +preceded order, a period when the elemental forces +were in the melting-pot, a phase of foreshortened evolution +such as had never till then been dreamed of. +However trying such an ordeal was to the foreign +agents who had to go through it, the stress upon +them was as nothing compared to that which lay +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_61' name='Page_61'>[61]</a></span> +upon the principalities and powers of the country +itself during the agony of their national birth-throes—a +circumstance which has to be borne in mind +when judging of the behaviour of the Japanese +Government in that trying time; for truly the defence +of their proceedings stood much in need of extenuating +circumstances. +</p> + +<p> +We have seen that the British Government had +already confessed its belief that the Tycoon's Government +was incompetent to maintain order where +foreigners were concerned. Yet until that Government +itself should plead incompetence, foreign States +could only hold it wholly accountable for all that was +done affecting their interests. But the Tycoon's +Government fought tooth and nail against such admission, +resorting to every subterfuge to maintain their +status, while yet evading the responsibilities of the +position. The success of this ambiguous policy required +that the foreign representatives should be kept in +ignorance of the relations which subsisted between the +different parties in the Japanese State. Hence secrecy +and misdirection governed their diplomatic intercourse. +The treaties themselves having been tainted from their +origin with deception, every stage of their execution +was marked by dissimulation, which came gradually to +light as the pressure from within and from without +caused now one corner, now another, of the curtain to +be raised. +</p> + +<p> +The Tycoon was between the upper and the nether +millstone,—foreigners pressing him for fulfilment of his +obligations, while a power greater than his own was +demanding the complete repudiation, or at least the +substantial curtailment, of all these obligations. The +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_62' name='Page_62'>[62]</a></span> +straits he was put to to keep up his two faces were +pitiable and desperate, for he had to make the Mikado +and the Daimios believe he was as much opposed to +the foreigners as they were, while to foreigners he was +professing loyalty and throwing the blame of the +reaction on the hostile Daimios. Instigated by them, +the Mikado had fully asserted his authority, and +the Tycoon was no longer able to pose as the +sovereign ruler of Japan. The allocation of a site +for the foreign Legations on Gotenyama, a popular +pleasure-ground in Yedo, was attacked, and the +Tycoon ordered to rescind the grant, which he endeavoured +to do by proposing the substitution of +another site. This being refused by the British <i>chargé +d'affaires</i>, the Japanese sentry on the buildings under +construction was assassinated, and soon after the whole +building was blown up and burned.<a name='FA_9' id='FA_9' href='#FN_9' class='fnanchor'>[9]</a> So ambiguous +had become the attitude of the Tycoon, that Colonel +Neale was in doubt whether this conflagration pleased +or displeased the Yedo Government. (Six months +later the buildings occupied by the United States +Legation were likewise destroyed by fire.) The +hostile Daimios, in the name of the Mikado, were, in +fact, putting strong pressure on the Tycoon, while +those Daimios who had favoured the treaties had +been punished by confiscation of their revenues. The +Tycoon's position was fast becoming untenable, and +in the last extremity his advisers decided to take +the foreign representatives for the first time into +their confidence. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_63' name='Page_63'>[63]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +In January 1863 a Governor of Foreign Affairs +informed Colonel Neale that the Mikado was angry +because he had not been consulted about the treaties, +either before or after the signing of them; and that +his Majesty had ordered the Tycoon repeatedly to +drive foreigners out of the country. "But," replied +the British <i>chargé d'affaires</i>, "that is wholly inconsistent +with what the Gorogiu previously told Sir +Rutherford Alcock." "Quite so," rejoined the Governor; +"only what the Ministers told Sir Rutherford +Alcock was false." "But if one member of the +Gorogiu can thus give the other the lie, what +security have we that some successor of yours will +not equally disavow what you say? so that at one +time we have the Mikado reported as friendly and at +another as hostile to foreign treaties and trade, and +we shall never know which to believe." This not +very promising beginning of "confidences" was quickly +followed by singular confessions and proposals—part +of the system of "frauds, stratagems, and deceptions +practised by the Tycoon's Government," as Colonel +Neale characterises them. The Tycoon's Government +was ordered to communicate officially to the foreign +representatives the mandate of the Mikado to drive +out foreigners and close the ports. In obedience to +this order a Governor of Foreign Affairs, in announcing +the fact to the French Minister, softened its +effect by explaining that this was carrying out the +Mikado's orders "officially"; but <span lang='fr_FR'>"ce n'est là qu'un +stratagème nécessaire pour tromper le peuple japonnais."</span> +In developing his plan of campaign the +Governor laid bare to the French Minister the intention +of the Tycoon to deceive the Mikado by pretending +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_64' name='Page_64'>[64]</a></span> +to share his views about foreigners; he was +in like manner to deceive the Daimios. Ogasawara, +the Minister who was responsible for carrying out +the edict against foreigners, being <span lang='fr_FR'>"un homme très +capable,"</span> would find a means of avoiding the execution; +he would himself go to Kioto and make the +Mikado listen to reason; if he refused, then he would +pick a quarrel and employ force against the sovereign. +In that case would the foreign Powers assist the +Tycoon? All this, however, must be kept from Hitotsubashi, +the First Minister of the Tycoon, "whose views +were as yet uncertain whether to carry out the expulsive +orders from Kioto or not. Ogasawara had +formed the plan to declare himself the enemy of +foreigners in order to deceive the high officers even +of the Tycoon who might not be favourable to his +scheme; but everything was to be done to "save +Japan." Finally, Ogasawara was to come the day +following himself to interview the foreign Ministers +at Yokohama, but not a word of all this would he +utter "for fear of indiscretions." He would only +speak briefly to the point of the notification of the +Mikado's order of expulsion. And if the foreign +Ministers would be good enough to frame their reply +to that message in such severe terms as would make +an impression on the agitators in Kioto and Yedo, +it would assist the patriotic schemes of this bustling +statesman. So everybody in Japan from the highest +to the lowest was to be bamboozled—even one's own +colleagues in the Tycoon's service—and the only +people with whom faith was to be kept were the detested +foreigners, as represented by the Ministers of +England and France! Well might Colonel Neale recoil +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_65' name='Page_65'>[65]</a></span> +in disgust from such a brewage of "fraud, stratagem, +and deception." The Tycoon's officers had in all this +one definite object in view, which was to induce the +foreign squadrons then menacing Yedo to transfer +themselves to Osaka and Hiogo and menace some +one in that part of the empire. And, curiously +enough, the presence of the French troops which had +recently arrived in Yokohama was not only tolerated +by the Tycoon, but they were to serve him as a lever +whereby the astute Ogasawara was to work on the +feelings of the Mikado, by representing to his sovereign +the indignation of the foreign Governments and the +difficulty of giving effect to an order for general expulsion, +which would include a body of well-armed troops. +</p> + +<p> +For while such comedies were being enacted at +Yokohama the Tycoon himself was at Kioto under +the friendly surveillance of the Mikado and his faithful +Daimios, and it was a reasonable enough calculation +that the vicinity of foreign fleets might tend to +moderate the counsels of these recalcitrants, to ease +the tension between the contending factions, and +lighten the burden of the Tycoon. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime the pressure of the British demands for +redress of the two grievances was met by evasions +and delays until the ultimatum stage was reached in +June 1863. The pecuniary indemnity charged on the +Tycoon, amounting to £110,000, was then paid under +circumstances so peculiar as to be worth recounting +as affording further insight into the agitations of the +period. After exhaustive negotiations, leading to an +ultimatum, an agreement was made whereby the +Government was to pay the amount demanded by +seven instalments, commencing 18th June 1863. On +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_66' name='Page_66'>[66]</a></span> +the 17th June Ogasawara, third member of the +Gorogiu, wrote a curt note to say the money could +not be paid owing to an "unforeseen circumstance," +and postponing payment till 22nd June. On the +19th the same Minister wrote to Colonel Neale that +he intended to have left Yedo for Yokohama for an +interview, but was prevented by sudden illness. This +was followed by an intimation from the Government +that no payment whatever would be made. Diplomatic +relations were thereupon broken off by the +British <i>chargé d'affaires</i>, and the conduct of affairs +was placed in the hands of the admiral. This brought +about the interview with the French Minister above +alluded to, when the Japanese emissaries promised +to pay at once the whole amount due under the +agreement with Colonel Neale, and the specie was +actually conveyed in four cartloads to the British +Legation on 24th June. The only explanation given +of this strange shuffle was that the numerous enemies +of the Tycoon and of foreigners were on the watch, +and threatened terrible consequences if any money +should be paid to the foreigners. That difficulty, +however, had been surmounted by the resourceful +Japanese Machiavel issuing strict orders that the +payment should be kept a dead secret from all except +the Governors of Foreign Affairs themselves,—the +four cartloads of silver, drawn each by a dozen or +two of men, grunting laboriously at the task, from +the Japanese custom-house to the British Legation, +remaining for this purpose conveniently invisible to +a cloud of hostile witnesses. +</p> + +<p> +The demands made on the Tycoon in respect of the +attack on the British Legation and on the Richardson +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_67' name='Page_67'>[67]</a></span> +party being thus satisfied, it only remained to carry out +the second portion of Earl Russell's instructions and +exact equal satisfaction from the Prince of Satsuma, +over whom the Yedo Government had shown itself to +have no control whatever. Much delay had occurred, +due to a variety of circumstances—mainly to the aggressive +acts of another great Daimio, Choshiu, who +possessed the western key of the Inland Sea. This +might have necessitated a concentration of the British +squadron in that spot—which actually came to pass a +year later. Finally, however, Rear-Admiral Sir Augustus +Kuper proceeded in August to the Bay of Kagoshima, +the stronghold of the Satsuma principality, +Colonel Neale accompanying him to present the demand +on the prince with which he had been intrusted +by the British Government. +</p> + +<p> +The sole reply vouchsafed by the Daimio was a recommendation +to Colonel Neale to return to Yedo and +treat with the Tycoon, as Satsuma had no relations +with Great Britain. It was now the admiral's turn to +act, and his first step in the way of reprisal was the +seizing of three steamers, then lying in the bay, which +were soon burned to relieve the squadron of their +charge. Thereupon the Daimio's forts opened fire, and +a hot engagement ensued in the midst of a terrific gale, +which the prince's people afterwards said was reckoned +on as a condition favourable for his attack on the +foreign ships. There was considerable loss of life on +both sides; much damage was done to the Daimio's +defences, arsenal, and magazines. But the inhabitants +of the town escaped injury from the conflagration, they +having previously been removed to places of safety. +The squadron returned to the Bay of Yedo. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_68' name='Page_68'>[68]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Within a short time the Prince of Satsuma sued for +terms, paid the indemnity demanded, £25,000, promised +to punish the murderer of Richardson, when caught, +and became a good friend to the English, to the extent +at least of desiring to cultivate relations with them. +</p> + +<p> +Thus happily ended the first hostile encounter between +Japan and any Western Power, the first demonstration +of the superiority of foreign arms, and, as some +think, the baptism of fire which was the inaugurating +rite by which Japan entered into the comity and the +competition of the Western nations, and into that path +of material progress which has since led to such astonishing +results. +</p> + +<p> +The attitude of the Yedo Government in this affair +may be said to have been one of placid observation. +They had nothing to regret in the chastisement inflicted +on a prince who set their authority at defiance. +</p> + +<p> +In the interval of time between the settlement of +the indemnities for the two outrages and the departure +of the fleet for Kagoshima the Tycoon's Ministers had +drawn closer and closer to the foreign representatives, +and English steamers were chartered for conveyance +of the Tycoon's troops to Osaka with the knowledge +and approval of the British authorities. The defence +of Yokohama was by the Government voluntarily confided +to the English and French admirals, and sanguine +hopes were held out to the foreign representatives that +if the Tycoon should succeed in his endeavours at +Kioto, foreign relations would assume a totally different +aspect on his return to his capital. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, while the negotiations with the +Yedo Government had been dragging their slow length +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_69' name='Page_69'>[69]</a></span> +along, another of the great princes had taken arms +against the foreign Powers indiscriminately. The +Daimio Choshiu had made a strong stand against +foreign intercourse, and in a well-reasoned and moderately +worded letter addressed to the Tycoon in May +1862 he urged union between that high officer and the +Mikado in order that the country might be placed in a +condition to resist foreigners. The territory of the +Prince of Nagato, as he was also designated, commanded +the narrow strait of Shimonoséki, which connects +the Suwonada, or Inland Sea, with the outer +waters. This had become the regular route of steamers +between the Bay of Yedo and the south of Japan, as at +this day. +</p> + +<p> +Moved by an impulse which was not cleared up at +the time, if ever it has been since, Choshiu began in +July 1863 to fire from his forts and from armed vessels +in the straits on passing steamers. French, American, +and Dutch war-vessels were successively bombarded as +they entered the passage. The fire was returned, and +damage inflicted on the Daimio's batteries; but such +was the power of their guns and their precision of aim +that many were killed and wounded on the foreign +ships, some of which were obliged to retire without +getting through the strait. The prince remained obdurate +and continued his hostile proceedings, a steamer +belonging to the Tycoon and another belonging to +Satsuma, said to be the friend and ally of Choshiu, +coming in for the customary salutation as they passed. +He embargoed or destroyed trading junks attempting +to pass the straits, and thus established an effective +blockade of the great commercial artery of Japan. +</p> + +<p> +It was droll to find Satsuma, soon after the affair of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_70' name='Page_70'>[70]</a></span> +Kagoshima, appealing to the Mikado against these outrages +of Nagato, and opposing the reactionary policy of +his quondam ally. Satsuma had had his lesson; Nagato +had yet to receive his. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Sir Rutherford Alcock returned to his post after two +years' furlough. His distinguished services had been +recognised by the Queen's Government, who conferred +on him the honour of Knight Commander of the Bath. +In the same year, 1862, he completed his valuable +work, 'The Capital of the Tycoon,' which for the first +time brought the real Japan of that day to the knowledge +of the reading world. This, the most important +single literary work left by the busy pen of Sir Rutherford +Alcock, is a storehouse of information on the history, +civilisation, politics, religion, art, and industry of +Japan, carefully sifted and presented in the most +attractive form. It contains, moreover, a vivid narrative +of the reopening of international intercourse +with that country, and of the stirring incidents which +marked the earlier years of its progress. It is also a +philosophical study at first hand of the most remarkable +political evolution that history records. Considering +the official activity and high tension under which the +materials were gathered, the writing of such a book, of +a Japanese Grammar, and other literary and artistic +studies, is a proof of the intellectual detachment which +is usually associated with the higher order of mind. +This work of a single pioneer observer has well borne +the scrutiny of the innumerable host of students, grave +and gay, who have followed in the same path. After +forty years its authority remains intact. A short +extract will at once show the character of the book and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_71' name='Page_71'>[71]</a></span> +afford a convenient summary of the then Government +of Japan:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +That the Mikado is the hereditary sovereign of the empire, +the descendant of a long and uninterrupted line of sovereigns +of the same dynasty, and the only sovereign <i>de jure</i> recognised +by all Japanese from the Tycoon to the lowest beggar—a true +sovereign in all the legal attributes of sovereignty; and that +the Tycoon receives investiture from him as his lieutenant or +generalissimo, <i>and as such only</i>, the head of the executive, is +known to most readers of the present day. True, the Mikados +have been shorn of much of their power since Yoritomo, in +1143, profiting by civil commotions among the princes of the +land, and armed with power as generalissimo to humble these +turbulent chiefs, only suppressed the troubles to arrogate to +himself the greater part of the sovereign power under the +title given by a grateful master of Ziogun. Another Pepin +d'Héristal and mayor of the palace, he did not care to dethrone +the descendant of an illustrious line of emperors, and was +content with holding the reins, and transmitting the same +privilege to his descendants. And so the power continued +divided in great degree, the shadow from the substance, until +later, towards the close of the sixteenth century, a peasant's +son and favourite attendant of the actual generalissimo, but +known in Japanese history by the name he afterwards assumed +of Taiko Sama, raised himself, apparently by great abilities as +well as daring, to the seat of power on his master's death, and +stripped the reigning Mikado of the last remains of secular +power. +</p> + +<p> +Since that time the successive emperors, or Mikados, are +brought into the world, and live and die within the precincts +of their Court at Miaco (Kioto), the boundaries of which they +never pass during their whole life. Is it possible to conceive a +less desirable destiny? But the Zioguns, or Tycoons, as they +are styled in European treaties, have long been undergoing a +somewhat analogous process, under which all substantial power +has been transferred from them to the principal Daimios, or +Princes, who form a Great Council of State, and whose nominee +the Tycoon himself has become, as well, I believe, as all his +chief Ministers or councillors. They exercise, if they do not +claim, the right of removing both Tycoon and Ministers, and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_72' name='Page_72'>[72]</a></span> +a voice potential in all affairs of State. For legislative changes +even the almost forgotten Mikado must indeed give his consent, +never of course refused when any unanimity prevails.... +</p> + +<p> +The Mikado of the day is the exact type of the last descendant +of Clovis, sitting "sad and solitary, effeminate and +degenerate," doomed only to wield "a barren sceptre" and sigh +away a burdensome and useless existence of mock pageantry; +never permitted to pass the gates of his prison-palace.... +</p> + +<p> +This double machinery of a titular sovereign who only +reigns, and a lieutenant of the empire who only governs and +does not reign, from generation to generation, is certainly +something very curious; and by long continuance it seems +to have led to a duplicate system such as never existed in any +other part of the world, carried out to almost every detail of +existence. Every office is doubled; every man is alternately +a watcher and watched. Not only the whole administrative +machinery is in duplicate, but the most elaborate system of +check and countercheck, on the most approved Machiavellian +principle, is here developed with a minuteness and perfection +as regards details difficult at first to realise. As upon all this +is grafted a system of more than oriental mendacity, we feel +launched into a world of shadows and make-believes hard to +grapple with in the practical business of life. Of their mendacity +and cynical views respecting it I had many illustrations. +One of the official gentry upon a particular occasion having +been found by a foreign Minister in deliberate contradiction +with himself, was asked, somewhat abruptly perhaps, how he +could reconcile it to his conscience to utter such palpable +untruths. With perfect calmness and self-possession he replied, +"I told you last month that such and such a thing had +been done, and now I tell you the thing has not been done at +all. I am an officer whose business it is to carry out the +instructions I receive and to say what I am told to say. +What have I to do with its truth or falsehood?"... +</p> + +<p> +To return to the Tycoon and the governors of the early +middle ages, with its suzerain and feudatories, its fiefs and +a phantom king, with hereditary mayors of the palace and +chiefs with 10,000 retainers, each one holding himself as good +as the Tycoon, who must live in constant dread of open revolt +or secret assassination, what a pleasant state of existence for all +parties it reveals! Each of these territorial magnates or great +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_73' name='Page_73'>[73]</a></span> +Daimios is practically independent of the Tycoon when within +his own territory, with power of life and death over all his +subjects and dependants; ... even an imperial passport will +not secure an intruder's life.... +</p> + +<p> +Power has passed in no small degree from the Tycoon's +hands, as it formerly did from the Mikado's, and now remains +chiefly in an executive Council of State, consisting of five +Ministers, and these again held in no small check, if not in +subservience, by the Daimios and feudal chiefs of the higher +order, amounting to some 360. Although these do not actually +form a Chamber of Lords nor assemble in a body at stated +periods, nothing legislative, it is said, can be done without their +assent obtained.... They hold themselves too high to demean +themselves by taking part in the administration, or holding office, +under the Tycoon. But neither the Tycoon nor the Ministers, +separately or collectively, can venture upon a change in their +laws and customs without their sanction and a further confirmation +by the phantom sovereign of Miaco.... +</p> + +<p> +In the mean time, between the Mikado who nominally +wields the sceptre—the Tycoon, a youth who no less nominally +governs the kingdom, and is but fourth in rank in the Japan +red-book, for three of the Mikado's officers take precedence—and +the Daimios great and small, ... the administrative +machinery of the realm seems to be kept in order. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Another incident of the year was Sir Rutherford +Alcock's second marriage to a friend of the earlier +Shanghai days, the widow of the Rev. T. Lowder, first +consular chaplain of that settlement. They had been +both widowed about the same time. They were about +the same age too, and the union, based on a deep-rooted +and matured affection, proved an exceptionally happy +one during thirty-five years, till death divided them. +Lady Alcock accompanied her husband on his return to +Japan, where they arrived in March 1864. +</p> + +<p> +During the two years of the Minister's absence affairs +in Japan had, as we have seen, been advancing rapidly—whether +towards a reasonable solution or to a catastrophe +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_74' name='Page_74'>[74]</a></span> +was as yet doubtful. The agitation against the +foreign treaties had been gathering force and consistency; +the Tycoon's position was becoming more and +more precarious, his existence being pledged to the +annulment of the hated treaties. Encouraged by the +success which had attended his mission to Europe in +1862, he despatched another in the beginning of 1864, +to represent to the European Governments that the +public feeling in Japan was growing worse every day, +that the Tycoon would not be able to protect foreigners +in Yokohama, and that, in short, the port must be +closed and foreign trade confined to Hakodate and +Nagasaki. The mission, already on its way, was met +by Sir Rutherford Alcock in Shanghai, where he had an +opportunity of personal conference with the envoys. +The situation was thus summarised by the Minister in +a despatch to the Foreign Office, 31st March 1864:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +It is just two years since I left Japan in order to be present +in London when the first mission sent by the Tycoon to the +treaty Powers in Europe should arrive. Returning to my post +a month ago, I met a second mission on its way to the same +Courts. These two embassies seem to me to form very significant +events in the history of Japan and its relations with +foreign States.... I consider the signing of the protocol +of June 1862 (afterwards adopted with unimportant modifications +by all the other Powers), freely granting without +abatement all that the Tycoon asked, was the culminating act +and fitting end of the conciliatory policy so consistently adhered +to from the beginning. It was impossible to concede +more without abandoning the treaties altogether. Thenceforth +it only remained to gather the promised fruit of greater security +to life, and freer intercourse within narrowed limits, which, for +the moment at least, appeared unattainable in the wider range +of five ports and two cities.... The avowed object of the +second mission is to declare that all the hopes held out by the +Tycoon of the probable results of the first concessions have +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_75' name='Page_75'>[75]</a></span> +been illusory.... The only fruit has been indiscriminate +aggression, increased insecurity, calling for measures of coercion +on the part of all the treaty Powers; finally, a decree for the +expulsion of foreigners, with a mission from the Tycoon to +declare his utter inability to maintain the treaties, and to +suggest a surrender of all the rights and privileges they were +framed to secure in perpetuity. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The mission was not successful in its main purpose, +and soon returned to Japan to report progress. +</p> + +<h3> +VI. THE CRISIS. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Foreign rights must be sustained by force or definitively abandoned—Organises +a retaliatory demonstration against Nagato—Forts at +Shimonoséki attacked by international squadron, after delays—Satisfactory +results—Nagato claims authority of Mikado for his attacks +on foreign ships—His defeat gave courage to Tycoon—Anti-foreign +measures promptly withdrawn—The treaties of 1858 ratified +by Mikado—Sir R. Alcock's recall—Lord Russell's <i>amende</i>. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Tycoon's Government had actually succeeded by +patient persistence in evil-doing in making Yedo "too +hot to hold" the foreign representatives, who had +in consequence gradually accustomed themselves to +residence in the freer air of Yokohama. "Incendiarism +and assassination had done their work and effected the +end for which they were employed," writes Sir Rutherford +Alcock, who goes on to remark that "the recovery +of this lapsed right" (of residence in the capital) "will +have now to follow, not precede, other measures." So +far had the foreign nations retreated before the forces +of reaction, forces which necessarily acquired cohesion +and momentum with each retrograde step of the +opposing Powers. The country, meaning thereby the +official hierarchy, was now at least, if not before, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_76' name='Page_76'>[76]</a></span> +practically unanimous. Mikado, Daimios, the Tycoon +himself, however they may have been embittered by +their mutual jealousies, were now united, and passionately +united, in the determination to expel the +foreigners, so far as it might be possible,—on which +latter point, however, there was room for great differences +of opinion. The Prince of Nagato might be a +rebel against the Tycoon's or the Mikado's authority, +both of whom had disavowed his proceedings, but his +determination to block the passage of the Inland Sea +and suppress all trade but his own was an important +part of the national policy of expulsion. It appeared +that the only friend of foreigners at that time was the +Prince of Satsuma, who had become a changed man +since his stronghold was bombarded, and he began to +see that the restoration of imperial rule and deposition +of the Tycoon might be accomplished by the assistance +of foreigners. That event was undoubtedly accelerated +by the policy of the first two British ministers in Japan. +</p> + +<p> +The new position was reviewed under a sense of deep +personal responsibility by Sir Rutherford Alcock in +several despatches during the spring of 1864, and, as +we have seen, the conclusion he arrived at was that the +utmost limit of concession to Japanese exigencies had +been reached: everything had been given up to them +that could be given up without abandoning the treaties +entirely and leaving the country. There was not even +room left for negotiation. "No attempt at a compromise +of such conflicting pretensions could possibly +succeed." "Compromise or concession is plainly impossible +in the nature of things." Moreover, Earl +Russell had enjoined on both the <i>chargé d'affaires</i> and +the Minister to stand firmly for their rights. His latest +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_77' name='Page_77'>[77]</a></span> +instruction to Sir Rutherford Alcock on his departure +from England was, "You will in any case require from +the Tycoon and the Daimios the execution of the +treaty." In the face of a determination to annul the +treaties this necessitated some vigorous action. +</p> + +<p> +The most obvious and most straightforward course +indicated was to deal a decisive blow against the Prince +of Nagato, who for nearly twelve months had set the +whole of the Western Powers at defiance. He was +more accessible from the salt water than even Satsuma; +he was repudiated, hypocritically or not, by his +sovereign; and a punitive expedition to Shimonoséki +would not involve detriment to trade or inflict injury +on innocent people. Such an operation had, moreover, +much to recommend it from the point of view of general +Japanese policy; for "in attacking in his stronghold +the most violent and rash of his class, it may be +possible," said the British Minister, "by one blow to +paralyse the whole body of Daimios.... The command +of the Inland Sea and the whole internal trade +of that portion of Japan which must of necessity be in +our hands during any operations would do more, probably, +to bring the Court of the Mikado and of Yedo +to a sense of the danger and folly of entering upon +hostilities with the treaty Powers than any course +of diplomacy.... The alternative is a probable +catastrophe, and a war of a protracted kind at no +distant period." +</p> + +<p> +About this time the appeals which for two years had +been made in vain to the British military authorities in +China for a sufficient force to give security at Yokohama +were listened to, and a regiment of infantry, the 20th, +and of marines, were detached from Hongkong and a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_78' name='Page_78'>[78]</a></span> +force of Beloochis from Shanghai. One of the anomalies +of an unprecedented situation was that the Government, +which was concerting measures to expel all foreigners, +was nevertheless constrained to provide accommodation +for these troops, "which were not to make war, but to +prevent acts which would lead to war." For all that, +the presence of foreign troops on the sacred soil was far +from palatable, even though the Tycoon might secretly +acquiesce in the reasoning by which the British Minister +had commended a measure which was in any case an +unavoidable necessity. +</p> + +<p> +The arrival of these troops had a marked effect on +the tactics of the Tycoon. For ten months his Government, +which had been powerless and passive regarding +the warlike proceeding of Choshiu, now became alarmed +lest the foreigners were about to take the law into their +own hands with that recalcitrant Prince. The Tycoon's +Ministers began to affect much concern for his punishment +and repression. They would at once move against +him, and until the result of their efforts was known +they urged that the British garrison should remain +absolutely passive in Yokohama. +</p> + +<p> +For effective action against the Daimio Choshiu it was +necessary that an agreement should be come to among +the treaty Powers, three of whom had been in actual +collision with his batteries and armed ships. Individually +Great Britain had not received this direct provocation, +and was only interested in the general question +of the obstruction to commerce and in the maintenance +of the political status of the Powers. How the concert +was brought about would be an interesting inquiry, +but we may safely conclude that the achievement owed +much to two causes, one positive and one negative. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_79' name='Page_79'>[79]</a></span> +The former was the strong will, clear sight, and absolute +fearlessness of responsibility of the British Minister; +the latter was the non-existence of any ocean +telegraph. For, as we have so frequently seen nearer +home, the direct efforts of the Great Powers to arrive +at any agreement for common action are always protracted, +often abortive, and seldom successful. The +decision in this case had to be taken by the agents on +the spot, personally intimate with each other, acting +on general principles and on a free interpretation of +the instructions from their Governments. And so it +came to pass that within three months after Sir Rutherford +Alcock's arrival in Japan the Ministers of France, +the United States, the Netherlands, and Great Britain +had signed a protocol in which they agreed to make +a fresh representation in the nature of an ultimatum +to the Tycoon's Government, calling upon it to adopt +means to put an end to the hostilities of the Prince +of Nagato, and informing it that on no account would +their Governments allow the port of Yokohama to be +closed. This agreement of May 1864 was the natural +sequel to a declaration of 25th July 1863, by which +the same four Powers had intimated to the Tycoon +the necessity of reopening the Inland Sea, but which +had remained without any acknowledgment by the +Government. The new <i>note identique</i> addressed to +the Gorogiu was equally left unacknowledged by that +body. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing therefore remained but to take the respective +naval commanders into counsel. The Ministers +had no authority over them, but it was quickly found +that the concert of admirals and captains was as perfect +as that of the diplomatic body. The ships of the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_80' name='Page_80'>[80]</a></span> +four Powers—Great Britain, France, United States, +and Netherlands—were placed under the command of +Vice-Admiral Sir Augustus Kuper, and a plan of action +was settled upon. +</p> + +<p> +The advance to Shimonoséki was still, however, +delayed by two circumstances. The first was the +return from Europe of two Japanese students, out +of five who had been sent there the previous year +by that very Prince of Choshiu against whom coercive +measures were about to be undertaken. These young +men, hearing while abroad of the proceedings of their +chief, and convinced, from what they had seen in +Europe, of the overwhelming resources of the Powers, +that Choshiu was bringing disaster on himself in forcing +battle on such antagonists, resolved to hurry back +to Japan with the express object of warning their +prince of his danger. The arrival of the two youths +in Yedo was thought by the foreign Ministers to offer +some chance of coming to terms with Choshiu without +the arbitrament of arms, and accordingly facilities were +afforded by Vice-Admiral Kuper for landing the two +travellers at the nearest convenient point to their +prince's territory. They were intrusted with overtures +of peace in the form of a long memorandum +from the British Minister, reviewing the whole situation, +and explaining the attitude of the Powers and +the hopelessness of the armed resistance of any Daimio. +The messengers brought back to the rendezvous, where +a light-draught vessel waited for them, an oral reply +from the prince explaining his attitude and asking for +three months' delay to enable Choshiu to confer with +the Mikado and Tycoon, by whose orders he had done +what he had done, and without whose consent he dare +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_81' name='Page_81'>[81]</a></span> +not change his policy. It is interesting to recall the +fact that the names of the two youthful emissaries +were Ito and Inouyé, who have since played so distinguished +and honourable a part in the development +of their country. +</p> + +<p> +The second cause of suspension of action against +Choshiu was the news of a convention concluded in +Paris between the Japanese envoys and the French +Foreign Minister, dated June 20, 1864, in which this +very object of the reopening of the Straits of Shimonoséki +was provided for. Were this convention to be +ratified by the Tycoon the immediate cause of dispute +would be removed. The matter, however, was disposed +of with more than its accustomed promptitude +by the Japanese Government, who curtly refused to +ratify the French convention. The Tycoon's Ministers +declared themselves unable to carry out the agreement, +and to ratify it would merely be to add another +to their too onerous obligations. Admiral Kuper was +finally given a free hand on August 25, and before +the middle of September the forts and ships of the +recalcitrant prince were completely destroyed by the +Allied squadrons, not without considerable resistance +and some loss to the assailants. The action was conducted +with admirable harmony among the officers +engaged, and the reciprocity of compliments between +the respective commanders-in-chief, especially between +the French and English admirals, is edifying reading +in these later days. +</p> + +<p> +The negotiations which followed on board the British +flagship ended in the most satisfactory manner. +Choshiu submitted with a good grace, while apologetically +throwing the blame of his hostile proceedings +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_82' name='Page_82'>[82]</a></span> +on the two higher authorities, the Mikado and the +Tycoon. +</p> + +<p> +All the Daimios had been notified of the decision +of the Mikado and the Tycoon to break off relations +with foreigners from 20th June 1863. Three days +after this notice its purport was confirmed, and a +positive order given to "make military preparations +with diligence that the ugly barbarians may be swept +out." This was promptly followed by a third yet +more explicit. "Bearing this in mind" (the date of +expulsion, 20th June 1863), "you must omit nothing +which is required to complete the maritime defences +of your province, and you must be ready to sweep +them off should they attack you unawares." A liberal +interpretation of these imperial decrees might be held +to cover the aggressive proceedings of the most powerful +Daimio in the empire, whose province happened to +command its most important strategic position, and +who watched the continual passing of foreign ships +under the guns of his forts. The time when Choshiu +commenced his attacks on passing ships coincided so +exactly with the date assigned by the Mikado for the +general rupture with foreigners, that it is hardly +possible to dissociate his act from the scheme of +his suzerain. When subsequently called before the +council, Choshiu boldly defied both Tycoon and Mikado, +declaring that he alone had obeyed the imperial mandate, +and deserved gratitude for executing single-handed +the law of the empire for the extermination +of foreigners. The rupture was decreed for June 20. +The American steamer Pembroke was fired on on the +25th, being, no doubt, the first foreign vessel to pass +the straits after the 20th. Whatever ulterior designs +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_83' name='Page_83'>[83]</a></span> +this great feudatory may have entertained, therefore, +he was not altogether without provocation in making +a raid on the Mikado's capital, which he did in the +month of August following, and for which he was +condemned by his suzerain to a term of seclusion +within his palace, the usual form of punishment of +an offending feudatory, which implies much more than +would appear from this mild definition. +</p> + +<p> +On the capture of the forts at Shimonoséki the +Government at once stepped in and assumed all the +obligations, pecuniary and other, which the issue of +the collision imposed on the Prince of Nagato. The +town of Shimonoséki had been spared, but held to +ransom. A convention was signed whereby the Tycoon +agreed to pay an indemnity of three million dollars, +which was eventually paid in full, the last instalment +of it after the fall of the Shôgunate. +</p> + +<p> +Taking heart of grace from his defeat by foreigners, +the Tycoon, if not the Mikado also, began to coerce +Choshiu on his own account. Not being able to +reach him conveniently in his principality, the Tycoon's +Government set to work to destroy his vast establishment +at Yedo. The fire brigade was employed in this +work, and such was the extent of it that several thousand +men were said to be engaged for three days in +burning down the buildings and fittings. Moreover, +when categorically questioned by the foreign Minister +whether, now that Satsuma and Choshiu had been +brought under control, "the Tycoon would find it +possible to give full effect to the treaties, and to +deal with any recalcitrant or rebellious Daimios," the +confidential Minister of the Tycoon replied without +hesitation, "Yes, certainly." +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_84' name='Page_84'>[84]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The defeat of the two most warlike of the Daimios +illuminated the situation and cleared the way for more +intelligent action all round. To the Japanese Government +it was once for all demonstrated that it was not +by force of arms that the "ugly barbarians" were to be +driven from the country. The foreign fleets were for +the time being invincible, and the Powers had also +shown themselves ready not only to act, but to act +together. There was, besides, a strong garrison of +foreign troops in Yokohama—a British force of 1200 +men of all arms, with a marked tendency to increase. +The Mikado and the Tycoon wisely acquiesced in the +situation, so far as foreigners were concerned, not +necessarily abandoning their policy, but at any rate +deferring its execution. +</p> + +<p> +Their immediate attention was directed to the internal +commotions of the country, which could not now +be long in coming to an explosion. A new planet had +intersected their system and upset its balance. There +could be no rest, therefore, until a new equilibrium was +found. Foreign forces chastising the great feudatories, +with the tacit acquiescence and for the benefit of the +suzerain, could only be a step either towards dissolution +and subjugation, or towards renaissance and national +unity. Feudalism had had its day and served its turn; +it was wholly incompatible with the new relations +which had been imposed on the country by the foreign +Powers. But where is the State, ancient or modern, +that could entirely remodel itself, as it were, on the +field of battle and in front of the enemy? That must +remain the proud speciality of Japan. +</p> + +<p> +The effect of the action at Shimonoséki on the +position of foreigners was at once made apparent in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_85' name='Page_85'>[85]</a></span> +various ways. The Tycoon's Government had laid a +secret embargo on raw silk sent to market at Yokohama +as part and parcel of the general imperial design +of closing that port, or, in the alternative, of a gigantic +scheme of Government monopoly of the whole foreign +trade, such being the only form of commerce for which +the Japanese officials had any real sympathy. The +stoppage had lasted three months. After Choshiu's +defeat the restrictions were at once officially withdrawn, +though considerable efforts were still required +to give full effect to the withdrawal. Once more, also, +"the Tycoon resolved to abandon the policy of equivocation +and duplicity," and to inform the Mikado frankly +of the impossibility of closing the port or of refusing to +maintain the treaties. +</p> + +<p> +The moment seemed opportune for raising the question +of the ratification of the treaties by the Mikado, in +respect to which Sir Rutherford Alcock made certain +plain statements in a letter addressed to the Tycoon in +person. "There exists," he said, "a want of accord on +the subject of foreign relations between the Mikado and +Tycoon.... The Mikado, by requiring the abrogation +of treaties, has reduced the Tycoon to the alternative of +either disobeying his legitimate sovereign or bringing +on his country all the calamities of war.... The only +solution of the difficulty that promises either peace or +security is the ratification of the treaties by the +Mikado." The four foreign representatives simultaneously +pressed the same consideration on the Government, +eliciting from the Japanese Ministers the +admission, "We perfectly agree with you, it should now +take place." +</p> + +<p> +It now became the business of the British Minister to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_86' name='Page_86'>[86]</a></span> +show to his Government that the proceedings at Shimonoséki +fulfilled in every point the instructions he had +received from the Foreign Office. This he did in a +despatch dated September 28, 1864, and so convincingly +that Earl Russell wrote in reply— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Your despatch of the 28th of September is a successful vindication +of the policy you have pursued.... My despatches +of the 26th of July were written with a view to discourage +the interruption of a progressive trade by acts of hostility, and to +forbid recourse to force while the treaty was generally observed. +Those despatches, you will understand, remain in full force. +</p> + +<p> +But the documents you have sent me, which arrived by the +last mail, show that the silk trade was almost wholly interrupted +by the Tycoon, who seemed to be preparing to abet or +to abandon the project of driving out foreigners according to +the boldness or the timidity of our demeanour. +</p> + +<p> +In this position there could be no better course than to +punish and disarm the Daimio Prince Nagato. +</p> + +<p> +That course had these three separate advantages:— +</p> + +<p> +1. It gave the best promise of concurrence of the four +Powers, as France, Holland, and the United States had all +been sufferers from the Prince of Choshiu's violations of treaty, +while we were most exposed to risk and loss by any Japanese +attack on Yokohama. +</p> + +<p> +2. It involved proceeding only against a rebellious vassal, +and not against the Mikado or the Tycoon. +</p> + +<p> +3. If the operation should prove successful, the four Powers +were under no obligation to undertake further hostilities unless +fresh provocation should be received. +</p> + +<p> +Her Majesty's Government have received with great satisfaction +the account of the naval operations of the four +squadrons, and their result, contained in your despatch of +September 28. Those operations were conducted in the most +gallant manner; the loss was not considerable; the four +Powers acted in harmony together; no defenceless city suffered +during the hostilities; and the terms granted to the offending +Daimio were moderate towards him, and sufficient for us. +</p> + +<p> +I have only to add, that I am commanded to express to you +her Majesty's full approbation of your conduct. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_87' name='Page_87'>[87]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +So far so good. But the slow mail service of those +days, and the entire absence of the telegraph, admitted +of wonderful interpolations in correspondence with such +far-off countries as Japan. Events marched quicker +than the course of post could follow them, and despatches +were sometimes written which the writer +would have given a good deal to recall. Such was the +case here. We have said that soon after Sir Rutherford +Alcock's return to Japan he addressed some +weighty despatches to the Foreign Office on the situation, +undoubtedly leading up to the ultimate employment +of force in vindication of the foreign treaties. +This was in full accord with the spirit of Earl Russell's +instructions dated December 17, 1863. These were— +</p> + +<ul class="none"> +<li> +1. To require from the Tycoon and the Daimios the +execution of the engagements of the treaty. +</li> + +<li> +2. To consult the admiral and any military officer +who may be sent to Japan as to the means of +strengthening and holding our position in +Yokohama. +</li> + +<li> +3. To endeavour to procure from Hongkong the +services of a regiment of infantry. +</li> + +<li> +4. The admiral to be authorised to land marines and +destroy the batteries which have been erected +for the evident purpose of interrupting the +passage of our merchandise, &c.; but he must +take care that no unarmed and peaceable town +should be bombarded. +</li> +</ul> + +<p> +But when the Foreign Secretary received the +Minister's despatches of May, following the terms of +these instructions to their only logical conclusion, he +became alarmed at the prospect of active measures, and +by despatch of August 8 he recalled the Minister under +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_88' name='Page_88'>[88]</a></span> +the pretext of the need of a personal consultation on the +state of affairs. This was followed up by some temporising +despatches, saying the Inland Sea was of no +consequence; that the Tycoon was professing an intention +to do all that was necessary; and that the Tycoon +and Mikado, seeing the British forces strong though +passive, would gradually drop all hostile policy. How +were these vacillating utterances to be reconciled with +the position so decidedly taken up eight months before? +</p> + +<p> +A disturbing influence had intervened, causing Lord +Russell to see Japan at an oblique angle. Certain +other brave words of the Foreign Secretary in that +year, 1864, in connection with the Danish Duchies, had +also had their current turned awry and lost the name +of action. Japan was but an echo. Of course, after +the definite energetic policy of the Queen's representative +in Japan had proved a brilliant success, had +involved no complications, had, in fact, been the means +of temporarily uniting four of the treaty Powers, Lord +Russell was ready enough to make the <i>amende</i> to Sir +Rutherford Alcock, though to have cancelled his order +of recall would have been too frank an admission of +error to expect from any statesman. In this manner +was the career of Sir Rutherford Alcock in Japan +brought to an abrupt, but highly honourable, conclusion. +He received his letter of recall while in the act +of completing the final convention with the Tycoon +respecting the affair of the Prince of Choshiu. The +announcement was heard in Japan almost with consternation. +The Tycoon's Ministers were particularly +grieved about it, and they sent a strongly-worded +letter to Earl Russell to be laid before the Queen, +dwelling on the important services the envoy had +rendered to their country, and begging that he might +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_89' name='Page_89'>[89]</a></span> +be sent back to them as soon as the urgent affairs that +required his presence in England had been settled. +The mercantile communities of the treaty ports were no +less warm in their commendation of the services rendered +to them and to general commerce by the decided +measures adopted by the Minister, and in their regret +at his departure. "The principal triumph of your +success," they said in a farewell address, "lies in the +fact that you have accomplished all this not only +without causing a collision between her Majesty's +Government and that of the Tycoon, but by actually +strengthening the Government from which you obtained +the concessions, as well as by acting in such a +way as to secure the cordial co-operation of the foreign +Ministers resident at this port." +</p> + +<p> +Admiral Kuper took so serious a view of the loss +of a representative of such unrivalled experience and +virility, that he took it on himself to address to the +Minister privately a weighty appeal, on public and +patriotic grounds, to postpone his departure until at +least he had time to refer again to the Foreign Office, +which on subsequent information must certainly take a +different view of the action of their Minister. That +the admiral correctly appreciated the attitude of the +Foreign Office is sufficiently shown by Lord Russell's +despatches already quoted, and by that dated January +31, 1865, which concludes, "I shall wish you to return +at once to Yokohama, to perform in Japan such additional +meritorious services as may be expected from +your tried ability and long experience." But Sir +Rutherford Alcock did not consider that the episode +would have left him the prestige necessary for further +useful service in Japan, and he declined to return to +that country. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_90' name='Page_90'>[90]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Sir Rutherford remained at his post long enough +to secure the fulfilment of the primary objects of the +Allied expedition against Choshiu: the reopening of +trade, which had been practically closed both at +Yokohama and Nagasaki, and a number of most important +improvements in the conditions of foreign +residence in Yokohama. These comprised a parade-ground +and racecourse, hospitals, slaughter-houses, +filling in of swamp, a clear and convenient site for +consular buildings, a good carriage-road seven miles +in circuit, away from the town, and various other +extensions of the comforts of foreign residents. +</p> + +<p> +The ratification of the treaties, too, by the Mikado +was virtually arranged. The very day before Sir +Rutherford Alcock embarked for England he was +enabled to report to his Government that the law +interdicting intercourse and putting all foreigners +under the ban of outlawry had been modified, and +its hostile provisions repealed. This was considered +tantamount to the Mikado's acknowledgment of the +Tycoon's treaties, and thus the vice of illegality +which had attached to them from their origin was +at last removed. A year later the Mikado distinctly +and in so many words approved of the treaties. +This, therefore, may fairly be considered Sir Rutherford +Alcock's last service to his country in Japan. It +was not, however, till 1868, after the attack on Sir +H. Parkes while on his way to the palace of the +Mikado, that an edict was published, over the imperial +sign manual, decreeing that the lives of foreigners in +Japan were thenceforth to be deemed as sacred as +the lives of the subjects of the empire. +</p> + +<p> +But it would not have been Japan without an +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_91' name='Page_91'>[91]</a></span> +assassination to mark the close of the Minister's +eventful career. Two officers of the British garrison, +Major Baldwin and Lieutenant Bird, on an excursion +on horseback to the romantic district of Kamakura, +and near the celebrated bronze statue of Buddha, were +stealthily attacked in broad day by a couple of two-sworded +men, and mercilessly cut down. One of them +lived late into the night, spoke, and drank tea, when +the assassins, or accomplices in the crime, paid another +visit to the dying man and, as in the case of Richardson, +despatched him with ghastly ferocity. The Tycoon +might truthfully say, "An enemy hath done this"; but +the position of the Government had been so much +strengthened by the collapse of Choshiu that the +Tycoon's officers were no longer afraid of pursuing +the criminals and bringing them to justice, especially +as they happened to be <i>ronin</i>, or masterless men. +"Twelve similar onslaughts," wrote Sir Rutherford, +"have been made on foreigners, and in no one instance +has justice had its due." For "even in the +only case where men were executed, the Government +did not venture in exposing their heads to declare +their crime, or admit that it was for an attack upon +foreigners." The present case was to prove an exception +to the hitherto unbroken rule. Within a +month certain accomplices in the crime were brought +to punishment in Yokohama, and there one of the +principals, who was executed in presence of British +officers, died boasting of his crime and claiming the +highest patriotic sanction for it. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Rutherford and Lady Alcock took their departure +from Yokohama on December 24, 1864. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_92' name='Page_92'>[92]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +VII. THE BIRTH OF NEW JAPAN. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Four years of civil strife—Cessation of efforts to eject foreigners—The +adoption of foreign appliances—Educational missions—Unanimity of +Japanese in cultivating foreign intercourse—The merits of those who +promoted the movement—Sir R. Alcock's services in the cause of +Japanese progress—His services to Japanese art. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +"Is this the commencement of a civil war?" wrote +the British Minister during his first year of residence +in Japan. When he left the civil war was well advanced. +Feverish energy was being displayed by every +party in the State. There was a race for foreign ships +and armaments among the Daimios; the Tycoon was +involved in a struggle for existence; the legitimate +sovereign was asserting his authority, and the feudatories +were rallying to his support. Neither the +immediate nor the remote issues were clear, but the +sword was out of the scabbard, and would not be +sheathed again until a new order of things should be +established. +</p> + +<p> +The civil strife, which ended within four years in +the abolition of feudalism and the assumption by the +Mikado by divine right of all administrative functions, +may be called revolution, restoration, or merely evolution, +according to the point of view from which we +regard it. The hand of the foreigner had loosened +the stone from the mountain-side, but it rolled down +by its own laws. The introduction of foreigners into +the country brought down vengeance on the Tycoon +as the responsible agent. To abase him and transfer +the sceptre to another house was perhaps as far as +the views of the hostile princes in the first instance +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_93' name='Page_93'>[93]</a></span> +extended. The consummation of the movement in the +unification of the State, though its natural fruit, grew +and ripened with a rapidity which bewildered the +lookers-on. From the moment when the goal was +descried a profound unanimity of sentiment urged +the leaders towards it, the territorial magnates being +themselves the first to propose the abolition of the +privileges, titles, and responsibilities of their order, +which stood in the way of nationality in the larger +sense. But wide and manifold as were the issues +raised in the course of the brief but fierce struggle, +it concerns us chiefly to remember that the avowed +impulse which gave the first impetus to the whole +was the passionate purpose of expelling the foreigner. +This was the rallying cry that brought the entire +nation into line. The presence of the foreigner on +the soil sacred to the gods was an insult and a +deep humiliation. The manifestoes of the Daimios, +their invective against the Tycoon, the distress of +the Mikado and his constant imploring appeals for +help to purge the land of its defilement, testify to +the sincerity and universality of the feeling. In that +sentiment there was no difference between Tycoon +and Mikado, the Daimios attached to the one and +those attached to the other: they were only divided +as to the time and the means, the risks and the +consequences. +</p> + +<p> +From the first the foreigners had evidence of the +tenacious character of the Japanese: their persistency +in face of difficulties and discouragements, and, above +all, their readiness, not only to risk, but deliberately +to sacrifice, their lives in the pursuit of an object. +Such a spirit would render any people formidable,—most +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_94' name='Page_94'>[94]</a></span> +formidable when united in a common purpose; +and their genius for combination is one of their most +typical characteristics. What these qualities have +already led to the world has partly seen; what they +will hereafter lead to is perhaps as much hidden from +our generation as the phenomena of the present were +from the preceding one. But from the earliest days +of the new intercourse it was hardly possible to misconstrue +the seriousness of the Japanese people, though +their refinement of taste, especially in art, their pleasant +vices, and their addiction to light and frivolous +recreation, often masked their more solid qualities. +One word may possibly reconcile the seeming contradiction. +They are an intensely vital people, living every +part of their lives earnestly, which, however, is no +synonym for solemnly. The gravest and the gayest +have their appointed place in the social system, whose +parts appear to be co-ordinated as if the whole were a +direct inspiration of nature itself, elastic, accommodating, +ever renewing itself, and yet so highly organised +that there is no unemployed surplus, no waste material, +nothing that does not find an effective place in the +great cosmic product. That many practical men have +misjudged the Japanese is beyond doubt. Indeed it is +the so-called practical men who are the most apt to +misjudge human phenomena, seeing that their system +leaves out of account all they do not understand, which +is usually a good deal. It was long thought that +the Japanese were mere copyists and imitators, and +disparaging epithets have been applied to them under +that misapprehension. But, rightly considered, their +very imitation was the clearest proof of their depth. +They had been overcome by the foreigner, therefore +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_95' name='Page_95'>[95]</a></span> +they would help themselves to his weapons—all his +weapons, educational, scientific, ethical, and not merely +the machinery of war. This was not imitation, but +adaptation and assimilation. It was no more imitation +than what is seen every day among Americans, +for instance, who so successfully "exploit" the ideas of +Europe, and improve on them. It gradually dawned +upon the intelligent few who watched the process from +the beginning that the adaptation of European customs +and costume was nothing but a strict application of +the laws of evolution. The Japanese began spontaneously +to appropriate ideas from the dress of Europeans; +modifications, scarce perceptible, were adopted +at first by servants. Certain malefactors advertised +for by the Yedo police as early as 1862 were described +as wearing "riding trousers and coats of tight foreign +fashion." Each article of attire was adopted on its +merits, for convenience and for no other reason, one +of the first items being buttons. Strange combinations +were sometimes seen, such as a billycock hat, +or policeman's cast-off coat with a few buttons left on, +surmounting a pair of bare legs shod with wooden +clogs. Such bizarre combinations were not uncommon +during the time of transition. The growing habits of +travel necessitated a revolution in the coiffure. The +ancient custom of shaving part of the head and training +the truncated queue required a staff of skilled +barbers to accompany every travelling party. The +expense and inconvenience were intolerable, and so +the old head-dressing had to go the way of obsolete +things. +</p> + +<p> +The Japanese deliberately resolved to learn every +secret thing that any foreign nation possessed. To do +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_96' name='Page_96'>[96]</a></span> +this they had to be conciliatory, so as to gain access to +schools, laboratories, arsenals, factories of every kind. +Japanese swarmed in the workshops of Europe and +America; they took military, naval, mercantile, and +industrial service wherever they could get it.<a name='FA_10' id='FA_10' href='#FN_10' class='fnanchor'>[10]</a> In such +pursuits an outlandish costume would have been a +severe handicap, not merely marking them as strangers, +but hampering them for the mechanical work they +might be engaged in. To be the comrades of the foreign +workmen they must dress like them, and minimise +all personal peculiarities. It is often said by those +who regret the change that the native dress was so +becoming, and that the Japanese looked ever so much +nicer in their own than in foreign garb—which may +be true, though irrelevant. To look nice was not what +they were aiming at. They had to join the family of +nations, to become men of the world, to comply with +all civilised observances, and as much as in them lay +to avoid attracting notice to their nationality. Such +a programme necessitated adoption of the common +costume of the Western nations, and if we do not +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_97' name='Page_97'>[97]</a></span> +accuse German, French, English, and Americans of +being imitators, who for similar reasons adopt a +uniform society habit, why should the Japanese be +imitators when doing the very same thing? Let the +world not deceive itself,—there is something more +serious than copying in the development of the Japanese +nationality. Borrowers they have undoubtedly +been, and that on a grand scale. Religion, philosophy, +language, literature, art, and artistic manufacture they +took bodily from China, apparently through Korea. +But who shall say they have not improved upon their +teachers? That is a kind of borrowing which may yet +carry Japan very far. We should not forget that even +a Shakespeare may be an incorrigible borrower. +</p> + +<p> +From the first appearance of Commodore Perry's +"black ships" in 1853 one idea took complete possession +of the Japanese ruling classes, and inspired all +their manifestoes. How far the common people were +in sympathy with their rulers there was no evidence +available to show. The idea was that their nation +was weak, and in its seclusion had been outstripped +by the nations of the West, and that they must make +every exertion to arm themselves in order to be able +to cope with and to expel the barbarians. All their +temporising with the enemy had this end in view, and +they followed it up with such zeal, intelligence, and +national harmony, as to excite both wonder and admiration. +In the building up of their nation, and giving +it a status among the military and industrial Powers, +the Japanese freely and extensively employed foreigners +in all capacities, dispensing with their services +when done with as naturally as a builder dispenses +with his temporary scaffolding. They used foreigners +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_98' name='Page_98'>[98]</a></span> +from the outset, but have never allowed foreigners to +use them. They have thus remained the masters in +their own house, and therein has lain their strength, +present and prospective. Teaching they have recompensed +with coin; and though confidences have been +received with courtesy, their own plans and purposes +have been veiled from the most honoured of their +tutors. Their attitude has remained what it was in +the days of the Dutch monopoly, when instruction in +Western lore, including naval and military science, +was freely imparted to them, while the uses to which +it was applied were studiously hidden from the teachers. +Though the Dutch, for example, taught the +Japanese mathematics and triangulation so successfully +that the pupils were able to make accurate surveys +and construct maps of the country and charts of its +sea-coasts, yet the Dutch were never permitted to see +the finished result. +</p> + +<p> +In looking back on the work of those foreign Governments +and their agents who by their interference shook +this new nation into life, it is obvious that they did +not, any of them, know what they were doing. There +was a divinity shaping their ends which they, with +their conventional concessions to the modern spirit, +had no idea of. If we are to pass judgment at all on +those men, it must not be by the ulterior consequences +which they did not and could not foresee, but on the +merits of the problem which immediately presented +itself to them. The demand for free intercourse with +Japan being shared by all the nations of Christendom +was bound to be satisfied one day: it was but a question +of a favourable opportunity. Commodore Perry +and the United States Government made their opportunity. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_99' name='Page_99'>[99]</a></span> +Townsend Harris had his opportunity made +for him, and with great adroitness, and not too much +scruple, he took advantage of it to force the half-open +door. Lord Elgin, in his turn, did a smart thing in +sandwiching in a full treaty with Japan between his +earlier and later negotiations with China. Each in his +degree contributed to the general result without any +apparent sense of responsibility for unsettling an +ancient polity of which they were ignorant, and to +which they were blind. Lord Elgin was indeed +visited by the qualms of conscience which were as +natural to him as they were honourable, but the +particular consequences of which he had a passing +dread were not those which followed. In any case, +his act was momentary: its results remained to be +dealt with by those who came after. The heat and +burden of the day fell upon those who had to "stub +the Thurnaby waste" which the cavaliers had gaily +cantered round,—to reduce theories and compliments +to everyday practice. Here was not only a labour but +a responsibility, not of the attenuated abstract order, +but one which was apt to knock violently at their door +every morning and every night. For whatever might +be the remote effects, the immediate issues were always +urgent, and what a conscientious man had to do was to +shape a daily course among unknown rocks and whirlpools +such as would eventually lead to a successful +ocean voyage. It is surely a test of good pilotage in +such emergencies that no step need be retraced; that +to whatever extent temporary exigencies may hasten +or retard, they should never deflect the general movement +from its true direction; that the years achievement +should be homogeneous with the day's doings. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_100' name='Page_100'>[100]</a></span> +It is a test which would eliminate the time-server +from political life, but it was in all important particulars +well responded to in the short career of Sir +Rutherford Alcock in Japan. +</p> + +<p> +It would be idle to conjecture the probable course of +events had a different spirit prevailed among the first +diplomatic representatives in Japan. Had they been a +weak and yielding body, or had they been connected +with the bureaux of their respective Governments by +electric wire; still more, had each step taken by them +formed a bone of contention between opposing factions +in their legislatures, all alike ignorant of the situation, +the proceedings of the Ministers would not only have +been deprived of all initiative, but would have been +liable to paralysis at every critical moment. Under +such conditions foreign policy in Japan would have +been like driftwood in a whirlpool; the forces of reaction +must have gained courage; the position of +foreigners would have been rendered untenable; and +what might have happened in the country itself it +would, as we have said, be quite idle to imagine. In +those days no Power would have interfered to maintain +order or to defend treaties had England held aloof. +There is no need to carry hypothesis further than this +in order to appreciate the good fortune not only of +Great Britain herself, but of Japan and the world, +in having as pioneer representative a man so alert, +so capable, so clear, and with such unshakable nerve +as Sir Rutherford Alcock; for it is the man on the spot +in distant countries who shapes the policy of his +Government, if it is to have a policy at all, and this +historic service the first Minister sent to Japan did +effectually render to his country. Amid difficulties unprecedented, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_101' name='Page_101'>[101]</a></span> +emergencies incessant, and an elemental +strife ever raging, the terms of which were inscrutable, +two immutable principles guided the Minister to a clear +issue. The first was duty, at all costs and hazards; +the second, the integrity of the treaties. Whatever +might be argued about the policy or the ethics of +making them, once made, retreat from their engagements +was impossible and compromise futile. Matters +had to be pushed to an issue. The whole term of Sir +Rutherford Alcock's service in Japan was filled up with +a warfare against the temptation to temporise in the +hope that things would be better,—a temptation to +which, as we have seen, her Majesty's Government for +a time succumbed. In perplexing situations the best +solvent is simplicity, and the Minister found his safety +in directness of aim and inflexibility of purpose. +Standing on that rock, the mystifications with which +he was surrounded lost their power to disturb him. +"Fortunately," he wrote to Earl Russell, "whether +the Tycoon was playing a comedy or not, the course +plainly indicated is the same, the assertion of a fixed +determination not to be driven out, and to maintain +the rights secured under treaties, by force, if all other +means fail." +</p> + +<p> +To the man who perceived and successfully carried +out this simple rule of action his countrymen owe no +common debt. +</p> + +<p> +As it is proverbially the busiest people who have +the most leisure, the British Minister found time in the +midst of his harassing labours to employ his æsthetic +gifts for the benefit of the public. It fell to his lot, +as the reader may remember, while consul in Shanghai, +to contribute samples of the art, industry, and natural +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_102' name='Page_102'>[102]</a></span> +products of China to the Great Exhibition of 1851, +neither the native Government nor the foreign mercantile +community being sufficiently interested to assist +in the work. A similar service was asked of him in +Japan for the Exhibition of 1862, and it was performed +under similar conditions, neither the native +Government nor the foreign residents taking any part +in it. The task had a special fascination for Sir +Rutherford, for Japanese art was a new and rich field +for the student as for the dilettante. The Japanese +had originally borrowed their whole art, with their +literature and religion, from China, but they had improved +or at least transformed it so much as to make it +their own, though it is contended that in ceramics they +had never succeeded in overtaking the Chinese. For +five hundred years they had worked on the Chinese +idea; but at last in the eleventh century <span class="s08">A.D.</span> native +schools sprang up, and thenceforth Japanese artists +followed their own inspiration, which was that of +nature, producing, in the fulness of time, the exquisite +results with which the world is now so familiar. The +introduction of this Japanese work to the connoisseurs +of Europe through the London Exhibition of 1862 was +effected through the personal exertions of Sir Rutherford +Alcock, who added immensely to the obligations +under which he laid his countrymen by the publication +in 1878 of a short but comprehensive work on 'Art +and Art Industries of Japan.' Like the collecting of +objects for the Exhibition, the writing of this book +was evidently a labour of love. It reviews with a +sympathy which almost rises to enthusiasm not only +the finished product, but the stages of the evolution +of Japanese art, having its origin in a loving fellowship +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_103' name='Page_103'>[103]</a></span> +with nature and in a special affinity with what +may be called its humorous side. The genius of +Japan has taken a different form from that of the +West, where "the great works of the sculptor and +the painter are seen by but few," whereas the art +work of Japan, "which is always in sight, tends to +cultivate the taste of the million by bringing constantly +before their eyes objects of taste, not less +effective because they are unconsciously felt and enjoyed." +It is art pressed into the service of the life +of the people "which can give a priceless value to +the commonest and least costly material by the mere +impress of genius and taste, ... which is the most +precious, tested by any true estimate of value and +utility." The volume is well worth perusal by those +who are interested in art, not only for its philosophical +yet simple analysis of the subject generally, but for +the instructive way in which universal principles are +adapted to the popularised art of Japan. To read this +book, one would imagine the writer had devoted the +whole of the three years and a half he spent in Japan +to the cultivation of the industrial fine arts. +</p> + +<p> +The Japanese language, too, attracted the interest +of the busy Minister, who during his stay in Yedo +brought out a grammar and phrase-book in Japanese +and English. They have, as a matter of course, been +superseded by the more recondite studies of later +students; but as a first step towards familiarising the +language to visitors and strangers these introductory +works cannot be denied their meed of merit. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_104' name='Page_104'>[104]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +VIII. THE DIPLOMATIC BODY—TSUSHIMA. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Four Western Powers represented in Tokio—Russia only in Hakodate by +consul—And naval officers—Cordial Anglo-French relations—Temptations +to intrigue—Secret communications to Japanese—Representatives +of the Powers arousing suspicions of each other's designs—Letters cited—The +Tsushima incident—Admiral Sir James Hope obtains its evacuation +by Russians. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +During the first few years there were four representatives +of the Western Powers resident in or near +the Tycoon's capital: they were the Ministers of Great +Britain, the United States, France, and Holland. +Russia had accredited no Minister, but intrusted her +interests to the very capable hands of M. Goskavitch, +consul at Hakodate, the treaty port in the northern +island of the Japanese group. What was no doubt +deemed of at least equal importance, she maintained +a powerful squadron on the western coast of Japan, +whose actual strength was magnified to the view by +their incessant activity, which had the character of +a continuous demonstration on the coast both of China +and Japan; and the principle of direct action by naval +officers without the medium of diplomacy, at the ports +of Nagasaki and Hakodate, was so different from that +of any other Power, that the Daimios declared to the +Tycoon that any of the foreigners could be safely +insulted except the Russians. Their manœuvres in +force round Hongkong, meaningless to the ordinary +professional or political eye, played probably a corroborative +part in the impressions they were making on +the rulers of the neighbouring countries. Prussia +had not yet come effectually on the scene when the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_105' name='Page_105'>[105]</a></span> +decisive operations against the two great Daimios, +which really determined the future course of events, +were undertaken. +</p> + +<p> +The relations of the resident foreign Ministers among +themselves were marked by substantial harmony, in +some instances rising to great cordiality. The foreign +diplomatic body thus presented a united front to the +forces, open or covert, that were opposed to them. +Such differences of opinion as arose in the course of +business either were not of a nature, or were not +allowed, to interfere with the pursuit of the national +interests of each, which were inextricably bound up +in the common interests of all. United, the influence +of the Powers was practically irresistible; divided, +they would have fallen an easy prey to the devices +of what, for want of another term, must be spoken of +as the common enemy, Japan. It is not pleasant to +think of Japan in this way, since she was on her +defence in a position forced upon her; yet overruling +circumstances had, in fact, placed the parties in temporary +antagonism—the world against Japan. +</p> + +<p> +The key to the success of European diplomacy of +the earlier period was without doubt the Anglo-French +alliance, which had culminated in the coercion +of imperial China, and was spending its ebbing strength +in suppressing the great Taiping insurrection against +that empire. Being possessed of mobile forces within +call, the two Powers were always in a position to act +when circumstances called for action, and they had +become accustomed to co-operation. Hence the +potency of their united counsels. +</p> + +<p> +The Minister of France as well as the admiral on +the station had the instructions of the Imperial +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_106' name='Page_106'>[106]</a></span> +Government to support England in her Far Eastern +policy,—"for," said the calculating Emperor Napoleon +III., "though our interests in that part of the world +are trivial, we may find our account in the friendship +of England in quarters where our interests are vital." +That the Ministers of the two countries, therefore, +should be on terms of official intimacy and mutual +confidence was only natural, and it was a tower of +strength to them both. But we gather from the +despatches that personal respect and attachment +went hand in hand with the official <i>liaison</i>; and +whether it was Sir Rutherford Alcock or Colonel +Neale on the one side, or M. Duchesne de Bellecourt +or Leon Roche on the other, their expressions towards +their colleagues were always of the warmest. +So completely confidential were their relations, that +when something was insinuated by third parties +which, if credited, would have necessitated explanations +between the two, it was simply dismissed as +unworthy of consideration. There were not wanting +those who would have regarded with equanimity a +little more coldness between the Allied colleagues. +</p> + +<p> +For, notwithstanding their good fraternal relations, +it cannot be said that the foreign officials in Japan +were uniformly successful in resisting the besetting +sin of diplomacy, the common temptation to intrigue. +In certain cases it was resorted to as the natural +means of advancing the solid interests of a particular +country; in other cases, where no national interest +could be served by it, it would appear that intrigue +was its own allurement, followed for the mere pleasure +of the game. The political situation in Japan was +sufficiently complicated to afford occasion for both +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_107' name='Page_107'>[107]</a></span> +these motives of action. The unstable Government +of the country, oppressed by conflicting obligations +and consciously struggling for existence, offered an +ideal theatre for volunteer experimentation by those +on whom no ulterior responsibility rested. +</p> + +<p> +Be that as it may, however, secret communications +did pass between certain foreign officials and the +Japanese Government of a kind which betrayed the +design of undermining the interests of other Powers +and frustrating their policy, presumably for the benefit +of those whose zeal in the cause of international +honour impelled them to adopt the <i>rôle</i> of international +informers. It need hardly be said that Great +Britain was a principal object of these occult practices; +neither need it be denied that she suffered from their +effects in the estimation of the Japanese Government, +which was naturally credulous of any disparagement +of the Powers it dreaded so much. In the incandescent +condition of the intercourse of those earlier years, +had any of the foreign agents spoken well of his neighbours +he would have obtained no hearing for his +praise; but given vilification for its motive, the representation +would find its way straight to the +Japanese heart, since nothing could be too vile to be +believed of the intentions of any of the foreign nations. +The spy system was congenial to the Japanese, woven +into their whole administration; while as regards +foreigners, they had had ample experience centuries +before of the lengths Christian nations would go in +traducing each other for the sake of gaining a little +favour of the rulers of Japan. It was entirely in +keeping with their medieval experiences that these +dastardly barbarians should now be ready to stab +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_108' name='Page_108'>[108]</a></span> +each other in the back. Whatever reception, therefore, +on other grounds, might be accorded to gratuitous +information conveyed through prejudiced channels, no +surprise was occasioned by it, and as little doubt of +its truth, so long as its burden was evil. This much +has to be borne in mind as a tribute to the intelligence +of the writers of letters such as the following, addressed +to the Gorogiu, or Bureau of Foreign Affairs, and +conveyed to them with ostentatious secrecy. In 1860 +one Government agent wrote— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Last year towards the middle of the second month the +English created great difficulties in China in consequence of +the war they waged by sea and land. They had violated the +treaties in a shameful manner, and as this excited the indignation +of the Chinese they attacked the English on the river, +and captured three men-of-war. Feeling herself humbled by +this defeat, England swore revenge. She uttered the most +unjust menaces against China, and at the very moment the +Chinese commenced their conferences upon this subject four or +five months ago the English suddenly ordered forty-seven men-of-war +from London. These vessels are at present at Chusan, +and await the signal for action. Within two or three months +the men-of-war will leave for the north. The merchant vessel +Dayspring brought us all this news on the 12th instant. +</p> + +<p> +On speaking about this important news to Mr —, the +British Consul residing here, he gave me the following information +in a strictly private manner. +</p> + +<p> +"At last," said Mr —, "the war with China is decided +upon. We have for a long time been searching for a good +harbour where we shall be able to put the sick and wounded. +We have chosen Tsushima, where we intend to send the sick +and wounded, and as soon as the war has commenced we have +resolved to take possession of that island." +</p> + +<p> +Mr — communicated this to me as a great secret, and +I now give you this information in a strictly private manner. +</p> + +<p> +You will perceive that this is a question of the utmost +importance, and you must take it into serious consideration +without delay, and with the utmost attention. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_109' name='Page_109'>[109]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Four years ago the English, who had for a long time coveted +an excellent little island called Perim, took possession of it, +informing the Turkish Government that they only wished +to place their invalids on that island, and this false pretext +was matter for serious discussion. The Turks were perfectly +aware of the deceitful conduct of the English. They did not +ignore that fourteen or fifteen years before, while fighting with +the Chinese, the English had stolen Hongkong under the +same pretences.... But while they were deliberating the +English sent their invalids to Perim, and immediately built +forts and stole this island in the most disgraceful manner. +</p> + +<p> +As the English are wonderful impostors, it is your duty +not only to take care of Tsushima, but also of the smallest +island in your empire: this must be done with the utmost +watchfulness. +</p> + +<p> +I inform you of this danger in the most private and secret +manner. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And a year or two later, when the intercourse between +the British Minister and the Tycoon was charged +with contentious, almost with explosive, matter, missives +were passed in from philanthropic onlookers of +a tenor which excited no surprise, but a good deal of +genuine exultation, in the minds of the Japanese Ministers. +It was well known some time before that it +had been sought to prevent a settlement of outstanding +difficulties between the two countries by the assurance +volunteered to the Tycoon's Government that +Great Britain was quite unable to make war on Japan, +and the following letter is only one of a series of +such international amenities which shunned the light +of day:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Japan was opened by us, ... and after we had settled +down here the other Powers made their appearance. The intentions +of ... in opening this country to foreign intercourse +was to increase the welfare and prosperity of its +inhabitants. While we were doing our utmost for this nation +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_110' name='Page_110'>[110]</a></span> +some English men-of-war suddenly appeared here to demand +indemnities for a murder which, although unjustifiable, was not +a <i>casus belli</i>. As long as the ambitious, warlike, and quarrelsome +Englishmen are here, the object we have in view cannot +be obtained. They must, therefore, be driven out of this +country. You cannot consent to their demands. Do not fear +the English; there are other nations in Japan, and if you require +assistance you may rest assured we shall give you moral +and material support. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But in vain was the snare set by these fowlers in the +sight of the bird. The notion of setting a thief to +catch a thief was not uncongenial to Japanese habits +of thought, but a generous offer of armed assistance +against a foreign Power savoured too much of the +wooden horse even for such inexperienced internationalists +as the New Japan. Having expressed their appreciation—had +it been the Chinese Government it +would have taken the form of praise for their loyal +obedience—the Government intimated that they would +exhaust their own resources before putting these +friendly foreign Powers to the trouble of intervening +on their behalf. The Japanese have always been wary +about accepting help unasked for. The United States +frigate Niagara, which brought back the envoys in +1860, brought also a staff of artillery officers whose +services were tendered to the Tycoon, but declined. +And it was said the American officers were rather +astonished by the proofs afforded them in Yedo of the +efficiency of armament and proficiency of the gunners +which Japan was already able to show. +</p> + +<p> +One of the vigilant observers of political portents +about that time became convinced that the French had +designs upon Tsushima, a belief which was no doubt in +some way also communicated to the Japanese Government; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_111' name='Page_111'>[111]</a></span> +but by that time—1863—it was too late for +any Power to flirt with that "excellent little island," +for since the first warning given the Japanese in 1860, +above cited, the island had been made the subject of +definitive arrangements. The incident itself, though +of brief duration and leaving no visible trail behind it, +nevertheless deserves to be remembered as a landmark +of history. +</p> + +<p> +When Count Mouravieff was in Yedo in 1859, he +took the trouble to warn the Tycoon's Government +that the English harboured aggressive designs against +the island of Tsushima, which is a long double or "twin" +island, possessing wonderful harbours, and situated +midway between the main island of Japan and the +southern coast of Korea. On March 13, 1861, the +Russians landed from the corvette Possadnik in +Tsushima, and saying their ship wanted repairs, began +to build houses on shore. Captain Birileff had forced +the Prince of Tsushima to receive him at his capital, +which created an intense feeling of indignation, especially +in the ranks of the nobles, who each saw +himself exposed to similar intrusions. The Daimio +repeatedly requested the Russians to leave, but was +always told the ship required further repairs. In consequence +of reports from his own officers and the +Japanese Government, Vice-Admiral Sir James Hope +looked in at Tsushima himself in the month of August, +and observing what was going on there, he addressed +a letter to Captain Birileff, of which the substance was +as follows: The prolonged stay of his Imperial Majesty's +corvette Possadnik, the erection of buildings, &c., having +created alarm in Yedo, the admiral had the intention +to communicate on the subject as early as possible +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_112' name='Page_112'>[112]</a></span> +with Commodore Likatchoff. Would Captain Birileff +meantime facilitate this correspondence by replying to +the questions—(1) Should the Japanese Government +appeal to the treaty, which conveys no right either to +create establishments ashore, to survey the Japanese +coast without Government sanction, or even to enter +a non-treaty port except in case of necessity, would +Captain Birileff's orders admit of his leaving Tsushima +immediately on the request of the Japanese authorities? +(2) Was it Captain Birileff's intention to leave +Tsushima in October as previously stated to Commander +Ward, leaving the buildings to whomsoever wanted +them?... (3) Had the captain orders to create a +permanent establishment there? +</p> + +<p> +The reply of Captain Birileff was to the effect that +the officers of his Imperial Majesty were accountable +only to their own chiefs; ... that he was quite +astonished to hear of the alarms in Yedo, seeing that +only two months before the Prince of Bungo had been +sent to Tsushima expressly from Yedo to grant permission +to the corvette to remain there; that the same +prince gave him the opportunity of visiting the Prince +of Tsushima, who was instructed to supply workmen and +all that might be necessary for the construction of the +buildings in question; that if the Japanese Government +were annoyed by the surveying operations, they +should address their complaint to the Russian diplomatic +agent; that he had no orders for the occupation +of the island, and the nature of the buildings which the +admiral had done him the honour to visit would not +show any such intention; and finally, that when he +spoke of leaving in October it had referred only to +himself personally. So far Captain Birileff. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_113' name='Page_113'>[113]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +It was no "Prince of Bungo," but a Governor of +Foreign Affairs named Bungo, who had been despatched +in haste from the capital to endeavour by any means to +induce the Russians to leave Tsushima, and was, for his +want of success, disgraced. +</p> + +<p> +Sir James Hope forthwith proceeded in search of +Commodore Likatchoff to Olga Bay, whence he addressed +to him a letter dated September 5, pointing out +the irregularity of the proceedings at Tsushima, the bad +effect they were having on the relations of foreigners +generally in Yedo, and that he could not recognise any +establishment on Japanese territory not sanctioned by +treaty—which resolutions he would make known to +the authorities concerned. +</p> + +<p> +To this the Russian commodore courteously replied +from Hakodate, September 23, excusing himself from +entering on any international questions, and pointing +out that in their hydrographical labours the Russians +were only following the excellent example set them by +the British surveying officers whom they met on their +respective missions, and that no complaint had ever +been made by the Japanese Government. As for the +"absurd rumours" alluded to, the Possadnik had +already received orders for another destination, before +receipt of the admiral's letters, and nothing consequently +need be said to calm the doubts and +alarms, <span lang='fr_FR'>"si même elles auraient véritablement raison +d'exister."</span> +</p> + +<p> +Admiral Hope acknowledged this letter, "with much +satisfaction," from Chefoo, October 22, and remarked +that, so far as the surveying operations of the ships in +his squadron were concerned, they were carried out +with the full consent of the Japanese Government, at +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_114' name='Page_114'>[114]</a></span> +whose special request Japanese officers and interpreters +were accommodated on board during the whole of the +cruise. He added that it was not so much the surveying +operations of the Possadnik as the preparation for +a permanent settlement on shore that disquieted the +Japanese Government; and, moreover, that the Japanese +Ministers had distinctly stated that the matter had +been the subject of remonstrance to the commodore, +through M. Goskavitch, the consul at Hakodate, and to +Captain Birileff by an officer specially deputed for the +purpose (Bungo). +</p> + +<p> +The question extended itself to St Petersburg, where +Prince Gortchakoff had remarked to Lord Napier, then +British ambassador, on the tone of Admiral Hope's +letter to Commodore Likatchoff, which, he said, but for +the conciliatory disposition of the latter, might have +led to serious misunderstanding. Lord Napier, in +reply, observed that "Admiral Hope was a man of a +frank, downright, energetic character, who used the +language natural to him without any intention of +giving offence." +</p> + +<p> +As the Russians had abandoned the island, Prince +Gortchakoff called on Lord Napier to declare that the +English would never take possession of Tsushima, whereupon +the ambassador reminded his Excellency that the +English had "offered to sign a treaty binding ourselves +and the other Powers having engagements with +Japan to make no acquisitions in those seas." "I +think," concludes the ambassador in his letter to the +Foreign Office, "that Admiral Hope will do well to +assure himself that the buildings have really been +evacuated." This precaution had already been taken, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_115' name='Page_115'>[115]</a></span> +and the admiral reported on November 10 that the +Russians had evacuated on September 29. +</p> + +<p> +There the incident ended, but not its historical +significance. +</p> + +<h3> +IX. TRADE AND TRADERS. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Commerce increases in spite of adverse political situations—And of efforts +of Japanese government to repress it—The <i>personnel</i> of the mercantile +community—British predominance—Relations of merchants to Ministers—Interests +and duties not always identical—Sumptuary laws—Discharges +of firearms forbidden—Seizure of Mr Moss—Wounding +of a Japanese policeman—Trial and sentence of Mr Moss—His liberation +in Hongkong—Sues the Minister and obtains damages—Legal +supremacy at Hongkong—Defects of the consular jurisdiction—The +recreation of shooting. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These fierce struggles, the sudden arousing to intensity +of dormant passions, the dislocation of the whole +structure of Japanese polity, represented to the +foreign nations merely the risks and sacrifices incidental +to the expansion of their commerce. In order +to compel the Government to permit the people to +exchange the products of their soil for the merchandise +of the strangers within their gates, the labour, +anxiety, and expense which we have only faintly indicated +were voluntarily incurred by the Western treaty +Powers, and by them in turn forced on the reluctant +rulers of Japan. An <i>a priori</i> judgment of the probable +effect of the sanguinary conditions into which official +intercourse had been thrown would probably have concluded +that peaceful commerce could not under such +circumstances exist. The restrictions resulting from +an ill-regulated currency, and from the direct interference +of the Government, might have been deemed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_116' name='Page_116'>[116]</a></span> +sufficient of themselves to check the development +of trade. When to these inimical influences were +superadded the further facts that the foreign traders +went in peril of their lives, that the communities of +Nagasaki and Yokohama were at different times in +such danger that provisional arrangements were made +for conveying them, bag and baggage, on board ship, a +condition of things less favourable to international +traffic could scarcely be conceived. Yet these difficulties, +and a score of others which could be enumerated, +served only to bring into clear recognition the +inherent vitality of commerce, which, like running water, +finds its way through or round almost any obstacle. +There were, on the other hand, circumstances favourable +to trade. In Japan, as has been already hinted, the +traders of the country had neither part nor lot in the +strife that raged above and around them, and for the +most part they could pursue their peaceful avocations +without fear or hindrance. So the quality of commerce +was not strained; but, shedding its benefits on buyer +and seller alike, it grew from small beginnings till it +attained to a volume of world-wide importance, accumulating +momentum as it progressed. +</p> + +<p> +The total amount of foreign trade was a little over +one million sterling per annum for the first three years +of the open ports. In the fourth year, 1863, the development +of Japanese produce, especially the more +precious commodities, silk and the eggs of the silkworm, +began to tell on the gross values, and the +exports for that year amounted to two and a half +millions sterling, the imports of foreign goods being +£811,000. The year 1864, notwithstanding its crowded +events of anti-commercial character, witnessed a notable +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_117' name='Page_117'>[117]</a></span> +advance in the value of foreign trade, which in that +year doubled itself. The same thing occurred again in +1865, when the figures reached a total of eight millions +sterling, being double the returns for 1864. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the foreign trade of Japan had fairly established +itself as "a going concern," advancing in war +and peace, but with great fluctuations and many vicissitudes +to those engaged in it. From the purely commercial +standpoint the result justified the anticipations +of the Powers who opened Japan to the world. The +event proved that when the materials of trade exist +there trade is sure to follow on the removal of obstructions. +And the materials of trade are not wanting +wherever there is a population that wears clothes and +builds houses.<a name='FA_11' id='FA_11' href='#FN_11' class='fnanchor'>[11]</a> +</p> + +<p> +It is obvious to remark that had it been in the power +of the Japanese Government to place an effective interdict +on foreign commerce at its sources within their +own jurisdiction, and beyond the reach of treaty obligations, +it would have been the surest means of causing +the withdrawal of foreigners from the country. That +the Government had the will to do so was shown by +their repeated partial attempts at preventing produce +from reaching the open ports, and even inducing a temporary +exodus therefrom of the native population. +Why their measures of repression were not more +thorough may be conjectured to have been connected +with the circumstance that the advantages of the +foreign trade soon began to be felt in quarters with +which it was not convenient for the Tycoon to inter-meddle. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_118' name='Page_118'>[118]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +As in China, so in Japan, the relations of the +merchants to their official representatives exercised a +certain influence on events. The trade was carried +on at first by a very small number of people. In +1861 there were not 200 foreign residents in all the +ports of Japan, the British nationality predominating +in Yokohama, the Dutch at Nagasaki. The +British residents in the former port seem to have +numbered about fifty. It was a small body to carry +the burden of inaugurating commercial intercourse +with an empire of thirty millions of people. Nor +was it individually a community of any particular +weight, being mostly composed of young men, not +themselves principals, but, in the beginning at least, +a considerable number of them occupying the position +of delegates of mercantile houses in China. It was +their representative character which lent importance +to the foreign merchants in Japan. They represented, +first of all, the establishments of which they were +subordinates or offshoots; they represented their respective +nations; and they, in a larger sense, represented +the commercial creed of Christendom. The +present sketch would be wanting in symmetry if no +account were taken of the relationship of these handfuls +of traders to their own national authorities, both being +engaged in the struggle for the development and security +of commerce under the trying conditions of the time +and country. But of course any such inquiry practically +limits itself to those of British nationality, for +two reasons: British trade and British diplomacy were +pre-eminently representative of all others by the preponderance +of the interests involved; in addition to +which, the strong individuality and matured experience +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_119' name='Page_119'>[119]</a></span> +of the first British envoy were such that his +colleagues tacitly assigned to him the leading <i>rôle</i>, +so that his was the personality which exerted the +dominant influence in shaping events from the opening +of the ports. +</p> + +<p> +The tendency to divergence of view between the +merchants and their official representatives has already +been remarked upon in connection with affairs in +China: it was most pronounced in times of difficulty +such as were chronic for more than twenty years in +Canton, where it was so acute at one time that English +Chambers of Commerce made formal complaint to the +Foreign Office that its representative in China—Sir +John Davis—refused to see the merchants in Canton, +who desired to present their views to him in time of +danger. The antagonism was natural: it is generically +the same that one hears constantly in this country in +the form of complaints and criticisms of Government, +Government servants, and generally of all in authority—with, +however, this difference, that in the many-sided +life of a large society there are buffers between the +critics and the criticised. They do not meet face to +face unless it be in such circumstances as on the floor +of "the House" with "a substantial piece of furniture" +between; whereas in nascent communities composed of +a few scores of individuals, where there is no tempering +medium, where the parties are never out of each other's +sight, differences are apt to become accentuated like +village scandals. Nothing escapes censure; the smallest +indiscretions have a magnifying lens constantly applied +to them, and a sinister colour is given to innocent +trifles. Interests are not diversified, shaded off, or +balanced as in adult nations, but are narrow, concentrated, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_120' name='Page_120'>[120]</a></span> +and highly sensitive. Between Minister and +merchants there was of course a general identity of +interest. They had a common test to apply to all +their proceedings and aspirations, the furtherance of +commerce. The official would, perhaps, add the +qualifying adjective "legitimate," in the interpretation +of which differences of opinion might arise; and he +would naturally give a wider scope to the commercial +idea than those actually engaged in trade could or +ought to do. +</p> + +<p> +The Minister represents the interests of Great Britain +as a whole; the merchants represent trade generally, +but each of them his own interests particularly, and +these various interests cannot always coincide. An +Englishman would naturally give a preference to the +manufactures of his own country, but as a merchant he +has to study the requirements of the country in which +he trades, and if he cannot supply them at all, or so +well, by articles manufactured in his own country, he +is obliged to seek them elsewhere. Officials are apt to +look askance on this as not fostering the trade of Great +Britain; and while recognising the necessity, the fact +does not warm their sympathy for the merchants of +their own country. There are times also when, from +the international point of view, the general interests of +the country may override the special interests of the +small British community in Japan. If policy requires +intimate relations between the Governments, the tendency +must inevitably be for the British Minister to +minimise the just causes of complaint of his countrymen +in order to avoid irritation. But the sufferers +can hardly be expected to appreciate sacrifices so +forced on them; and so from one cause and another +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_121' name='Page_121'>[121]</a></span> +there will never be wanting grounds of dissatisfaction, +and possibly estrangement. +</p> + +<p> +But the ultimate object being definitely agreed upon +between the two parties, there would still remain room +for variance in the means, questions of tactics, of the +nearer or the further view, of the present generation +and the next, and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. Where there +was a third party influencing and opposing legitimate +commerce by direct or indirect means, as the Government +of China or Japan, whose machinations called +for strong measures of resistance, the occasions of +impatience and dissatisfaction would be frequent, +and friction between the representative and his constituents +would naturally result. But perhaps the +most antagonistic of all to harmony was the fact +already pointed out, that in extra-territorialised countries +like China and Japan the representatives of the +treaty Powers were necessarily intrusted with exceptional +authority over the persons of their nationals—for +they had to assume the functions denied to the +native Governments, of giving the law to the settlers +and punishing evil-doers. What an invidious and +onerous position this entailed on British officials will +presently be shown. Yet it was a temporary necessity, +for which nobody was blamable. +</p> + +<p> +In treating of the period of the consulship in Shanghai, +a certain distance or aloofness between Consul +Alcock and the community of his nationals was remarked +upon, due to difference of age, taste, culture, +or temperament. This characteristic was rather accentuated +than otherwise by the local circumstances +of Japan. The Minister was ten years older, while +the community was about as much younger than in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_122' name='Page_122'>[122]</a></span> +Shanghai, so that the disparity of age was increased. +The mere conditions of life also placed a material gulf +between the diplomatic representatives in Yedo and +the lay residents of Yokohama. The capital city being +closed to all but the diplomatic body, visitors not +only required a pass from one of the Ministers, but, +in the absence of available accommodation, strangers +had to rely on the hospitality of the foreign Legations. +The curiosity to see Yedo, which in the early days +so attracted tourists and travellers, threw a heavy +and most unfair burden of entertainment on the Ministers, +the principal victim of these birds of passage +being of course the representative of Great Britain. +So long, therefore, as the Legations remained in Yedo +the barrier was effectual against personal intercourse +between the Ministers and the permanent residents +in Yokohama, even had mutual affinity been stronger +than it was. Like most things, this local separation +between the communities and their representative had +its advantages and disadvantages. While on the one +hand it was not conducive to intimacy, on the other +the risk of personal friction was eliminated by it. +Nor was direct intercourse at all necessary in the +conduct of business, seeing the regular official medium +of communication was the local consuls, who had +nothing of the Olympian about them, and were felt +by the residents to be men of like passions with themselves, +with easy manners, the spirit of good fellowship, +and imbued with the characteristic sporting +proclivities of Englishmen at home and abroad, always +an effective bond of sympathy. +</p> + +<p> +The relations of Sir Rutherford Alcock with the +mercantile community had not been very happily inaugurated, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_123' name='Page_123'>[123]</a></span> +for he clearly felt officially aggrieved by +their settling in Yokohama, instead of waiting till +accommodation could be found for them in Kanagawa; +so much so, indeed, that he seemed almost +to deplore the absence of means of coercing them +into obedience to his will. +</p> + +<p> +While the sore as to the location of the settlement +was still somewhat raw, the Minister found yet +another grievance against the merchants in the fabulous +demands for Japanese coins which a few of them +had put forward, by way of burlesquing the system +of distribution by the native authorities. The severity +with which this schoolboyish escapade was pilloried, +and the community of Yokohama held up to the +opprobrium of the world, was felt by them as going +beyond what the merits of the case warranted, and +the incident did not tend to mollify acerbities on +either side. +</p> + +<p> +A year later evidence of a certain widening of +the breach became more conspicuous in the course +of a rather exceptional lawsuit, in which a merchant +was heavily mulcted for an offence of which the general +opinion was that he was not guilty. A certain +Mr Moss was arrested, cruelly maltreated, and hidden +from his official protector, the consul, by a posse of +Japanese police, for having shot game in the vicinity +of Kanagawa. When faced by these armed men, Mr +Moss cocked his gun and threatened any one who +should approach to lay hands on him. The party +was numerous enough to surround and wrest the +gun from him, which somehow went off, wounding +one of the men badly in the arm. The Minister +ordered the consul to prosecute Mr Moss for murder, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_124' name='Page_124'>[124]</a></span> +in the Queen's name, the consul himself being judge, +sitting with two assessors. The accused was sentenced +to pay a fine of 1000 dollars (£225) and to +be deported from Japan. The assessors dissented, on +the ground that the Japanese evidence was falsified +to order, and that the prisoner was in their opinion +innocent of the charge on which he was tried. In +consequence of this dissent the judgment had to be +referred to the Minister, who added to the consul's +sentence three months' imprisonment in Hongkong, +whither the culprit was conveyed in a British ship of +war. After a week's incarceration in the Hongkong +jail the warrant for imprisonment was found defective, +and Mr Moss was released. He was then advised +to bring an action against Sir Rutherford Alcock in +the Supreme Court at Hongkong, which occupied +twelve months, and ended in a jury awarding damages +against the Minister for false imprisonment, that being +the only part of the sentence which could be brought +within the jurisdiction of the Hongkong court. As +regards the original sentence of fine and deportation, +the Foreign Office, by advice of their law officers, +had long before quashed the conviction and ordered +the fine to be remitted. +</p> + +<p> +A parallel case had occurred in Canton in 1846. +Sir John Davis instructed the consul there to levy +a fine on a British subject for an alleged offence. +Whether just or not, it was illegal, and on appeal +to the Supreme Court in Hongkong, of which colony +Sir John Davis himself was governor, the judgment of +the consul was reversed, and the fine of 200 dollars refunded. +Even Sir Frederick Bruce, with all his circumspection, +did not escape falling into the same error +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_125' name='Page_125'>[125]</a></span> +with regard to the division of legal authority between +himself and the Supreme Court. "From a careful +perusal of ... her Majesty's Order in Council," he +writes, "the chief superintendent of trade [himself] in +cases arising under this section is the Supreme Court +in China: it is for him to prescribe to the consul the +course he is to pursue, and the Supreme Court at +Hongkong cannot interfere in such matters." Her +Majesty's Government, however, replied: "You fall +into an error by confounding two distinct questions.... +You are mistaken in treating the question which +you have referred to them for decision as depending +upon the 4th and following articles of the Order in +Council," and so on. So that had it fallen to his +lot to give a decision involving a penalty, he would +have been sued not before himself, but before the +Supreme Court at Hongkong, and would have sustained +the same reverse as Sir Rutherford Alcock +had done. +</p> + +<p> +These bald facts of the case supplied a striking +illustration of the vices of the consular court system, +which was in vogue in China for twenty years until +the establishment of the Supreme Court for China and +Japan in 1865. Consuls were called upon to exercise +judicial functions, and Ministers those of Courts of +Appeal, without the slightest preparatory training, and +as often as not without natural aptitude. In criminal +cases they were at once prosecutors and judges, it +might even be executioners as well. The state of +conflict in which they lived with the native authorities, +of whom they were accustomed to demand in vain +the punishment of malefactors, placed British officers +under continual temptation to prove how promptly +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_126' name='Page_126'>[126]</a></span> +they could bring to justice their own nationals accused +of offences against the natives. This idea of giving +object-lessons to Chinese and Japanese pervades the +consular and diplomatic records. English officials seem +to have been oppressed with the reflection of what the +natives would think of the failure of justice in any +particular case, and they were ever apprehensive of +political dangers or embarrassments as contingent on +misunderstood lenity to "white men"—natural and +proper feelings on the part of mere political agents, +but quite foreign to the administration of justice +according to the rules and maxims of civilised nations. +It seems not unlikely that the obvious lessons of the +Moss case itself as to the incompatibility of judicial +and administrative functions, and the unfair responsibility +which their combination threw upon the consular +and diplomatic officers, hastened the realisation +of the scheme of an independent judiciary which was +so strongly advocated by Sir Rutherford Alcock in +'The Capital of the Tycoon.' +</p> + +<p> +These various incidents, and sundry vexatious restrictions +imposed on them from time to time for their own +security, no doubt disposed the residents to look askance +at many acts of the Minister, the reasons for +which failed to impress them. But though the surface +of the relations between the Minister and the merchants +was thus perturbed, and regrettable, in the common +interest, as the lukewarmness of personal sympathy +may have been, the residents never failed in their +respect for the high and sterling qualities of the +Minister, and the courageous manner in which he +fought for his country's interests. It only needed an +emergency to give definite expression to this feeling, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_127' name='Page_127'>[127]</a></span> +and no testimony could be stronger, more genuine, or +less conventional than the farewell addresses in which +the merchants of Yokohama and Nagasaki summed up +the brilliant record of a man of whom they never +ceased to feel proud. Instead of detracting from the +value of such spontaneous testimony, the minor differences +only lent emphasis to it, and set the seal of deep +conviction on what in an ordinary case might have +passed as the language of mere compliment. +</p> + +<p> +As shooting has been alluded to as an occasion of +trouble, a word or two on the subject of this amusement +may have an interest for certain readers. To +the Japanese the pursuit of game seemed to be as +strange a form of sport as the other vagaries of the +foreigner. Firearms were not in use with them, cold +steel being the regulation weapon of offence. There +was a tradition that the discharge of firearms within +twenty-five miles of the Tycoon's palace was prohibited +by law,—what law or how promulgated was never +clearly made out, though the motive was intelligible +enough. For whatever reason, such game as there +was in the country had evidently not been disturbed; +the pheasants were not wilder than the English stall-fed +variety. Small shooting-parties were in the habit +of going out for a day, or half a day, from Yokohama +and Kanagawa with dogs and native beaters among +the coppices where the birds lay. The country itself +was so charming to walk or ride over, the peasant-folk +were so polite and merry, that heavy bags were not +needed to attract sportsmen. Still, a good shot with +industry and a shrewd acquaintance with the habits +of the game could often get several brace of the +splendid green pheasant of the country (<i>Phasianus versicolor</i>) +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_128' name='Page_128'>[128]</a></span> +in an afternoon; while at rarer intervals the +finger would tremble on the trigger as one of those +magnificent birds called locally the "copper" pheasant +(Soemerring's), with tail feathers as long as a peacock's, +would rise from the furrows and sail grandly +into the impenetrable thicket. Objections had been +taken by the Japanese officials to this form of amusement, +because it was not the policy of the rulers to +familiarise the people with the sight of firearms, still +less to facilitate their acquiring them. In accordance +with representations from the authorities, the British +consul had requested his nationals in 1859 to desist +for a time until some arrangement was come to. This +they did, but in the following season resumed the +sport, in which there were no keener participants than +the British consular officers. A contemporary writer +in September 1860 thus refers to the return of the +shooting season: "There being nothing to do, we are +all looking forward anxiously to the 1st October, on +which day the first onslaught on the feathered race +takes place. The weather is now hot, but we are all +in very good health.... We live in a beautiful +country, among a civil, amicable, kind-hearted, and +intelligent people. We can roam over the country +without let or hindrance." It is curious to note by +the way how tenacious the Englishman is of the +punctilio of his game laws, carrying his observance +of them into countries where he and his laws are +alike strangers, and where in many cases the principles +are not applicable to the local conditions. +</p> + +<p> +A new element in the sport appeared with the +advent of cold weather, in the form of flocks of wildfowl, +chiefly geese, which spread themselves over the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_129' name='Page_129'>[129]</a></span> +low-lying grounds, mostly at some miles distant from +the settlements. They were "geese," indeed, quite +unsophisticated, having no fear of man before their +eyes—inherited instinct apparently at fault. "Their +tameness was shocking" at first, but they wonderfully +soon learned to be wary with a foreigner and a gun. +The morning's bag of one early riser, riding six miles +and back to a nine o'clock breakfast, late in November, +dwindled rapidly from 12 to 6, 4, 2. The birds were +shot within 200 yards of the <i>tokaido</i>, and in full view +of many curious spectators, armed and unarmed. Men +were hired on the spot to carry the game along the +six miles of highroad and through the long street of +Kanagawa, the whole proceeding, in short, enjoying +the utmost possible publicity. +</p> + +<p> +The unfortunate Mr Moss, however, a few days later, +toiled a whole day and bagged one, with the consequences +we have seen. Whether it was law or +not, the evidence supplied by the birds themselves +of prescriptive immunity from gunpowder attack was +overwhelming. Hitherto the heavy winged wildfowl +had felt safe so long as they kept out of sword-range +of the human biped, but the new experience of a +detonating missile fatal at fifty yards broke up in a +week the habits of generations, and forced them to +promptly readjust themselves to their environment. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_130' name='Page_130'>[130]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XX. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK IN PEKING, 1865-1869.</span> +</h2> + +<h3> +I. THE BRITISH LEGATION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Contrast between Peking and Yedo—Finds old comrade Wade—The +Manchu statesmen, Kung and Wênsiang—Material progress pressed +upon them—Their failure to appreciate foreign advice. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Sir Rutherford Alcock had spent only a few +months in England when he was appointed to succeed +Sir Frederick Bruce as Minister to China, he +himself being succeeded in Japan by Sir Harry +Parkes. Sir Rutherford reached his post in Peking +at the close of 1865. The change of scene from +Japan back to China was even more striking than +that from China to Japan had been in 1859. The excitement +of shooting the rapids was succeeded by the +weariness of meandering among mud-shoals—the same +medium to work in, only under different conditions. +Fundamentally the international problem was identical +in Japan and China—the conflict between aggression +and resistance. Rational dread of, and natural repulsion +to, foreigners, inspired alike the policies of both +countries. Where they differed was in the manner +of meeting the invasion. Japan braced herself nervously +to the effort, and, distinguishing between what +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_131' name='Page_131'>[131]</a></span> +was feasible and what was not, organised a counter-invasion +unsuspected by foreign nations, whom she +subdued by their own strength. China, on the other +hand, opposed a fatalistic and unreasoning resistance, +making no intelligent counter-stroke and showing no +true anticipation of the issues of the struggle. The +energy of ambitious youth on the one side; on the +other mere inertia, irresponsive to the stimulus of +pride, shame, patriotism, or even material interest. +Bearing this contrast in mind, we may partly understand +the prosaic <i>rôle</i> which foreign representatives +were doomed in China to play from the time the +capital was forced open by Anglo-French arms in +1860. +</p> + +<p> +The position of the new British Minister was different +from that which he had occupied in Japan, where, being +first in the field, he had to make precedents, whereas +in China he had to follow the course which had been +marked out during the previous four years. In judging +of the wisdom of that course, it is fair to apply the same +retrospective criterion that we proposed in the case of +Japan—namely, to consider the situation so far as it +was known and could be realised at the time. Notwithstanding +all that had gone before, China in +general, and Peking in particular, remained as great +mysteries to foreigners as Japan itself. The pioneer +diplomatists had to create their diplomacy out of +their own consciousness, working upon an idea which +they imported, and not on the objective facts, which +were mere chaos to them. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Rutherford Alcock had the happiness to find the +Peking Legation in charge of his old vice-consul, Thomas +Wade, from whom he had been officially separated for +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_132' name='Page_132'>[132]</a></span> +ten years. Mr Wade was Chinese secretary and secretary +of Legation, offices which were some years later +separated, to the infinite detriment of both. For the +secretary of Legation, drawn from the ranks of the +diplomatic service, had neither knowledge of nor interest +in Chinese affairs, nor aught to do but wait idly +for the contingency which might make him <i>chargé +d'affaires</i>, reckoning every month spent in the country +as a penance entitling him to swift promotion to a more +congenial sphere. And the Chinese secretaryship, by +itself, offered no attraction to an ambitious man. But +in 1865 the combination of offices was most important, +especially in the hands of a man of so much distinction +as Mr Wade. As the custodian of the Bruce tradition, +if indeed he had not a large share in its evolution, he +bridged the gulf between the outgoing and the incoming +Minister, much as the Permanent Under-Secretary +does at the Foreign Office. +</p> + +<p> +As Mr (afterwards Sir Thomas) Wade, in the capacity +of secretary, <i>chargé d'affaires</i>, and Minister Plenipotentiary, +represented Great Britain at the Chinese +Court for the best part of a quarter of a century, a +term equal to that of the other six Ministers put together, +a brief reference to his personality seems necessary +to a just comprehension of the course of affairs +during his long residence in Peking. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Wade began life as a soldier. He had been in the +"Black Watch," but, being the only officer who could +not speak Gaelic, found it congenial to exchange into the +98th Regiment, with which he served in China during +the first war. He was adjutant of the regiment, which +was commanded by Colonel Campbell, afterwards Lord +Clyde. When peace was made in 1842, he resigned +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_133' name='Page_133'>[133]</a></span> +his commission and betook himself to the study of +Chinese and of Chinese subjects. After qualifying as +interpreter he became Chinese secretary to the Superintendency +of Trade, which until 1858 was domiciled in +Hongkong. Transferred to the consular service, he +was for some years interpreter and vice-consul at +Shanghai, where it fell to his lot to command the local +volunteers in the attack on the Chinese Imperial camps +in 1854. He was the first executive head of the Maritime +Customs, established in the same year, his services +being lent by his chief to start the new institution. +Attached to Lord Elgin in his two missions to China, +he was appointed secretary of Legation and Chinese +secretary under Sir Frederick Bruce when the Legation +was installed in Peking. +</p> + +<p> +Wheresoever Mr Wade's lot was cast he was beloved +for his Irish geniality, open-mindedness, and sincerity. +He was the soul of honour, and was possessed by the +spirit of chivalry much beyond the common measure. +His best friends would never wish to forget his endearing +infirmities of temper, associated as they were with +the generous <i>amende</i> which never failed to follow an +over-hasty word. A well-read man, with a memory +like Macaulay's, a brilliant <i>raconteur</i> and inimitable +mimic, he was the delight of every society. The services +which he was enabled, by many years of arduous +labour, to render to succeeding generations of students +of Chinese are incalculable, and if his work begins +now to be superseded by that of others, this is but +the common fate of pioneers in every department of +research. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Thomas Wade's character may thus be fitly and +fairly summed up in the hackneyed epithet, "a scholar +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_134' name='Page_134'>[134]</a></span> +and a gentleman,"—but not therefore a statesman. +His mind was cast in another and a finer mould than +befits the political arena; and, unnatural as the inference +may seem, it is open to question whether his extensive +knowledge of China was the best qualification +for dealing at first hand with current affairs, even in +that country. Profound researches into Chinese literature +and philosophy tend to overshadow and induce a +distaste for the jarring questions of the day. Seen +through the luminous haze of its classic history, China +presents to the contemplative mind an object of reverence +unlike any other existing State, for the thread of +its continuity since the time before Abraham is unbroken. +Grander than hewn stone or graven bronze, +the monuments of China are written books, and a +living race, the heirs of all her ages, to be conversed +with and interrogated. The burden of such vast +homogeneous antiquity may well oppress the mere +man of politics: he needs a certain alloy of Philistinism +and a limitation of view to enable him to +concentrate his attention on the exigencies of the +passing hour. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i134" id="i134"></a> +<img src="images/i-p134.jpg" width="406" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">PRINCE KUNG. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Relations which might be called intimate had been +established between the two Manchu statesmen, Prince +Kung and Wênsiang, and the foreign representatives. +When these high personages were forced to assume +responsibility for international relations, they were not +only unversed in foreign affairs but untrained to any +kind of business. The work of the six Boards was +carried on by expert secretaries, and the presidency of +one of them would have been no qualification for the +new duty thrust upon the emperor's Ministers of transacting +business with foreign officials standing on an +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_135' name='Page_135'>[135]</a></span> +equality with themselves. Their older colleague, Hangki, +had gained a little foreign knowledge by observation +and hearsay while filling the lucrative office of +<i>hoppo</i> at Canton; but the two younger men mistrusted +him, perhaps with reason, possibly from the suspicion +naturally aroused by his possession of superior knowledge. +Prince Kung and Wênsiang recognised that they +had everything to learn, and they were apt and eager +scholars. Considering all the circumstances, it is indeed +marvellous how they adjusted themselves by innate +tact to the novel position, and how quickly they assimilated +new knowledge. Many illuminating discussions +were carried on between them and the foreign representatives, +who on their part were no less desirous of +imparting than the Chinese were of acquiring information +respecting the outer world. In these interesting +symposia Mr Wade naturally played the prominent +part. On the enchanted ground of Chinese history and +literature, also, the interlocutors made endless excursions +together; and Chinese philosophy being directed +to conduct rather than speculation, it was possible to +deduce from the teaching of the sages authority for the +adoption of almost any useful measure. Between the +modern innovator, therefore, though in foreign garb, +and the ancient moralists there was no such intellectual +disagreement as sympathetic explanations could +not resolve. +</p> + +<p> +It might have been justifiable to conclude that the +Chinese were being influenced for good by the well-meant +counsels so copiously addressed to them, were it +not that the tutorial being so entirely incompatible +with the diplomatic function, no useful result could be +expected from their strained combination. It was as if +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_136' name='Page_136'>[136]</a></span> +one were to teach a novice the moves in a game which +the two were at the same time playing for serious +stakes. +</p> + +<p> +These interminable interviews and voluminous memoranda +were wholly unproductive, owing, no doubt, to +the fact that the ideas of the parties ran on parallel +lines destined never to come to any point of fertile +contact. The burden of the cry of the Western people +was "progress," a word without equivalent in the +language, and expressing an idea which had no place +in the conception of the Chinese. Incessant repetition +with varying illustrations were to the Chinese +as flowers of rhetoric wasted on a deaf man, and that +simply because the basis of the Chinese political +thought lay at the opposite pole from that of the +European. On one occasion a distinguished American +promoter was expatiating to the governor of +Formosa on the advantages of railway communication, +his most telling example being his own experience +in being rushed along after an early breakfast from +his house in Albany to New York, where he spent +the day transacting important business and got +wheeled back again to Albany for dinner. The +governor stopped him, and asked what in the name +of sanity possessed him to lead such a wearing life, +as the last thing he (the governor) would dream of +doing would be to live a hundred miles from his +work. Though the earliest public advocate of railroads +in China, the governor regarded their utility +from a far different point of view. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i136" id="i136"></a> +<img src="images/i-p136.jpg" width="386" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">WÊNSIANG.<br /> +<span class="s08"><i>From a photo by J. Thomson, Grosvenor Street, W.</i></span></p> +</div> + +<p> +So eager were the foreigners for progress, which in +their mind included the regeneration of the Chinese +empire and the development of its full capacity +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_137' name='Page_137'>[137]</a></span> +for self-defence, that they were wont to rejoice +over the slightest indications of a beginning being +made. Thus the mission of a man of no standing as +a secretary of the Tsungli-Yamên, who was sent to +Europe in 1866 to take observations, was hailed as +the beginning of the new era, and commended so +warmly by the foreign Ministers to their Governments +that the emissary was received like the Queen +of Sheba by King Solomon, and shown—at least +in Great Britain—everything that was admirable +from the Western point of view. He was as far, +however, from appreciating the triumph of science as +was Cetewayo, the Zulu, whose admiration of England +focussed itself on the elephant "Jumbo" at the +Zoological Gardens, or the Scotswoman who, after +being shown over the British Museum, had carried +away from it one impression, and that of the "graund +mat" at the door. The Chinese Government's appreciation +of Western progress was by no means increased +by the mission of Pin, which rather indeed +produced a contrary effect. China soon began to +put forth fresh claims to go her own way, her own +way being directly opposed to the kind of progress +which was being pressed upon her. +</p> + +<p> +The Chinese in following the doctrines of the sages +felt they were under the guidance of Heaven, so +that innovations appeared to them tainted with +impiety. So deeply did the worship of the past +pervade their field of thought, that when high +officials ventured to introduce something new, they +usually endeavoured to disarm opposition by gilding +their proposals with well-selected texts from the +classics. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_138' name='Page_138'>[138]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +II. FOREIGN LIFE IN PEKING. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Social influence of the Alcock family—Sir Rutherford's relations with +his staff—No social relations with natives—Manchu courtesy to +English ladies—Community of foreigners sociable yet non-cohesive—Description +of city—Foreign residency—Objects of interest—The +streets—Mules—Camels—Mongol market—Fur sales—Absence of +regulations—Street anecdotes—Summer residences. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +By the end of 1865 the foreign life in Peking, +official, social, and private, had already settled into +the grooves prescribed by local conditions, within which +it has, more or less, run ever since. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i138" id="i138"></a> +<img src="images/i-p138.jpg" width="334" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">MANCHU (TARTAR) WOMEN. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Nevertheless, the advent of Sir Rutherford and +Lady Alcock, with their daughter, now Lady Pelly, +introduced an element into the social atmosphere of +Peking which has afforded the happiest reminiscences +to those who came under its influence. We have +seen that Sir Rutherford Alcock, by force of character, +conviction, and sense of duty, naturally assumed +the lead among his peers wherever he happened +to be placed. A German resident in Peking at the +time we are speaking of says, "I remember very well +that fine English gentleman, who was conscious of +representing the greatest country of the world, and +did it well." The official personality of the British +Minister could not be more truly depicted than in +these simple words; but this natural pre-eminence +extended far beyond the official sphere, and made +itself felt for the general good in the common relations +of life. His dealings with subordinates were +marked by thoroughgoing loyalty; his rule was to +give his confidence without reserve to those who +merited it, to support and defend them in the discharge +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_139' name='Page_139'>[139]</a></span> +of their duty. He was accessible, always +ready to listen to the opinions even of his juniors, +and though exacting as regards work, he never spared +himself, but set an example of industry to those who +served under him. He possessed that rare faculty of +appreciation which enables a man to command services +which no money could buy. The survivors of +his staff to this day speak of him in affectionate +terms as the best of chiefs. In business he was +strictly, perhaps even rigidly, formal, and his manner +was intolerant of laxity in others. When the official +crust was put off like a suit of armour, the genial +depths of his nature were reached, but the number +of those who enjoyed this experience seems never to +have been large. Select, but few, were the friends +of his bosom. +</p> + +<p> +The foreign residents in Peking did not number many, +and, with the exception of the Legations, were rather +widely scattered over a city of vast distances. The +original community consisted of about sixty persons, +distributed over the four Legations, the customs' staff, +and missionary establishments. It was a community +of young men "about twenty-four years of age," +eminently social, no member being a stranger to +the rest, and all living in friendly intercourse. The +Legations may almost be said to have sat with +open doors, so easy were their interchanges of informal +visits. During the time of Sir Rutherford +and Lady Alcock their hospitalities rendered the +British Legation the chief centre of social interest, +while the unaffected kindness which inspired these +courtesies endeared its inmates to all their fellow-residents. +That, indeed, was the golden age of the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_140' name='Page_140'>[140]</a></span> +British Legation, and, it may be added, of the general +social life of the Chinese capital, a period when life-long +friendships were formed. The time had not yet +come for international rivalries to mar the cordiality of +personal intercourse. Indeed in the convivialities of +Peking national distinctions were absolutely lost, and +so to a great extent were the distinctions of rank. +On the racecourse, which was early instituted, as in +the billiard-room, picnic excursions, and the like, all +were free and all were equal. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i140" id="i140"></a> +<img src="images/i-p140.jpg" width="334" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">MANCHU WOMEN. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +When we speak of the "social" life of Peking, it +must be understood as referring exclusively to that +of the foreign residents among themselves, for between +them and the natives there was no such intimacy. +But in those early days the high Chinese +officials seemed to have been more genial than those +of a later epoch. In the winter of 1860-61, for +example, Hangki, formerly <i>hoppo</i> of Canton, was in +the habit of receiving Mr Adkins familiarly at his +private residence,—a practice which was afterwards +gradually discontinued. The arrival of the two ladies +at the British Legation was the signal for a display +of courtesy by the Manchu Ministers, who from time +to time sent them seasonable presents of plants, +flowers, and other things, thus establishing agreeable +personal relations with the Minister. That the +advent of ladies to the Legations should have evoked +the natural politeness of the high officials need not +be a matter for wonder if it be remembered that +the Chinese contempt for women is not shared by +the Manchus. It is well known that their women +are free from most of the trammels which contract +the lives of their Chinese sisters. Their unbound +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_141' name='Page_141'>[141]</a></span> +feet symbolise liberty of locomotion generally, and +they show themselves unveiled and unabashed in +public thoroughfares. They have the coquetries common +to the sex, among which may be reckoned a +passion for floral decoration of the head, and the +universal practice of painting the face and lips. This +is done in a thoroughgoing manner, and as if the +paint were "laid on with a trowel," leaving a sharply +defined margin on cheek and neck between the pink +and white and the sallow ground on which the colour +is overlaid, giving it the appearance of a mask which +might be easily removed. Even young children are +subjected to the cosmetic treatment; and the very +aged do not discard the artificial flowers in the +remnant of their hair. As the fairest Chinese have +no such natural colour as is thus imitated, it is +rather difficult to divine whence they derived the +notion of an ideal human skin. +</p> + +<p> +It is not to be wondered at that the first European +girls who appeared in Peking should have excited +some curiosity. One young lady, probably the first +arrival, whose fresh and fair complexion suggested +the acme of the cosmetic art, excited intense interest +among the Mongol and Manchu ladies. On one occasion +she was met in the street by a great princess, +who was so struck by her appearance that she +stopped her <i>cortège</i>, alighted from her cart, and +stood before the English girl and gently rubbed her +cheeks to find out, as she naively said, how the colour +was put on! +</p> + +<p> +The foreign residents at Peking, happy as their +circumstances were, lacked some of the principal elements +of a community properly so called. They had, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_142' name='Page_142'>[142]</a></span> +in fact, little in common besides their æsthetic culture +and their Christian civilisation, the literature, +philosophy, and the social tenets of the West. They +had no head, no centre, no neutral meeting-ground +even except the racecourse and the open fields, and +were thus always either hosts or guests to each other. +The assumed identity of their high political interests +gave an appearance of solidarity to the diplomatic +section; but the fusion of the other elements in the +society was far from complete, and, in short, outside +of the region of recreation and conviviality the residents +could not be said to be animated by any unifying +purpose, nor to have any communal existence. Individual +isolation prevented the aggregate from attaining +collective force. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i142" id="i142"></a> +<img src="images/i-p142.jpg" width="550" height="444" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">CHINESE WOMEN. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These sterilising conditions were aggravated by +another feature of the situation which had an important +bearing on social life. Peking was one of the +most inaccessible capitals in the world. The great +tourist-stream passed it by. It stirred no human +emotion unless it were languid aversion or inarticulate +curiosity. The dilettante element which has ventilated +Japan so well and kept her in constant touch +with cosmopolitan life-currents has been absent in +Northern China. Peking with its particular concerns +has been thus permitted to lie secluded from the +world, neither generating fruitful ideas nor inviting +or profiting by their importation from without; nor, +in short, making itself intelligible or interesting to +mankind other than as an archaic curiosity. China, +with its immense wealth and resources, weighed less in +the consideration of the nations than the petty kingdom +of Greece or the deadly swamps of Africa. Considerations +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_143' name='Page_143'>[143]</a></span> +of that kind help to explain the bewilderment +with which the action of these neglected forces has been +received during the past few years, and the disarray +of the organs of European opinion when suddenly +called on to deal with the phenomenon of Peking as +a daily "headline." +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Of the city itself it may be noted that it is magnificently +laid out within high and massive walls, the +gates and corners surmounted by bastions and imposing +towers pierced with three tiers of gun-ports. The +main streets are straight and extravagantly wide. +Spaciousness is the dominant expression of the whole—the +back-yard is a feature of the meanest one-storeyed +hovels. It has not occurred to the Pekingese to economise +earth-space by vertical architecture ground-ward +or sky-ward. Viewed from an elevation, the city has +the appearance of a vast park: the tree-foliage seen +in perspective seems to cover the whole area, only +picked out by yellow and green roofs of imperial and +other conspicuous buildings. The palace, a city in +itself of 10,000 inhabitants, occupies an immense +<i>enclave</i> symmetrically placed in the centre of the +whole. +</p> + +<p> +From such a coign of vantage as the high wall +affords, Peking presents at once an impressive and a +pleasing spectacle. It gives the distance necessary to +lend enchantment to the view. The soothing hum of +a great population; the sweetness of an atmosphere +untainted, if it be summer, or spiced by the aromatic +herbs which grow promiscuously between the interstices +of the bricks, if it be autumn,—enfolds the scene in that +kind of soft drapery which memory throws over common +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_144' name='Page_144'>[144]</a></span> +things long past. One lingers, loth to renew a +closer acquaintance with the crowd below, which no +longer hums but utters wild discordant cries,—with +the horrors of the streets, which are of the earth, +earthy. The area contained between the rectilinear +arteries of the city is dismally laid out on the plan +of the rabbit-warren. These wide streets are alternately +deep mire and deep dust at the best, but at +the worst, receptacles of indescribable abominations. +The witty and wise Bishop Favier, when describing +these to a friend in France, was asked, How could +a population living in such insanitary conditions +resist a visitation of cholera. "Cholera!" exclaimed +the Father; "it could never enter. It would be asphyxiated +at the gate!"<a name='FA_12' id='FA_12' href='#FN_12' class='fnanchor'>[12]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The dust is acrid to nose and eyes, from the dessicated +refuse of generations, for the streets are watered +by long scoops from standing pools of sewage which +overflow in the summer rains and obliterate the +roadway, so that animals harnessed between shafts +not unfrequently meet with a cruel death by drowning +in these fœtid thoroughfares. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i144" id="i144"></a> +<img src="images/i-p144.jpg" width="550" height="329" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">CHINESE STREET SCENE DURING RAINY SEASON. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such hints as these will be sufficient to suggest to +the least imaginative that peculiar unattractiveness +of the Peking streets which has been a determining +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_145' name='Page_145'>[145]</a></span> +factor in the habits of the foreign residents. Life +would be intolerable to Western folks if it were not +removed from the sights, noises, and odours of the +streets; and fortunately the ruling local principle of +spaciousness lends itself to the solution without running +counter to any native practice or prejudice. The +Legations, the customs, and the missionaries are in +their various degrees established in "compounds" +large enough to accommodate the members of their +staffs in separate buildings with ample elbow-room, as +in an Indian cantonment, interspaced with trees and +sometimes gardens, the whole surrounded by a high +wall and capable of defence. These seductive oases in +a wilderness of garbage, in a city of great distances, +naturally conduce to stay-at-home habits and to segregation, +which it requires some energy to overcome. +</p> + +<p> +Nor is Peking life wanting in more mundane compensations. +The city itself contains many "objects +of interest," which in the earlier years of foreign intercourse +were open to the curious. The well-known +"Lama temple," reputed to contain 2000 inmates, +which has for many years been dangerous to enter, +was in those days a much-frequented resort, where +the stranger was welcome to go over the establishment +and listen to the Buddhist litanies: a certain +bass voice, or perhaps a succession of bass voices, in +the choir, indeed, attained celebrity among foreigners. +In the refectory of that monastery one was obliged, +out of respect, to eat, or feign to eat, the unmitigated +fat of the sheep's tail, fished from out the broth, not +with a hook, as was the custom in the Jewish Church, +but by the deft fingers of the chief lama. Now, on +the contrary, the foreigner who enters the gate is +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_146' name='Page_146'>[146]</a></span> +hustled, robbed, and stoned. This great change in +the attitude of the lamas has never been satisfactorily +explained, but it is presumed that the manners and +customs of some of the visitors to the temple may +have had something to do with it. There have been +visitors who, with the keen acquisitiveness of the +world-tourist, have slipped small "josses" into their +pockets out of what, perhaps, appeared to them the +superfluous number of molten images ranged round +the shelves of the great Buddha's sanctuary. +</p> + +<p> +The Temple of Heaven, too, that grand altar to the +Living God, standing in an immense park enclosed by +a lofty wall, was then, and for many years remained, +open to all comers. This was perhaps due less to any +intentional liberality of the authorities than to the +negligence of the gatekeepers and the Board of Works. +For a long time access was gained over a broken part +of the outer wall left unrepaired. At one period English +residents played cricket within the vast enclosure; +at another Billingsgate and brickbats were the ordinary +salutations which greeted the would-be visitor—the +change being probably due to the slow awakening of +the officials. So with many other places within and +without the city, for in some cases where direct request +was made for extension of the accommodation, +the effect of drawing official attention to the subject +was to restrict the privileges which had actually been +enjoyed. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding the occasional rudeness of which +Dr Rennie has given us so faithful a picture, the most +unartistic of men could hardly fail to take pleasure in +the daily traffic of the streets, provided only his nerves, +visual and olfactory, were not too delicate. The true +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_147' name='Page_147'>[147]</a></span> +lord of the roads is apt from his commonplaceness to +be overlooked by those who owe him most—that universal +conveyancer, the sagacious, tireless mule. He +does not belong to the "five great families"—the fox, +weasel, hedgehog, snake, and rat—which the Chinese +hold in mystic awe because they have learned the secret +of immortality; but if utility to man were a criterion +of merit, they would surely fall down and worship +this indispensable hybrid. Hot or cold, wet or dry, +the mule never fails to respond to the severest call +upon his strength and courage. +</p> + +<p> +With the approach of winter an antediluvian rival +is introduced upon the scene, in the shape of the well-known +two-humped camel, which is then shaggy, dignified, +and in really grand form. Intolerant of heat, +but impervious to cold, the camels, after passing the +summer on the grass-lands of the Mongolian plateau, +are brought down in droves to the great fair held on +a large open space outside the Northern Wall. The +coming of the camels with their bronzed and heavily +booted riders is like a whiff of the free air of the desert. +The Pekingese use this patient but surly beast of +burden chiefly for carrying coal from the mines in the +Western Hills to the city; but immense numbers are +employed in transporting tea from the navigable limit +of the Peiho to Siberia and Russia, not entering Peking +city at all. +</p> + +<p> +A roomy encampment between the British and +Russian Legations is allotted to the Mongols, and +serves as a market-place where the products of the +desert are exchanged for the utensils and gewgaws of +civilisation. The staple of the Mongol trade is frozen +meat—mutton, venison, furred and feathered game; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_148' name='Page_148'>[148]</a></span> +and without refrigerator or other appliance the carcasses +remain fresh in their skins till the end of the +three winter months. These simple-minded herdsmen, +chaffering with shrewd Chinese hucksters, or sitting, +where they seem to have been born, between the high +humps of their slow-moving beasts, form picturesque +groups in the imperial city, the more interesting that +their appearance is pathetically suggestive of an order +which is passing away. The Grand Khan, dispensing +favours to his loyal tributaries, has come ominously +near to being a mere tradition. These very sheepskin-coated +camel-drivers are the only buffer remaining between +the receding empire and the advancing tide of +foreign encroachment from the north. +</p> + +<p> +Other evidences of that imperial grandeur which +lent some justification to the title "Middle Kingdom" +were still occasionally to be met with. Though Siam, +and even Burma, had fallen indefinitely into arrears, +dust-begrimed embassies from Korea or Nepaul, with +their trains of pack-mules bearing tribute and merchandise +(duty free for the benefit of the officials), +might still be seen defiling through the massive gates +of the city, preserving to our day a living picture of +the Asiatic mission of the antique type. For what +were they but interesting survivals, shadows of departed +greatness? +</p> + +<p> +Peking is not a commercial city, but essentially an +imperial camp. Trade proper is confined to an outer +or Chinese city, which is but a walled-in suburb +sparsely built over. Through traffic, for obvious fiscal +reasons, shuns the capital; but there is sufficient local +commerce, of which gold and silver smelting forms a +not unimportant part, to support many bankers and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_149' name='Page_149'>[149]</a></span> +merchants who are domiciled in the outer city. It has +been remarked that Chinese trade may be seen at its +best in the settlement of Maimaichên, which faces +Kiachta on the Russo-Chinese frontier, or in the Straits +Settlements or Rangoon, where nothing hinders the +merchants from accumulating and displaying their +wealth. Even Peking, however, affords some glimpses +of the far-reaching enterprise of the Chinese traders. +</p> + +<p> +What a suggestive display, for instance, is the fur-market, +also of necessity a "winter exhibition"! Acres +and acres of ground are covered with skins of every +conceivable species of quadruped, spread out from dawn +till near noon. Here are daily laid out for sale under +the blue sky (and what a light to make purchases in!) +the commonest and the most precious furs from Manchuria, +the Amur, and even Kamtschatka, the total +value of which must be enormous. Let us learn from +the history of the Hudson's Bay Company what organisation +of energy, what confidence, what variety of +enterprise and skill, are required to bring these costly +commodities from such vast distances to this great sale-room, +and we shall not make light of the vitality of +the Chinese. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The amenities of the street traffic, though not of +special importance, call for mention as illustrating +certain phases of foreign contact with the Chinese. If +we may take Japan for comparison, in nothing is the +contrast between the two systems more apparent than +in municipal administration. The antithesis may be +expressed in one word,—in Japan, excessive regulation; +in China, absence of regulation. Whether there be +any rule of the road in China is of little interest, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_150' name='Page_150'>[150]</a></span> +seeing that, like other rules, it might be disregarded +and there would be no one to enforce it. The traffic +adjusts itself with little friction. China employs no +police,—things arrange themselves by their own interaction, +as the pebbles do on the sea-shore; and for most +of the purposes of life the people are their own law-makers +and their own executive. The Chinese system +of government is to govern as little as possible—to let +the country rule itself. So when a strange element +demanded accommodation in the busy streets and congested +gateways of Peking, without rules or supervision, +it had to find its level among the rest by +friction and concussion. It would have been an interesting +process to watch in its initial stages. Amid a +good deal of clamour and language of a racy description +applied to man and beast and their respective ancestors, +there is rarely a serious road quarrel among the Chinese. +One excellent custom of polite society tends to restrict +the area of disputes on the highway, leaving collisions +to be fought out by grooms, carters, chair-bearers, or +boatmen, as the case may be, while the masters maintain +an imperturbable reserve. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Colborne Baber, who had a way of his own of +solving the minor problems of Chinese intercourse, +was once in a cart, sitting well back and unobserved, +in a narrow street that admitted neither of turning +nor of passing another vehicle, when a cart was met +about half way. The drivers began to vociferate, each +calling on the other to give way. The opposition +carter claimed the precedence on the ground that his +vehicle carried women, and it looked as if he would +gain his point when Baber himself, becoming impatient, +thrust out his head and called out that in his cart +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_151' name='Page_151'>[151]</a></span> +there was a foreign devil, and without further discussion +the rival jehu backed out. +</p> + +<p> +Those who ride do not recognise each other on the +road, even though they be friends; for if they did so, +etiquette would require both to stop and dismount and +go through formal salutations on foot. Foreigners, +ignoring this rule, and their servants not unwilling to +profit by the prestige of their masters in accosting +bystanders from the saddle, are sometimes grievously +misdirected when not lectured on their bad manners. +The natives on their part are seldom averse from +presuming on the foreigner's ignorance of what is due +to him. Between the one and the other, or as a result of +the mere chapter of accidents, collisions were inevitable +in the streets. How were they to be dealt with in +the absence of constituted authority? If aggression +towards a foreigner on the part of a great man's +servants were submitted to, there would be no end to +it, they being 500 to 1. On the other hand, insolence +promptly resented and vigorously punished never +failed to elicit the approval not only of the spectators, +but even of the great man himself, who perhaps had +secret grievances of his own against his lackeys, which +he was not sorry to see partially paid off by proxy. In +all cases the sympathy of the Chinese goes with the +side that successfully asserts itself. Of this hundreds +of examples could be given—perhaps not one on the +converse side. +</p> + +<p> +A writer in the 'Whitehall Review' some years ago, +among interesting reminiscences of the 'Sixties, relates +some incidents to show the primitive means by which +equilibrium was established between natives and +foreigners in the Peking streets. <span lang='fr_FR'><i>Place aux dames.</i></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_152' name='Page_152'>[152]</a></span> +The experience of the first foreign female who had +been seen is thus amusingly told. Mr Bruce's housekeeper, +an old family retainer who had followed the +fortunes of her master all over the world, +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +saw no particular reasons for not acting in Peking as she +had done in Cairo or Constantinople, and the first morning +after her arrival sallied forth, basket on arm, to do her marketing +for the day. When I add that she knew not a word of +Chinese, that none of the natives spoke English, that she was +about five feet high and ten feet round the crinoline, and was +the first female European ever seen by the Pekingese, her enterprise +will be judged to have been braver than she knew. However, +nothing daunted, she entered a butcher's shop, closely +pressed upon by an inquisitive and delighted crowd. Before +she could even look at a joint or chop she was hemmed in, and +one waggish native, bolder than the rest, gave her a substantial +dig in the crinoline, shouting in Chinese, "Let's see if she's +solid." But the laugh was not for long on his side. Seizing +a chopper from the block, Mrs A. made a mighty blow at his +head, which he happily evaded. In less than a second the +shop was clear, the terrified natives tumbling over each other +in their haste to get away. A European who came upon the +scene at the moment beheld the startling sight of some 500 +Chinese rushing up the principal street pursued by an infuriated +old woman armed with a chopper. With some difficulty she +was persuaded to abandon the chase and resume her basket, +which she had dropped in her excitement. But it is on record +that for a good two years thereafter Mrs A. was allowed to +shop in peace, and became a "Black Douglas" to troublesome +Chinese children in the vicinity of the Legation. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In later years she talked in what she called "broken +China." +</p> + +<p> +Another "adjustment to environment" is thus described:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +A curious little industry sprang up in the environs of the +city, consequent on the horsey proclivities of the Europeans. +This was getting run over, which was generally accomplished +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_153' name='Page_153'>[153]</a></span> +by rushing in front of the horses and throwing the hands up. +One of two things always happened. Either the horse shied +and the rider came off, to the huge delight of the Chinese mob, +or the gesticulating party was knocked down. In this latter +event, cautioned as we all were to give no offence, if possible, +to the natives, a dollar was generally handed as salve to the +artful victim, whose screams and yells that he had been killed +never failed to draw a large and sympathising crowd of friends, +who regarded the "foreign devil" with most unfriendly looks. +In one village at last it became intolerable, and we decided if +any further attempt was made we would run down the culprits +intentionally. As usual, on our next visit three or four young +<i>gamins</i> essayed the usual dodge. Being fully prepared for it, +nobody was unseated, and we turned our horses back at full +gallop, three or four Chinese being hurled into the hedge by +our horses. We did not stop to offer dollars, but were never +afterwards stopped. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Following the same train of reflection, he gives +examples of the drastic manner in which the Russians +asserted their prerogatives on the road, which +we do not quote, as they were probably exceptional +cases. +</p> + +<p> +The never-failing courtesy of the Manchus rises +superior to such unpleasant encounters. An example +of this was related to the writer by a member of +the British Legation. In riding through a narrow +place, narrowed probably by the cesspool occupying +more than its fair share of the street, he met the +<i>cortège</i> of a grandee at a spot where it seemed +impossible to pass, and it looked as if the solitary +horseman must turn back. As he thought of doing +so he observed the occupant of the sedan call a +halt and direct his bearers to make room for the +stranger. Observing closely the features of him +who showed so much consideration for a foreigner, +the Englishman was pleased, some time afterwards, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_154' name='Page_154'>[154]</a></span> +to recognise in him Prince Ch'ing, who succeeded +Prince Kung as President of the Tsungli-Yamên in +1884. +</p> + +<p> +The lives of the foreign residents were by no +means confined within the four walls of the city. +The environs without fences or trespass notices make +charming excursion-grounds for riding-parties. For +longer expeditions there are the never-failing attractions +of the Ming Tombs, the Great Wall, the +passes into Mongolia, and various other distant points. +The city is beautifully situated in the centre of a +mountain crescent, whose nearest point is thirteen +miles distant. The first object of quest when the +Legations had been established was a sanatorium or +summer retreat—for the thermometer reaches 100 +Fahr. in June—and the Western Hills were explored. +Some of the most beautiful spots there are +occupied by Buddhist temples or monasteries, whose +builders have shown as nice a taste in the selection +of their sites as their brethren the monks of the +West have always done. These religious houses, +laid out with a view to the accommodation of pilgrims +and strangers, are regularly used by Chinese +grandees as health-resorts or shelters from political +storms. The Russian mission, while it was alone in +Peking, had set the example twenty years before of +resorting to the hill temples in the dog-days. Arrangements +with the priests for the occupation of +certain portions of one of the temples were soon made +by Mr Parkes, who was on a visit to the capital, and +ever since 1861 official Peking, with one notable exception, +has on the approach of summer migrated +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_155' name='Page_155'>[155]</a></span> +bodily from the oppressive atmosphere of the great +city to the exhilarating air of the Western Hills. +The social life of the city was reproduced at the +temples, but in a less conventional form, every one +residing there being considered on a holiday. The +country round offered many temptations to excursions, +and amateurs of geology, botany, and natural +history were never at a loss for something to interest +them in their rambles among the hills. Residence +so far from town brought the foreigners into friendly +contact also with their rustic neighbours, whose innate +good qualities, moderation, contentment, and kindliness +were displayed in a very favourable light. +</p> + +<p> +But the sojourn at the hills also brought the +foreigner into occasional contact with Chinese of +high rank, who welcomed such opportunities of showing +civility to the strangers. At other times disagreeable +collisions with the retainers of a great +personage were experienced. So popular were the +temples of the Western Hills as a summer resort that +they were always full, and consequently disputes +about accommodation were liable to occur, especially +when some grasping priest would let the same premises +to two different occupants, leaving them, or rather +their servants, to fight for the possession.<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_156' name='Page_156'>[156]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +III. THE FOREIGN CUSTOMS UNDER THE PEKING +CONVENTION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Centralised in Peking—Encouraged by British Ministers—Assumed imperial +form after the treaties of 1858—Extension to all the ports—Original +international basis becomes purely Chinese—Shows capacity +for larger functions than collection of duties—Becomes a diplomatic +auxiliary—British Government leans upon it—The Chinese faithfully +served by it—Interpreter of the intentions of the foreign Governments—Inspector-General +gains influence over British Minister—Pleases +Board of Trade—And maintains confidential relations with British +Government—While remaining faithful to China—Services rendered +by the Customs to all commercial nations. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It was a source of unmixed satisfaction to Sir +Rutherford Alcock, on assuming office in Peking, to +find the maritime customs, the bantling of Shanghai, +firmly established in the capital and gathering strength +and influence. As its functions pertained exclusively +to trade, Sir Frederick Bruce had been originally of +opinion that the inspector-general should be located +in the commercial centre, Shanghai, and he took exception +to the institution being domiciled in Peking, +where trade was expressly excluded by treaty. Sir +Frederick, however, soon saw reason to modify his +views. When it began to appear to him that the +customs might prove a convenient auxiliary to the +diplomacy of the treaty Powers, he cultivated the +institution and encouraged it to occult activity in the +political sphere. Sir Frederick Bruce's interests in +the fortunes of the customs, however, could never be +so ardent as that of its parent, Sir Rutherford Alcock, +and its monthly nurse, Mr Wade. The presence of +these two in the British Legation afforded a fresh +guarantee of the prosperity of the customs, which +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_157' name='Page_157'>[157]</a></span> +they were both well satisfied to see in the competent +hands of Mr Hart. For as the institution was a creation +without precedent, the form of its development +must be largely influenced by the personal qualities of +its head. Whatever character it might have assumed +under its original inspector-general, Lay, it could +hardly have been the same service that has grown +and spread under the directing hand of Sir Robert +Hart. It is impossible to dissociate the Chinese +customs as it stands from the vigorous self-sustained +intellect that has moulded and still controls it, for +it is assuredly not such a going concern as can be +made over to any new head without the risk of +changes more or less organic. +</p> + +<p> +The story of the first decade of the maritime customs +was told clearly, briefly, and modestly in a monograph +which Mr Hart prepared for Mr Bruce in 1864, published +as a Blue Book of thirteen pages (No. 1, 1865). +Up to the date of the Tientsin treaty of 1858 the +operations of the foreign collectorate were confined +to the single port of Shanghai, the inspectors holding +the appointment from the governor-general at Nanking, +who was Imperial Commissioner for Foreign Trade. +The new treaty gave the foreign Powers an interest +in the Chinese customs which they did not possess +before, because the war indemnities were to be paid +by instalments out of the collections of duty, so that +during the time when these payments were being +made the maintenance of the machinery for collecting +the duties was a matter of international concern. The +new treaty also provided for a uniform system of duty +collection for all the trading-ports; and then the institution +assumed an imperial and dropped its provincial +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_158' name='Page_158'>[158]</a></span> +character, the inspector-general receiving his +commission from the Central Government. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that the mission of the foreign customs +was to subvert time-honoured native systems, it was +received with surprising graciousness at most of the +trading centres. The first port to which the new +system was extended was Canton, the leader in +welcoming its advent there being the <i>hoppo</i>, the one +functionary in the empire whose privileges seemed +to be most directly threatened by the new-comer. +By one of those anomalies which are so common and +yet so inexplicable in Chinese affairs, arrangements +for opening the office in Canton were carried on +without interruption during the hostilities of 1859. +Patience, tact, and resolution were nevertheless required +to overcome the innumerable difficulties of +detail incidental to substituting rigorous inspection +and remorseless collection for the chaos of unaccountability +which had previously reigned unchallenged. A +very few years, however, served to reduce all obstruction, +and to bring trader and official, foreigner and +Chinese, into working harmony. +</p> + +<p> +For the first time in history a true account was rendered +to the Imperial Government, accompanied by a +substantial revenue on which it could depend. Naturally +the agency, though foreign, which yielded such +tangible fruit, commended itself to the statesmen of the +capital, who frankly recognised, as did the provincial +authorities themselves, that the result obtained was +wholly beyond the competence of any native organisation. +Though, therefore, the customs service was +essentially of a provisional, stop-gap character, it had +on that very account a surer guarantee of permanence +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_159' name='Page_159'>[159]</a></span> +than could have been derived from any paper covenant +by which the Chinese Government could have been +bound, for that would have provoked disputation and +evasion. The spasmodic attempt to formalise the service +on a basis of international obligation which was +made in 1898 was perhaps the first thing that really +imperilled its constitution. In its origin, indeed, the +foreign customs had been international, the three +treaty Powers being each represented on the inspectorate; +but with the expansion in 1858 this character +was abandoned, and the customs became a purely +Chinese concern operated by foreign employees, the +staff being selected from among all nations indiscriminately, +according to personal merit. +</p> + +<p> +Almost from the time of the transference of the inspectorate +to the capital the customs showed capacities +of wider range than are comprised within the routine +of a custom-house. Profoundly impressed as were +the imperial statesmen with the value of the new +revenue-producer, they soon began to perceive that the +institution might be put to other and greater uses. +Plurality of function in itself was no stumbling-block +to them, for it is the system on which Chinese administration +is carried on. In the very first year they had +intrusted the inspector-general and his deputy with the +organisation of a navy, with the evident approval of the +British Minister. That functionary, indeed, seemed as +little disposed as the Chinese themselves to see incongruity +in the various forms of customs activity, especially +when he regarded its extra official services as +rendered to himself; and he really stood much in need +of services of that kind. +</p> + +<p> +Her Majesty's first representative in Peking, helpless +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_160' name='Page_160'>[160]</a></span> +and despairing, was, in fact, fain to throw himself on +the support of the first inspector-general, Mr Lay, and +then of his successor, Mr Hart, as having knowledge +and influence with the Chinese Government which was +not possessed by the British Legation. It did not +apparently occur to Mr Bruce that such knowledge +was strictly limited, and that the influence could be of +very little use to him, and might be too dearly purchased. +Having no other resource, however, he was +perhaps not unwilling to shut his eyes to the false +position in which he was placing himself in leaning +upon the paid servants of the Chinese Government to +assist him in carrying out a policy which was totally +repugnant to that Government. The fidelity of both +Mr Lay and Mr Hart to the master whom they served +being beyond question, the diplomatic prestige conferred +on them by the British Minister, as well as +the knowledge and influence derived from the other +side, must, in all matters of controversy, be thrown +into the Chinese scale. +</p> + +<p> +As this interesting truth dawned upon the minds +of the Tsungli-Yamên, they saw in their English employee +a providential instrument for drawing the +sting from the threatening language which was sometimes +applied to them by the foreign representatives. +Of these, the only one who had as yet any serious +matter to discuss with the Chinese was the representative +of Great Britain. It was assumed on the +British side that nothing proposed by that Power +was contrary to the interests of China: so far, +indeed, did this theory inspire their action, that the +welfare of the Chinese seemed at times to overshadow +that of their own empire in the minds of the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_161' name='Page_161'>[161]</a></span> +British representatives. No doubt there was an ideal +point of view from which the interests of China and +her Western neighbours might seem ultimately to +blend, but Chinese statesmen were in nowise able to +take in such a large perspective. They continued to +regard the foreign invasion, with all its pretences of +goodwill, as an unmitigated calamity to be opposed +wherever possible. No man can pronounce a certain +judgment as to whether, with their imperfect knowledge, +they were more right or more wrong in following +their obstructive instincts. Reforms, progress, +and the opening up of the country to foreigners, were +being persistently pressed upon them; they fully expected +these concessions to be demanded of them +when the time came—and it was already drawing +near—when the treaties should be revised. Admitting, +moreover, that some one, or more, of the Powers +might have been considerate enough to forego, or indefinitely +postpone, advantages for themselves rather +than imperil the wellbeing of the Chinese State, +there were already six instead of the original three +treaty Powers to be reckoned with; nor was there +any limit to the further increase of their numbers. +Supposing, then, that, relying on the benignant intentions +of the English, they should, in the revision +of their treaty, admit such innovations as inland +steam navigation, inland residence, railways, and so +forth, would not these successes stimulate the other +Powers, when their turn for revision came,—France +in 1870, Germany in 1871, and others later,—to advance +still farther the outposts of the foreign invasion, +each, in a spirit of generous emulation, striving +to surpass the achievements of his predecessor; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_162' name='Page_162'>[162]</a></span> +and all with the complacent consciousness that they +were doing good to China? These endless contingencies +were more than Chinese statesmen could cope +with, and the apprehension of them had no other +effect than to consolidate their resistance in small as +well as in great things. They were learning to mistrust +the efficacy of their ancient imperial policy of +dividing and ruling, and with good reason had lost +confidence in their capacity to distinguish in embryo +between what was trivial and what was laden with +deep consequences. +</p> + +<p> +Resistance, therefore, tempered by the fear of force, +seemed their only refuge. Some of the dangers +ahead, of which they had glimpses, might have been +obviated by a bolder policy; but being unable to +formulate such a policy for themselves, and unwilling +to accept it cut and dried from others, there was +nothing left them but indiscriminate resistance. Under +such conditions no harmony was possible between the +Chinese and Western Governments; and not knowing +how far they might with safety evade the pressure put +upon them, the Chinese had recourse to the Inspector-General +of Customs, as Louis XI. had recourse to his +astrologer whenever he felt himself in a difficult crisis. +</p> + +<p> +The Tsungli-Yamên, accustomed to act on hand-to-mouth +views of policy, would do anything to +relieve the pressure of the moment, but nothing to +prevent a recurrence of it. Indisposed to follow up +the sequences of cause and effect, they would in emergencies +become impatient of ratiocination and attempt +to reach the foregone conclusion by a shorter cut. +Common gossip in China thus fairly summarised their +attitude in certain crises of this kind. If discussion +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_163' name='Page_163'>[163]</a></span> +with the British Legation ran high, the Yamên would +send for the inspector-general and ask simply, "Does +this mean war?" The answer being "No," the question +ceased to trouble the Yamên, and the foreign +Minister would be allowed to rage at his pleasure. +Their Excellencies would even help him out with the +opprobrious terms he was searching for, and then listen +placidly to the remainder of the tirade. Great Britain +having not only the preponderating interest, but being +still the leading Power in the Far East, it was obviously +a great advantage for the Chinese that it should be +that Power which came particularly under the influence +of the inspector-general. To tie the hands of +the British Government for a whole generation was, +indeed, an achievement worthy of a master of policy; +but it was by no means the only service which might +be rendered to China even by an Inspector-General of +Customs. +</p> + +<p> +The same agency was destined in later days to unravel +many tangled skeins in China's international relations. +It brought Gordon to her rescue in 1880; by +sheer innate ability in the use of the most unpromising +means, it brought about peace with France in +1885; and, though with less success, it procured the +attempted intervention of Great Britain with Japan +in 1894. +</p> + +<p> +How far these great potentialities were foreseen in +the earlier years of the Customs service is doubtful. +Even in their parental complacency Sir Rutherford +Alcock and Mr Wade may well have failed to realise, +as an uninterested outsider might have done, the nature +of the power that was being nursed in their infant +Hercules. Certain it is that they reckoned it as a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_164' name='Page_164'>[164]</a></span> +factor on their own side. It is clear that Sir Rutherford +Alcock, so far from regarding the inspector-general as +an opponent, commended him to the Foreign Office as +a valuable auxiliary. Mr Wade clung to the same +belief for a good many years longer. +</p> + +<p> +The first to perceive the tendency of the new relationship +which events were bringing about was, no doubt, +the inspector-general himself. China, he saw, could be +best served by a virtual control of the British Legation. +The nascent power was, however, too precious to be +trusted to personal accidents, and the inspector-general +wisely availed himself of circumstances as they arose +to widen his basis of influence by establishing such +relations with the Home Government as might save +him from being wholly dependent on the life or the +caprice of the representative for the time being at +Peking. Such to an ordinary man might have appeared +a hopeless ambition, considering the circumstance +of distance and other adverse conditions. Yet +by gradual steps this too was accomplished. A well-directed +stroke or a happy accident established the +inspector-general in high favour with the Board of +Trade when under the presidency of Mr John Bright. +He had summed up the results of the treaty revision<a name='FA_13' id='FA_13' href='#FN_13' class='fnanchor'>[13]</a> +negotiations in 1868 in a congratulatory letter to the +British Minister which has been many times published. +As a masterly exposition of the State of China in its +relation to foreign Powers it was warmly indorsed by +Sir Rutherford Alcock, and is well worth perusal +even at this day. The Board of Trade was much +impressed by a presentment of the Chinese case so +much in sympathy with the views often expressed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_165' name='Page_165'>[165]</a></span> +by Mr Cobden and Mr Bright, and which are traditional +in the Board of Trade. Their policy was noninterference +in the affairs of China, based largely on +their disparagement of the value of British interests +in that country. In commenting on this closely +reasoned State Paper, the Board of Trade specially +selected for illustration of its merit the following +passage: "Of course, force will wrest anything from +China: but wherever there is action there is reaction; +and as sure as natural laws continue to act, so sure +it is that appeals to force in one age will give to the +men of a later day a heritage of vengeance,—the +Europeans of some future day may wish that their +forefathers had not sown the seeds of hatred in the +bayonet-ploughed soil of Cathay." +</p> + +<p> +Nor was this the only result of the happy success +of the new customs diplomacy, for, as the connecting +link between commerce and politics, the Board of +Trade was a potent agency in determining the political +action of the Government, more especially when there +was a strong man at the head of it and a weak one +at the Foreign Office. +</p> + +<p> +The rising power in China did not seek fresh conquests, +but was adroit in seizing on such as came in +its way, and circumstances having brought it in direct +touch with the Foreign Office, that department was +drawn into close relation with the Chinese customs. +</p> + +<p> +The result of all this, briefly stated, was the partial +effacement of the Legation and the gradual promotion +of Sir Robert Hart to the first place in the confidence +of the British Government. As the Foreign +Office had, since the suppression of the Taiping +rebellion and the death of Lord Palmerston, been +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_166' name='Page_166'>[166]</a></span> +most reluctant either to busy itself or to inform itself +respecting affairs in China, and was, moreover, anxious +to minimise the cost of the Legation in Peking, it +was rather predisposed to accept volunteer assistance +in the management of British interests in China. +The Legation was then, as now, without any intelligence +department, the cost of which was saved under +the vague belief that all needful information might +be obtained from the customs. Thus relegated to a +secondary place, the Legation was more and more +neglected by Her Majesty's Government, until at +last representatives were selected at random and sent +out without instructions, in blind reliance on the +good offices of the Inspector-General of Customs. +</p> + +<p> +Before this final stage had been reached, however, +such an opportunity occurred, through the death of +Sir Harry Parkes, of legitimising the irregular connection, +as a death sometimes provides in certain relations +of domestic life, and Sir Robert Hart was himself +appointed British Minister. This step was recognised +as so far appropriate to the circumstances that it conjoined +responsibility with power, which had been too +long divorced from each other. But just as the new +Minister was about to assume his duties a hitch +occurred with the Tsungli-Yamên, whose views as to +the succession to the post of head of the customs +not coinciding with Sir Robert Hart's, he thereupon +resigned the office of British Minister and resumed his +Chinese service. The incident made no difference in +the confidence which Sir Robert Hart inspired in the +Foreign Office, which had, in fact, drifted into a position +of dependence on the inspector-general. This close relationship +continued until the Japanese war in 1894, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_167' name='Page_167'>[167]</a></span> +when the British Government, the victim of many +illusions, found itself in a condition of bewilderment, +like King Lear on the heath, quite unfurnished with +the means of coping with the superior intelligence of +the other European Powers. +</p> + +<p> +Throughout all these years the attitude of the inspector-general +towards his Chinese employers was +absolutely above suspicion. He served them loyally +throughout, and if the British Government imagined +he was using his highly paid position under the +Chinese Government in any way to promote other +than Chinese interests, that was a gratuitous assumption +on their part for which they alone were responsible, +and for which, as for all false strategy, the inevitable +penalty must be paid. +</p> + +<p> +Among the important international services rendered +by the foreign customs, the effective lighting of the +coast deserves the first place. Next to that may +be reckoned the compilation of accurate statistics of +foreign trade with China, more complete perhaps +than exists in any other country. The reports of +the commissioners of customs at the various ports +are also replete with varied and useful information +concerning the commerce, industry, and agriculture, +with other conditions of the life of the Chinese. +Special subjects assigned to individual men are treated +as exhaustively as if investigated by a Royal Commission. +These valuable papers constitute a modern +Chinese Repository to which there is but one drawback—its +inaccessibility. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_168' name='Page_168'>[168]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +IV. EMIGRATION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Extensive emigration of Chinese labourers in consequence of gold discoveries—Great +abuses—Attempt to diminish same by international +action—Tripartite treaty concluded in Peking—Not ratified by +France and England—Who send out amended treaty, but negotiations +never resumed by Chinese—Opposition of British colonies and +the United States to Chinese emigration. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The first public question with which Sir Rutherford +Alcock was called upon to deal was that of the emigration +or exportation of Chinese coolies. Among the +consequences of the gold discoveries of the middle of +the century was a demand for human labour, which +China of all countries was best able to supply. Voluntary +emigration to California and Australia (the "Old" +and the "New Gold Mountain") was considerable; but +it did not meet the requirements of those enterprises +in tropical and subtropical countries which, if not +originated, were at least stirred into activity by the +impulse radiating from the gold mines. The contractor +was called into requisition, and Chinese were carried +off in shiploads to Cuba, Peru, Chili, "where they +were sold into virtual slavery" under agreements +over which there was no legal supervision. Terrible +abuses characterised the traffic; mutiny and massacre +on the high seas were among the natural consequences. +"Another coolie tragedy" was as common a newspaper +heading in the 'Fifties as "another missionary outrage" +in the subsequent decades of the nineteenth century. +</p> + +<p> +Hongkong being the most convenient shipping port, +it was natural that thence should emanate the first +efforts to suppress the abuses of the traffic. The +"Chinese Passengers Act" passed by the Colonial +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_169' name='Page_169'>[169]</a></span> +Legislature in 1855 was a well-considered step in that +direction, and the establishment of responsible emigration +agencies was another. Such efforts, however, +could only be partially successful; for while they +cleared the colony from participation in a nefarious +trade, they made no impression on the trade itself. +Indeed, by throwing it into the least reputable +channels, the fate of the victims may even have been +rendered less endurable by the restrictive measures +conceived for their benefit. The Portuguese settlement +of Macao remained open, and there the coolie +traffic flourished exceedingly, to the pecuniary advantage +of that colony and of the maternal Government, +which levies an annual tribute from its Far Eastern +offspring. The trade was also carried on in a more +or less clandestine and irregular manner at Canton, +Swatow, and other Chinese ports, under non-British +flags. +</p> + +<p> +For years the colonial press was filled with the +horrors of the traffic. Such paragraphs as the following +were continually appearing in the Hongkong +newspapers:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +At Macao the coolie trade is still rampant, with all its +abominations. The inquiries instituted, or said to have been +instituted, by Governor Amaral, have ended in smoke. Day +after day some additional iniquity comes to light in connection +with this horrible traffic. Coolies kidnapped, imprisoned in +barracoons, flogged to make them consent to sign the iniquitous +contract that binds them to a life of slavery, marched with +a strong guard to testify at the Government offices to their +signature as given voluntarily and freely, half-starved, exposed +to blindness and disease on board ship in transit to the place of +their exile, tossed overboard, or left on some barren isle to die, +if loss of sight or sickness renders them useless to their +masters. Such are the grand features of the Macao coolie +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_170' name='Page_170'>[170]</a></span> +trade, supported by the governor in his official acts, and the semi-official +paper he edits. Such are the horrors of a slave-trade +worse than that of the poor African negro, which all nations +ought to unite to put an end to. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Foreigners could of course have had no success whatever +in such man-hunting schemes without the interested +co-operation of the natives. How this was +obtained may be gathered from such reports as that of +Mr W. M. Cooper, acting consul at Swatow, one of the +principal entrepots. +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Nowhere [he says] is population more dense than in the +plains of the Han. There is a constant tendency, where the +struggle for existence is so keen, and no drain exists as that +caused by recruiting for an army, towards the formation of a +scum of bad characters, whom their idleness or ill-deeds drive +to prey on the more industrious. These, frequently discarded +by their families, are seen by the official and the village elder +on their way to the coolie-house with a sense of relief and +satisfaction; and not seldom is the coolie-broker aided in his +object of obtaining men by persons of this class, and frequently +by the relations of the men themselves. Thus the trade is +allowed to take root with the concurrence of the heads of the +people, who not only rid themselves by means of it of a +nuisance and a burden, but make money by the transaction; and +a connection is formed which the broker, in his thirst for +dollars, becoming gradually hardened and more ruthless, is not +slow to avail himself of in carrying out, with greater boldness, +evil designs on his victim. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But if the atrocities incident to the capture and +embarkation cried aloud for a remedy, the brutalities +of the middle passage were no less heinous; and +though the light could not easily penetrate the scenes +enacted in the distant mines and plantations which +were the ultimate destination of the coolies, enough +was known to show that their lot in Spanish-American +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_171' name='Page_171'>[171]</a></span> +and other countries and colonies was far from +enviable. +</p> + +<p> +To efface this blot on civilisation was the first object +which engaged the attention of Sir Rutherford Alcock +in Peking. The Chinese Government itself had remained +for many years callous to the cruelties perpetrated on +its subjects; but this was in keeping with its tolerant +habit, its blindness to things disagreeable, and its +constitutional aversion to overt action of any kind. +The Peking authorities seem, however, to have been +at last aroused by the interest in the question evinced +by foreign Governments, and in 1866 the Chinese +Ministers were induced to join the foreign Powers in +devising means to ameliorate the condition of the +emigrants. The suggestions of Prince Kung were +practical and well directed towards a solution of the +problem. +</p> + +<p> +The problem, however, was by no means simple; +for to be effective, regulations must be of universal +obligation, and receive the sanction of all the interested +Powers. There was no desire in any quarter to arrest +the stream of honest and free emigration; on the +contrary, it was welcomed as an outlet for destitute +Chinese. To impose restrictions on Hongkong while +the neighbouring colony was lawless and free; to place +obstacles in the way of emigration to Demerara and +Trinidad, where the coolies were happy and contented, +thereby driving them in greater numbers to territories +where they were enslaved,—was obviously no gain to +humanity. The question, however, was as urgent as +it was difficult. +</p> + +<p> +Yet there were circumstances in the situation favourable +to a satisfactory issue. Chief among these was +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_172' name='Page_172'>[172]</a></span> +the fact that France and England were still working +loyally together in matters of cosmopolitan concern. +Sir Rutherford Alcock found his French colleagues in +Peking as amenable as he had found those in Yedo. +The consequence was that, as the result of the winter's +labours, a tripartite convention for the regulation of +coolie emigration was signed in March 1866 by the +British and French Ministers and Prince Kung. The +convention was approved by the Ministers of Russia, +the United States, and Prussia, though they were +not parties to it. But the French Government took +exception to certain of its provisions, and deferred +ratification until these should be modified. The +British Colonial Office and Emigration Board fell in +with the views of the French Government. The +settlement of the question was thereupon shifted from +Peking to Paris and London, when voluminous correspondence +ensued between the two Foreign Offices, +extending through the years 1866, 1867, and into 1868. +The co-operation between the two Governments was +hearty and complete; and the amount of patient labour +devoted to the task, especially by the French Foreign +Office, which had not the auxiliary machinery at its +disposal which existed in the Government departments +in England, was in the highest degree creditable to +both. It may suffice to say that after eighteen months +of earnest work a <span lang='fr_FR'>"Projet de Règlement International +d'Emigration"</span> was completed in twenty-three articles +with subsidiary forms, and was despatched to Peking +at the end of 1867, the discussions having resulted in +the retention of almost the entire text of the original +convention—a fact which reflected no small credit on +the Ministers in Peking who had drawn it up. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_173' name='Page_173'>[173]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +But when the time came for resuming negotiations +in the Chinese capital, the Government there had +relapsed into its habitual apathy respecting the welfare +of its people. Possibly, also, the zeal of the resident +Ministers of France and England may have cooled +during the interval which had elapsed since their +previous efforts. Their attention was becoming engrossed +with other subjects. Effective co-operation +between the three parties was evidently no longer +feasible. The attempt to regulate emigration by a +comprehensive international agreement was tacitly +abandoned, and the evils of the coolie trade were +left to be dealt with sporadically. +</p> + +<p> +Free emigration from Hongkong—that is to say, +of emigrants who paid their own passage—proceeded +all the while on an extensive scale. But the laws +of the colony did not permit contract emigration +except to British colonies, and under elaborate supervision +both at embarkation and after arrival at the +field of labour. Although coolie ships could not be +despatched from Hongkong, a certain amount of indirect +participation in the traffic was maintained for +some years by residents in the colony who supplied +fittings for the coolie ships preparatory to their proceeding +to the port of embarkation. Colonial legislation, +however, gradually put an end to this, and +successive ordinances so narrowed the field of the +contractors' operations that the trade, both direct +and indirect, was practically extinguished so far as +Hongkong was concerned. A declaration by the +Chief Justice in 1873 summed up the various prohibitory +laws by enacting that the coolie trade would be +treated as a slave trade, aiding or abetting which +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_174' name='Page_174'>[174]</a></span> +would be felony. In the year following, the Portuguese +Government, yielding to the friendly pressure that had +been for a long time put upon them, passed a law +prohibiting the coolie trade at Macao. +</p> + +<p> +While the emigrants were so anxiously protected at +the outset of their voyage, the immigration of Chinese +into the United States and the Australian colonies was +exciting interest of a different kind in those countries. +Legislation was continuously directed against the influx +of Chinese, and not legislation only, but barbarous ill-treatment +and outrages on a par with those perpetrated +against foreigners in China. Mr Secretary Seward on +his round-the-world tour in 1871 expressed himself +highly favourable to Chinese labour in the United +States, and his views afforded great encouragement +to emigration to California for some years after. The +treaty concluded at Washington in 1868 by Mr Burlingame +accorded full privileges to Chinese in the +United States. But a sharp reaction occurred in the +views of American statesmen, and in 1880 the Chinese +Government, by treaty made in Peking, consented to +a modification of the Washington treaty of 1868, +which would allow the United States to limit or +suspend, though not absolutely to prohibit, Chinese +immigration. This step towards prohibition was completed +in another convention signed at Washington +in 1894. Why the Chinese Government should have +gratuitously consented to attach a stigma to their +country and people is one of those inexplicable +matters which abound in the history of China's +foreign relations. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_175' name='Page_175'>[175]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +V. KOREA. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Comes into the sphere of international relations in 1866—Illegal propagandism +followed by persecutions—France adopts the cause of the +missions—Calls upon China as suzerain to punish Koreans—Which +failing, French Minister proclaims annexation of Korea—Naval expedition +repulsed—American naval expedition repulsed in 1871. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It was in the year 1866 that foreign aggression +first complicated the relations between China and her +tributaries. The kingdom of Korea had with more +consistency and more success than either China or +Japan secluded itself absolutely from foreign intrusion. +Nevertheless, the ubiquitous Jesuit had found his way +there, under desperate subterfuges; for if the foreigner +in general was proscribed, the foreign religionist was +anathema to the rulers of Korea. The laws of the +country were draconic in their severity against all +priests or pretenders to supernatural authority; but +the zeal of the Catholic propaganda defied the laws, +though not always with impunity. "Persecutions," +in fact, occasionally broke out, and "massacres" was +a not inappropriate description of the repressive measures +adopted by the Government in vindication of +what it considered the law of the State. The French +Government, or at least its representative in Peking, +resolved to espouse the cause of the persecuted missionaries +in 1866, and to make reprisals on the King +of Korea. But that country being a vassal state, the +demand was first made formally on the suzerain, that +he should cause the Korean persecutors to be punished +and the missionaries avenged. This was not +only prejudging the particular case, but was yet +another instance of foreigners forcing a formula on +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_176' name='Page_176'>[176]</a></span> +China, and making her answerable to a tribunal of +whose jurisdiction she had no cognisance. The relations +of China to the surrounding States which +acknowledged her suzerainty were vague and various, +imperfectly understood by Western States, as was sufficiently +proved in the Burma Convention concluded +between Great Britain and China in 1886. But the +French <i>chargé d'affaires</i> recognised no debatable +ground such as even in the international comity of +the West differentiates one dependent State from +another, and one suzerain Power from another. In the +British system alone the diversity in the relations of +the members to the head is sufficient to exclude the +application of any general rule. While the touchstone +of war would no doubt reduce all to one level, yet in +the matter of administrative responsibility what single +rule could embrace, for example, India, Malta, the self-governing +colonies, the Transvaal, and the African +Protectorates? M. de Bellonet, however, was not +embarrassed by any dubitations about the clean-cut +rule to be enforced on China and Korea. He simply +demanded that the suzerain should punish the vassal, +failing which, he would take the affair into his own +hands. Logical, no doubt, and not unreasonable, +assuming the quarrel to be just. But the French +<i>chargé</i> went a step further in adjudging the actual +dissolution of the family compact and sequestration +of the inferior kingdom. On Prince Kung's declining +responsibility for the Korean persecutions, M. de +Bellonet, without further ado, annexed Korea to the +empire of France, dethroned the king, and posted +placards about the streets of Peking promulgating +the fact. To Prince Kung he addressed a weighty +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_177' name='Page_177'>[177]</a></span> +despatch, in which he said, "The same day on which +the King of Korea laid his hands on my unhappy +countrymen was the last of his reign. He himself +declared its end, which I, in my turn, solemnly declare +to-day."<a name='FA_14' id='FA_14' href='#FN_14' class='fnanchor'>[14]</a> +</p> + +<p> +This was carrying the question beyond the scope of +international law. +</p> + +<p> +Taking an analogy from common life, a father may +neglect to correct a mischievous son, and thus leave his +neighbours free to take the law into their own hands, +but their right to chastise or prosecute does not include +that of annulling the parental relationship, and of +making a bondman of the offender. Force, of course, +may effect such a rupture in the connection between +nations, but in this case the force had not yet been +applied. Admiral Roze proceeded with a squadron to +the mouth of the Han, the waterway to the Korean +capital, bombarded forts, and left his name to an island +which faces the port of Chemulpo. The incident was +then at an end. +</p> + +<p> +But not the effects of it. It was to Chinese and +Koreans a flash of the Röntgen rays that revealed the +innermost hearts of the foreigners with a vividness not +to be forgotten; it was the whole missionary question, +from the Eastern point of view, in a nutshell. To +violate the laws and teach the natives to do so, and +then appeal to foreign Governments to back them in +this insidious form of rebellion—that was the function +of the missionaries. The foreign Government thereupon +lays claim to the territory, and so the conspiracy +is crowned. In the face of such an unveiling of motives +the chance of the Chinese statesmen being led by the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_178' name='Page_178'>[178]</a></span> +friendly counsel poured constantly into their ears by +the foreign Ministers in Peking must have been small +indeed. +</p> + +<p> +About the same time a small American vessel called +the General Sherman, with a cargo of notions and some +passengers, including one English missionary, made her +way through the archipelago which fringes the coast +into the inner waters of Korea. She was never again +heard of, and the fate of crew and passengers was for +long a matter of report and surmise. At last, in 1868, a +United States ship of war, the Shenandoah, was sent to +the Korean coast to get information about the General +Sherman. Nothing whatever was learned. Then Mr +George F. Seward, consul-general in Shanghai, advocated +a mission to Korea with a sufficient force to +ensure respect. His persevering recommendations +prevailed with the Government at Washington, and a +squadron was equipped in 1871 to proceed to Korea and +attempt to open the country, the admiral being furnished +with copies of the Japan treaties of 1854 and +1858 as models. The Americans at once came into +collision with the Korean troops, bombarded their +forts, and defeated with considerable loss a military +force marshalled to resist them. But no negotiations +were possible. The Korean Government remained +impervious to remonstrance and uncompromising in its +refusal of intercourse. The following characteristic +letter, addressed by the Korean authorities to Admiral +Rogers, tersely expresses their attitude of resolute +isolation:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +In the year 1868 a man of your nation, whose name was +Febiger, came here and communicated and went away; why +cannot you do the same? In 1866 a people called the French +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_179' name='Page_179'>[179]</a></span> +came here, and we refer you to them for what happened. This +people has lived 4000 years in the enjoyment of its own +civilisation, and we want no other. We trouble no other +nation—why do you trouble us? Our country is in the +extreme east, and yours in the extreme west; for what purpose +do you come so many thousand miles across the sea? +Is it to inquire about the ship destroyed [the General +Sherman]? Her men committed piracy and murder, and +they were punished with death. Do you want our land? +That cannot be. Do you want intercourse with us? That +cannot be either. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The American ships withdrew, as the French had +done, leaving the peninsula once more to its fate. +</p> + +<p> +Previously to this a piratical expedition was attempted +by a German in a North-German steamer, +instigated and piloted by a French priest. Its purpose +was to desecrate the tombs of the kings, with a view to +carrying off the golden treasures with which they were +believed to be buried. +</p> + +<p> +The three fiascos left no outward trace in the current +of affairs in China, and diplomatic intercourse proceeded +in the capital as if the Korean peninsula did not exist. +Let it not be supposed, however, that the statesmen of +Peking failed to take these exhibitions to heart, although +they maintained the strictest reserve on the +subject. Christian proselytism and foreign domination +were once more discovered in active alliance, justifying +all the suspicions of the Asiatic nations. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_180' name='Page_180'>[180]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXI. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE REVISION OF THE TREATY.</span> +</h2> + +<h3> +I. PREPARATION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Struggle for the observance of the treaty—Hope in the prospective revision—Information +gathered by British Minister—Chinese apprehensive +of force being used—Imperial Government consult provincial officials—Interesting +memorials in reply—Especially from Li Hung-chang—His +liberal views respecting foreigners—And wise advice to the throne. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The conflict between foreign aggressions and Chinese +resistance had proceeded without intermission on either +side for seven years. In the struggle the Chinese +had gained many successes, but the fruits of them +had not been secured beyond the risk of reprisal. +Both sides were ill at ease. The foreigners on their +part had been buoyed up under their grievances by +the hope of a readjustment of international relations, +which had been provided for in the treaties of Tientsin +and Peking. +</p> + +<p> +The decennial period was at hand when revision of +the treaty of Tientsin might be claimed. To that +important juncture all eyes looked forward. The +foreigners hoped for freer intercourse; the Chinese +wished to restrict what already existed. Great preparations +were made for the revision campaign. On +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_181' name='Page_181'>[181]</a></span> +the part of the foreigners opinions were invited from +all the trading-ports as to the points where modification +could be advantageously claimed, and memorials +from the Chambers of Commerce both in China and +in Great Britain, from individuals, professional men, +and from missionaries, poured in upon the British +Minister during the years 1867 and 1868, extending +even into 1869. +</p> + +<p> +Sir R. Alcock had even taken every possible pains to +acquaint himself with the local circumstances of the +various treaty ports by personal inspection and personal +communication—a practice which public opinion +urged in vain upon his successors, who had much +greater need of such local observations. Following +up this tour of his own, he delegated to a subordinate +the task of studying the conditions under which trade +was carried on in the interior, in the districts most +likely to be affected by any probable changes in the +treaty. Under this roving commission Consul Swinhoe +made an extensive tour through the canal district of +the Yangtze delta, and finished up with an expedition +to Szechuan in 1869, on which he was accompanied by +delegates of the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce. +</p> + +<p> +The importance attached by foreigners to the occasion +naturally stirred the Chinese Government also +to make special exertions to meet the coming contest. +From the measures to which they resorted it is evident +that they were apprehensive lest force should be applied +by the foreigners to gain their ends; for the idea of +free negotiation and of voluntary agreement had not +yet been assimilated by the Chinese. To them the +foreigner represented force and nothing else. They +had never really comprehended the reasons for the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_182' name='Page_182'>[182]</a></span> +withdrawal of the Allies when in possession of Peking, +and though the immediate danger of war was removed, +the shadow of it never ceased to haunt the dreams of +Chinese statesmen. +</p> + +<p> +Mistrusting their own resources, the Central Government +appealed to the provinces for confidential advice; +and as these communications throw light on the inner—though +not the innermost—thoughts of the Chinese, +which it is difficult otherwise to gauge, some of them +are worth perusing in the actual words of the writers. +</p> + +<p> +The secret circular addressed by the Tsungli-Yamên +to the high officials throughout the empire in 1867 +opened abruptly with the proposition, "The barbarian +question is one of old standing"; it then proceeded +to review the difficulties and the dangers of "our +present conjuncture," arising mainly from the improvement +of communications and armaments combined with +the earth-hunger of the various European nations. +The foreigner at one time stood in awe of the Central +Power, but that was before railways and steamships +had been invented; and while the numbers who came +to China were as yet insignificant, and were conveniently +restricted to one spot, where they could be +managed, now they occupy so many positions as to +form a strategic cordon round the empire. Moreover, +they are united in interest, and cannot suddenly be +either isolated or weakened. How, then, can we confront +them with our isolation and weakness? It is +to be feared that we have no one who, taking a comprehensive +view of the whole situation, can create +disunion among our enemies through their own rivalries +and insatiable avarice. Yet it is just here that +the germ of an effective policy should be sought. If, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_183' name='Page_183'>[183]</a></span> +however, circumstances render such a scheme at present +impracticable, its execution may be deferred. We must +be patient under suffering, diligently strengthening +ourselves, and abide in hope. We bear in mind the +calamities of 1860, and how to save the State the +emperor was entreated to conclude a treaty. It was +evident that the treaty, hastily concluded, would +remain a fruitful source of future difficulty; nevertheless, +good faith required that it should be fulfilled, +and even the very fulfilment of it be turned into a +means of limitation and restraint. The time for +revision being now at hand, you are requested to give +your suggestions as to the means of avoiding a rupture +with foreigners, and in case of a rupture, what will +ensure safety. The principal points likely to be +brought forward at the revision conferences are here +submitted for your consideration. To simply declare +the whole impracticable is easy; the difficulty will be +to devise a plan for safely avoiding concession. Deal +with the matter, therefore, in a practical way, and +not by an empty thesis; and let your memorial reach +us not later than December. The points are—(1) The +audience question. (2) The question of an embassy to +foreign countries, which had been repeatedly urged by +the various foreign Ministers in Peking. The arguments +in favour of such a measure are, that "to know +your adversary as he knows you" is a maxim of +practical wisdom, and that it would be of great +advantage to have the means of appealing from an +unreasonable foreign Minister in Peking to his own +Government. (3) Telegraphs and railways. (4) Residence +of merchants in the interior. (5) Salt trade and +coal-mining. (6) Extension of missions. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_184' name='Page_184'>[184]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Such was the substance of the Tsungli-Yamên's +circular to the governors-general and governors of +provinces. The memorials in reply were distinguished +by some plain speaking. Amid a good deal that was +vaporous and fantastic, such as would characterise any +general council, there were propositions of sound statecraft, +maxims which it would have been good for the +Central Government to lay to heart, and side-lights +on their traditional conceptions of national policy +well deserving to be studied by the Powers which +have relations with the Chinese. One clause in the +memorial of Tsêng Kwo-fan, for example, went to the +root of the administrative difficulties which caused +then, and still cause, the major portion of the angry +friction between Chinese and foreign officials. He +reminded the emperor, in fact, that he had a court +of appeal in the provinces; so that though he might, +under pressure, be forced to concede points to the +foreign nations in Peking, yet it was the memorialist +himself and his peers in the provinces who would have +the last word to say. The elliptic and allusive style +usually assumed in Chinese documents may allow this +hint to be interpreted either as a veiled defiance of, +or as an assurance of support to, the throne—perhaps +both subtly compounded. But the practical inference +remains, that, as experience has often proved, the +provinces revise the decisions of the capital, and the +execution rests with them. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i184" id="i184"></a> +<img src="images/i-p184.jpg" width="421" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">LI HUNG-CHANG AT THE AGE OF FIFTY.<br /> +<span class="s08"><i>From a photo by J. Thomson, Grosvenor Street, W.</i></span> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The memorial, however, which is most interesting to +foreigners, because the plainest to their comprehension, +is that of Li Hung-chang, at that period Governor-General +of the Hu-kwang; and as it affords a key to +that statesman's subsequent career and the unique +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_185' name='Page_185'>[185]</a></span> +position he has occupied in regard to the foreign relations +of the empire, it seems well worthy of reproduction. +Omitting the preamble, and certain classic +references without which a Chinese State Paper would +be no more complete than a speech in Parliament or +a leader in the 'Times' fifty years ago would have +been without a Latin quotation, the substance of the +memorial runs as follows:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +The humble opinion of the writer is, that in conducting business +with foreigners the point of the greatest importance is to +avoid exciting their contempt; that contempt once excited, they +will thwart us at every turn, and even in affairs that are really +practicable they will contrive a thousand schemes and devices +to throw obstacles in the way of their practicability. But if +they feel respect for China, all matters can be mutually arranged; +and even difficult questions can be settled by compromise +or agreement. +</p> + +<p> +Foreigners, however, are not the only persons who are +influenced by this feeling: it animates alike the minds of +the whole human race. +</p> + +<p> +It is often said that foreigners are crafty and malign and +full of unexpected ruses: but is it not the fact that Chinese +are the same; or rather that the outrageous craft and malignity +of the Chinese exceeds even that of foreigners? The truth is, +that at present foreigners are powerful and the Chinese feeble. +And whence arises the power of the former? It certainly is +not innate in them, but depends upon the fact that "the +requisites of Government are sufficiency of food, sufficiency +of military equipment, and the confidence of the people in +their ruler" (Confucian Analects). And how is the weakness +of China to be accounted for? This also is not innate, but is +a result of the truth of the above axiom not being sufficiently +recognised. The present condition of foreign countries resembles +that of China before the union, or is perhaps even still more +formidable. +</p> + +<p> +In the course of time foreigners came to China, opened +numerous marts, and conveyed their merchandise everywhere. +They traded at as many as five ports, and all with no other +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_186' name='Page_186'>[186]</a></span> +object but that of making the wealth of China contribute to +their own. A little consideration shows that those who ventured +to come to this country must have placed their reliance +upon something to have rendered them so fearless; and there is +not the slightest reason why that which they confided in should +not also become a source of confidence to China. +</p> + +<p> +Many persons have offered their views upon the several +questions now under consideration, and it is useless to take +the trouble to recapitulate them. But all such appliances as +telegraphs, railways, locomotives, and steamships—the things on +which foreigners rely—can without exception be learned by the +Chinese. It is often alleged that these inventions are attended +with harm: how is it, then, that in foreign countries every +district has its trains and steamers, every locality its telegraphs +and railways? Natives of China, too, have travelled abroad +and can bear testimony that these things, so far from being +harmful, are advantageous. +</p> + +<p> +Imperial audience is distinctly stipulated for in the treaty +of 1860, and it is next to impossible to withdraw it; especially +as his sainted Majesty Kanghsi admitted Japanese to his presence, +and there will be no difficulty in ascertaining the ceremony +then employed. And again, during the negotiations with the +Russians on the boundary and trade questions, which took place +about the same period, they were treated as an equal Power. It +is but right, indeed, to consider such Powers as upon a footing +of equality with ourselves. +</p> + +<p> +The idea of the writer is to wait until the majority of the +emperor, and then to receive all the representatives in a side-hall +as was done by his sacred Majesty Kanghsi. It will, +however, first be necessary to arrange distinctly whether such +interviews are to take place once or twice a-year. Otherwise +an impropriety will be caused by their constantly demanding +audiences every few days on frivolous questions. +</p> + +<p> +Such a course presents no difficulties from our point of view, +and from theirs it is a <span lang="la"><i>sine quâ non</i></span>. Moreover, they would see +how the imperial magnanimity extends to every region. Their +request may with great propriety be granted. +</p> + +<p> +As to the appointment of an envoy, in the fourth year of +Tungchih, Pin Ch'un and others were sent on a visit to the +several foreign countries, and the Tsungli-Yamên has lately +written to state that Chih kang and others have now proceeded +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_187' name='Page_187'>[187]</a></span> +thither. Thus the mission has been continuous, and it would +be well to adhere to this system. +</p> + +<p> +The question of separate missions at the Courts of the +several Powers, however, still remains for deliberation. In +discussing these questions persons are apprehensive, either that +the emperor's commission will be disgraced, or that there will +be an extravagant expenditure of the imperial funds. But +such persons are not acquainted with the whole bearing of the +subject. +</p> + +<p> +Memorialist is of opinion that this question is eminently +susceptible of a satisfactory solution. After selecting reliable +and trustworthy men to reside at foreign Courts, it will be +necessary to appoint subordinates and interpreters, who can be +exchanged every three or every five years. Interpreters, indeed, +should be selected from each country to which an envoy proceeds—a +system which would give us the double advantage of +facilitating public business, and of affording us an opportunity +to display our amicable desires. Far from being detrimental, +the project is attended with great advantages. +</p> + +<p> +The matter of missionary extension is beset with greater +difficulties than the rest, especially as it is not a State question +with foreign Governments.<a name='FA_15' id='FA_15' href='#FN_15' class='fnanchor'>[15]</a> At the present moment innumerable +churches are being erected in every province, district, and +department for the explanation of their canon and the preaching +of their faith; and the common people are one-half of them +deceived, and the other half led to join them for evil purposes. +Instructions should be issued to the superintendents of northern +and southern trade, as well as to the generals, viceroys, governors, +customs superintendents, and taotais, to become intimate with the +foreign officials with whom they are in communication. Then, +when anything is to be arranged, there would be no harm in +telling them distinctly that when the common people misbehave +the local functionaries must adjudicate; and that when it happens +that the people refuse to become proselytes, the officials can on +no account insist upon their doing so against their will—for +such a course would but raise riots and disturbances, to the detriment +of international amity. At the approaching revision of the +treaty all possible arguments must be used with regard to this +point, and on no account must any further clause be added. +</p> + +<p> +With reference to the remaining points—viz., coal mines, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_188' name='Page_188'>[188]</a></span> +importation of salt, erection of inland warehouses, inland steam +navigation, and the like—these, although comparatively unimportant +matters, nevertheless entail serious consequences. If +their introduction is harmless, there is no necessity to waste +words and ink in the raising of disputes and complications; but +if, on the other hand, there are among them concessions which +we are unwilling to make, it will be very proper to "explain +the circumstances to them and argue the rights of the case," +and they will hardly wish to press embarrassments upon us. +</p> + +<p> +Should they, however, take advantage of their strength to +impose upon our weakness by dividing our territory and sharing +among them the fat of the land, in such a pressing crisis the +greatest firmness would be necessary. But there need be no +great apprehension of such a contingency, for the simple reason +that, with the exception of Russia, foreign countries are all too +distant from China, and the acquisition of its territory would be +nothing but an embarrassment to them. +</p> + +<p> +The fact is, that the prosperity of foreign countries is inseparably +connected with the welfare of the Chinese people; +and instead of draining that people to the last drop, would they +not rather prefer to use, without exhausting—to take, and still +leave a residue? +</p> + +<p> +The present occasion of treaty revision with the English is +a most important juncture. The English treaty once disposed +of, there will be no difficulty with the other Powers. The +danger to be apprehended is that during the revision of next +year they will employ coercion to extort concession. This, +however, may be known previously; and should it be the case, +it will of course be necessary to select experienced troops and +able officers to confront them. Should nothing of the sort +occur, negotiations should be entered upon. +</p> + +<p> +In short, supposing we are to cherish a feeling of revenge and +devise schemes to subvert foreign Powers, it will be necessary +to wait until—with large armies and abundant supplies, with +no rebel or Mohammedan outbreaks in the provinces, and no +difficulties in the capital—we can cope with them without +hesitation. We shall be a match then for all adversaries; but +otherwise we cannot engage in a rash and random conflict. +Even when it is supposed that we are ready for the struggle, +it will still be necessary to exercise extreme and continual +caution, and to wait until our spirit is high, and our aspect, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_189' name='Page_189'>[189]</a></span> +therefore, formidable. Then should there be no war, the question +would be disposed of; but in the event of our taking the +field, it would not be unvictoriously. +</p> + +<p> +Memorialist, however, has had several years' experience in +conducting business with foreigners, and is thoroughly familiar +with their character. He has found that, no matter what they +are engaged in, they act honourably without deceit or falsehood. +But although it is possible to acquire a general knowledge of +their mode of action in the conduct of their own affairs, yet +there is no means of becoming thoroughly acquainted with the +details and motives of their conduct. Their bearing, however, +in military matters affords clear evidence of their straightforwardness. +There is the instance of the Englishman Gordon, +late commander-in-chief at Soochow, who, having organised +3000 troops of the Ever-Victorious Army, took the field +against the rebels. Subsequently, at the capture of Soochow, +the memorialist himself observed that officer personally leading +in advance of his troops with a courage and <i>sang-froid</i> worthy +of all praise. He subsequently became the recipient of the +imperial commendation and reward. +</p> + +<p> +The writer has also, in conjunction with Tsêng Kwo-fan, acting +viceroy of the two Kiang, been associated with foreigners in +organising foreign-drilled infantry and cavalry, and in making +arrangements for the building of steam-vessels. He is +thoroughly convinced that they are actuated by upright and +amicable principles, and entertain no feelings of animosity +towards China. With the knowledge of these facts before +us, it is possible to draw our conclusions upon other matters. +</p> + +<p> +It is from these considerations, therefore, that the writer +suggests the policy to be pursued in intercourse with foreigners. +There seems to be no necessity to dispose of the several questions +hastily and on the instant, nor do the resident foreign +Ministers at Peking apparently intend to insist upon an immediate +settlement. +</p> + +<p> +It would be well if H.I.M. on attaining his majority were +himself to adopt the policy suggested, and in that case no +difficult questions would arise. +</p> + +<p> +6th year, 11th month, 6th day. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +As perhaps the best essay yet extant in translating +the Chinese imperial tradition into the language of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_190' name='Page_190'>[190]</a></span> +the modern world, this paper of Li Hung-chang's is +full of instruction for foreign diplomatists. Read in +the light of the subsequent thirty years, we see that +it sets forth the principles which have inspired the +whole public life of the most prominent man in China. +His recognition of the honourable character of foreigners, +as he knew them, represented a notable +advance on the like testimony of Commissioner Lin +in 1841, inasmuch as Lin deduced from it the ease +by which their good faith could be abused, while Li +made it a ground of confidence in co-operation with +them. His recommendation to his contemporaries, to +cultivate intimacy with foreign officials in order to +obviate misunderstandings in the execution of the +treaties, was only preaching that which he has consistently +practised throughout his official life. He +was the first high official who braved public opinion +by sitting with open doors. This conciliatory temper +and open mind has made Li Hung-chang the lubricator +in many jarring conflicts; and it kept him, contrary to +constitutional usage, for twenty-five years at the diplomatic +outpost of the capital. +</p> + +<p> +His delicate handling of the suggestion of the +Central Government, to resist by hostile means the +proposals of foreigners, is also characteristic of the +man who had seen war and hated it. While bowing +to the imperial will, he proposed postponement of its +execution. In a similar case many years afterwards +a memorial of Li's was quoted as an incitement to war +with Japan, whereas it was an extinguisher, in diplomatic +form, put upon the bellicose proposal of another. +</p> + +<p> +Not the least interesting part of Li's memorial is +the ground on which he advocates reform—the proved +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_191' name='Page_191'>[191]</a></span> +superiority of foreign nations. His argument takes +the identical form, and is expressed in the very words, +used by the Daimios of Japan; and the circumstances +of the two countries in their foreign relations were in +the main so similar, that it cannot but be instructive +to observe how they comported themselves respectively +under the stress of the foreign irruption. Both +had been overawed by foreign forces, and both sought +revenge by using the strength of their opponents for +their own regeneration. The difficulty, as we see it, +in the carrying out of the scheme of regeneration was +of the same nature in both countries—the want of +unity and centralisation. Japan was divided up into +feudal principalities; China into provinces and prefectures +as independent as self-governing British +colonies. The councils of the Daimios bore a rough +analogy to the consultations with the governors and +governors-general of China. The enemy was the same, +and the means of overcoming him are as clearly laid +down in Li Hung-chang's memorial as in the most +perfervid of the Japanese manifestoes. How, then, +did it come about that the same leaven should have +fermented with such miraculous rapidity in the one +country, while in the other it has been buried in a +torpid mass? Obviously this is a matter which will +repay the consideration of those who concern themselves +with the state and prospects of China. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_192' name='Page_192'>[192]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +II. THE BURLINGAME MISSION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Mysterious inception—American Minister becomes Chinese envoy to +Western countries—Objects of mission concealed—Its first adventure—Mr +Burlingame concludes treaty at Washington—Persuades British +Government to adopt new policy in China. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Three processes—separate, though not independent—were +going on simultaneously during the year 1868: +the revision of the British treaty in Peking; an +epidemic of anti-foreign demonstrations in the provinces; +and the progress of the Burlingame mission +in Europe. One of them cannot be understood without +the other; but taking the revision of the treaty as the +object towards which the other two converged, it will +be simpler to reserve the special consideration of the +treaty question until we have given a short outline of +the accessory episodes. +</p> + +<p> +Of the eight questions submitted to the provincials, +one was disposed of, and that in a surprisingly precipitate +manner, a month before even the memorials of the +various authorities were sent in. An embassy to Europe +and America was appointed, equipped, and despatched +in the month of November 1867, and with a foreigner +at its head. A proceeding so contrary to Chinese +tradition naturally excited curiosity as to its origin,—a +curiosity which has been tantalised but not to this +day satisfied, though the mission itself soon became +ancient history. It is certain none of the representatives +of foreign Powers then in the capital were +consulted, or in any way taken into confidence with +regard to the scheme—except, of course, the one who +transferred himself from the service of his own country +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_193' name='Page_193'>[193]</a></span> +to that of China. "No one," wrote Sir Rutherford +Alcock, "knew that the Chinese were on the eve of +a revolution which would materially change the aspect +of affairs." This by way of explaining an important +memorandum he had just written on the state of +China, which would have been of a different tenor +had any hint of what was intended been given to +him. +</p> + +<p> +As the embassy was the first that China had sent +to a foreign country, and as it was commissioned under +some urgent demand which evidently would brook no +delay, its composition, character, and objects are all +interesting to the student of Chinese politics. There +were three envoys, two Chinese and one foreign. The +latter was the Hon. Anson Burlingame, Minister of the +United States to China, who of course was the spokesman +of the mission. A better selection for the purpose +could not have been made, had even a larger choice +of men been open to the Chinese. Mr Burlingame had +been an active politician in his time, and was a practised +orator. If we add the epithet "sophisticated +rhetorician," which was ten years later applied to a +still more eminent personage, that is little more than +to say he was a special pleader. And he was engaged +on special pleader's duty. Whatever the genesis of +the mission, therefore, it was a master stroke of the +Chinese Government, eclipsing all their other contrivances +to resist the expected demands of foreigners at +the revision of the treaties. It was the first open +attempt by the Chinese to apply the homœopathic +principle to their international affairs in using the +foreigner as an antidote to the foreigner. +</p> + +<p> +The Burlingame mission left Peking with the ostensible +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_194' name='Page_194'>[194]</a></span> +approval of the foreign representatives. The +support of the British Minister was given in the most +practical way by the permission granted to the acting +Chinese secretary, Mr J. McLeavy Brown, to accept +the secretaryship of the mission—a favour the more +marked in that Mr Brown happened to be the <i>locum +tenens</i> of Mr Wade, who had just gone on leave, so +that his departure left the British Legation destitute +at a season of the year when it was impossible to +call up substitutes from the ports, and at a time +when the greatest burden of work was in prospect. +And yet the true object of the mission was concealed +from Sir Rutherford Alcock. "I do not know what +Mr Burlingame's instructions may ultimately be," he +wrote in January 1868, adding, "but it is very obvious +what is the work which devolves upon him." Sir +Rutherford's judgment of its purpose seems to have +been based on his own inferences from the facts of +the situation and his unquestioning faith in Mr Burlingame's +loyalty to his professed principles. +</p> + +<p> +He had known Mr Burlingame for two years as the +<i>doyen</i> of the diplomatic body, the most fervid champion +of that "co-operative policy" whereby the treaty +Powers agreed to act as a united body in pursuit +of identical objects. He could not suppose that his +late colleague had turned his back on those common +objects without notice. Although, therefore, the +suddenness and secrecy of the move might have +suggested misgivings as to the mission being intended +to promote the views of the diplomatic body in Peking, +yet it is beyond question that Sir Rutherford Alcock +heartily favoured the embassy. His confidence in it +is further attested by a very long and elaborate +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_195' name='Page_195'>[195]</a></span> +memorandum which he addressed to Prince Kung, +indicating the uses to which the embassy should be +put in bringing about an understanding with the +Powers, whereby Chinese interests would be safeguarded +while the treaty rights of foreigners should +be amply fulfilled. "I see in the mission a hope of +improvement and a material change in the whole +aspect of affairs.... Proves there are Ministers +with power and influence in the councils of the +emperor who believe the time has come for breaking +with the past.... After a long night of weariness +and futile efforts, daylight begins to appear.... I +hail the appointment of a representative to the +Western Powers as the beginning of a new era." +Such was the Minister's valediction in his report to +the Foreign Office. But he had been mightily deceived. +The night had indeed been long, but it was not the +true dawn which was welcomed with this joyful acclamation. +How quickly the gloom settled down again on +that scene of fruitless toil will presently be seen. +</p> + +<p> +The mission was introduced to the notice of the +world by a humorous prelude, which may be quoted +for the sake of the light it incidentally throws on the +chronic state of China. On their way from Peking to +Tientsin, seventy or eighty miles, the envoys halted at +a large market-town, where a report met them of a +phenomenon not very uncommon in those parts, especially +in winter—a band of marauders who had been +annoying the neighbourhood. The mission took refuge +in an inn, resolved to stand a siege until aid should +come. In this strait Mr Burlingame seems never to +have thought of applying either to the local authorities +of the town or to the Government he was serving, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_196' name='Page_196'>[196]</a></span> +but despatched urgent messages to Peking, where +there were escorts kept at the Russian and British +Legations, and to Tientsin, where was the British +gunboat Dove. His appeals were answered with +alacrity from both sides. From Peking came a relief +party of British and Russian soldiers in charge of members +of the two Legations; from Tientsin a party of +mounted bluejackets under Lieutenant Dunlop. They +met at the half-way house where the mission lay, but +nothing could be seen or heard of the besiegers. Mr +Burlingame's party reached their port of embarkation +without further adventure. Indeed the only serious +matter that arose out of the imbroglio was a difference +of opinion between one Vodkansky of the Cossack +guard and Mulvaney, a sturdy Hibernian of the +British escort, which the latter proposed to settle by +the means in vogue among heroes before the days +of Agamemnon. Tragic consequences were, however, +averted by the soothing diplomacy of the representative +of her Majesty's Legation, Mr Conolly, and the +two Burlingame relief expeditions returned to their +respective stations nothing the worse for a couple +of days' outing in the bracing November air. +</p> + +<p> +Mr Burlingame made his <i>début</i> in the United States, +first by eloquent speeches in San Francisco, and next +by what assumed the form of serious negotiations at +Washington. An orator cannot reasonably be held +accountable for every detail of his orations, but Mr +Burlingame's mission may be most favourably summarised +by a few carefully chosen words of his own:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +1st. It was the object of the mission to disabuse the foreign +Powers of an impression they were supposed to entertain, that +the Chinese Government had entered upon a retrograde policy. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_197' name='Page_197'>[197]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +2nd. To deprecate a precipitate and unfriendly attempt on +their part to enter upon a policy which might make all progress +impossible from its menacing tone and "violent shock +to the feelings, and even prejudices, of the people." +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Translated into practice, these propositions meant +that China wished to be let alone; and that, we may +safely assume, represented the whole extent of Mr +Burlingame's instructions. This claim was embodied +in a convention which he made at Washington, comprising +certain "additional articles" to the American +treaty of 1858, the purport of which was that the United +States undertook to apply no pressure to China, which, +it may be presumed, that Power had never the intention +of doing. The convention was for several reasons +not welcomed at Peking, but it served the only purpose +which perhaps it was ever expected to serve, that of +giving the keynote to the representations which the +envoy was afterwards to make to the various Powers +in Europe. +</p> + +<p> +The next Government to which Mr Burlingame +addressed himself was that of Great Britain, over +which he obtained a more important success than over +that of the United States. In fact, he persuaded Lord +Clarendon to discard all the information that ever +reached the Foreign Office from its own responsible +agents in China—men who were bound by every consideration +of loyalty and public duty to report only +what was true, and to accept instead thereof the +protestations of an agent hired to make out a case; for +it is superfluous to add that Mr Burlingame was far +indeed from representing the true state of facts. He +succeeded in so altering the course of the British Government +that their agent in China was discredited, stultified, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_198' name='Page_198'>[198]</a></span> +and rendered powerless to effect the objects for +which he had been labouring. This was the first step +of the Foreign Office in the new departure which had +many evil results—that, namely, of taking their cue +not from agents in their own pay, but from others over +whom they could exercise no control, and who had alien +interests to serve. +</p> + +<p> +From the Chinese point of view the Burlingame +mission was a decided success. +</p> + +<h3> +III. CHINESE OUTRAGES—YANGCHOW AND FORMOSA. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Missions attacked at Yangchow—Redress refused by Chinese and enforced +by consul—With naval assistance—Satisfactory issue—Continuous +outrages in Formosa—Government affords no relief—Disturbances +quelled by British forces—Lawlessness near Swatow—Communications +with interior controlled by bandits—Order restored by Consul Alabaster +with naval force—Peace and good feeling between Chinese and +foreigners resulting from these various measures—Which were approved +by Imperial Government—Disapproved by British Government in +consequence of Mr Burlingame's representations—Consuls punished—Lord +Clarendon, prompted by Mr Burlingame, sends fresh instructions +to Minister and consuls. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The year 1868 was marked by serious anti-foreign +outbreaks in widely distant provinces of the empire. +At Yangchow, a wealthy city on the Grand Canal, +twelve miles from the left bank of the Yangtze river, +a favourite resort for retired officials, rich salt merchants, +and gentry, the Inland missionaries under the +orders of Mr Hudson Taylor established themselves. +In no locality in China could they have been less +welcome, for there they met their natural enemies +in the greatest force. Before long an attack on them +was organised at the instigation of the literati and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_199' name='Page_199'>[199]</a></span> +gentry, and with the connivance of the local authorities. +"The onslaught was sudden and severe, the mob +set fire to the premises, the ladies and children of the +mission had to be thrown out of the windows to save +their lives." There was no mistake, therefore, as to +the murderous intentions of the assailants. The +nearest British consul was at Shanghai, the consulate +at Chinkiang, twelve miles from the scene of the +outrage, being in charge of an assistant, Mr Clement +Allen. That young officer hastened instantly to the +assistance of the missionaries, and made his protest +against the culpable negligence, to say no more, of +the Chinese officials, who on their part made a great +to-do of hushing the matter up and repairing the +injured house. Consul Medhurst promptly followed +up the representations made by Mr Allen by personal +appeal to the viceroy at Nanking, fifty miles distant. +The mind of that high official had already been prejudiced +by ingeniously falsified reports of the transaction +supplied to him by the prefect of Yangchow, +and in consequence he refused Mr Medhurst's request +to depute an official to accompany him to that city +for the purpose of investigating the facts. Thereupon +Mr Medhurst, availing himself of the arrival of H.M.'s +ship Rinaldo at Chinkiang, obtained from her commander +a sufficient escort to accompany him to +Yangchow; and then only did the viceroy, Tsêng +Kwo-fan, appoint an officer, though of totally inadequate +rank, to co-operate with the consul. The +Chinese officer did not, however, keep his appointment, +and Mr Medhurst proceeded without him, and +placed in the hands of the prefect at Yangchow a +written demand for redress, one of the items being +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_200' name='Page_200'>[200]</a></span> +the seizure and punishment of the gentry, whose +names were submitted. The prefect at once declared +his inability to deal with men of such influence, all +being of higher rank than himself. As nothing, +therefore, could be settled at Yangchow, the prefect +agreed to accompany Mr Medhurst to Nanking to +lay the whole matter before the viceroy. A deputy +from the viceroy, however, met Mr Medhurst at +Chinkiang and endeavoured to dissuade him from +proceeding to Nanking, offering instead to accompany +him back to Yangchow, according to the original +programme. Mr Medhurst, in his turn, persuaded +the deputy to return with him to Nanking on H.M.'s +ship Rinaldo, which was to start from Chinkiang the +following morning. But the deputy Chang did not +keep that appointment, any more than he had kept +his previous one. The prefect of Yangchow also +found means of evading his promise to accompany +the consul into the presence of the viceroy. After +much pressure on the one side and evasion on the +other, the viceroy offered to settle the matter by a +charitable gratuity to the missionaries in lieu of +damages, and showed his anxiety to get the affair +patched up quickly by sending an official of rank to +follow Mr Medhurst on board H.M.'s ship Rinaldo, +where he spent two hours in attempting to persuade +the consul to accept the terms offered. Matters were, +in fact, in a fair way of settlement when, "just at this +juncture," the commander of the Rinaldo fell sick +and determined to proceed with his ship to Shanghai, +the consul being thus left in a humiliating and helpless +position, as Sir Rutherford Alcock describes it. +The Chinese officials at once changed their tone, withdrew +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_201' name='Page_201'>[201]</a></span> +from negotiations, and nothing more could be +done with them. The action of the naval officer in +abandoning the consul was freely criticised at the +time, and being in consequence asked by the Admiralty +for an explanation, he stated, among other things, +"that it never entered his head that the presence +simply of a small man-of-war could have the effect +of influencing the viceroy." He also stated that he +had "been given to understand that the viceroy had +expressed his willingness to comply with Mr Medhurst's +requests, and would send a letter to that +effect that night or the next morning." The gallant +officer did not appear to perceive that the withdrawal +of his ship before the viceroy's promise had been fulfilled +completely changed the situation. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing was left for the consul, then, but to lay the +whole case before H.M.'s Minister, and in doing so he +made these observations: "I can call to mind, out of +my experience of British relations with China, scarcely +one instance in which the outrage complained of has +been more unprovoked on the part of the sufferers, +and in which the evidence of neglect and culpability +on the part of the local authorities has been more +marked and incontrovertible. Few cases can have +occurred, moreover, in which the power to grant +prompt and reasonable redress was more within the +reach of the supreme provincial authority." +</p> + +<p> +The Minister, in his turn, had no resource but to call +upon the admiral on the station "to repair the mischief +by sending such naval force to the mouth of the Grand +Canal as shall enable him, if necessary, to apply +effective pressure both on the local authorities and +populace at Yangchow and on the viceroy at Nanking," +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_202' name='Page_202'>[202]</a></span> +to whom the consul was once more instructed to +address himself. Of course the Minister had before +this applied in the usual form to the Tsungli-Yamên, +and with the usual result. They deprecated hasty conclusions +until they themselves had full information +from the local authorities; but they admitted without +hesitation that, assuming the facts, full redress must +be granted. +</p> + +<p> +The Minister's representations to the Central Government +were renewed with greater emphasis on +receipt of the news of the collapse of the consul's +negotiations. Prince Kung then expressed his readiness +to make the compensations demanded; but as +regarded the punishment of the instigators of the +outrage, he contented himself with tacitly indorsing +the plea of the viceroy, "that the gentry indicated +were men of high rank, and incapable of wilful disregard +of treaty provisions, for which reason they need +not be called to account." In reply the Minister stated +that immunity to such offenders, more especially if +highly placed, is wholly incompatible with the treaty +rights of foreigners. A new inquiry, however, was +instituted at Yangchow, and the Viceroy Tsêng, who +had just been gazetted to another post, was warned +not to leave Nanking until the affair was concluded. +After an interval of two months, Consul Medhurst, +escorted by a naval force despatched to his aid by +Admiral Keppel, sent his cards once more to the +Nanking viceroy. The old tactics were repeated, and +negotiations threatened to be indefinitely protracted, +but eventually promises were given for the full redress +demanded. Promises, however, had been given before, +and it was deemed not unreasonable in the circumstances +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_203' name='Page_203'>[203]</a></span> +to demand a material guarantee. There happened +to be lying at anchor opposite the city a small +steamer recently built for the viceroy, which he was +induced to place under the orders of Captain Heneage, +R.N., pending the execution of the arrangements. +The end of the discussion was a complete and satisfactory +settlement of the whole affair, which included +the deprivation of the prefect and the magistrate of +Yangchow. The after-effects have been no less satisfactory. +For the last thirty years Yangchow has +been the most peaceable missionary field in the +whole empire. We have set forth this incident in +some detail, because it was typical, isolated, and free +from all obscurities. +</p> + +<p> +While these events were passing on the Yangtze, +similar troubles, which had been threatening for some +time, came to a head in the island of Formosa. Outbreaks +of mob-violence against the property and person of +both missionaries and merchants took place in different +parts of the island. At Banca, in the Tamsui district, +two English merchants, Messrs Kerr and Bird, were +murderously assaulted by a ferocious armed mob, and +Mr Holt, the acting vice-consul at Tamsui, reported in +October 1868 that "remonstrance, expostulation, despatches, +letters, messages, and visits having alike failed +in securing common justice" from the mandarin, he +might be "driven at any moment to strike his consular +flag and close communication with the authorities. +Our lives are threatened by people who have proved +that the will to murder us is not wanting," and with +whom the authorities either could not or would not +interfere. Mr Holt held his ground until assistance +reached him, and he made no secret of his intention to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_204' name='Page_204'>[204]</a></span> +back his diplomacy by a show of force whenever he got +the chance. "Short of destruction of life and property," +he wrote, "I intend using any means in my power to +enforce that justice that the people who are supposed +to administer it deny me. On the arrival of the gunboat +I will at once inform your Excellency of the +measures concerted between the commander and myself." +Vice-Admiral Keppel reported to the Admiralty +in December that "the opportune arrival of H.M. gunboat +Janus and the United States Aroostook was followed +by a full compliance with the demands of her +Majesty's consul." +</p> + +<p> +Matters did not run quite so smoothly at the other +end of the island, where missionaries as well as merchants +were the object of attack. The campaign was +carried on with vigour for some six months. Redress +was not only unobtainable from the Chinese authorities, +but even personal access to them was rendered impossible +by the obstruction of the mob. Mr George +Jamieson was obliged to forego a visit to the magistrate +at Taiwan in April on the latter confessing that +he could not protect him from violence. Mr Gibson, +five months later, found his road to the mandarin +ambuscaded by three parties of sixty or seventy men +each, armed with jingalls, swords, and spears. Outrage +succeeded outrage during the whole period. The +state of affairs was of course a subject of serious remonstrance +with the Central Government, of whom the +Minister first demanded, as in the Yangchow case, a +joint inquiry into the facts. For this purpose the +consul, Mr Swinhoe, who had been absent on other +duty, was ordered to his proper post. At the same +time Vice-Admiral Keppel was requested to send an +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_205' name='Page_205'>[205]</a></span> +adequate naval force to support the consul's position +and prevent further outbreaks. +</p> + +<p> +The Yamên went through the form of ordering to +the spot a commissioner, who, however, left it again +immediately, thus turning the orders of the Yamên into +ridicule. This proceeding naturally encouraged the hostility +of the local officials and of the mob who executed +their behests. The situation became most threatening. +</p> + +<p> +The squadron detached by Admiral Keppel for active +operations at Takow and its neighbourhood consisted of +three corvettes and five gunboats, to be reinforced if +necessary by the flagship Rodney, carrying eighty-two +guns. Before this imposing force arrived, however, the +task they were intended to achieve had been already +accomplished. "Driven to despair, and believing life +and property to be in great danger, Mr Gibson, without +waiting for instructions, called upon Lieutenant +Gurdon of the gunboat Algerine to take possession of +the Chinese fort, which resulted in a loss of life and a +destruction of Government stores." +</p> + +<p> +Mr Gibson's action was somewhat euphemistically +described as "without waiting for instructions," seeing +that he had positive instructions to maintain his +ground until a naval force should arrive. Both the +operation itself and certain details of its execution +were adverted upon so severely, first by Sir Rutherford +Alcock and then by the British Government, that, +notwithstanding Commodore Jones's commendation of +"the most brilliant exploit I have heard of in these +seas," Lieutenant Gurdon fell under the displeasure of +the Lords of the Admiralty, as the acting consul did +under that of the Foreign Office. The object of the +joint adventure, however, was attained, and the spirit +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_206' name='Page_206'>[206]</a></span> +of outrage among the Chinese completely subdued. +This happened in December. +</p> + +<p> +There remained, however, yet another centre of +turbulence which greatly impeded the operation of +the treaty, at the port of Swatow. The villages which +lie between that seaport and the district city of Chow-chow-fu, +some 12 miles up the river Han, had banded +themselves together to oppose foreign intercourse with +the latter city. Not only were the business and property +of foreign merchants interfered with, but a +British man-of-war gig in the river was fired upon, +and when the men landed to identify the offender they +were overpowered by the whole population of the +nearest village. This hostile attitude, resembling very +much that of the Canton villages twenty years before, +steadily increased until the native officials themselves +were not safe in passing to and from the district city. +Strong representations were made to the high +authorities of the province at Canton. The viceroy +had promised to send a military force to quell the +riotous villages, but before he had proved the sincerity +of his intention the Gordian knot was cut by British +initiative in January 1869. The late Sir Challoner +Alabaster, a man of uncommon resolution, was at +that time acting consul at Swatow; and he, having +secured the co-operation of Commodore Jones, led a +force of marines and bluejackets against the offending +villages. A stout resistance was offered at first, but +when several of the villages had been taken and +destroyed the whole eighteen made their submission. +Thereafter the district enjoyed perfect peace and +security. In the following March Sir Rutherford +Alcock was able to telegraph to Lord Clarendon that +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_207' name='Page_207'>[207]</a></span> +"the accounts from all the ports showed that peace +and order had been restored; that at Yangchow and +Formosa entire security and an improved position had +been obtained; that there was no more cause for +anxiety at any point; that the best understanding +existed with the foreign body at Peking; and that the +relations with China had never been more satisfactory." +</p> + +<p> +The bearing of these occurrences on the revision of +the treaty may not at first sight be quite clear, but it +is interesting to note in what manner they were connected +with that operation in the mind of Sir Rutherford +Alcock. He calculated that the necessity of using +force to vindicate foreign treaty rights, of which both +he and his predecessor had constantly warned them, +would bring home to the Peking authorities the alternative +which they would always have to face in case of +failure to carry out the treaties. How very differently +these outrages and the enforced redress affected the +situation in Peking will now be seen. +</p> + +<p> +The action taken at Yangchow and in Formosa +having been fully explained to the Tsungli-Yamên, +Wênsiang and the other Ministers expressed their +entire concurrence. But what satisfied the Government +of China produced quite another impression on +that of Great Britain. Lord Stanley, as Foreign +Secretary, had written on November 20, 1868: "Mr +Medhurst appears to have acted with great prudence +and firmness, and you will convey to him my approval +of his proceedings.... I have to instruct you [Sir R. +Alcock] to press the case in question upon the Chinese +Government." Two months later Mr Medhurst was +reprimanded by Lord Clarendon for his action, and +the "full satisfaction for the outrage" was attributed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_208' name='Page_208'>[208]</a></span> +exclusively to the "readiness with which the Central +Government took measures that proved effectual." The +change of Government which had in the interval taken +place in England (December 9, 1868) was hardly sufficient +to account for so diametrical a change of view +in a matter of imperial concern. Another agency had +effected the conversion of the British Government. Mr +Burlingame had arrived fresh from fervid denunciations +in the United States of the "tyrannic policy" and the +"throat policy" of Great Britain as applied to China, +and adroitly seizing on the repression of the Yangchow +and Formosa outrages as flagrant examples, he succeeded +in incensing Lord Clarendon against the various +British officials concerned in these troubles, whom his +lordship visited with punishment which scarcely stopped +short of vindictiveness. Mr Medhurst, indeed, a man +of long and distinguished service, had only a black +mark set against his name; but Mr Gibson was publicly +censured and degraded, and ordered to make an +apology to the Chinese officials whose lawless aggressions +he had lawlessly repelled. With some inconsistency, +Lord Clarendon, about the same time, approved +the conduct of Acting-Consul Holt at Tamsui, who +succeeded in adjusting most serious misunderstandings +with the Chinese through no other means than the +visible force of the small gunboat Janus, for whose +arrival he waited before preferring his demands. +</p> + +<p> +That the sudden change in the policy of the British +Government was the work of Mr Burlingame was +frankly avowed by Lord Clarendon himself, who based +the fresh instructions to the Minister in China on the +arrangements he had concluded with the Chinese representative. +In his letter of condemnation, January +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_209' name='Page_209'>[209]</a></span> +14, 1869, he, moreover, intimated that he could not +wait before pronouncing judgment for Sir Rutherford +Alcock's complete report on the Yangchow affair, +because his "communication with Mr Burlingame ... +rendered it necessary that he should not defer making +his observations." That a British Secretary of State +could have so demeaned his office would not have been +believed save on his own confession. He of course +carried the Admiralty with him, and the same influence +which inspired the new instructions issued to +the Minister and consuls inspired those issued to the +commanding officers on the China station. +</p> + +<p> +Taken textually, the negotiations between Mr Burlingame +and Lord Clarendon were of a platonic character. +H.M.'s Government undertook to apply no +pressure to China. It would have been a simple matter +to refrain from applying pressure, and a tacit resolution +to that effect with corresponding instruction to the +Minister in Peking would have secured the object. To +make it a subject of direct pledge to the Chinese Government +seemed one of those gratuitous acts which +all diplomatic experience condemns as fraught with +future embarrassments. To save appearances, however, +a nominal equivalent was taken. "Mr Burlingame +was requested to bear in mind, and to make +known to the Chinese Government, that we should +henceforward have a right to expect on its part the +faithful fulfilment of treaty engagements, the prompt +redress of grievances referred to the Central Government, +and friendly treatment of British subjects by +the Chinese authorities"—as if all that had not been +already stipulated for under the solemn sanction of +the existing treaty. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_210' name='Page_210'>[210]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +IV. REVISION NEGOTIATIONS AND CONCLUSION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Lukewarmness of British Government—Sir R. Alcock's misgivings as to +success—Mixed commission in Peking to consider details—Mr Hart's +predominance—Treaty becomes a custom-house concern—Increase of +duties being the Chinese aim—Sir Rutherford Alcock attributes failure +to Mr Burlingame's misrepresentations—Merchants oppose the treaty—Ratification +refused by British Government—Inferences from this +fiasco—Chinese influenced by force alone. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Let us now revert to the cause and origin of the +Burlingame mission—the revision of the treaty of +Tientsin. The instruction for revision was given by +Lord Stanley on August 16, 1867, in such general +terms as the following:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Her Majesty's Government neither wish, nor have they +the right, to impose sacrifices on China, even though they +may be convinced that the inconvenience of such sacrifices +will be only temporary, whereas the benefit which will result +from them will be lasting.... We must reconcile ourselves +to waiting for the gradual development of that [better] system, +and content ourselves with reserving for revision at a future +period any new arrangement we may come to in 1868.... +You will of course act openly with the representatives of other +Powers, inviting and availing yourself of their co-operation. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +A note of misgiving as to the policy of asking for +the revision runs through the whole correspondence. +After the preliminary labours of sifting the voluminous +memorials from merchants and others, Sir Rutherford +Alcock sums up their demands thus: "All their wants +turn upon three or four cardinal defects, not of the +treaties so much as in their execution." And he adds +the significant reflection: "The question arises, if +nothing is to be gained by demanding a revision, ... +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_211' name='Page_211'>[211]</a></span> +whether much would not be lost, and an opportunity +thrown away, which might, by reserving the right, be +turned to better account when the emperor's majority +is declared. I believe the true policy of foreign Powers +would be to wait; ... to this conclusion ... all the +representatives of foreign Powers now in Peking are +led." "The Chinese," he also says, "would go much +faster and better if left alone." +</p> + +<p> +The question naturally suggested by these remarks—why +a task involving enormous labour, of which +only negative results were to be expected, was entered +upon at all at such an inopportune moment—remains +unanswered. +</p> + +<p> +It would be insufferably tedious, and of no practical +utility, to track the windings of a maze leading nowhere, +for the revised treaty was never ratified. But the +labours of two whole years could not but leave landmarks +to guide succeeding travellers over the same +ground. It could not be but that with so much +beating of the bushes the game would be started, if +not brought to bag. It was a reconnaissance in force +which, for the first time, compelled the respective +parties to the struggle to reveal their true character +and intentions. Such a discovery was perhaps not +too dearly bought by the time and trouble expended +on it. +</p> + +<p> +The first definite step in the process of revision was +the nomination of a mixed commission of British and +Chinese "to devise means of securing a more prompt +redress of commercial grievances." The members were +Mr Fraser, second secretary to the British Legation; +Mr Hart, Inspector-General of Customs; and two +secretaries of the Tsungli-Yamên—a heavy preponderance +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_212' name='Page_212'>[212]</a></span> +on the Chinese side of the question. To the same +commission was added another British member, Mr +Adkins. And here it is not impertinent to observe +that the absence of both the Chinese secretary, Mr +Wade, and the acting Chinese secretary, Mr Brown, +left the Legation in a condition too crippled to engage +on work which would have taxed its full strength. The +members of the commission held many sittings, reporting +proceedings from time to time to their respective +principals, the Tsungli-Yamên and the British Minister. +</p> + +<p> +It needs no great effort of imagination to divine, in +a body thus composed, whose would be the dominant +voice. Mr Hart conducted the proceedings throughout. +The discussion had not gone far when it was found +hopeless to revise the provisions of the treaty in any +sense compatible with progress or freer intercourse; +and the dangerous questions which had caused the +Government so much anxiety, and which had inspired +both the Burlingame mission and the various secret +memorials, being thus happily ruled outside the controversy, +the Chinese Ministers seem to have given +themselves no further concern about the revision. +This distant attitude of theirs was severely commented +on by a contemporary writer in 'Fraser's +Magazine,' who said:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +After ten years of conciliatory blandishments on our part, +the high Chinese authorities had so far disobeyed the spirit +of the treaty that, although they had not actually prevented +our Minister from corresponding and visiting with them, yet +they had had the audacity to render all such intercourse absolutely +nugatory, and had constrained him, after a long and +successful diplomatic career, to descend to the extremely humiliating +position of treating with them indirectly through the +medium of Mr R. Hart. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_213' name='Page_213'>[213]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +As, however, the proceedings became focussed on a +tariff revision destined to add to the duty receipts, a +"collector of revenue wanting money," as Mr Hart +described himself, was the most fitting negotiator, +and the Chinese ministers were well pleased to leave +him free to make his own bargain, so long as it yielded +that result. +</p> + +<p> +To give colour to the Chinese demand for higher +duties a bold formula was resorted to, and supported by +equally bold reasoning. The expedient was a rearrangement +of the method of collection of inland dues on +foreign merchandise, which was then, as it continues to +be, the great bone of contention between foreign traders +and the Chinese authorities. The treaties conferred +on merchants the right of compounding for all inland +taxation of their merchandise by a single payment +at the port of entry; but the practices of the Chinese +officials had rendered the privilege a nullity. In the +new negotiations Mr Hart, on the part of the Chinese, +took the high ground of maintaining, with subtle +dialectic, that the protection which foreigners claimed +was not in fact given by the treaties. So strongly +did the Chinese entrench themselves in this contention, +that heavy artillery was required to dislodge +them. "Could any negotiators be so dull or incompetent," +wrote Sir R. Alcock in reply, "as to sign a +treaty of commerce with an Eastern potentate, extorted +at the point of the bayonet, and leave this +unlimited power in his hands to turn against us the +next moment, or whenever he pleased, and nullify +all that had been stipulated, destroying the trade +for which alone war had been made?" Defeated in +argument, the Chinese next begged that what they +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_214' name='Page_214'>[214]</a></span> +could not claim as a right might yet be accorded +to them as a favour, thus copying the tactics of +the Japanese in an analogous case. +</p> + +<p> +As this proved to be the crux of the whole transaction, +the rock on which the convention eventually +split, it is useful to consider how the subject was treated +in the negotiations. The treaties of Nanking, 1842, +and of Tientsin, 1858, provided for the transit of British +goods throughout the empire on payment of a fixed +charge. But in securing exemption from arbitrary +imposts in the interior, the treaty of Nanking signally +failed; that of Tientsin had proved equally ineffective, +and why? From inherent difficulties in the nature of +things—obstacles absolutely insuperable so long as the +country remained under the same organic conditions. +Such were the propositions with which the British +Minister entered upon the discussion of the subject; +and as no proposal was made for changing the organic +conditions of the empire, the prospect of obtaining a +satisfactory fulfilment of those treaty provisions did not +seem very encouraging. +</p> + +<p> +But then a suggestion, apparently emanating from +Consul Robertson at Canton, was made for simplifying +the problem by doing away with the option which had +been reserved in the treaties for foreign merchants, +either to pay the commutation at the port of landing, +or to allow their goods to run the gantlet of the +Chinese customs stations. Instead of this, it was suggested +that a single compulsory payment, amounting +to half the import tariff, might be levied on the landing +of the goods, which should thereafter be freed +from all other imposts throughout the empire. It was +not unnatural that a "collector of revenue" should +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_215' name='Page_215'>[215]</a></span> +appropriate this conception, and introduce it into the +revised treaty; but then the doubt immediately arose +on the other side, whether the promised exemption +would be any more of a reality than it had been under +the existing <i>régime</i>. If the difficulties in the way of +fulfilling the stipulation in the treaty of Tientsin and +Nanking were really insuperable, would they now disappear +merely because the Chinese Government received +an increased import duty? In considering Mr +Hart's proposal, "the question would be," according to +Sir Rutherford Alcock, "Could we obtain a sufficient +guarantee that such additional import due would +effectually exempt British goods from all other dues, +local, provincial, and what not?" And again, "Security +for exemption from all but the fixed 2½ per cent was +the one question on which depended the value of any +revision." +</p> + +<p> +A necessary condition of any successful treaty was +the assent of all the other Powers to its provisions, +seeing that under their most-favoured-nation clauses +any one of them by holding aloof could render the +treaty inoperative. The various foreign representatives +were therefore kept informed of the progress of +negotiations. In this way their opinions were obtained +from time to time as to the merits of the +various proposals. On the subject of the compulsory +payment of transit dues the opinions which the British +Minister received from his colleagues were all unfavourable. +They considered that some "additional guarantee +would be necessary against failure, and as against +security for additional losses which would be entailed +upon the merchants." To give effect to the new proposals +an edict was to be published acquainting all +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_216' name='Page_216'>[216]</a></span> +provincial officials with what had been agreed upon. +But still the diplomatic body maintained "that nothing +is really certain but the addition of 2½ per +cent to the import duties. This will be rigorously +exacted and paid; but whether the equivalent exemption +from all other taxation will be obtained +must be held doubtful, ... seeing that in the past +the same provincial authorities have shown the most +persistent disregard of treaty stipulations and proclamations." +"Under such circumstances," Sir Rutherford +adds, "it would seem reasonable that, during the +first year at least, all amounts collected under the +new arrangements ... should be carried to a separate +account ... to meet claims for compensation." In +the end, however, he saw reason to waive this proviso, +to disregard the views of his colleagues, and +to assent to the new impost, without any guarantee. +Attempts to obtain concessions from the Chinese in +the way of freer intercourse proved, as we have said, +hopeless from the first. The renewal of the Chinese +demand to establish a customs station in Hongkong—that +"immense smuggling depot"—was refused on +the British side; while the British request for recognition +of Hongkong as a port of call for goods +in transit to Canton was in like manner refused on +the Chinese side, because it "would give the place +a respectable name" as well as make it the "great +emporium of the south." Hongkong, it is fair to remember, +was, not unnaturally, odious in the eyes of +the Chinese. The more prosperous the colony became, +the more they hated it; and the more patriotic +among them—as, for instance, the Minister Wênsiang—detested +it the most. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_217' name='Page_217'>[217]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The ruling factor in eliminating all measures of +progress from the negotiations and reducing the whole +to a customs question was Mr Burlingame. +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +After the arrival of the mission to Washington [wrote Sir +Rutherford on February 27, 1869] the hopes which the +signature of the additional articles was calculated to excite +undoubtedly exercise a very prejudicial effect on my efforts.... +With Mr Burlingame's enthusiastic reception, and the +prompt signature of the convention by which the United +States Government pledged itself to leave China free to adopt +or reject all such innovations and internal improvements, and +even to use its influence with other Powers for the same +end, they gained precisely the assurance they wanted.... +From that moment further progress or successful negotiation +became impossible. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +He added in a subsequent despatch to Lord Clarendon:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +One result stands out more clearly than any other, and +it is this: what we have gained by the last year's preliminary +negotiations is not likely to be withdrawn. But if it was +difficult to negotiate for large concessions before the assurance +authoritatively given by your lordship to Mr Burlingame, ... +it is now out of the question to hope for more than has already +been conceded.... Strong in the assurances of two of the +treaty Powers, ... it is quite certain that no further progress +can be made at present. It simply remains for her +Majesty's Government to determine whether they will carry +out the revision on the basis proposed and already assented +to by the Chinese Government, or defer the revision altogether +to some later period. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The provisional report of the negotiations having +been submitted by the Foreign Office to the other +treaty Powers for their opinion, most of them contented +themselves with amicable generalities, the only +definite criticism elicited being that of the North +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_218' name='Page_218'>[218]</a></span> +German Confederation. Going straight to the core +of the matter, in May 1869, Count Bernstorff wrote +as follows, basing his remarks upon the opinion of +the German merchants:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Although the advantages which are to be expected for trade +in general from the abolition of the "lekin taxes" would not +be too dearly bought by this extension of the transit duty +to all commodities, yet, on the other hand, the treaty Powers +certainly have the right of demanding the abolition of the +taxes levied contrary to treaty, even without giving anything +in return, and they might probably obtain this result by +common action. And then, moreover, it appears, from existing +circumstances in China, exceedingly questionable whether +this tax, even if abolished by imperial edict in consequence +of a treaty, would not, nevertheless, still be levied by the +mandarins, although perhaps in another shape, since now +indeed they have their assignments thereon. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Doubts on the part of the Foreign Office led to +further correspondence backwards and forwards, closing +with the following ambiguous despatch, dated 29th +September, which was transmitted by telegram, a +very slow process in those days:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +If you should not have concluded an arrangement before this +reaches you, her Majesty's Government think it would be better +to protract negotiations rather than accept now a limited arrangement, +which would be binding for so long a period as ten +years, and which would not comprise a satisfactory arrangement +respecting transit duties, and which might compromise the right +of her Majesty's Government to take part in the negotiations of +other Powers for a revision of their treaties. +</p> + +<p> +Should you, however, have completed any arrangement, you +may be assured that the best view will be taken of it here. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The supplementary convention was, in fact, signed +in October, and Sir Rutherford Alcock took his leave +immediately after, visiting the Yangtze, Shanghai, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_219' name='Page_219'>[219]</a></span> +Hongkong, and India on his way to Europe. At +these places he explained in general terms the bearing +of the treaty, the Indian Government being specially +concerned in the increase of the Chinese import duty +on opium, to which the trade generally were absolutely +indifferent. +</p> + +<p> +The supplementary convention was exhaustively reviewed +by the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce +in a memorial addressed to Lord Clarendon (December +31, 1869). To the practical view of the merchants +the treaty consisted of three clauses: one making compulsory +what had previously been optional—the payment +of half the import duty in commutation of inland +dues on foreign merchandise; one doubling the export +duty on raw silk; and the third more than doubling +the import duty on opium. Of these, the first alone +was deemed important. The consideration offered by +the Chinese Government for the compulsory payment—that +they would frank imported goods through nine +of the eighteen provinces of China—was not regarded +as an equivalent; for the treaty of Tientsin contained +the same undertaking without the geographical limitation, +but it had not been fulfilled. The ground +alleged for this non-observance of the existing treaty +had been the existence of insurmountable obstacles +in connection with provincial and imperial finance. +These obstacles, the merchants observed, were "now +assumed to have been suddenly overcome," an assumption +which they considered illusory. The question +of transit dues was not new to them: it had +been threshed out on all sides during weary years; it +was the recurrent topic of the day with them, as it +was destined to continue to be for a generation longer; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_220' name='Page_220'>[220]</a></span> +and the merchants could not therefore believe that +the difficulties against which they had been hopelessly +struggling were suddenly removed by magic. They +were not shown how the revolution was to be effected. +In short, "the conclusion," they said, "was irresistible, +that to a very great extent the commutation of +transit dues, which is made compulsory by the new +treaty, will simply become an additional tax on trade +without any return whatever; and that the provincial +authorities will as heretofore tax goods in transit very +much as they please, the treaty stipulation to the +contrary notwithstanding,"—a conclusion supported by +arguments which could not be refuted. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Thomas Wade some years later expressed the +same views as the merchants had done. "I doubted," +he said, "the good faith of officials when breach of +faith could only be established by the evidence of those +subject to their authority and entirely in their power.... +I have since found reason to believe that the +control of taxation in the provinces is a matter of no +small trouble to the Central Government as at present +constituted, if indeed it be possible at all." Nevertheless, +he adds, "I have found occasion to regret that +the convention has not been allowed at least a term +of probation." A term of probation was the alternative +suggested by the merchants also, but it seems never to +have received any consideration from the Foreign Office. +</p> + +<p> +The representation which the Shanghai Chamber of +Commerce based upon their review of the treaty was +adopted by influential commercial bodies in England, +who in a "monstrous deputation," as Mr Hammond +called it, urged on the Secretary for Foreign Affairs the +non-ratification of the treaty. The British Government +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_221' name='Page_221'>[221]</a></span> +gave way, not, as they candidly admitted, convinced +by the reasoning, but overawed by the electoral +pressure of the merchants; and the supplementary +convention was allowed to fall through. +</p> + +<p> +Thus ended the first attempt to negotiate a treaty +with China as a perfectly free agent. The conclusion +to be drawn not only from the negative result, but +from the whole process of the negotiations—from the +memorials from the provinces, and still more from the +Privy Council, the six boards, and the censorates—is, +as stated by Sir Rutherford Alcock in May 1869, "that +the old spirit of arrogance of the days of Lin and Yeh +is still in full vigour, and the assumption of superiority +over the barbarian absolutely unmeasured. That the +anti-foreign element amongst the official and educated +classes has suffered no diminution whatever; that if +some two or three leading men take a clearer view of +the political situation, they are evidently without +power to take action upon it; and so the vessel of +State is allowed to drift whichever way the tide of +prejudice and ignorance may set. There are still +some documents," he added, "wanting to complete the +series, especially the answer of Li Hung-chang and +a second memorial of Tsêng Kwo-fan [<a href="#Page_184" >p. 184</a> <i>seq.</i>], +which it would be desirable to obtain as showing the +policy advocated by two of the most prominent men +in the empire at this moment." +</p> + +<p> +One sentence of Sir Rutherford Alcock sums up the +case China <i>v.</i> the West: "Pressure, indeed, there must +always be here if anything is to be achieved for the +advancement of foreign interests and commerce. In +one way or other, however we may disguise it, our +position in China has been created by force—naked, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_222' name='Page_222'>[222]</a></span> +physical force; and any intelligent policy to improve +or maintain that position must still look to force in +some form, latent or expressed, for the results." +Whether the Western nations, singly or collectively, +are justified in using their force for such a purpose +is a question which is not affected by this plain statement +of the case. That the policy of the Western +Powers has been largely influenced by sentimental +consideration towards China is true; but their action +has never been consistent with their professions, and +their oscillation between coercion and submission has +led to disastrous consequences. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i222" id="i222"></a> +<img src="images/i-p222.jpg" width="174" height="273" alt="" /> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_223' name='Page_223'>[223]</a></span> +</div> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">MISSIONARY PROBLEM—TIENTSIN MASSACRE OF 1870.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Importance of missionary question long foreseen by Consul Alcock—Introduction +of missionaries under two French treaties—Toleration of +Christians under treaties of 1858—Forced upon China—Ardour of +missionary spirit uncontrollable—Negligence of treaty-makers in +providing no regulations for admission of the propaganda—Contrasted +with the care bestowed on trade regulations—Religious toleration of +the Chinese—Christian intolerance—Surreptitious article in French +Convention of 1860—Giving large privileges to missionaries in the +interior—Its abuse complained of by Chinese—Enforced restitution of +old property—Bitter injustice—Disintegrating action of the propaganda—Abuses +of extra-territoriality—Interference in local affairs—Detaching +natives from their allegiance—Causes of strife—Chinese +Government culpable in permitting abuses—Disputes about land and +houses—Chinese official laxity compensated for by unofficial illegitimate +methods—Attacks on missions fomented thereby—No remedy +possible without the unanimous consent of the Powers—Each having +different objects—Fruits of widespread hostility to missions appeared +in 1868—Riot and outrage—Culminated in Tientsin massacre of 1870—Details +of the occurrence—Treated cavalierly by Imperial Government—Culpability +of officials—Pressure by foreign Ministers induces +Chinese to execute sixteen criminals—Apologetic mission of Chunghou +to France—Suspicions of his complicity unfounded—Causes of the +hostility to foreigners—Government fear of reprisals by France—They +begin to take the missionary question seriously—Issue an +important circular—Badly received by the Powers. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +No subject more seriously engaged the attention of Sir +Rutherford Alcock during his whole term of service +than that of the Christian propaganda. While it was +yet in embryo, and long before the untoward consequences +now so familiar had declared themselves, the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_224' name='Page_224'>[224]</a></span> +evil to come formed the theme of many anxious +despatches. For, with the exception of Mr T. T. +Meadows, he was the only one of the early consuls +who attempted to read the horoscope of China with +a conscious participation in the responsibility for its +welfare. Their warnings were, of course, wasted on +the desert air, for statesmen whose hands are on the +lever of events are like the signalmen on a busy railway, +recking nothing of the origin or destination of the +train, careful only that it pass their own "point" in +safety. The thin end of the entering wedge destined +to split China into fragments, unless anticipated (as in +fact it has been) in its disruptive work by some ruder +allied agency, was clearly discerned by Consul Alcock +while at Shanghai. Under cover of the first French +treaties in 1844 and 1846 missionaries effected a legal +lodgment on the coast of China, from which they cast +longing eyes on the vast interior of the country. +Rivalry between the Christian sects brought fresh +pressure to bear on the plenipotentiaries, and the +"toleration clause" was introduced into all the treaties +negotiated at Tientsin in 1858, and in the German +treaty of 1861. +</p> + +<p> +Russia led the way, followed by the United States, +Great Britain, and France. The "clause" was substantially +the same in all, the toleration of Christianity +being based on its moral character exclusively—<span lang='fr_FR'>"Hommes +de bien qui ne cherchent pas d'avantages +matériels"</span> (Russian); "Teaching men to do good, +and to do to others as they would have others do +to them" (American); "Inculcates the practice of +virtue, and teaches man to do as he would be done +by" (English); <span lang="fr_FR">"Ayant pour objet essentiel de porter +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_225' name='Page_225'>[225]</a></span> +les hommes à la vertu"</span> (French).<a name='FA_16' id='FA_16' href='#FN_16' class='fnanchor'>[16]</a> Yet this apparent +unanimity concealed essential differences in aim and +motive. Russia, France, and the United States, to +leave England out of the account, each meant something +specifically distinct from the other by the practically +identical clause. +</p> + +<p> +What the Chinese would have said, had they been +free to discuss the demand made upon them, we can +hardly conjecture; but in the position in which they +actually found themselves they would have subscribed +to any form of words submitted to them, their sole +anxiety then being to get rid of the barbarians on +any terms. Had the preamble run, "Whereas the +Christian religion as practised for 1800 years has not +brought peace but a sword upon the earth, has set +the father against the son, nation against nation, +instigated crimes without number, sided with the +oppressor and the unrighteous judge, and is daily +prostituted for political ends," the Chinese would +have signed the toleration clause just the same. +The phraseology was nothing to them, whence it +follows that the responsibility for the consequences +rests on the Powers who imposed the form as well +as the substance of the obligations. These Powers +placed themselves in a self-contradictory position both +towards China and the Church, for the only ground +on which they claimed protection for missionaries in +the framing of the treaty is the one which they cannot +so much as consider in the fulfilment of it. The +ethical and religious side of the propaganda is to the +executive official a negligible quantity, while he can +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_226' name='Page_226'>[226]</a></span> +take cognisance only of that aspect of Christianity +which was studiously kept out of sight in the treaty—its +political character, the temper of the missionaries +and of the people among whom they work, and +all that makes for good or bad relations between them. +</p> + +<p> +Amid mixed and perverted motives there is doubtless +in all sections of the propaganda a residuum of +pure zeal in a holy cause. The medieval solicitude +for "saving the heathen" survives, and men and +women, fired with the conviction that they are engaged +in such a godlike enterprise, constitute an +ever-living force with which statesmen have to lay +their account. It can neither be reasoned with nor +turned aside, and is the more intractable in that +the logical effect of its inspiration is to place it +above civil law, but under a divine law of its own +interpreting, the interpretation varying indefinitely +with the divisions of the force, each division, and +sometimes each individual, selecting such portions of +the code and bending them to such meaning as may +support the objects and the methods of the sect. To +introduce such a complex ferment into the Chinese +body politic was a psychological experiment on a +colossal scale, and also irrevocable. It was, therefore, +an experiment which demanded the kind of precaution +used in handling dangerous chemicals. +</p> + +<p> +Yet absolutely no thought was bestowed on the +subject; the explosive was imported with less ceremony +than is bestowed on a bale of long cloth, and +left to spread according to its own laws in the living +tissue into which it was injected. So far at least as +the English treaty was concerned, we have it on the +authority of the actual negotiator that the Christian +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_227' name='Page_227'>[227]</a></span> +clause was an after-thought "shoved in" at the last +moment. The same authority adds, "The treaty was +left to carry out itself"—in other respects besides +that of the missionary question. Sir Rutherford +Alcock speaks of "the futility of grafting on to a +treaty of commerce, forced upon the Chinese under +circumstances which left them no power to refuse, a +proselytising agency for the conversion of the nation +to Christianity.... Whatever aims at these ends +under the stipulation of a treaty of commerce and +amity introduces a cause of distrust and an element +of disturbance. This we have done, and are now +reaping the fruit." But a rose-cutting would not be +grafted with the insouciance with which this spiritual +element was incongruously inserted in a commercial +treaty. Commenting directly upon the toleration +clause itself, Sir Rutherford wrote: "It is only +necessary to read carefully the words of the article +to be aware that in the whole range of the treaty, +from the 1st to the 56th article, there is nothing +stipulated for so difficult to secure as the fulfilment +in its integrity of this one clause." +</p> + +<p> +The foreign Powers generally seemed to court the +very "disturbance" apprehended by "leaving the +treaty to carry out itself," washing their hands of +their own careless work. We have seen what pains +were taken to allow the treaty to operate smoothly +in its main purpose by elaborating a scheme of trade +regulations far more complete than the treaty itself. +But as foreign trade had been carried on by the +Chinese for centuries, and the merchants of the respective +countries were thoroughly at home with each +other, commerce was the least likely source of friction. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_228' name='Page_228'>[228]</a></span> +Of the new dynamic element introduced into the +treaties, it seems never to have occurred to the +negotiators that any regulation was necessary at all. +Missionaries were permitted to enter and settle in +the interior, where everything was strange, for practical +purposes beyond the orbit of their countries' laws, +while protected against the jurisdiction of the Government +under which they were to live. Men who could +withstand the temptation offered by such a state of +things are not born every day. Without rule of +conduct save their individual judgment, with no +previous understanding with the Chinese provincial +officials as to relative rights and duties, they were +left to find such accommodation to their surroundings +as their several idiosyncrasies and the untried +conditions of Chinese social life might determine. +The missionary in the interior had thus all the +qualities of a "foreign body" setting up irritation +in the organism,—a state of things, however, which +his absolute faith in the sanctity of his mission perhaps +prevented him from comprehending. +</p> + +<p> +One trait in the national character was highly +favourable to the reception of a foreign religion. +The Chinese were of all nations the most tolerant of +opinion. They had already accepted and assimilated +two foreign religions—Buddhism and Mohammedanism; +indeed they had also, two hundred years +before, accepted and retained Christianity until it +was expelled in convulsions provoked by the foreign +missionaries themselves. Its second advent need not +have caused convulsions had it come as the others +had done, with clean hands, as a religion and nothing +else. The tolerance of the Chinese has been referred +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_229' name='Page_229'>[229]</a></span> +to materialism and contemptuous apathy, which is +by no means an exhaustive account of the matter. +They were not, any more than Hindus, naked savages +without language or literature: if anything, they +were over-civilised. Proud they were, indeed, and +conceited, and in its religious aspect they affected +to regard Christianity as but a wave breaking on a +rock. Their rock was a unique philosophy, scarcely +to be called a system, which stands for religion, +differing from other philosophic systems in eschewing +speculation and attending to the ethics of common +life,—the only philosophy that may be said ever to +have transfused itself into the blood of a people. +</p> + +<p> +The culture of the Chinese, however, was merely +an obstacle to the realisation of the Catholic ideal of +saving the heathen, as the grandest natural scenery +was regarded merely as a hindrance to medieval +travel. "Unhappy infidels, who spend their lives +in smoke and their eternity in flames," was Father +le Jeune's epigrammatic summary of the whole case +in Quebec. So deep-rooted is the tradition of the +reprobation of the heathen, that it generally requires +many years' experience before a foreign missionary is +led by contact with facts to see that Chinese ethics +form the natural basis for the Christian superstructure. +Some missionaries, indeed, go so far as to use +the writings of Confucius as a text-book. Before +reaching this ripe stage, however, the foreign missionary +has it in his power to do more mischief than he +can perhaps ever undo. +</p> + +<p> +There was one treaty stipulation which has not +been left to chance for its fulfilment—the additional +article inserted in the French Convention of Peking +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_230' name='Page_230'>[230]</a></span> +in 1860. An astute missionary, acting as interpreter +to Baron Gros, managed to interpolate in the Chinese +text a clause of his own which had no place in the +French—the ruling version—and was quite unknown +to the French Envoy.<a name='FA_17' id='FA_17' href='#FN_17' class='fnanchor'>[17]</a> By that clause full permission +was accorded to French missionaries to purchase land +and erect buildings thereon throughout the empire; +and further, all churches, schools, cemeteries, lands, +and buildings which had been owned by persecuted +Christians (Chinese) in previous centuries were to be +paid for, and the money handed to the French representative +in Peking for transmission to the Christians +in the localities concerned. This astounding demand, +in our eyes at once so truculent and so impracticable, +seems to have been to the Chinese neither more nor +less oppressive than the rest of the treaty, and they +signed without demur, under the usual mental reservation. +But it was in germ an official recognition of a +French protectorate over Chinese Christians, and of +corporate communities of Christians held qualified to +be served heirs to those who had been persecuted in +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—a germ +which might be cultivated with greater or less success, +according to the skill of those who had the care +of it. Some effort of imagination is required in order +to realise what is implied in this surreptitious article. +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +We must suppose [wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock] a French +army entering London and there dictating the conditions of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_231' name='Page_231'>[231]</a></span> +peace, and among others one that all Church property confiscated +by Henry VIII. should forthwith be restored to the +Roman Catholic Church by the present holders, however acquired, +and without compensation, and that the French Government +could be appealed to in order to enforce the rigorous +execution of the stipulation. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +How the stipulation was enforced is thus described +by Prince Kung in his circular of 1871, more fully +noticed below:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +During the last few years the restitution of chapels in every +province has been insisted upon without any regard for the +feeling of the masses, the missionaries obstinately persisting in +their claims. They have also pointed out fine handsome houses +(belonging to, or occupied by, the gentry or others) as buildings +once used as churches, and these they have compelled the people +to give up. But what is worst, and what wounds the dignity +of the people, is that they often claim as their property <i>yamêns</i>, +places of assembly, temples held in high respect by the literates +and the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. Buildings which +were once used as chapels have been in some cases sold years +ago by Christians; and, having been sold and resold by one of +the people to another, have passed through the hands of several +proprietors. There is also a large number of buildings which +have been newly repaired at very considerable expense, of which +the missionaries have insisted on the restitution, refusing at +the same time to pay anything for them. On the other hand, +there are some houses which have become dilapidated, and the +missionaries put in a claim for the necessary repair. Their +conduct excites the indignation of the people whenever they +come in contact with each other, and it becomes impossible for +them to live quietly together.<a name='FA_18' id='FA_18' href='#FN_18' class='fnanchor'>[18]</a> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Bitter consequences have resulted from the enforced +operation of the interpolated clause, for the French +Government, as is shown above, took full advantage of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_232' name='Page_232'>[232]</a></span> +the pious fraud. Neither did the Chinese themselves, +on discovering the truth, openly resent this example of +how the foreign religion <span lang="fr_FR">"porte les hommes à la vertu."</span> +The fraud was more than condoned by missionaries of +all nations and sects, whose legal title to residence in +the interior of China, distant from all authority, rests +solely on the interpolated French clause, the benefit of +which accrues to them under the most-favoured-nation +privilege. British Protestant missionaries, not altogether +satisfied with this tainted title, in a long letter +to their Minister, Sir Rutherford Alcock, claimed the +right of inland residence on another ground. They +adduced the public declaration of Mr Burlingame, that +"China invites Protestant missionaries to plant the +shining Cross on every hill and in every valley"; to +which the answer was simple, that the Chinese Government +disavowed the promises of the envoy, and +repudiated the implied obligation. The British +Government disapproved of the claim under the +French treaty, though in rather ambiguous terms, +because it rested "on no sound foundation, but on an +interpolation of words in the Chinese version alone in +the French treaty with China." Since then, however, +the pretensions of the French missionaries have been +vindicated less by the interpolated clause itself than by +the vigorous exercise of all the rights conferred by it, +and very much more. The clause thus lent material +force to the spiritual ferment, accelerating by many +degrees its disintegrating action. It may be alleged, +in palliation of the light-heartedness with which the +whole subject was treated by the negotiators of the +treaties, that they could not have foreseen such a +development of their innocent toleration clause; but +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_233' name='Page_233'>[233]</a></span> +the circumstance only emphasises the urgent need +there was for a clear definition of what was really +meant by it. +</p> + +<p> +But if toleration be the note of Chinese polity—concerning +not religion alone, but almost every matter +affecting government—it may be asked, What is it in +the propagation of Christianity that excites the hostility +of people and rulers? It is that the missionaries +present themselves to Chinese view as the instruments +of powerful nations bent on the ruin of the empire. +They enter the country with a talisman of extra-territoriality; +their persons are sacred; the law of +the land cannot lay hands on them. That is the first +stage. The second is, that they seek to extra-territorialise +their converts also, whose battles they fight in +the provincial courts and in the rustic communes, and +so make it of material advantage to the people to bear +the banner of the Cross. Many missionaries are really +zealous in the work of alienating the Chinese from their +natural allegiance, and of encouraging them to seek the +protection of foreign Powers as against the native +authorities. Thus a revolution of the most vital nature +is in progress, and is being pushed on with all the +energy which Christian, combined with ecclesiastical +and political, zeal can throw into the work. Village is +set against village, clan against clan, family against +family, and a man's foes in China are too often they of +his own household.<a name='FA_19' id='FA_19' href='#FN_19' class='fnanchor'>[19]</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_234' name='Page_234'>[234]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +No doubt the Chinese Government are to blame for +having allowed such a state of things to grow up; but +it is part and parcel of their drifting attitude towards +everything. It is not that their apprehensions are not +aroused, but that they lack initiative to avert the +danger which they fear. While in theory they do +not admit the claim of any foreign Power to protect +Chinese subjects, yet in practice the thing goes on, +and is acquiesced in. So formidable, indeed, have +the foreign missionaries become, that most of the +provincial authorities are afraid as well as jealous +of them; and peace-loving viceroys give the simple +injunction to their prefects and magistrates that on +no account must they permit dispute with foreigners +or native Christians. This means that the Chinese +Christian must be upheld, right or wrong, and the +Christian would be very un-Chinese if he did not +take advantage of such a privilege to trounce his +heathen neighbours. +</p> + +<p> +The right given in the French treaty of acquiring +land and building houses in the interior is one of the +most constant causes of local quarrel. Real estate in +China, being held not on personal but on family tenure, +can only be rightfully alienated by the common consent. +A dissentient member holding out, or reviving his claim +for purposes of extortion after assent has been given +and transfer made, may become a convenient instrument +in the hands of agitators against the foreigners; and +where there is no such dissentient it is not unusual for +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_235' name='Page_235'>[235]</a></span> +the local authorities to create one by forcible means. A +case in point may be mentioned in illustration. A +building was made over to the Baptist Missionary +Society by a Chinese family, every precaution being +taken to obtain the unanimous consent of its various +branches. When the deed had been signed by the +head of the family and other responsible members, the +local magistrate examined the chief of the clan, +denounced him, and punished him severely by +bastinado. Two of the signatories, thus intimidated, +disowned their own act, thereby invalidating the deed +by non-unanimity. +</p> + +<p> +Nearly all the attacks on missionaries proceed in +one form or another from that fecund nursery of +feuds, the land question. Whatever the merits of +the dispute, the foreigner is <span lang="la"><i>prima facie</i></span> in the +wrong; for he is an alien, an intruder, and he +erects buildings which are outlandish, offensive to +taste, and of sinister influence; and whosoever, albeit +the most disreputable member of a family of three +or four generations, proclaims a grievance by which +he has lost his birthright, is sure of a sympathetic +following. Thus without taking into account individual +indiscretions, or infirmities of temper, open attacks +on time-honoured customs, and so forth, there is +a perennial root of bitterness in missionary enterprise +in the interior of China, which throws out +shoots culminating in murder and fiendish ferocity; +and all this without even a distant approach to +the kernel of Christianity which lies behind the +outworks. +</p> + +<p> +For what the Chinese authorities have failed to +do by the legitimate means at their command, their +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_236' name='Page_236'>[236]</a></span> +underlings and the circle of gentry that surrounds +each provincial centre attempt to do by illegitimate +and criminal methods. Hatred of missions and +converts shows itself by violent outbreaks in which +innocent and guilty suffer a common fate; mobs are +excited by false suggestions, scholars write inflammatory +placards filled with the foulest calumnies, +and the higher officials "let it work"—secretly applauding, +but ready, if called to account, to exculpate +themselves and blame the poor ignorant +people. +</p> + +<p> +The charges which form the staple of these attacks +turn largely upon the murder of children in +order to make use of eyes, members, blood, &c., in +certain Christian rites; and they are so extravagant +and absurd that foreigners are apt to doubt that +even the most ignorant among the people really believe +in the crimes which are alleged against Christians. +The best authorities, however,—as, for example, +the late Sir Thomas Wade,—do not question +the sincerity of the popular belief; and indeed if +we compare these charges with those made against +the Jews by influential sections of Christians in +Europe, we shall be surprised at their practical +identity. +</p> + +<p> +For this deplorable state of things no one has +been able to suggest a remedy. What has been +done cannot be undone. To mend it even would +require such united action among the Great Powers +as it is hardly possible in the present state of the +world to conceive. France, indeed, on the morrow +of the Tientsin massacre, did appeal to the co-operative +principle as a protection to all foreign interests +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_237' name='Page_237'>[237]</a></span> +in China. The French ambassador in London addressed +the Foreign Office in these terms:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +<span lang='fr_FR'>Bien que les victimes de ces attentats soient presque exclusivement +des Français, on ne saurait contester que des faits +pareils révèlent l'existence de dangers qui menacent indistinctement +tous les étrangers résidant en Chine. C'est en considérant +leurs intérèts comme solidaires dans ces contrées de l'extrême +Orient que les Puissances européennes peuvent arriver à assurer +à leurs nationaux les garanties et les sécurités stipulées dans les +traités.</span> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the subsequent action of France in China, +however, there has been no trace of regard for +any such principle of solidarity. Indeed, were the +Powers ever so amicably disposed towards each +other on other questions, they could not agree in +this, the objects of their policy being absolutely +irreconcilable. +</p> + +<p> +"We cannot doubt," wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock, +"that the missionary question is the main cause +of disturbance in our relations with China, and of +danger to the Chinese Government itself no less than +to all foreigners resident in the country, missionaries +and laymen alike." He recommended in 1868 that +"the treaty Powers should, if possible, come to some +understanding on the religious and missionary question +as the necessary preliminary to any united action for +the common benefit, the acquisition of increased facilities +for trade, &c." And he says, "As regards Chinese +converts, any attempt to extend a protectorate over +them would of necessity either fail or be subversive +of the whole government of China." But in the same +paper he states that "France, with no trade in the +East, is ambitious of a protectorate over Roman +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_238' name='Page_238'>[238]</a></span> +Catholic missions"; and that "with regard to converts +protection has been partially extended to them +under the ægis of the French Government, and +that persistent efforts were being made to make +that protection effectual." These efforts have been +still more persistent during the generation that has +since passed. With France the protectorate over +native Christians is the great objective of her +Chinese diplomacy—not the ultimate end, indeed, but +the lever by which that end may be attained. To +suggest to France, therefore, the abandonment of +this policy would be about as hopeless as asking her +to give up her colonies as the preliminary to an +international conference. And while France protects +the proselytising machinery of the Roman Catholic +Church and its consequent usurpation of the Chinese +authority, it would seem of little avail to place other +missionaries under restriction. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The fruits of this war of the social elements began +to be harvested in 1868, as Sir Rutherford Alcock +observed; but that was only the beginning of a long +series of conflicts which have marked the progress +of missionary work in China up to the present day. +Riot, outrage, and massacre are its regular landmarks. +The outbreaks have so much in common that it would +serve no useful purpose to trace them in detail, or +attempt to apportion praise or blame to this or that +individual or sect. The one which has left the reddest +mark on history, and, being enacted in the presence +of a foreign mercantile community, brought the several +factors in the question into a clearer light than can +ever be thrown upon outrages in remote parts of the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_239' name='Page_239'>[239]</a></span> +interior, is the Tientsin massacre of 21st June 1870. +This occurred six months after Sir Rutherford Alcock +left China, while Mr Wade was <i>chargé d'affaires</i> for +Great Britain, and Count Rochechouart for France, +in Peking. +</p> + +<p> +The massacre of sixteen French Sisters of Charity, +including an Irish girl, Alice Sullivan, a French consul, +and several French subjects, also—unwittingly, +according to the imperial edict treating of the occurrence—a +Russian merchant and his wife, was the +work of an organised band, led by the city fire brigade, +under the direction of the civic authorities. The crime +had been planned for some time: it was preceded by +the murder of an isolated English missionary, Mr +Williamson, near Tientsin, and by an attempted anti-foreign +rising in Nanking, which was promptly suppressed +by the viceroy, Ma, who was soon after himself +assassinated. (He was a Mohammedan.) The +impending outrage in Tientsin was foreseen, and +warning given, several days before. An Englishman +was attacked on the 19th for no reason. The official +highest in rank on the spot—not, however, a territorial +authority—was Chunghou, a Manchu, holding +the office of Imperial Commissioner for Trade, and +very friendly to foreigners. Admiral Keppel says of +him that he was the most finished Chinese gentleman +he had ever met, with the exception of the +viceroy of Canton (probably meaning Kiying). The +governor of the province was Tsêng Kwo-fan, whose +capital was Paoting-fu, some 100 miles in the interior; +and his subordinates, the prefect and magistrate, were +the authorities at Tientsin immediately responsible +for the massacre. Chunghou had warned the Peking +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_240' name='Page_240'>[240]</a></span> +Government several weeks before of the progress of +the agitation against the French mission. +</p> + +<p> +The Imperial Government immediately on the occurrence +issued an edict describing the massacre as "a +quarrel between the people and the missionaries resulting +in a fight," but were promptly driven from that +position and pressed, not only by the French, but by +all the foreign representatives, to investigate and do +justice in the case, Count Rochechouart demanding +the capital punishment of the three mandarins who +had instigated the massacre. On this the Chinese +Government remarked in a secret edict, "Rochechouart, +with boundless arrogance, demands the execution of the +Fu and Hsien, a demand ten thousand times to be +rejected." Under pressure, however, the Government +ordered the governor-general, Tsêng, to proceed to the +spot and investigate. After a protracted journey he +reached Tientsin and commenced to take evidence, not +of the crime committed, but of the suspicions which +had been excited against the Sisters of Mercy, whom, +after ransacking their cemeteries for mutilated children, +he eventually acquitted. He then suspended the magistrates +<i>pro formâ</i>, and spoke of sending for troops to +catch the rioters! On receiving the viceroy's report +another imperial decree was issued repeating the original +falsehoods, and causing much disappointment to +the foreign Ministers. Renewed pressure from them, +not without hints of stronger measures, resulted in the +offer of fifteen of the mob to be executed, which, being +unanimously rejected, the Chinese Government, apparently +thinking it was the number that was inadequate, +threw in five more, making twenty in all. Sixteen +were actually beheaded, the remaining four being saved +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_241' name='Page_241'>[241]</a></span> +by the timely arrival of the Russian Minister, who +protested against the execution of the men accused +of murdering the Russians, because he did not believe +in their guilt. Compensation was paid by the Chinese +officials to the families of the executed men, which, +with the honours done to their dead bodies, showed +that they were sacrificed not for crime, but for reasons +of State. Of course pecuniary compensation was made +on account of the victims of the massacre, the Chinese +Government being never hard to deal with where +money is concerned. The prefect and the magistrate +who had busied themselves after the tragedy in +torturing Christians, in order to extort from them +confessions which would justify the massacre, were +nominally banished, though it was perfectly understood +that this was a pure matter of form. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i240" id="i240"></a> +<img src="images/i-p240.jpg" width="550" height="357" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">RUINS OF FRENCH CATHEDRAL AT TIENTSIN, BURNED JUNE 20, 1870. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +As part of the reparation for the massacre the +Imperial Commissioner for Northern Trade, Chunghou, +was despatched in the early part of 1871 on a +mission to France to express the regret of the Chinese +Government for what had occurred. This official, the +first man of rank who was ever sent out of China, +received but an indifferent reception from the President +of the French Republic. Being the highest authority +in Tientsin at the time of the massacre, and having +known of the preparations for an outbreak of some +kind, Chunghou was severely blamed by Europeans +on the coast of China, who alleged that the massacre +could have been prevented had he put forth +his authority. Meetings were even held on the subject +in Shanghai, and remonstrances were sent to +Europe against Chunghou's being received anywhere +as an ambassador until he should exonerate himself +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_242' name='Page_242'>[242]</a></span> +from all share in the Tientsin atrocity. These representations, +no doubt, had something to do with the +attitude of the French Provisional Government, which, +on other grounds also, was probably little disposed +in that year to occupy itself with the affairs either +of the Church or of China. +</p> + +<p> +There is reason to believe, however, that Chunghou's +conduct during the affair of Tientsin was not +inconsistent with innocence; for although he was a +man in authority, it was only as superintendent of +trade, having no control whatever over the hierarchy of +territorial officials, who were under the orders of the +viceroy, Tsêng Kwo-fan. Beyond his personal attendants +it is not probable that Chunghou could move +a corporal's guard in Tientsin, and his position was +such that the local authorities and their myrmidons +looked with the keenest jealousy on any departure of +the superintendent of trade from the strict line of his +own functions. He dared not, in fact, move a finger +against officers who owed allegiance to the viceroy, +and in apprising the Peking Government of the rumours +which were current, Chunghou probably considered +that he had gone as far as public duty warranted. +These somewhat anomalous relations between two high +dignitaries of the empire were put an end to when Li +Hung-chang succeeded Tsêng Kwo-fan as viceroy of +Chihli; for he was appointed also the successor of +Chunghou as superintendent of trade, and resided for +the most part of his time in the commercial port, +Tientsin. The two offices continue to be combined in +one person. +</p> + +<p> +Most of the typical features of a missionary outrage +were in this case exemplified—ferocious placards and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_243' name='Page_243'>[243]</a></span> +brochures, circulation of calumnies against the missionaries, +guilt of the local authorities, their immunity from +punishment, and the official publication of travestied +versions of the occurrence. There was also, we may +add, a lurking disposition on the part of foreign +Governments to give credit to the Chinese charges +against the missionaries. Finding themselves unable +by pressure on the Chinese to obtain satisfaction +for past or security against future outrages, they +were seldom indisposed to cover their impotence by +throwing the blame on their own people. +</p> + +<p> +There was, consequently, readiness in certain foreign +official quarters to dwell on undefined "indiscretions." +It was too easily assumed in the beginning that the +practice of the Sisters of Charity of purchasing destitute +children reasonably excited the suspicions of the +people. As a matter of fact, however, as was admitted +afterwards, this alleged practice of the Sisters was +entirely imaginary. It was also assumed that the +massacre was a spontaneous act of the populace, who +believed the stories of kidnapping. But in view of the +fact that these agitations arose simultaneously in distant +parts of the empire, this theory of sporadic action +could not be sustained: besides, as Tsêng Kwo-fan +himself shrewdly enough pointed out, no child had +been missed from any family at Tientsin, and the idea +of a disciplined fire brigade and a great city mob +being suddenly roused to fury by the abstract idea +that somewhere children had been kidnapped by +somebody is too altruistic for ordinary belief. The +mob needed an instigator, and the instigator was +well known. +</p> + +<p> +In the diplomatic correspondence which ensued, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_244' name='Page_244'>[244]</a></span> +admitted on all hands to be most unsatisfactory, the +British <i>chargé d'affaires</i> had occasion to complain to +Prince Kung that in the communications that passed +foreign Ministers and their Governments were spoken +of as vassals, which, coming two years after Mr Wade's +warm support of the Burlingame mission, was instructive +as regards the progress in liberal ideas which had +been claimed for the Chinese. +</p> + +<p> +Another consequence of this affair may be noted. +The instructions to British naval officers in China, +which had been dictated by Mr Burlingame in 1869, +were virtually reversed after the Tientsin massacre. +</p> + +<p> +It was the general belief at the time that, literally +by the fortune of war, the Chinese Government narrowly +escaped a signal retribution for its continued +guerilla warfare against foreigners as represented by +the missionary vanguard. Information travelled slowly +then. The nearest telegraph stations to Peking were +Kiachta on the Russian frontier and Colombo, and +there was only periodical communication with either, +so that it happened that the official news of the +massacre reached the British Foreign Office on July +25th. If we recall what was transpiring in the +capitals of Europe during that month of July 1870, +we may permit ourselves the speculation that events +might have taken quite another turn had the news +from China reached the Tuileries a month earlier +than it did. The Chinese Government themselves +were strongly imbued with this idea. In an interesting +interview which Consul Adkins had with Li +Hung-chang in October, after he had succeeded to +the viceroyalty of Chihli, in which the incident was +discussed, the viceroy could not conceal his anxiety. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_245' name='Page_245'>[245]</a></span> +The pith of a Chinese interview usually lies, like that +of a lady's letter, in the postscript, and as Mr Adkins +was taking leave the governor-general asked him, "Do +you think France will make war next year?" (It is +worth noting that in his report of the interview Mr +Adkins expressed himself "reassured by the governor-general's +tone and manner." "I take for granted," he +wrote, "that he will not tolerate any outrage on +foreigners within his jurisdiction;" and this forecast of +Mr Adkins has, we believe, been completely borne out +by the event.) +</p> + +<p> +But although the Chinese had escaped a great peril, +they were somewhat shaken in their sense of security +for the future. The attacks on missionaries had no +doubt gone further than was altogether safe, since +the indignation of the foreign Powers had been roused +almost to the pitch of war. The provincial authorities +having had their own way so long, threatened to +be too strong for the Central Government, and were +likely to embroil them with foreign nations; while +in their turn the "literati and gentry," unemployed +officials and the leaders of disorder in the great provincial +cities, were also becoming too demonstrative +for the provincial rulers. It was clear to the authorities +that they were face to face with a dangerous +situation, and, contrary to their traditional practice, +they began to devise measures in order to meet it. +The missionary, they now saw, was with them for +good, the hope of expelling him by intimidation +must be relegated to fanatics of the non-practical +school, and it would be imbecile to shut their eyes +any longer to facts. No doubt they had allowed +things to go too far in the admission of foreigners +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_246' name='Page_246'>[246]</a></span> +into the interior, trusting to the resourcefulness of +the provinces in insidious means of repression, but +to retrace their steps was now impossible. They +could no longer hope to expel the missionary, but +they would contrive some means to mitigate the +dangers of his presence. They would, in short, endeavour +to supply, in concert with the treaty Powers, +that culpable omission in the treaties by henceforth +regulating the missions and defining their rights +and obligations. +</p> + +<p> +The result of these cogitations was an elaborate +scheme for the control of missions which was published +in the summer of 1871, and was addressed to +the French Government, and by them communicated +to the others. That the Chinese Ministers of themselves +took so unprecedented an initiative it is not +necessary to believe. The circular was attributed to +that greatest of all Chinese statesmen, Wênsiang, +but the unseen hand that has done so much to assist +China out of her international difficulties may easily +be traced in this notable State Paper. In the preamble +the case is stated much as we have endeavoured +to set it forth: "Trade has in no degree occasioned +differences between China and the Powers. The same +cannot be said of the missions, which engender ever-increasing +abuses. Although in the first instance it +may have been declared that the primary object of +the missions was to exhort men to virtue, Catholicism, +in causing vexation to the people, has produced a +contrary effect in China." The circular submitted +eight rules for the government of missionary relations +with the people and officials in the provinces. The +rules referred to (1) the management of orphanages, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_247' name='Page_247'>[247]</a></span> +which it was proposed either to close altogether or to +place under severe restrictions; (2) the mixed attendance +of women and men at public worship, which, +being contrary to Chinese propriety, scandalised the +people; (3) the legal status of missionaries in the +interior, and the evil consequences of the <span lang='la'><i>imperia in +imperio</i></span> which had resulted through the missionaries' +separating themselves, and even their native converts, +from the jurisdiction of the local authorities; (4) the +restriction of proceedings in the case of riots to the +persons actively participating in the same; (5) the +clear definition of passports, so that missionaries +should not be able to move about at will, leaving no +trace; (6) the need of strict examination into the +character and antecedents of converts; (7) the etiquette +to be observed by missionaries in intercourse +with officials, the missionaries not to arrogate official +style; and (8) the reclamation of alleged sites of +ancient churches to be stopped, great injustice having +been done to Chinese through their being obliged to +surrender properties which they had honestly bought +and paid for. +</p> + +<p> +Many things have happened since 1871, and each +transaction with foreigners has involved greater and +greater encroachment on the Chinese prerogatives. +Thus the objection taken in 1871 to the missionaries' +arrogating official style has now been so completely +waived that the Chinese Government itself bestows +official rank on missionaries, and has sanctioned a +rule of etiquette for their intercourse with the high +Chinese authorities. Thus "bishops are authorised +to demand to see viceroys and governors of provinces; +vicars-general and archdeacons are authorised +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_248' name='Page_248'>[248]</a></span> +to demand to see provincial treasurers, judges, +and taotais; other priests are authorised to demand +to see prefects of the first and second class, independent +prefects, sub-prefects, and other functionaries. +The various orders of ecclesiastics are to visit +and write to the corresponding orders of Chinese +officials on terms of equality, and these officials will +naturally respond, according to their rank, with the +same courtesies."<a name='FA_20' id='FA_20' href='#FN_20' class='fnanchor'>[20]</a> +</p> + +<p> +This famous circular of 1871 unfortunately perished +at its birth: it was roughly attacked in the foreign +press, and met with a very cold reception by the +Foreign Offices. The English and American Governments +seemed satisfied with the reflection that the +strictures on missionary practices applied specially +to Catholics, and pleased to be able on that account +to dismiss it from consideration. From that day to +this the evils complained of have gone on increasing +and accumulating year by year, outrages and +massacres following each other without interruption, +and the exacerbation of feeling between foreign missionaries +and the Chinese population going on with +accelerated speed. The political results to China +have assumed in these later years the very concrete +form of territorial spoliation, and the Chinese +have had abundant experience of the religion which +makes nations strong and the people virtuous. That +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_249' name='Page_249'>[249]</a></span> +is not to say, however, that there is not good seed +already germinating under the snow, which may +hereafter bear the peaceable fruits of righteousness. +Meanwhile the naked unregulated forces are in open +conflict, and he would be a bold prophet who should +forecast the issue. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i249" id="i249"></a> +<img src="images/i-p249.jpg" width="216" height="235" alt="" /> + +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_250' name='Page_250'>[250]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXIII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE EXPANSION OF INTERCOURSE.</span> +</h2> + +<h3> +I. RUSSIA AND FRANCE ADVANCING. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Influx of treaty Powers—Diversion of Chinese foreign policy into new +channels—Aggrandisement of Russia—And France—At the expense +of China—Affecting whole policy of China for thirty years—The rise +of German influence—And Japanese. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Up to this stage the foreign relations of China have +been traced from what is practically a single point +of view—the English—without sensible distortion of +their true proportions. But the events of 1857-60, +and the treaties by which they were crowned, introduced +new factors and a wider ramification of +international connections. The arms of England and +France opened the door to an influx of Powers eager +to reap where they had not sown; and though the +full effect was not realised till many years later, +the shifting of foreign intercourse from an essentially +Anglo-Chinese to a Sino-cosmopolitan basis became +a potential reality on the day that Peking surrendered +to the Allies. Foreseeing such a result, the +negotiators of the treaties of 1858 advisedly refrained +from pressing the Chinese Government more than was +essential to the freedom of commerce, on the ground +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_251' name='Page_251'>[251]</a></span> +that other Powers less restrained than the authors of +the treaties by a sense of moral responsibility might +take undue advantage of concessions extorted from the +vanquished. This prevision has been borne out by +events, for the original "three treaty Powers" soon +became thirteen, and the old solicitude for the conservation +of China was gradually discovered to be +confined to the small minority who had a substantial +commercial stake in the country. With the increase +in their number there naturally also appeared diversity +of interest, scarce perceptible in the beginning, +but ever widening with the progress of events until +at length a stage of violent antagonism in the policy +of the Powers was reached. The division among +their enemies, which Chinese statesmen have deplored +their inability to compass, has thus been +brought about without their aid; but so far from +realising the Chinese dream of ruling the barbarians, +the division has only exposed the empire to the +ravages of rival spoilers. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to do more than glance at the +several channels into which the foreign relations of +China have branched off since 1860. Yet they intersect +each other at so many points as to form a +network which can only be intelligently considered +as a whole. The quasi-biographical form of the +present work may be appropriately dropped, so far +as China is concerned, with the beginning of 1870, +when the more immediate subject of it disappears +from the stage of action to reappear as a perspicacious +critic surveying the scene from a distant but +commanding standpoint. +</p> + +<p> +Two developments of far-reaching importance found +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_252' name='Page_252'>[252]</a></span> +their proximate starting-point, though not their +origin, in the crisis which laid China prostrate in +1858 and 1860. These were the extension of the +Russian empire to the Pacific Ocean, and the creation +of that Asiatic empire which had been the dream of +France for two centuries. China being by these +vast territorial aggressions placed between the upper +and the nether millstone, the anticipated advance of +the two Powers has exerted an influence on her +destiny scarcely less potent than the Japanese war +itself, with which it so effectively co-operated. The +soldier-statesmen of Russia foreseeing, what the war +of 1854-55 was soon to demonstrate, that the sea +route to their Pacific possessions was at the mercy +of the maritime Powers, resolved to make a dash for +a line of communication by land, and in pursuance of +this adventurous conception forced their way down +the Amur in spite of the feeble remonstrance of the +Chinese wardens of the marches. What was thus +taken by the strong hand in 1854 was formally ceded +in 1858, when, first, the Amur province, with the +free navigation of the river, and, next, an undefined +condominium in the Usuri province, were granted by +treaty to Russia. This was but a step towards the +absolute cession, two years later, of that territory, +including the whole Manchurian sea-coast, 600 miles +in length. These extensive cessions, giving Russia +the command of North-Eastern Asia, were extorted +from China while <i>in extremis</i> as a direct result of +the Anglo-French victories. +</p> + +<p> +So with the French establishment in the south-eastern +section of the Continent. The expedition sent +to the Far East in conjunction with that of Great +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_253' name='Page_253'>[253]</a></span> +Britain was, on completion of its work in China, +withdrawn to Cochin-China, and, in an alliance of +brief duration with Spain, invaded that dependency +of the empire of Annam—a vassal of China—and +captured Saigon. The Spanish partnership being +thereupon dissolved, the French empire of "Indo-China" +was inaugurated with a free hand. Zeal for +religion was the motive of the invasion: "The emperor +wished to put a stop to the constantly recurring persecutions +of Christians in Cochin-China, and to secure +them the efficacious protection of France." The record +of the phenomenal progress of the new French empire +since the treaty of Saigon in 1862 has been related by +many eloquent pens. M. F. Garnier, the heroic +explorer; M. de Carné, his colleague; M. Lanier, M. +Deschamps, M. de Lanessan, and a host of enthusiastic +French writers, have depicted in glowing terms not +only the process, but the motives and aspirations, of +the French "empire-builders."<a name='FA_21' id='FA_21' href='#FN_21' class='fnanchor'>[21]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The pressure, latent and active, of these two powerful +neighbours has given its tone to the policy of China +during thirty years, and in such a way that her +relations with the commercial nations who did not +menace her integrity have been relegated to a +secondary place. +</p> + +<p> +The new German influence in the Far East, which +had its modest beginnings in the treaties so reluctantly +concluded by the Japanese and Chinese in 1861, has +grown in importance <i>pari passu</i> with the rapid +development of the German empire itself, ably +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_254' name='Page_254'>[254]</a></span> +seconded, it must always be allowed, by the personal +qualities of the Ministers who have been successively +chosen to represent the Fatherland at Peking and +Tokio. The first resident Minister to China was Baron +Rehfues, who opened the Legation in Peking in 1866, +under the treaty of 1861. +</p> + +<p> +Another nation destined to play a leading <i>rôle</i> among +the Powers in the Western Pacific was during the same +period rising like the sun in the eastern sky. Nor was +it very long before the nascent Power of Japan began +to make its weight felt in the conflicts and concerts of +the Far Eastern world. +</p> + +<p> +It is obvious that under these various influences +operating from without, and the reflex action set up +within the State itself, the character of China as a +political and diplomatic entity could not any longer be +what it had been in the years before the war. What +had been simple became complex; no international +issue could be raised in an isolated form; nor could +China make any move, whether voluntary or involuntary, +without facing the critical observation of many +interested parties. This multiple responsibility to +Powers by no means at one in their aims, and each +assuming over her a status of superiority, could have +no other effect than to reduce to nullity any efforts +China might make either to improve herself or please +the Powers. It was impossible to please them all. +Decades before the Japanese war, more than one of +them had offered her armed assistance in thwarting +the designs of a third,—which things Chinese statesmen +pondered in silence. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_255' name='Page_255'>[255]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +II. JAPAN AGGRESSIVE. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p class="center"> +Extraordinary progress of Japan—Nation becomes restless—Invades +Formosa—Bought off by China. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The civil war in Japan had been fought with characteristic +energy during three years, when a revolution, +the like of which was never before seen, established the +new empire on the double foundations of hereditary +monarchy and popular suffrage. The effect of the +revolution was to concentrate the whole strength of +the State under the government of the Mikado, and +thus enable it to give free play to the widest +ambitions. With incredible rapidity the nation made +itself efficient for every enterprise of peace or war. +The best that the Western world had to teach was +eagerly appropriated by a people just aroused from a +long sleep, and anxious to make up lost time. They +went so fast, indeed, that onlookers shook their heads, +and their best friends would have applied the brake +had it been possible. But the nation was self-reliant, +and in its first adolescence it began to be aggressive. +</p> + +<p> +Within six years of the revolution of 1868 an +expedition was sent to invade the Chinese island of +Formosa. Through the good offices of Sir Thomas +Wade, British Minister in Peking, war between the +two empires was averted, and the Japanese forces +withdrawn. They were virtually bought off, a proceeding +characterised by Sir H. Parkes as pusillanimous +on the part of the empire of China. The transaction +really sealed the fate of China, in advertising to the +world that here was a rich empire which was ready to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_256' name='Page_256'>[256]</a></span> +pay, but not ready to fight. The euphemisms under +which the ransom was disguised deceived no one unless +it were the Chinese themselves. The vast cessions to +Russia, incredible as they appeared, had at least the +palliation of a dire emergency, and verbal equivalents +in the shape of promises of deliverance therefrom. The +submission to Japan, on the other hand, was made in a +time of comparative ease. +</p> + +<p> +The incident had yet a further significance. The +pretext of the Japanese invasion was injuries done to +shipwrecked Liuchiuans, a people whom China till +then and for some years later considered her own +vassals, and who had for centuries paid her regular +tribute. Such an episode was therefore a sure mark +of imperial decadence;—a definite step, moreover, +in the downward process, to be followed not long +after by the Japanese boldly asserting a claim to the +Liuchiu Islands, against which China could only interpose +an inarticulate protest. The meaning of these +indications was not likely to be lost either on the +Japanese, who were more immediately concerned, or +on other less interested onlookers. And what has the +subsequent history of China been but a development of +the symptoms? +</p> + +<h3> +III. KOREA OPENED. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Japan concludes commercial treaty with Korea—Establishes working +relations—Exciting jealousy in China—The suzerain—China replies +by opening Korea to the whole world. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The expanding life of Japan was soon to overflow +in another direction. The kingdom of Korea lay within +twelve hours' steaming from the Japanese coast: it had +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_257' name='Page_257'>[257]</a></span> +a historic and a mythical interest for Japan; it had +been the source of her culture as well as the scene of +her conquests and ultimate defeat. With the exception +of piratical raids on the coast towns of China, Korea +was the only foreign field into which Japanese arms +had been carried, and the prowess of their peninsular +heroes was cherished as a sacred treasure by a people +singularly tenacious of their heroic legends. After an +interval of three centuries the new Japan directed its +ambition to the scene of its medieval exploits; and the +"hermit kingdom" was at last dragged from its seclusion +and forced to play an unwilling part in the international +game. The modern spirit had tempered the +military passion, commerce and industry supplied the +ballast to adventure, and instead of landing an army of +200,000 men, as they had done in 1592, the Japanese, +in 1876, re-established themselves in the peninsula +through the peaceable agency of a treaty of amity +and commerce—a weapon newly borrowed from the +armoury of Europe. This movement of the Japanese +was by no means intended to "open" Korea—except +to themselves. On the contrary, it appears that that +very astute people ingratiated themselves with the +king's Government by aiding, or professing to aid, them +to keep the country closed to all other nations. +</p> + +<p> +But, like every other attempt to isolate an international +question, the exclusive effort of the Japanese +not only failed, but resulted in opening Korea instead +of closing it. They could not lock themselves in: the +key was on the outside of the door. Although they +disguised their feelings, the Chinese authorities had +been gravely disturbed by the attacks of the French +and the Americans on Korea in 1867 and 1871. The +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_258' name='Page_258'>[258]</a></span> +audacious advance of the Japanese aroused them to +the extent of considering the merits of a counter-move; +for Korea was the secular battle-ground between China +and Japan, the historic stepping-stone between the two +countries. And Korea was a vassal to China, if ever +one State did occupy such a relation to another. By +old tradition, by effective conquest, by solemn engagement, +by regular tributary missions, by the prerogative +of investiture, by the obeisance of the sovereign +before the Chinese envoys sent on great occasions, +by every kind of acknowledgment which the servant +could render to the master, was the suzerainty of +China established. +</p> + +<p> +China's relations to her tributaries was perhaps the +best feature in her imperial character. There was +protection, nominal or real, but never a shadow of +domination. The ceremonial once settled, the most +complete independence was accorded to the vassal +State, the imperial object being never oppression or +exploitation, but the girdling of the empire with a +cordon of contented States looking with filial eyes +towards the Dragon throne. Of these filial States +Korea was the most important, on account of its +geographical position as commanding one of the main +approaches to the Middle Kingdom, or, as the king +himself once expressed it in a memorial to the +emperor, as "the lips protecting the teeth." For +China the Korean peninsula has been a strategical +stronghold, but its importance was increased a hundredfold +when the statesmen of Peking came to +realise what they had done in giving away the whole +Manchurian sea-coast, leaving them no outlet to the +Sea of Japan excepting through Korea, which, moreover, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_259' name='Page_259'>[259]</a></span> +was studded all round with excellent harbours, useful +to friends and tempting to enemies. +</p> + +<p> +The wise policy which the emperors had observed +towards their tributaries had borne valuable fruit in +Korea. For two hundred years the Peking Government +had dealt so benignly with king and people as to +have inspired feelings of genuine affection combined +with deep reverence for the "big country." Whether +collectively or individually, officially or privately, the +Chinese were warmly welcomed everywhere without +ever abusing the courtesy of their hosts—in marked +contrast, it must be observed, to the Japanese, whose +record in Korea has been one of unbroken brutality, +producing a general feeling of aversion. +</p> + +<p> +If anything, therefore, could excite the jealousy of +Chinese statesmen, it would be to see this filial dependency +being tampered with by strangers, more +especially by their hereditary foes, the Japanese. +Better all the world in Korea with Japan excluded, +than Japan in with the rest of the world kept out. +Slow of apprehension, and still slower of action, her +unpractical conservatism in high places reducible only +by sap and mine, China brooded over the Korean +problem for some years before any result of the incubation +appeared. The conclusion eventually arrived at +was to neutralise the Japanese action by opening Korea +to the whole world under treaty. The realisation of +this scheme was as usual placed in the hands of +Li Hung-chang, who on the one hand recommended +the Korean king to conclude commercial treaties with +foreign Powers, and on the other encouraged the latter +to open negotiations. Hence the general opening of the +country in 1882, with its train of tragic consequences. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_260' name='Page_260'>[260]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The terms of the foreign treaties with Korea had not +been thoroughly thought out, and the very ambiguity +was perpetuated which it was the interest of China to +clear away. The treaties purported to be made with +an independent State, whereas Korea was a vassal, and +the inconsistency was attempted to be remedied by a +separate letter from the king to the Powers with whom +he had concluded treaties, declaring, notwithstanding, +that the Chinese emperor was his suzerain. +</p> + +<h3> +IV. THE FIRST IMPERIAL AUDIENCE—SUCCESSION +OF KWANGHSU. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +End of the minority of Emperor Tungchih—Audience of the foreign +Ministers in 1873—Under derogatory conditions—Death of the young +emperor—Empress regent's <i>coup d'état</i> in selecting successor—Her own +nephew—Eighteen years' minority of Emperor Kwanghsu. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +An event looked forward to for twelve long years +with patient expectation, and with hope, lively at the +beginning but fading away towards the end of the +period, that it would prove the sovereign remedy for +the defects of Chinese intercourse with the world, was +the assumption of power by the young emperor, who +attained his majority in 1873. The diplomatic body +busied themselves greatly in preparations for their +first audiences with the sovereign to whom they were +accredited. The Chinese on their part were no less +anxiously engaged in devising means of lightening the +blow to their prestige in consenting to receive foreigners +at all, while dispensing with the prescribed prostrations. +Obliged to yield the main point, the Court +officials minimised its significance by imposing sundry +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_261' name='Page_261'>[261]</a></span> +derogatory conditions as to the building in which the +audience was to be granted, and by the terms in which +it was referred to in the imperial decree, which represented +the foreign Ministers as "imploring an audience," +and by other like devices. +</p> + +<p> +The first to be admitted to the presence was the +representative of Japan, who held the rank of ambassador. +Next came the resident Ministers of +Russia, the United States, Great Britain, France, and +Holland, in a body; and lastly, the French Minister +separately, in order to convey the reply of his Government +to the mission of Chunghou respecting the +Tientsin massacre of 1870. The several letters of +credence were placed on a table. The emperor +"seemed to be speaking" to Prince Kung, though no +sound was heard. The prince in his turn addressed a +few words to the five Ministers, in Chinese, purporting +to be what the emperor had spoken in Manchu, and +the audience was at an end, the whole ceremony lasting +about five minutes. +</p> + +<p> +By long anticipation a superstitious halo had formed +round the abstract question of audience: it grew into +a kind of fetish. Mr Lay shrewdly observed that the +object of the "resident Minister" clause in the treaties +had been misunderstood by foreigners in being regarded +by them as an end instead of only a means. +Mr Wade, who was British Minister at the time, +made no such mistake; for though he consistently +laid stress on ceremonial, it was, as he has frequently +explained, because with the Chinese form was more +than substance, and included it. A proper regulation +of official etiquette was in his estimation the principal +key to the remedy of material wrongs. From this +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_262' name='Page_262'>[262]</a></span> +point of view a five minutes' audience of the Son of +Heaven, even in dumb show and once a-year, was a +step of real importance. "The empire," wrote Mr +Wade, "has for the first time in its history broken +with the tradition of isolated supremacy—not, it may +be, with a good grace, but still past recall; and while +I would anxiously deprecate a too sanguine estimate +of its results, I am as little disposed to undervalue the +change that has been effected." +</p> + +<p> +But whatever hopes of a practical kind were raised +by this ceremonial innovation were doomed to speedy +extinction, for the emperor did not survive to grant +a second reception. He died within the year, and +was succeeded by another infant, involving a second +minority much longer than the preceding one. Eighteen +years, in fact, elapsed between the first imperial +audience and the second. +</p> + +<p> +The Emperor Tungchih, though but eighteen years +of age, left a legend behind him. The gossip of the +capital assigned to him considerable independence of +character, and a certain audacity in breaking bounds +without the discreet chaperonage enjoyed by the Prince +Siddhârtha in his explorations beyond the palace precincts +of King Suddhôdana. He was, if common report +belied him not, a true son of his mother in certain +respects, though of her masterful statecraft, and the +qualities which become a great monarch, he was too +young to have given proofs. Leaving no heir, the +deficiency was promptly supplied by the resourcefulness +of the empress-mother. As the widow of the +Emperor Hsienfêng and co-regent, she adopted a +posthumous heir to that monarch to replace his own +son. Her choice fell on the infant son of Prince Ch'un, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_263' name='Page_263'>[263]</a></span> +the youngest brother of Hsienfêng. The mother of +the adopted child was the empress-regent's own +sister, and by thus enthroning her nephew the regent +assured herself another long lease of power. The proceeding +was irregular, there being two older brothers +of Prince Ch'un alive and having sons. The nearest +heir was the infant grandson of Prince Tun, the fifth +son of Tao-kuang, but though Prince Tun himself +had thirty years before been given in adoption to an +uncle, the claim of his descendants to the imperial +inheritance being thereby weakened, he seems never +to have renounced his rights. At the time of the +decease of Tungchih there was so much apprehension +of disturbances in Peking, both on account of +the succession and the form of the regency, that the +'Times' (February 4, 1875) wrote, "A battle on this +question would seem almost inevitable, and notwithstanding +the proverbial slowness of the East in most +things, in crises like the present aspirants to Eastern +thrones are wont to display both energy and readiness +when the moment arrives for a <i>coup d'état</i>." +</p> + +<p> +The next in seniority of the sons of Tao-kuang +was Prince Kung, whose title was uncompromised +by alienation, and he had a son eligible. Whatever +may have been the reasons for setting aside the claims +of the two elder brothers to occupy the Dragon throne, +they were considered to have been wrongfully set aside, +and of this more will doubtless be heard in the fulness +of time. Since, for reasons well understood, no natural +heir to the present monarch can succeed him, there +must be fresh recourse to adoption when or before +the necessity arises, and what influences, native or +alien, may then be concentrated on the imperial succession +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_264' name='Page_264'>[264]</a></span> +is a speculation on which it would be profitless +to enter. +</p> + +<p> +The empress-regent's <i>coup d'état</i> of January 1875, +when on a bitterly cold night her infant nephew +was taken out of his warm bed, conveyed into the +palace, and proclaimed emperor the following morning, +answered the scheming lady's expectations, for she +has ruled the Chinese empire from that day to this. +By the same stroke she was enabled to disembarrass +herself of her original confederate, Prince Kung, to +whose ambition she dealt a crushing blow in ousting +his family from the succession. The two had come to +hate each other with more than common virulence; +and now that Prince Ch'un had been set on an +unassailable pedestal as father of the reigning sovereign, +the regent placed her trust and confidence in +him, and shared with him the sweets of empire. Inasmuch, +however, as the regent was a woman, and her +imperial brother-in-law neither a man of affairs nor +in a position to assume any outward share in the +Government, it was necessary to bring in a practical +statesman to stand between them and the outer world. +This position of confidence was occupied for twenty +years by the grand secretary, Li Hung-chang. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_265' name='Page_265'>[265]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXIV. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE MURDER OF MR MARGARY, 1875—CHEFOO CONVENTION, +1876—RATIFICATION, 1885.</span></h2> + +<h3> +I. THE MURDER OF MR MARGARY, 1875. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Efforts to reach China from Burma—Expedition under Colonel Browne—Mr +Margary appointed interpreter—Meets party at Bhamo—Precedes +them into China, and is assassinated at Manwyne—Discussion thereon +with the Chinese Government—Tsên Yü-ying, Governor of Yunnan—British +Minister charges him with the murder—Demands his arraignment—Sends +commission from Peking to Yunnan to take evidence—Unsuccessful. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Ever since the conquest of British Burma, and more +especially since the treaty concluded with the King of +Burma in 1862, political and commercial speculation +had been busied with the mountainous country which +divides it from the empire of China. The fact that +next to nothing was known of that wild region, combined +with the prospect of reopening the old caravan +route which had been some time closed by disturbances +among the frontier tribes and by Chinese insurgents, +constituted a great stimulus to exploration. To this +end projects were from time to time considered by +the Indian Government—sometimes at the instance +of enthusiastic officials, sometimes urged by the superior +authority of the British Government under pressure +from mercantile bodies in England. South-western +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_266' name='Page_266'>[266]</a></span> +China, however, was as jealously guarded from intrusion +as the sea-coast had been, and no progress +was made in penetrating its mystery. +</p> + +<p> +After the failure of an exploring expedition under +Colonel Edward B. Sladen in 1868, the Indian Government, +in furtherance of the wishes of the Government +at home, sanctioned yet another attempt six years later, +though with decided misgivings as to any successful +issue. Arrangements were made during 1874, and +the expedition, under Colonel Horace Browne, was +despatched from Burma <i>viâ</i> Bhamo in the beginning +of 1875. The British Minister in China had been +asked for his co-operation, and in particular he was +requested to furnish Colonel Browne with a competent +interpreter. It was arranged that this official, +armed with a Chinese passport issued by the Government +at Peking, should make his own way through +China from the coast and join Colonel Browne at +Bhamo. +</p> + +<p> +The choice of her Majesty's Minister fell upon one of +the most promising officers in the consular service, +Mr Augustus Raymond Margary, who proceeded from +Shanghai by way of the Yangtze to the province of +Yunnan, and in five months accomplished his perilous +pioneering journey with perfect success, arriving on +the 17th of January at the rendezvous, where he was +received with the warmest feelings by Colonel Browne +and his party, and with surprise and admiration by the +Burmese. +</p> + +<p> +On being joined by Mr Margary, the mission prepared +to start from Bhamo towards China. Everything +seemed auspicious for the expedition. On arriving at +the Burmese frontier, however, the party were met by +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_267' name='Page_267'>[267]</a></span> +sinister rumours of armed opposition to their passage +through the Kakhyen hills. Margary, having just +come safely through these districts, volunteered to +proceed alone to ascertain the truth of the reports +which they had heard. How he was treacherously +assassinated at Manwyne, the first city within the +Chinese border, and how Colonel Browne's mission was +assailed and driven back by armed bands, has been told +by Dr John Anderson in 'A Narrative of the two Expeditions +to Western China' of 1868 and 1875, and by +Sir Rutherford Alcock, the sympathetic editor of Mr +Margary's 'Letters and Journals,' as well as in numerous +Government publications. +</p> + +<p> +It became then a question of the gravest import to +fix the guilt of this treachery, and to consider what +means could be adopted for avenging the death of +a young Englishman within Chinese territory, and +bearing a passport from the Government of Peking. +"Whether it be Burmese, Kakhyens, Shan tribes, or +Chinese that are in question, it is impossible we can +accept a defeat of this nature, brought on, too, by +our own spontaneous acts," was the conclusion of Sir +Rutherford Alcock. Governments which resorted to +the assassination of individuals under their own safe +conduct must be deterred, by persuasion or by force, +from the use of such tactics. The demand for redress +which was made direct to the Tsungli-Yamên was +followed by a wrangling and evasive discussion as to +the conditions on which the passport had been granted. +These, it must be admitted, had not been so definitely +stated as they might have been. Passports, as Mr +Wade, then Minister in Peking, explained, were +granted in two forms—for "business," meaning trade, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_268' name='Page_268'>[268]</a></span> +or for "pleasure," rendered in Chinese "tour or travel." +It was in the latter form that the passport for Colonel +Browne was applied for, and the Chinese made a +plausible defence of their position on this narrow +ground, asserting that the subsequent declaration +that the mission was intended to open a trade route +through Chinese provinces, where they alleged no +trading rights for foreigners existed, could not be +covered by a passport granted for pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +The voluminous discussion on international rights +which followed, although academical in form and irrelevant +to the question at issue, betrayed the animus +of the Chinese Government in regard to commercial +concessions in the interior; but it is possible that the +true motive for the repulse of Colonel Browne's expedition, +of which Mr Margary's murder was but an incident, +lay deeper. Europeans are accustomed to make +light of oriental suspicions, and the idea that Colonel +Browne's party was the vanguard of a hostile force +to be treacherously introduced into Chinese territory +under passport may seem too fantastic to have been +entertained in good faith. Yet if we consider on +what trivial grounds even the civilised Powers of +Europe will at times suspect each other of the most +grandiose designs, and how often the suspicion is +justified, we need not dismiss as incredible the fact +that, in a frontier province which had recently been +the scene of a formidable rebellion, an armed escort +accompanying a foreign tourist party should have +caused sincere misgivings in the minds of the authorities. +Nor do the facts of the case exclude the possibility +of such suspicions being suggested from without, +even if they did not arise spontaneously within. Apart +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_269' name='Page_269'>[269]</a></span> +from these special considerations, the chances of success +would probably have been greater if the mission had +started from the Chinese side, where the right of travel +and exploration had already been established. +</p> + +<p> +The verbal polemic over the conditions of the +passport did not, however, touch the matter in hand, +which was the murder of a British official for whom +the Chinese Government, both imperial and provincial, +were expressly responsible. It is not necessary at this +day to pronounce judgment on the identity of the +actual criminal. The murder was the result of a +conspiracy in which Chinese and Burmese were both +implicated. They were alike interested in preventing +the passage of the mission, and the strong opposition +of the Burma Government was not unknown to Mr +Margary, for he had noted it in his Journal. +</p> + +<p> +The King of Burma, the father of the well-known +Theebaw, was a learned pandit and a devout Buddhist, +as severe in regard to heretics as the crowned heads +of Europe were in the days of the Inquisition. The +Court of Ava, in its claims to obeisance from foreigners, +was almost as exacting as the Son of Heaven himself, +and the priests lorded it over the community +with the arrogance of a pampered caste. Thus foreign +intercourse was heavily hampered, and a good understanding +rendered almost impossible. Fears for their +prerogatives must have inspired the royal and priestly +coterie with aversion to that restless element which +was always trying to "open up" other people's country +and to explore trade routes. Hence the motive for +obstructing the passage of a foreign expedition between +Burma and China was as strong on the Burmese as +on the Chinese side. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_270' name='Page_270'>[270]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +Tsên Yü-ying, the Chinese governor, held an exceptionally +strong position in his province, and the officials +stood very much in awe of him. Though not a pure +Chinese, having been born in the mountains of +Kwangsi, of aboriginal parentage on one side, his personal +prestige was very great. A fighting man from +his youth, he had acquired an immense reputation in +suppressing the Mohammedan rebellion in Yunnan. +This he did in oriental style, extirpating the rebels so +far as he could, root and branch. To save the trouble +of burying many thousands of old people and children, +he had them drowned in the Tali Lake. The military +commander who was told off for this pleasing duty +palliated the massacre, when in after years narrating +these occurrences, by saying there were not really +10,000 but only 3000 thrown into the lake. This +official had remonstrated with the governor against +the sentence, saying that such severity was not in +accordance with Tao li (principle); but Tsên replied, +"You have nothing to do with Tao li; you must +conform to the Leu li" (Penal Code). +</p> + +<p> +Tsên Yü-ying was therefore something greater than +an ordinary provincial governor, and wielded something +more than the authority belonging to his office. +Not only was he responsible, as all governors are, +for what was done within his government, but it is +difficult to conceive of any important incident occurring +there without his personal sanction. But which +was the leader in the plot, whether the acting-governor +Tsên Yü-ying or the King of Burma, is comparatively +unimportant; suffice it that her Majesty's Minister +fixed, on grounds which satisfied himself, though of +course on inferential evidence only, the instigation +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_271' name='Page_271'>[271]</a></span> +of the crime on the governor-general Tsên Yü-ying; +and whether the direct guilt were brought home to +him or not, there could be no question about his +responsibility under the Chinese principle of administration. +"From the governor-general downwards they +are each and all individually and collectively held +responsible for all that may happen in the limits of +their jurisdiction." Accordingly, after much preliminary +discussion, Mr Wade demanded that that +high official should be censured for neglect of duty, +and, on later information, that he should be brought +for trial to Peking. To this demand the Peking +Government refused to listen, and after feigning for +many months to have no knowledge of what had +taken place, they produced a report from the governor-general +himself inculpating certain subordinates, +of whom he seemed willing to make a nominal sacrifice. +This report was so openly mendacious that Sir Thomas +Wade threatened to haul down his flag if it were +published. +</p> + +<p> +Unluckily for the successful prosecution of the +demand for the arraignment of the viceroy, the British +Minister became entangled in a cat's-cradle of negotiations +for the revision of the treaty of Tientsin, with +which the Yunnan outrage got so mixed up that the +different questions never could be, or at any rate +never were, separated again. Throwing the net is +the tactical device in which the Chinese excel. The +demand for reparation for the murder was alternately +put forward, modified, and withdrawn according as the +general propositions were shuffled about, and thus the +effect of a concentrated attack on the essential point +was lost. The minister on his own showing found +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_272' name='Page_272'>[272]</a></span> +himself in a succession of dilemmas, while the Chinese +defensive position was clear throughout: it was to +refuse everything, evade when direct refusal was +dangerous, and in short to baffle all attempts of the +British Minister to get to close quarters with the +question. Sir Thomas Wade was several times brought +by these elusive tactics to the point of threatening +withdrawal of the Legation, which in itself the Chinese +would have welcomed as a householder might the +"positively last visit" of a tax-collector, but for the +ulterior consequences to be apprehended. +</p> + +<p> +After many months of fruitless labour Sir Thomas +Wade resolved to send a commission of his own to +Yunnan to collect evidence as to Margary's murder. +His right to do so was at first contested by the Chinese; +but after considering the matter, and getting the best +advice at their command, they assented, and named +High Commissioners to meet the British officials. The +Hon. T. G. Grosvenor, secretary of Legation, was +detached for this duty, assisted by two of the most +competent men in the consular service—Mr Colborn +Baber and Mr Arthur Davenport. On the Chinese +side were appointed the viceroy of the Hu Kwang, +Li Han-chang, elder brother of Li Hung-chang, another +official to whom Sir Thomas Wade objected strongly, +but in vain, and Tsên Yü-ying himself, the inculpated +party. The promises made to the British Minister +before he would allow the mission to set out were +broken as soon as it was fairly on its way, and Sir +Thomas Wade had serious thoughts of recalling it, +foreseeing that it was destined merely to waste time. +What possible hope, indeed, could there be of isolated +foreigners collecting evidence in a distant city against +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_273' name='Page_273'>[273]</a></span> +the high provincial officials? No evidence was taken. +The British Commissioner was simply presented with +the original report, to which was added the so-called +"confession" of thirteen savages "kidnapped to do +duty as prisoners at the bar." These savages could +not speak Chinese, nor was their language understood +by any one in the viceregal court; it was evident +that they had never been near the scene of the +crime, nor did they look in the least like men who +were pleading guilty to a capital charge. +</p> + +<p> +The motive of the Chinese in yielding to the appointment +of the British commission, after refusing +their assent to it, only occurred to Sir Thomas +Wade when they recommended that Mr Grosvenor +should remain in Yunnan until the case was closed. +No coercive measures, they calculated, would be taken +against them while these hostages remained in their +hands. From first to last the only question that +occupied the mind of the Chinese Government was +whether force would be applied or not. And if +they read—as of course they did—the English newspapers +of the day they would see that the contingency +of war was dwelt upon throughout the year 1875 as +the sole alternative to the condign punishment of the +Governor-General of Yunnan-Kweichow. This was, +indeed, from time to time directly threatened by Sir +Thomas Wade, and he had applied for the Flying +Squadron to come on from India to support his demands. +When at last, after eighteen months' struggle, +he abandoned the negotiations, and "abruptly left +Peking" for Shanghai in order to be in direct telegraphic +communication with the Home Government, he +wrote, "I had, in the last fortnight, again and again +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_274' name='Page_274'>[274]</a></span> +threatened either to remove the Legation or to recommend +to her Majesty's Government the extremest +measure of coercion unless I had secured a very +moderate form of reparation." +</p> + +<p> +When Prince Kung realised the fact that the British +Minister had actually left the capital he became suddenly +serious, and sent after him to say there had been +a misunderstanding, which would have been cleared +away if he had only waited. At the same time the +prince had recourse to his foreign adviser, the Inspector-General +of Customs, who stood to the Government +somewhat in the relation of a "medicine-man." +The inspector-general had taken an active part, both +direct and indirect, in the comedy of the preceding +eighteen months—whether as an ally or an opponent +of the British Minister seems not to have been quite +clear to the comprehension of the latter. +</p> + +<p> +An imperial decree was immediately despatched +to the Grand Secretary, Li Hung-chang, instructing +him to detain the British Minister on his way +through Tientsin, in order to confer with him on +the Margary case. This proposal Sir Thomas Wade +declined on several grounds: among others, that at +a previous stage of the negotiations the promises +made by Li Hung-chang had been repudiated by +the Peking Government. This effort to stop him +at Tientsin having failed, Mr Hart was despatched +in hot haste after Sir Thomas Wade to Shanghai, +ostensibly to discuss the "commercial question," but +really to induce the British Minister to re-enter the +arena of negotiation,<a name='FA_22' id='FA_22' href='#FN_22' class='fnanchor'>[22]</a> in which the Chinese felt themselves +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_275' name='Page_275'>[275]</a></span> +safe. Sir Thomas, therefore, consented to meet +a special commissioner, but without committing himself +as to the scope of the intended conference. The +High Commissioner was Li Hung-chang, and the +place of meeting Chefoo, the locality being selected +by Sir Thomas Wade himself. There was concluded +the famous Chefoo Convention. +</p> + +<h3> +II. CHEFOO CONVENTION, 1876. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Negotiations with Li Hung-chang at Chefoo—Mr Hart assisting—Sir +Thomas Wade hurried into making an unsatisfactory settlement—Chefoo +convention analysed—Net result an increase in the customs +dues—Criticised by the merchants. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It was in the month of September, the summer not +yet over, during which season the sea air and fine +beach of Chefoo made it at that time the best health +resort for the China coast. Visitors from Peking +occasionally varied their summer residence at the +Western Hills by spending a few weeks at Chefoo, +and in 1876 there were several members of the diplomatic +body taking their holiday at the watering-place, +the meeting of the British and Chinese plenipotentiaries +constituting for them an added attraction. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Thomas Wade had originally no intention of +concluding a formal convention, nor had he authority +for closing the Yunnan question without further reference +to his Government; but circumstances proved too +strong for him to keep to his resolution. He, in +fact, found himself in such a position of difficulty +as is perhaps best described by the word "cornered"—the +advantage of the game having passed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_276' name='Page_276'>[276]</a></span> +entirely to the other side. The Chinese commissioner +was powerfully reinforced by the inspector-general, +supported by the local commissioner of customs +for Chefoo; and the neutrality of those of the +diplomatic body who were on the spot was believed +to be benevolent to the Chinese. The "co-operative +policy" of Mr Burlingame's day had for the time being +at least lapsed, and particularist views among the +Powers or their representatives began to prevail. The +British Minister, deeming the matter in dispute with +the Chinese a purely British concern, did not hold +it incumbent on him to hamper his negotiations by +daily consultations with his colleagues, who on their +part resented his reticence, claiming it as a right +that, considering how their national interests might +be affected by the result, they should be kept informed +of the progress of the negotiations. Sir +Thomas Wade admits that, among other considerations, +it was the impatience of these colleagues of +his to see the discussion definitely terminated which +induced him to close the case without waiting for +further instructions from his Government. +</p> + +<p> +It must be borne in mind that the problem before +the Chinese High Commissioner had never +varied: it was the extremely simple one, how to +screen the ex-governor Tsên Yü-ying, whether guilty +or innocent, without encountering a British armed +force. The fate of the negotiations depended entirely +on the probable movement of the Flying Squadron, +which was lying at Talien-wan, a hundred miles off. +No greater service could have been rendered to the +Chinese Government than to assure the High Commissioner +that he had nothing to fear from the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_277' name='Page_277'>[277]</a></span> +British ships. The foreign Ministers who were present +had their Intelligence Departments in full activity, +and they had a shrewd notion of the limitations +of the Flying Squadron, which they were free to +communicate to the Chinese plenipotentiary. They +were aware that the time—September 1876—was +not opportune for the British Government to embark +on distant enterprises of indefinite possibilities. From +one source or another the assurance was given to +the Chinese negotiator, and once convinced, on whatever +evidence, that the British guns would fire +nothing but salutes, Li Hung-chang felt himself +master of the situation. It then became his turn +to force a settlement, and he at once assumed a +peremptory tone with the British Minister, notifying +him that he would leave Chefoo on a certain day, +convention or no convention. Sir Thomas Wade had, +or thought he had, no choice but to capitulate to +superior force. Pressed by his diplomatic colleagues, +as has been said, as well as by the expressed desire +of his own Government to get the tedious matter +settled, he had to accept the best agreement he could +get, and the Chefoo convention was the result. +</p> + +<p> +The fear of coercion being eliminated, the negotiation +became reduced to a custom-house affair like +the treaty revision of 1869, the Chinese seizing the +occasion to renew their former efforts to obtain an +increase of revenue from foreign trade. Instead of +adding to the import duty on foreign merchandise +as in 1869, they now proposed to extend the area +of internal taxation, and in particular they prepared +the way for an indefinite increase in the opium +revenue. This was the substantial part of the convention. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_278' name='Page_278'>[278]</a></span> +New ports were opened in harmony with +the scheme. +</p> + +<p> +A clause referring to residence at Chungking in +Szechuan provided that British merchants would not +be allowed to reside there so long as no steamers +had access to the port. When, under this contingent +clause, it was attempted to make the conditional +permission effective by sending steamers to the port, +the Chinese Government offered opposition, and the +right was abandoned by Great Britain. +</p> + +<p> +As for the Yunnan affair, the settlement of it gravitated +to the form which had been universally condemned. +"Do not let the nation lay itself open to +the contempt of an Asiatic people by accepting money +for life treacherously taken by official order," wrote +Sir R. Alcock in July 1875. But "the series of bad +precedents" was once more followed, and "blood-money +was accepted for the life of a British subject." +</p> + +<p> +It was thought important to publish far and wide +the terms of settlement, and a proclamation with +Sir T. Wade's <i>imprimatur</i> was posted throughout +the country. It was remarked, however, that this +proclamation embodied the very falsities against the +publication of which the British Minister had previously +protested under threat of breaking off diplomatic +relations. The guilt of notoriously innocent parties +was assumed in it, but their pardon granted on +the fictitious ground that the evidence against them +would not suffice to convict by the processes of +British law. +</p> + +<p> +A separate article provided for a mission of exploration +by way of Szechuan and Tibet in the +following year. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_279' name='Page_279'>[279]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +A subject on which Sir Thomas Wade had long +set his heart was an improvement in the terms of +intercourse between foreign and Chinese officials, with +a view of putting an end to the habitual assumption +of superiority of the Chinese. This was treated in +a few empty words providing that the Tsungli-Yamên +should invite foreign representatives to consider with +them a code of etiquette, a clause imposing no obligation +whatever on either party. +</p> + +<p> +Another question which had greatly occupied the +minds of both the British Government and its +successive representatives ever since 1833 was the +establishment of a code of laws to regulate the civil +and criminal relations between foreigners and Chinese +at the treaty ports and elsewhere. This had formed +a feature in the supplementary convention of 1869, +the undertaking in which did not, however, extend +beyond the general terms that "it is further agreed +that England and China shall in consultation draw +up a commercial code." +</p> + +<p> +Strongly approving, however, of the abstract idea +that China should adopt a written code of commercial +law as a first step towards a general legal reform, +Sir T. Wade nevertheless uttered a useful caution to +those ardent reformers who see in a good code of +laws a panacea for either national or international +grievances. "No nation," he says, "worked harder +at its legislation than China; but in the way of +justice there are at least two serious impediments—an +ignorance which renders due appreciation of the +value of evidence, especially in criminal cases, impossible; +and a dishonesty that would be fatal to the administration +of any laws, no matter how enlightened." +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_280' name='Page_280'>[280]</a></span> +He illustrates this by relating an instance of the +obstinate nature of the <i>chose jugée</i> in China. +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +In a case [he says] the termination of which is just announced +at Peking, we have a woman wrongly convicted, on +a confession extorted from her by torture, of the murder of +a husband who died a natural death, the injustice being so +patent that the fellow-provincials of the accused appealed to +Peking. Orders being issued for a rehearing of the case, the +former decision was affirmed in the province, and this a second +and again a third time. The proceedings were then removed +to Peking; and it is in the end established that magistrates of +districts, prefects of departments, the governor of the province, +and the high officer charged with the public instruction of the +province, who had been specially commissioned to rehear the +case, have all more or less combined to conceal the delinquency +of the first authority who heard it; with whose guilt the rest, +his seniors, had associated themselves either through carelessness +or from a corrupt motive. These proceedings lasted over +two years. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +One point, however, was definitively gained in connection +with jurisprudence, the recognition of the +British Supreme Court as a means of discharging treaty +obligations. +</p> + +<p> +The convention as a whole was subjected to the +same kind of criticism as that of 1869 had been. The +Chambers of Commerce pointed out that it sanctioned +Chinese exactions which had been up to that time +consistently resisted as violations of the treaty of +Tientsin. Imposts, condemned by the Chinese themselves,<a name='FA_23' id='FA_23' href='#FN_23' class='fnanchor'>[23]</a> +which were to be abolished altogether by the +terms of the Alcock convention, were by the Chefoo +agreement not only recognised as lawful, but the area +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_281' name='Page_281'>[281]</a></span> +of their levy, within which the taxes were to be freed +from all restrictions whether as to their amount or +incidence, greatly extended. It would appear, therefore, +said the merchants, "better to revert to the clear +and simple provisions of the treaty of Tientsin, and +insist on their being carried out without evasion." +So far, they say, from simplifying the question of +the taxation of foreign goods, the obliquely worded +clauses in the Chefoo convention tend to quite the +opposite result. "New elements of obscurity have +been introduced, and if twenty years have been spent +wrangling over the comparatively simple wording of +the Tientsin treaty, it is to be feared that no person +now living will see the end of the controversies which +will rage over the indefinite arrangement set forth in +the Chefoo convention." +</p> + +<p> +Opium was also for the first time introduced into a +treaty, for the purpose of increasing the Chinese revenue +from it and of making the maritime customs, supported +by the British Government, the agent for its collection. +The Chinese had always been at liberty to levy what +internal taxation they pleased on opium; but, said the +Chamber of Commerce, for the "English Government +to make itself even indirectly answerable for the collection +from Chinese of an impost of indefinite amount, +varying at each port according to the caprice or the +necessities of local authorities who are not even specified, +would surely be to introduce a most inconvenient +precedent." The convention was left for nine years +unratified by the British Government. It could not be +ratified because, among other reasons, five of the treaty +Powers took the same objection as the British and other +merchants had taken to the curtailment of the area of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_282' name='Page_282'>[282]</a></span> +exemption from inland taxation—in other words, to the +legal sanction extended by the agreement to unlimited +exactions of the Chinese tax-collectors which had up +till then been resisted as illegal. +</p> + +<p> +During the eight years following the signature of the +Chefoo convention incessant discussion and agitation +on the subject of the duties on opium and general merchandise +kept the British Legation in Peking, and in a +lesser degree the Foreign Office at home, in full activity. +The question was turned over in all its aspects, threshed +out on this side and on that, and numerous schemes +were proposed for readjusting the imposts. The British +Minister displayed the utmost ingenuity in evolving +variations on the central theme, in which ethical, political, +and sentimental considerations played their part, +but without advancing the solution of the problem. +The problem was altogether too simple for such recondite +treatment. The Chinese throughout all the tortuous +disquisitions pressed towards the one object of a +substantial increase in their revenue, by whatever +means it might be arrived at; and eventually they +attained their object, as those generally do who concentrate +their attention on a single point. +</p> + +<h3> +III. THE RATIFICATION, 1885. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Ratification postponed—Tedious discussion during nine years—Chinese +claiming large increase in opium duty—Ultimately granted—By +agreement signed in 1885—Hongkong and Macao made stations for +collecting opium duties. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The convention simmered for nine years before its +final ratification. The two Governments skirmished in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_283' name='Page_283'>[283]</a></span> +the air all that time, misconceiving each other's aims +and avoiding close quarters. The policy of Great +Britain with regard to opium had been fatally deflected +by unpractical considerations. The article had been +placed by the trade regulations appended to the treaty +in the exceptional position of being excluded from the +privilege accorded to all other merchandise of exemption +from inland taxation by payment of a fixed charge. +The Chinese authorities were therefore at liberty to tax +the article in transit to any extent they pleased. For +reasons connected with their own administration, this +unlimited power of taxation in transit was not deemed +sufficient to produce the desired amount of revenue, +and they were intent on supplying the deficiency by an +enhanced import tariff. The difference between the +two forms of taxation was that the inland duty was +collected in a Chinese sieve, while the import duty +was levied with the formalities of a banker's counter. +Naturally, therefore, the Chinese Government missed +no opportunity of pressing for an increase on the tariff +fixed by treaty. It was the main object sought by +them in the unratified convention of 1869. Failing +then, they renewed their efforts in the Chefoo convention +of 1876, seeking the same end by an inverted +process, like taking a sea-fort from the land side. +Instead of reviving the discredited proposal, they +effected a turning movement by extending the area +of the inland dues until it included the port of landing. +Why, having full licence over the whole empire, a few +acres added to their tax-collecting province should have +been deemed of such vital importance is not perhaps at +first sight self-evident. The reason was that under the +proposed system the machinery of the Imperial maritime +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_284' name='Page_284'>[284]</a></span> +customs could be employed in collection, with the +protection of the foreign consuls. +</p> + +<p> +The concession was set forth in cryptic form in the +convention, but the Chinese knew very well what +interpretation they intended to give to the clause. +That intention remained unaltered, though tactics +varied. By the light of the vague and pointless correspondence +carried on for seven years with the British +Government they saw their way to advancing considerably +beyond the position gained by the convention. +They consequently raised their demands in proportion +as they found the British Government yielding, until +eventually they reached a vantage-ground where they +could safely unmask and make direct for their object, +an increase in the import tariff pure and simple. +Eighty taels were added to the thirty allowed by the +old treaty, and the opium duty was thus really trebled +at a stroke. +</p> + +<p> +The negotiations which led up to the convention are +chiefly interesting as showing how easily the Foreign +Office was chased from cover to cover by the Chinese +Minister. Having once got the enemy "on the run," +the Marquis Tsêng did not relax his pursuit until, +notwithstanding one or two rear-guard actions, he +capitulated without conditions. +</p> + +<p> +After seven years of active deliberation the definitive +diplomatic conference was opened by Lord Granville +in January 1883. As a preliminary, the basis of the +negotiations was rigidly defined by Mr (now Lord) +Currie, in accordance with the Chefoo convention, thus: +the regulation of the <i>likin</i> taxation, and specification +of the barriers at which collections were to be made. +</p> + +<p> +But, as we have hinted, the Chinese aspirations +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_285' name='Page_285'>[285]</a></span> +had in the mean time far transcended the scope of +any provision of any treaty. No longer content with +regulating <i>likin</i>, their first step in the conference was +to induce Lord Granville to abandon the preliminary +stipulation he had so carefully laid down. The Chinese +Minister proposed a general commutation rate, uniform +at all the ports, supporting the claim by sundry +specious arguments. The <i>likin</i> barriers had been a +chronic grievance of the merchants. The marquis held +out a prospect of their abolition as a consequence of +the single-payment commutation of inland dues on +which he was intent. It is a feature of Chinese +bargains of every description that something definite +should be conceded on the one side, and something +indefinite promised on the other,—the "bird in the +hand" invariably for the Chinese. There was nothing +surprising, therefore, in the time-honoured formula +being employed in these diplomatic interchanges. +</p> + +<p> +In moving from his base, Lord Granville, of course, +ceded everything; but he made a final stand at the +amount, declaring that "he could not agree that the +<i>likin</i> payment should be fixed at more than 70 taels"; +moreover, that he "would require full information as to +the guarantees which would be given that opium would +not be subject to any further payment while in transit." +One such guarantee was already provided for in the +convention, which stipulates "that the nationality of +the person possessing or carrying the merchandise would +be immaterial." This was deemed of great importance +to trade, because since it was not always possible for +a foreign owner, or even a deputy of his own race, +to accompany a parcel of goods into the interior, +the permission for Chinese to accompany them was +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_286' name='Page_286'>[286]</a></span> +essential to the working of the transit business. The +contention of the merchant had always been, that the +exemption from dues was a privilege attaching to the +goods, and not to the temporary owner or transport +agent. On the other hand, as the goods could not +speak, the option of sending either a native or a +foreigner at the merchant's own choice was considered +a useful check on illicit exactions. +</p> + +<p> +The confident manner in which the marquis brushed +away both of Lord Granville's ultimata showed how +well he had profited by his experience of Foreign Office +diplomacy. To Lord Granville's maximum of 70 taels +(the sum actually agreed upon with the Chinese Government) +the marquis said he was sorry, but his +instructions did not permit of his accepting less than +80 taels per pecul. It is not customary to ask for +proofs of good faith from ambassadors acting "on +instructions," and Lord Granville simply yielded the +point, while entering a mild protest against being +forced by a Chinese <i>non possumus</i>. +</p> + +<p> +And the right of the foreigner to accompany his +goods, on which so much stress had been laid, was +disposed of with exquisite assurance by the Chinese +Minister, who was confident that such a mere detail +"would not be allowed to stand in the way of a +settlement," notwithstanding that it involved a reversal +of the Chefoo convention. +</p> + +<p> +And as to the guarantees for fulfilment, the Marquis +Tsêng was sure that "the strongest guarantee +would consist in the moral obligation" on the part +of the Chinese Government to carry out arrangements +of their own proposing. Thus, by sheer persistence, +the Chinese gained every point, securing not only a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_287' name='Page_287'>[287]</a></span> +threefold duty on opium, but the assistance of her +Majesty's Government in its collection, for that was +the meaning of transferring the levy from the interior +to the seaport. The agreement, concluded by Lord +Granville in June, was signed by Lord Salisbury in +July 1885, under the title of an "Additional Article +to the Chefoo Convention." +</p> + +<p> +It is right to add, on the authority of recent +observers, that the convention has worked smoothly, +no complaints being heard of inland exactions in contravention +of its terms. It thus appears that the +moral guarantee on which the Marquis Tsêng spoke so +confidently was after all of some validity. But as +the only source from which complaints could come +would be those foreign agents who were by the terms +of the convention expressly excluded from conveying +or accompanying opium into the country, the negative +evidence is not absolutely conclusive. +</p> + +<p> +It would have been most interesting to gain from so +enlightened a Minister as Tsêng some insight into the +causes of the continual friction and recrimination which +attend the operation of the commercial articles in the +Chinese treaties, but his despatches have reference +only to the question of the moment. "The Imperial +Government," he says, "have often been held responsible +for the friction caused in working arrangements +but ill-adapted to the state of the country, and which a +better knowledge of its internal conditions would have +shown to those who framed them are incapable of +execution." "The present scheme," he intimates, +"being in harmony with existing institutions," may be +expected to work smoothly. Existing institutions, +therefore, are opposed to local taxation and in favour +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_288' name='Page_288'>[288]</a></span> +of single commutations. When, however, a different +thesis has to be sustained, we are assured by other +authorities that "existing institutions" claim arbitrary, +variable, and unlimited taxation of goods in transit for +the benefit of the provincial exchequers, and that it is +the attempt to commute these by a payment at the +port which is the true cause of the friction and +disputation. +</p> + +<p> +The natural corollary followed the ratification of the +Chefoo convention. The desire of the Chinese Government, +cherished for nearly thirty years, to establish +a customs station in Hongkong was virtually consummated +in the following year. The trade of the +colony had been vexed by a perpetual blockade by +so-called revenue cruisers which harried every native +vessel entering or leaving the harbour. The hope of +getting the investment relaxed may have induced the +acquiescence of the colony in any alternative. The +Chinese sought to grip the opium supply by the +neck, which could only be done by their obtaining +control over the harbour of Hongkong. This was +conceded, and a customs station was established on +the Chinese side of the anchorage, while an office was +opened in the city of Victoria. +</p> + +<p> +There was a second "neck" to the opium supply—Macao. +The arrangement made with Hongkong without +a corresponding agreement with Macao would have +merely driven the trade from the one to the other. +Overtures were therefore made to the Portuguese, who, +unlike the English, were offered a valuable consideration +for admitting the control of the Chinese customs into +their waters. They then obtained for the first time a +treaty of independent sovereignty for the colony. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_289' name='Page_289'>[289]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The effect of all these negotiations and arrangements, +whether intended or not, was to stimulate the cultivation +of Chinese opium to a high degree, and this, +according to the impartial testimony of an ex-German +Minister, is, apart from the increase to the Chinese +revenue, the net result of the anti-opium agitation. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i289" id="i289"></a> +<img src="images/i-p289.jpg" width="178" height="207" alt="" /> + +</div> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXV. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">A CHAIN OF INCIDENTS.</span> +</h2> + +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_290' name='Page_290'>[290]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +I. DISPUTE WITH RUSSIA <i>RE</i> KULDJA. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Insurrection in Kashgaria—Russia occupies Kuldja—Engaging to evacuate +when country settled—Tso Tsung-tang's march—Death of Yakub-beg—China +reoccupies Kashgaria—Calls upon Russia to retire from +Kuldja—Relations become strained—Chunghou concludes treaty with +Russia—Violently repudiated by empress—War threatened—Gordon +summoned—Dispute arranged by Marquis Tsêng. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The dilatoriness of China in making a stand against +Japanese pretensions in Korea may be partly explained +by her serious preoccupations elsewhere. She +had been immersed in a sea of troubles. She seemed +to be enveloped in rebellion. In the south-west +the province of Yunnan had been severed from the +imperial rule, and in its recovery the land was +almost depopulated. In the north-west there were also +Mohammedan risings, and in far-distant Kashgaria, +separated from China by a thousand miles of desert +and militarily untenable by her, the adventurer known +as Yakub-beg set up an independent government, +which he maintained for some years. Anarchy on +her frontier afforded to Russia the pretext of occupying +Chinese territory to maintain order; but she +was scrupulous in assuring the Peking Government +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_291' name='Page_291'>[291]</a></span> +that this step was provisional, and that she was +ready to restore Kuldja as soon as the Chinese were +again in a position to resume the government of the +town and territory. The time came sooner than was +expected. The famous march of Tso Tsung-tang, who +halted to grow grain for the support of his army, +and the disaffection in his camp leading to the demise +of Yakub, enabled China to reoccupy the revolted districts. +Russia, on being asked to redeem her pledge +as to Kuldja, made conditions which were not acceptable, +and a diplomatic campaign was entered upon. A +high Manchu official, Chunghou, the same who had +been sent to France in 1871, was despatched to Prussia, +where he concluded the treaty of Livadia, which was so +repugnant to the empress-regent and her advisers that +not only was it repudiated at Peking, but the envoy +was delivered to the Board of Punishments. Relations +became strained between Russia and China, and on +both sides there were hints of a resort to force. In +view of this eventuality the Chinese Government were +recommended to apply for the services of their old +champion, Gordon, who, unknown to them, had taken +service with Lord Ripon, the then new Viceroy of +India, and, equally unknown to them, had precipitately +resigned that service. The Chinese had a large +body of troops in Manchuria; the long line of Russian +communication was very weak along that frontier; the +governor of Eastern Siberia, declaring himself unable to +resist a Chinese attack, had urged the Government at +St Petersburg to come to terms at once with China, +and wait for a suitable opportunity to recover what +they might be obliged to cede. The Chinese Government +hoped that if Gordon would come to their assistance, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_292' name='Page_292'>[292]</a></span> +and take command of their Manchurian levies, +his name would be a host in itself, and his appearance +on the scene would at any rate convince the +Russian Government that China was in earnest. +With this view an invitation was sent to General +Gordon in a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, which +found him in Bombay. The invitation was unconditional; +it indicated no purpose and named no price. +Gordon took it entirely on trust, closed at once, and +proceeded to China. Having been given no clue as to +what service was expected from him, Gordon, nevertheless, +not only came to a conclusion of his own on +the subject, but supplied his views to the newspapers +before leaving India, and at every port of call on the +route. He declared he was going to China to induce +her to make peace, for she was unable to do otherwise. +In this he was of an opposite opinion from the Russian +governor-general. But whatever the merit of his +opinion, the object of the Chinese in sending for him +was of course frustrated by his published declarations. +These being communicated to the Government at +Peking, they saw that so far from stiffening them in +their negotiations with Russia, Gordon's presence would +seriously embarrass them, and they accordingly endeavoured +to prevent his coming. Through Sir Robert +Hart they sent a message to meet Gordon at Chefoo, +requesting him to proceed no farther. Disregarding +this request, he continued his journey to Tientsin, +where he had interviews with his old friend the Viceroy +Li; and he also made his way to Peking, where +by the aid of an indifferent Cantonese interpreter he +made representations to the Tsungli-Yamên, some of +which the interpreter dared not reproduce in Chinese. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_293' name='Page_293'>[293]</a></span> +Gordon left without seeing either Sir Robert Hart, on +whose authority alone he had come to China, or the +British Minister, Sir Thomas Wade. The advice he +left with the Chinese Ministers was to renounce the +endeavour to organise an army on Western models, +and not to waste money on modern weapons, but to +trust rather to numbers and the Fabian strategy +which was natural to them. This being promptly +published in foreign journals, was regarded as highly +paradoxical, if not cynical; but it was recalled to +mind fifteen years later, when China was being defeated +in the pitched battles against which Gordon +had warned them. +</p> + +<p> +The Kuldja dispute was eventually disposed of by +the Chinese Minister, Marquis Tsêng, who negotiated +a treaty at St Petersburg, by which the territory was +nominally receded to China, while its strategical positions +were retained in the occupation of Russia, thus +rendering the whole region untenable by Chinese +troops. +</p> + +<h3> +II. KOREAN IMBROGLIO, 1882-1885. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Outbreak in 1882—Conspiracy of the king's father—Attack on Japanese +legation—Chinese troops control the capital—Foreign innovations—Brought +bad elements to the surface—Conspiracy in 1884—Assassinations—Treachery +of king's confidant—Kim Ok Kun's escape to Japan—The +avenger—His elaborate preparations—Assassination of Kim—Joy +in the Korean Court—Honours to the assassin—Japan dissatisfied—Count +Ito's mission—Japan secures equal rights with China in +Korea. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Russian question settled, China had leisure to +attend to Korean affairs, of which the importance was +becoming more and more clear to her statesmen. The +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_294' name='Page_294'>[294]</a></span> +scare on the north-west was in another form transferred +to the north-east, where there was the double +risk of complications arising from both Russian and +Japanese encroachment on Korea. The opening of the +country to foreign intercourse, intended as a protection +against such dangers, was soon discovered to be inadequate. +A procession of events, dating from the +signing of the treaties and culminating in 1885, transformed +the kingdom from a vassal to a quasi-independent +State. +</p> + +<p> +The first link in the chain, so far as visible effects +were concerned, was an <span lang="fr_FR"><i>émeute</i></span> which took place in +Söul in 1882. The father of the king had occupied a +position as regent curiously resembling that of the +Empress-Dowager of China, and being ambitious to +regain the authority which he had laid down on the +king's coming of age, raised a conspiracy to depose +him. In connection with the plot a mob was let +loose on the Japanese legation, where a desperate +struggle ensued, in which, and in the running fight +which they made towards the seaport, a number of +Japanese were killed. The survivors were conveyed +to Nagasaki in a British ship-of-war. What provocation +the Japanese had given for this savage onslaught +is not a matter on which we need enter. The +point is that it afforded justification for sharp reprisals. +Perceiving this, and being in a position of unaccustomed +preparedness, the Chinese Government—that +is to say, Li Hung-chang—adopted prompt measures +for anticipating action on the part of the Japanese. +They despatched an envoy with a body of troops and +a naval squadron to the seaport of the capital where +they at once put down the conspiracy, re-established +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_295' name='Page_295'>[295]</a></span> +the king's authority, and by a clever but wonderfully +common oriental ruse captured the Usurper, and +carried him off to China as a State prisoner. The +Chinese troops remained in the vicinity of the capital, +and a Resident on the Indian pattern was installed +at the Korean Court. +</p> + +<p> +Before long a foreign element began to be introduced +into the Korean administration. Among other things +a branch of the Chinese customs service was established, +and, as in China, many duties besides that of +raising a revenue soon claimed the attention of the +foreign commissioner. No more effective first step in +the regeneration of such a country could have been +undertaken than an honest administration of its maritime +revenue. It was a measure both good in itself +and prolific of beneficial results in many directions. +Other reforms, however, were projected which required +a certain preparation of the soil and a careful consideration +of social forces and conditions. The introduction +of foreign ideas of any kind into a country which, +so far as politics were concerned, might be considered +virgin soil, was, to say the least, a hazardous experiment. +Undigested schemes for the Europeanisation or +the Japonisation of a Government which had up till +then banished foreign intercourse entirely from its +shores was likely to have an effect analogous to that +of suddenly administering strong meat to the victim of +protracted privation. Korean affairs were even less +understood by foreigners than Western affairs were +by the Koreans, so that the yeast thrown into the +Korean dough produced risings for which Western +foreigners at least, whatever may be said of the +Japanese, were quite unprepared. Factions sprang +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_296' name='Page_296'>[296]</a></span> +up like fungoid growths in an excavation, sordid +ambitions were set in motion, and the royal Court +became a hotbed of intrigue towards which the +most flagitious elements in the capital were naturally +drawn. +</p> + +<p> +The agitation which was fed from these various +sources broke out into open violence in 1884, when two +of the king's Ministers were assassinated by a band of +conspirators. It would be futile to attempt to unravel +the plot; its visible consequences only need be considered +as further links in the chain of events, and +also as affording some curious evidence of the manner +in which the new alien civilisation was beginning to +adapt itself to that which was ingrained in the +Korean character. The professed object of the plot +was understood to be the severance of the Chinese tie +through the instrumentality of the Japanese, and the +king himself was believed to be privy to this scheme. +It is probable that the high political and patriotic +ideal was but the rallying flag under which diverse +schemers might pursue their several ambitions. The +Koreans are credited with a special dose of the subtlety +which belongs to Asiatic races, and whatever the real +intentions of the king may have been, the conspirators +were false to him. A concise contemporary account of +the fray given in a message to the 'Times' states +that— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +The rising against the King of Korea is the outcome of reactionary +intrigues similar to the movement in 1882, when the +present king's father was captured and taken as a State prisoner +to China. Defective accounts only have been received of +the recent events. On the night of December 4, during an +entertainment, there was an alarm of fire near the palace; Min +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_297' name='Page_297'>[297]</a></span> +chong ik, the queen's nephew, who was recently travelling in +Europe, rushed out, met some assassins, and was stabbed, with +many others. The conspirators then attacked the king, who +applied to the Japanese Minister for the protection of his guard. +Before morning six of the Ministers were killed. On the 6th +the Koreans again attacked the palace, the Chinese troops being +present. A fight ensued, and the Japanese guard lost three +men killed and five wounded. Being overpowered, the Japanese +abandoned the palace, retiring to the Japanese Legation, the +king being carried off by the Chinese. The tumult increased, +and thirty Japanese residents were massacred by the Chinese. +On the 7th the Korean mob attacked the Japanese Legation, +which was destroyed, and the Minister with his guard forced +his way out amid showers of missiles. They stormed the +gates and retreated to the seaport of Chemulpo. On the +following day the king sent friendly messages to the Japanese +Minister. +</p> + +<p> +At a recent date the Chinese garrison consisted nominally of +3000 men, but the force has been much depleted. The Japanese +numbered 120, and these were about to be withdrawn +when the outbreak occurred. The situation is critical, each side +accusing the other of aggression; but it is expected that the +affair will be settled amicably, neither Power desiring a quarrel +for the benefit of interested spectators. The Japanese may insist +on steps being taken to secure their Minister for the future +from such outrages. Each Power has appointed an officer to +investigate the facts before deciding on a definite course. Further +complications are, however, certain to arise from the +anomalous position of Korea. After the Kuldja scare China +perceived the supreme strategic importance of the peninsula, +and that a great Power occupying it would control Chinese external +policy. The Government promoted the foreign treaties +in 1882 with the objects of interesting the commercial Powers +in the integrity of Korea, and of obtaining a recognition of its +vassalage. Later treaties, beginning with that negotiated by +Sir Harry Parkes last year, assumed the independence of Korea. +The exercise of Chinese sovereignty is exposing Korea to the +double peril of her own troubles and of China's possible wavering +at a critical moment. The Chinese and Korean interests +are, in the absence of commerce, purely political, Korea's importance +consisting in its commanding position. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_298' name='Page_298'>[298]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +And the Japanese shortly after tabulated the casualties +as follows:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Seven officials killed by progressives, 7 progressives killed by +Korean troops, 38 Korean soldiers killed by Japanese troops, 95 +rioters killed by Japanese, 67 progressives imprisoned, 11 beheaded, +with shocking barbarities at execution. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The immediate purpose of the leaders of the plot +appears to have been to destroy the influence of +the powerful family to which the queen belonged, +and had they contented themselves with the murder +of any number of that family, it was not considered +likely that either king or people would have +greatly deplored the crime. But the chief assassin, +Kim Ok Kun, struck at the two Ministers who +were the king's right hand, and who had, moreover, +endeared themselves to the nation by the exceptional +purity of their public life and their beneficence +in times of scarcity. Execrated alike by the +sovereign and his people, Kim Ok Kun sought an +asylum in Japan, where he was entertained for a +number of years while engaged in hatching further +plots against the peace of his native land. +</p> + +<p> +Naturally his presence in Japan caused umbrage +to China. The King of Korea lived in terror of +his machinations, for Kim had a considerable following, +by whose aid he hoped to make a descent on +Korea and effect a revolution in the government. +The guilt of Kim Ok Kun's betrayal of his sovereign +was the more heinous from his having been +confidential adviser to the Crown during all the +negotiations with foreigners, between whom and the +king he was the constant referee. He carried into +exile the innermost royal secrets. The king's resentment +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_299' name='Page_299'>[299]</a></span> +against Kim was naturally embittered by his +impotence to avenge the treachery to which he had +been a victim. +</p> + +<p> +For the preservation of peace and of friendly relations +an agreement was entered into between the +three Governments to the effect that Kim should +not be permitted to leave Japan for any other country +excepting China or the United States. On these +conditions the refugee became an embarrassment to +the Government of Japan, which felt bound to protect +him against counterplots while preventing him +from carrying out his seditious designs. Nevertheless +Nemesis was on the track of the assassin, and the +way in which the quarry was hunted down by the +avenger of blood affords a greater insight into the +nature of the tragedy than do any of the contemporary +comments. It also serves to illustrate certain +points in the Korean character which are decidedly +not without interest to students of current history. +</p> + +<p> +A member of an important Korean family named +Hong had been implicated in Kim's conspiracy, and +by Korean law his whole family were held guilty +of the treason. The king fully exonerated the head +of the family, being convinced that no blame attached +to him personally. Nevertheless, the old man was so +dejected by the disgrace brought on his name, that he +forthwith poisoned himself with his whole house. A +young man distantly connected with the family of +Hong, and bearing their surname, took upon himself +the duty of avenging these deaths, and set to work in +a systematic manner to compass the murder of Kim. +The private vengeance of Hong-tjyong-on fitted in well +with his patriotic duty, and his scheme was favoured +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_300' name='Page_300'>[300]</a></span> +by the Korean king. About three years after Kim's +flight, Hong made his way to Japan, bearing secret +letters from the king outlawing Kim and his followers +and authorising their capture or assassination. Hong's +plan was to ingratiate himself with Kim as a supporter +of his schemes, but his recent arrival direct from Korea +without any credentials from the revolutionary party +in that country rendered Kim suspicious of the would-be +recruit. Unable to gain the access which he required +to the person of his victim, Hong saw that +he would have to adopt more elaborate means to +effect his purpose. He went therefore to Europe, +where he must have spent five or six years at least +in acquiring a European education, European manners, +and a perfect knowledge of European ways. He was +courteous, refined, and intelligent, a great favourite +in society (especially in religious circles), and made +in particular many warm friends in France. Having +thoroughly shaken off Korea, he thought he might +now present himself in Japan in a character that +would disarm all suspicion. Accordingly he made his +way thither, and succeeded in attaching himself to +Kim, talked progress and revolution, and thereby insinuated +himself into the confidence of the arch-conspirator, +becoming gradually master of his secret plots +and schemes. The arrangements of the Japanese +Government for the protection of Kim's person seem +to have been so efficient that, in order to accomplish +his purpose, Hong perceived that it was necessary to +induce Kim to leave Japan. This seemed the most +difficult part of his enterprise, and a far-fetched scheme +had to be contrived in order to furnish Kim with a +plausible reason for proceeding to China. Between +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_301' name='Page_301'>[301]</a></span> +the plots which Kim may have had in his mind and +those which Hong for his own purposes suggested to +him, it is not possible, neither is it necessary, to distinguish. +Hong's own account of the matter was, that +Kim had been concerting some movement on Korea +from a Russian base, but was prevented from proceeding +to Vladivostock by the vigilance of the +Japanese Government. The agreement between the +three Powers would not, however, be violated by his +proceeding to Shanghai, where he would find the +means of continuing his voyage to Vladivostock, for +neither of the travellers apprehended any difficulty +in eluding the surveillance of the Chinese officials +and taking passage in a trading steamer to the +Russian port. +</p> + +<p> +Kim eventually fell in with this proposal, and left +Japan with a Japanese servant, accompanied by Hong. +They arrived in Shanghai on the 27th of March 1894, +repaired to a Japanese hotel, and reported themselves +at the Japanese consulate. The following day Hong, +having first put on Korean upper garments, murdered +Kim, and fled, but was captured at Wusung by the +foreign municipal police of Shanghai, and by them +detained in custody until claimed by the Chinese +authorities under instructions from Li Hung-chang. +The news of the assassination was received by the +Chinese Government with a sense of relief and "sombre +acquiescence," but at the Korean Court with almost +a frenzy of delight. The king gave a banquet in +honour of the event, to which he invited all the foreign +Ministers. The Chinese Government ordered a man-of-war +to convey the murderer and the remains of the +victim to Korea. The former was covered with +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_302' name='Page_302'>[302]</a></span> +honours, while the remains of Kim were treated with +savage indecency and his family put to death. +</p> + +<p> +Thus did the assassin of 1884 expiate his crime +exactly ten years later. +</p> + +<p> +The issue of the plot of 1884 was not agreeable to +the Japanese, who were particularly affronted by the +fact that the Chinese were in a position to snatch +the king out of their hands and to afford him military +protection against all comers. But Japan was +in no humour to relinquish her own policy in Korea, +which was quite incompatible with the suzerain status +of China, and with the very concrete form in which +it had just been manifested. One of the leading +statesmen of Japan, Count Inouye, was sent to +Korea to investigate the whole affair, and inquire +into the relative position of China and Japan in +the peninsula. The result of his inquiries was a +determination to follow up by orthodox diplomacy +the disintegrating effects which the risings in 1882 +and 1884 had no doubt been intended to subserve. +China being in the throes of a war with France, the +moment was particularly favourable for preferring +demands upon her. An embassy was therefore despatched +to Peking, under Count Ito, in March 1885. +He counted much on the friendly offices of the British +Minister, Sir Harry Parkes, in smoothing the way to +amicable negotiations with China, but unhappily the +Japanese ambassador arrived at Peking almost on the +day of Sir Harry's death. After vain attempts to deal +with the Tsungli-Yamên the Japanese mission withdrew +to Tientsin, where negotiations were entered into +by Li Hung-chang, extending over several weeks. +Count Ito's mission was successful in concluding a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_303' name='Page_303'>[303]</a></span> +treaty by which China and Japan were put on a +footing of equality in the peninsula so far as regards +military protection. The troops of both countries were +to be withdrawn, and neither party was to send a force +in future without giving written notice to the other. +This arrangement was a surrender in substance of +China's suzerainty over Korea, though she retained +the ceremonial form in full vigour for nine years +after. +</p> + +<h3> +III. THE PORT HAMILTON EPISODE, 1885-1887. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Sudden occupation of Korean harbour by Great Britain—Questioned by +China, Japan, and Korea—Position condemned by naval authority—Abandoned +on guarantee from China against occupation by other +Powers. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +"In view of potentialities" the British Government +on April 14, 1885, sent instructions to Vice-Admiral +Dowell to occupy Port Hamilton, an island harbour on +the coast of Korea. This high-handed proceeding was +justified on the plea of necessity—the necessity, as +explained by Lord Granville, of anticipating the +"probable occupation of the island by another Power." +Naturally the measure disturbed neighbouring States, +as well as the Government of Korea itself. China and +Japan asked for explanations, and an agreement with +the former, as suzerain of Korea, was about to be +signed for the temporary use of the harbour by Great +Britain, when the Russian Minister at Peking interposed +with an intimation that if China consented to +the occupation of Port Hamilton by Great Britain, +Russia would compensate herself by the seizure of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_304' name='Page_304'>[304]</a></span> +some other point of the Korean littoral. The protest +of the Korean Government thus became merged in +negotiations with China, but was never withdrawn. +</p> + +<p> +While these <span lang="fr_FR"><i>pour-parlers</i></span> were going on, the position +of Port Hamilton was unequivocally condemned as a +naval station by a succession of three admirals commanding +the China Squadron; and as the immediate +occasion of the occupation of the harbour had happily +passed, there remained no ostensible reason for prolonging +it. Before abandoning the island, however, +the British Government hoped that some arrangement +might be come to for an international guarantee of the +integrity of Korea, which being already a bone of +contention between certain Powers, and unable to +defend its own independence, constituted a constant +menace to the peace of the Far East. The proposal +met with no favour from the Chinese Government, for +the reason probably that it would have involved an +organic change in its own relations with Korea. The +next proposal came from the Korean Government itself, +which suggested a <i>modus vivendi</i> by opening as treaty +ports both Port Hamilton and Port Lazareff, which +latter was the point Russia would have seized if she +had seized anything. This idea was approved of by +the British Government, but nothing came of it. +Eventually the evacuation was agreed to on the +assurance from China that neither Port Hamilton +nor any other portion of Korean territory would in +future be occupied by any other Power. This pledge +China was enabled to give on the strength of an +equivalent guarantee which she had received from +Russia, that Power being then the only one considered +as likely to cherish aggressive designs on +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_305' name='Page_305'>[305]</a></span> +the Korean peninsula. These engagements were +exchanged in November 1886, eighteen months after +the occupation, and the British flag was finally hauled +down on the island on February 27, 1887. +</p> + +<p> +The net visible result of the incident was to confirm +China in her suzerainty, since the negotiations were +made with her and not with Korea, and to obtain a +specific pledge from Russia that she would keep her +hands off Korea "under any circumstances." It was +argued seven years afterwards that Russia had broken +her pledge by her interferences in Korean affairs, but +in 1895 a new state of circumstances had been brought +about. China in that year ceased to be the suzerain +of Korea, and obligations which were valid under the +old <i>régime</i> necessarily lapsed. A new page of history +was turned, and Korea attained the status of a +nominally independent kingdom. +</p> + +<h3> +IV. TIBET. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Lhassa visited by Babu Sarat Chandra Das—Proposed commercial expedition—Originated +by Secretary of State—Envoy sent to Peking to +obtain passport—Opposition organised by Chinese and Tibetans—Mission +withdrawn. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The year 1885 witnessed the first act in the ill-advised +policy—as to its method, not its object—of +the Indian Government of opening commercial relations +with Tibet. A learned Bengali pandit, versed +in Tibetan, had made two successful visits to Lhassa, +where he gained the friendship of the lamas, who +invited him to come again. A fair prospect of opening +commercial relations by gradually disarming prejudices +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_306' name='Page_306'>[306]</a></span> +and apprehension was thus presented. Having duly +reported his experiences to the Government of India, +the babu waited their pleasure as to further developments +at Darjeeling, where he occupied the post +of Government schoolmaster. An English civilian, +making the acquaintance of the babu in that hot-weather +retreat, conceived the idea of an official +mission to Lhassa, in which the services of the babu +might be utilised as guide and interpreter. The +Indian Government was averse from the enterprise on +economical if on no other grounds, but direct pressure +being brought to bear on the India Office in London, +the ambitious young statesman who then presided +over its counsels is said to have espoused the proposal +and overruled the reluctant Government of +India. +</p> + +<p> +Of the organisation and procedure of the mission +nothing very complimentary can be said. Instead +of following the line of least resistance, of driving +in the thin end of the wedge, in accordance +with the commonplace maxims consecrated by all +human experience, the reverse process was followed +in every single particular. Sarat Chandra Das had +shown the way, and the entry he had effected could +have been gradually widened by himself and others of +his own class until the obstacles to free commercial +intercourse had been overcome. The experience of a +hundred years had shown to the world the invincible +prejudices of the Tibetan rulers against foreign visitors. +The babu had in his own person conquered these +prejudices by his mastery of Buddhistic lore, as well +as by his gentleness and consummate tact; but the +mission, which had its origin in the information he +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_307' name='Page_307'>[307]</a></span> +supplied, discarded his methods and proceeded on +military lines. Its <i>personnel</i> included politicals and +scientists, but no commercial agent, and as Mr Gundry +has well said, "The Under Secretary of State, while +stating that the object of the mission was to confer +with the Chinese commissioners and the Lhassa +Government as to the resumption of commercial +relations between India and Tibet," added in Parliament +that, "looking to the delicate nature of the +mission, it had not been thought advisable to appoint +a special commercial representative." An armed force +of some 300 men sent on a "delicate mission" which, +though essentially commercial, yet had nothing commercial +in its composition! Could anything be conceived +more certain to arouse the sleeping suspicions +of the Tibetans? It was but repeating on a larger +scale the deplorable fiasco of Colonel Browne's +attempted march from Burma to China in 1875. +</p> + +<p> +The first act in this little drama was performed +in Peking when the envoy, Macaulay, arrived with +his staff for the ostensible purpose of applying for +a passport for Tibet. For such a purpose there +was no need to have sent a special messenger to +Peking at all, as a passport could have been much +more easily obtained by the British Minister there +and transmitted by post in the ordinary course of +business. The passport could not, of course, be refused +in plain terms by the Chinese Government, but the +personal demand for it gave them the opportunity of +cross-examining the intended envoy as to the objects +of his proposed mission. It may well be believed, from +the self-contradictory explanation of the mission tendered +to the British Parliament, that the envoy in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_308' name='Page_308'>[308]</a></span> +Peking failed to allay the suspicions of the Chinese +Government. On the contrary, his presence intensified +them exceedingly. The sole effect of the preliminary +expedition to Peking was, in fact, to forewarn the +Chinese Government, so that they, in concert with +the rulers of Tibet, should be prepared to interpose +obstacles to the advance of the mission, but in such +a way as not openly to compromise the good faith of +the Chinese Government. The journey of the envoy +to Peking, therefore, sealed the fate of his own mission, +and at the same time closed Tibet against more +judicious advances in the future. +</p> + +<p> +The most interesting episode in connection with this +abortive effort was the appearance of the Babu Sarat +Chandra Das himself in the Chinese capital. By +sheer force of intellect he succeeded in a few days in +obtaining the confidence of the inner circle of the lamas +there. Having been brought in contact with a certain +Manchu official, the pandit showed very unobtrusively +a familiarity with the more recondite tenets +of Buddhism which captivated the Manchu, whose +heart was set on improving his knowledge of the +sacred mysteries.<a name='FA_24' id='FA_24' href='#FN_24' class='fnanchor'>[24]</a> The babu could speak no Chinese, +but it was not difficult among the thousands of lamas +in Peking to find a competent Tibetan interpreter. +The fame of the pandit spread rapidly among the +ranks of the priesthood, whose chiefs competed for +the honour of sitting at the feet of the Indian +Gamaliel. In expounding the doctrines, while enjoying +the hospitality, of different groups of lamas, +the popularity of the pandit grew from day to day, +until he was at length constrained to take up his +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_309' name='Page_309'>[309]</a></span> +quarters at the great Yellow Temple, outside the north +wall of Peking, and live with the brethren. They invested +him with the yellow robe and the other ecclesiastical +insignia, and treated him altogether as one of +the initiated. It required all his acumen to prevent +his status as a Buddhist lama from clashing with his +position as a subordinate of the Indian envoy, on whom +he was in attendance. He had to pay frequent visits +to the British Legation, where it would have been +impossible for him to appear in his religious vestments +without exciting inconvenient gossip, and perhaps incurring +the disapproval of his superior officer. The +custom of travelling in Peking in closed carts enabled +the babu to play the double part of Jekyll and Hyde +with perfect success. He would leave the Temple as +a lama, drive to a friend's rooms in the city, where his +Indian costume was kept ready, in which he proceeded +in another cab and in another character to the British +Legation, returning to reassume his yellow robes and +then repair to the Temple. +</p> + +<p> +During the time when the envoy designate remained +in Peking a very high personage arrived from Tibet, +and it was on his conferences with the Chinese Court +that the success of the intended mission depended. +It would be presumptuous on the part of any foreigner +to attempt to divine what passed between the delegate +from the Grand Lama and the Chinese Ministers; but +were it possible for any one to penetrate into those +secret counsels, the babu was the man to do it. There +is no doubt that he did. In fact, he had positive information +that the Indian mission to Tibet would be +stopped at the instance of the Chinese Government, +and that the issue of the passport was an empty +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_310' name='Page_310'>[310]</a></span> +form. Such information would naturally be unwelcome +to the envoy, and the sequel seems to show +that the warning was disregarded. The expedition +was organised, fully equipped, ready for a march into +Tibet. Had it proceeded it is highly improbable that +the babu would have accompanied it as interpreter, +for he could not have exonerated himself from the +imputation of bad faith towards his Tibetan hosts +in acting as guide to an armed force into a country +where he had been received and reinvited as a private +guest. +</p> + +<p> +What would have been the consequence of the mission +proceeding into Tibet it is, of course, impossible to +say, but the circumstances of its recall were not conducive +to satisfactory relations between China and +Great Britain. Mistrusting the effectiveness of the +Tibetan opposition to the Indian mission—for the force +could very likely have made good its passage to Lhassa—the +Chinese Government resorted to diplomatic means +of stopping its advance. Its never-failing emergency +man, the Inspector-General of Customs, was called +upon, and he intervened with the British Government +with such good effect that they sent orders to India to +stop the Tibetan mission. Thus the Indian Government +was a second time overruled: first, in being made +to organise the mission against its will; and secondly, +in being forced to recall it when its recall involved +immeasurable loss of influence in future dealings with +China. An attempt was made to cover the retreat +in a cloud of verbiage by a convention signed at +Peking in 1886, which, however, only made the case +worse, in that it was a retrograde step, virtually cancelling +the right of visiting Tibet, which had been +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_311' name='Page_311'>[311]</a></span> +conferred by the Chefoo convention of ten years before. +The same treaty which embodied this renunciation, +perhaps the weakest to which any British representative +ever set his name, also fostered the illusions which +have been so detrimental to the welfare of China, by +promising a continuance of the tribute missions from +Burma after that country had become an integral part +of the Indian Empire. +</p> + +<p> +The fruits of this diplomatic surrender were not +long in showing themselves, for it was soon followed by +an invasion of British Sikkim from the Tibetan side. +This aggression of the lamas was of necessity resisted by +the Indian Government, and an unexpected opportunity +was thus offered to them of settling the whole +Tibetan question by the rapid march of a small force +to Lhassa. There is good reason to believe that this +solution of the difficulty was the one which commended +itself to the practical statesmen and soldiers of India; +but their action was paralysed by the orders of the +Home Government, which continued to be ruled by +influences which were neither military nor political nor +practical. Discussions between the Indian Government +and the Chinese <i>amban</i> or Resident at Lhassa, professing +to speak for the Tibetan Lama Government, +were protracted year after year, and seemed interminable. +At last even the Chinese themselves grew +weary of the comedy, and experienced in Tibet +something of the difficulty which occasionally beset +them in China—that is to say, they were unable to +exorcise the demon they had invoked. They had +stirred up the Tibetans to the point of obstructing +the Macaulay mission, but seemed really to lose control +of the force after it had been set in motion. After +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_312' name='Page_312'>[312]</a></span> +some years of futile talk the statesmen of China would +perhaps have hailed with satisfaction the advance of a +British force to Lhassa to cut the Gordian knot; but +they dared not, of course, give such a hint as was +conveyed to Captain Fournier, <span lang='fr_FR'>"Avancez donc,"</span><a name='FA_25' id='FA_25' href='#FN_25' class='fnanchor'>[25]</a> and +the Indian Government, not having the wit to divine +it, had to submit to a long-drawn-out and permanent +humiliation, that was in no wise mended by the +Calcutta convention of 1890, which, professing only to +settle the existing frontiers, did not even settle them. +</p> + +<h3> +V. THE CRUISE OF THE SEVENTH PRINCE, 1886. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Character and position of Prince Ch'un—Had been misunderstood by +foreigners while he was in seclusion—An amiable and progressive +man—His visit to Port Arthur in 1886—Intercourse with many +foreigners. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The spring of 1884 witnessed a ministerial crisis of +the first order in Peking. For twenty-four years +Prince Kung, uncle to the deceased emperor Tungchih, +had held a position equivalent to Chancellor of the +empire. To the outside world he was only known as +Minister for Foreign Affairs and head of the Tsungli-Yamên. +During the greater part of the time he had +been at feud with the empress-regent, from whom his +power was derived, but, being indispensable to her, he +was tolerated for want of a competent successor. The +troubles in Tongking caused an agitation in the capital, +and the empress seized the opportunity to dismiss +Prince Kung with most of his colleagues of the Yamên +and introduce a fresh set. The eminent position of the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_313' name='Page_313'>[313]</a></span> +prince, however, was one difficult to fill; but the substitution +was effected by a kind of <i>coup d'état</i> by which +the empress brought the younger brother of Prince +Kung out of his retirement and made him virtually, +as far as it was possible, her coadjutor in the Government. +But the peculiar status of Prince Ch'un, as +father to the reigning emperor, rendered him immune +from responsibility, since in China the son could not +place the father under discipline. For this reason the +prince could not in his own name exercise any of the +great functions of the State. He was therefore obliged +to keep in the background, while the executive service +was performed by his nominees. Thus in foreign affairs +he was efficiently represented by the Grand Secretary +Li Hung-chang, and by Prince Ch'ing, a junior member +of the imperial family, who was made president of the +Tsungli-Yamên, and holds the office to the present +day. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever the true motives may have been for recasting +the Tsungli-Yamên—and it would be hazardous +for any foreigner to dogmatise about such matters—a +great improvement was remarked in the efficiency of +that body. Prince Ch'ing, though new to public affairs, +acquitted himself like a gentleman, and gained the +goodwill of all the foreign Legations by his laborious +efforts to learn his work and to bring justice and +reason as well as courtesy into the transaction of +business. The circumstances of the time were also +favourable to improvement; for being at war with +one great Power, China was naturally most anxious +to conciliate the others. While this amenable temper +lasted, business was despatched by the Tsungli-Yamên +with a celerity never before known, and good use +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_314' name='Page_314'>[314]</a></span> +was made of the opportunity to clear off legacies +of arrears that had been accumulating in the foreign +legations. +</p> + +<p> +The Seventh Prince, so long as he was in seclusion, +had stood in the opinion of foreigners for everything +that was fanatical, obstructive, and irreconcilable, the +head of the war party, and so forth. Even Sir Rutherford +Alcock, in an article on Chinese Statesmen in 1871, +adopted this popular estimate, calling him "violently +hostile, joining with Wo in all efforts to make the +anti-foreign faction predominate." +</p> + +<p> +The announcement of Prince Ch'un, therefore, as +the successor of Prince Kung not unnaturally aroused +apprehension of a reactionary policy. His first public +act, however, in so far as it was his, dispelled the misconception +under which foreigners had been labouring +for many years: it was to conclude a peace with France +in the face of a rabid opposition. This misconception +of Prince Ch'un's character and policy is only an +example of how vain it is for foreigners to attempt +to sound the currents of Chinese politics, more especially +where palace factions are concerned. +</p> + +<p> +The advent of the Seventh Prince having removed +all friction between the empress-regent and +the Government, it was a signal for tentative reforms +and what foreigners call progress. Li Hung-chang +had to a considerable extent imbued the Court with +his own ideas. He assured them there was no +danger in adopting foreign methods and foreign manners,—on +the contrary, that to do so was the only +means of safety to the empire. Within a few months +of his taking the reins, the Prince established a precedent +which amounted to a small revolution in its +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_315' name='Page_315'>[315]</a></span> +way. He began to transact business through his agents +with foreigners in the capital itself, which had been up +to that time strictly preserved from all contamination +of foreign trade. The two "stores" which existed were +not traders by right, but were under the special +protection of certain foreign Ministers, who had represented +to the Government the necessity of such +agencies for the supply of necessaries for the use of +their Legations. This was followed in course of time +by the introduction of novelties in the palace, such +as electric light, toy railways and steam launches +in the imperial pleasure-grounds. The telegraph wire +itself was introduced into the city during the summer +of 1884, it having been previously jealously +kept at a distance of thirteen miles, from superstitious +fears concerning the sinister influence which +the electric wire might exert over the fortunes of +the capital. However real such fears may be in the +minds of the Chinese, and however convenient they +may be as a defence against proposals from without, +they invariably yield to the pressure of necessity. +While the terminus of the telegraph line was +at Tungchow, the inconvenience of having to send +mounted messengers thirteen miles to despatch and +receive messages was for some time felt almost entirely +by the foreign Legations; but when the war crisis +with France arose, and the Chinese Government itself +was sending urgent messages requiring immediate +answers to the southern provinces and to Europe, the +absurdity of losing more time between the Tsungli-Yamên +and the telegraph station than was occupied +by the transmission of the message and its reply +from Europe became so striking, that the order was +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_316' name='Page_316'>[316]</a></span> +given to bring the telegraph into the city. No more +was heard of geomantic difficulties. +</p> + +<p> +The most important object, however, which Li +Hung-chang sought to gain through the activity +of the Seventh Prince, was so to interest his Highness +in the scheme of national defence, which had +been growing under the viceroy's initiative, that +this department of the work of Government should +be transformed from a provincial to an imperial +concern. With this end in view an expedition on +salt water was arranged for the Prince; and insignificant +as the feat must appear in Western eyes, +yet for a Manchu prince, who had never seen the +sea, to be allowed to trust himself on the treacherous +element at all, or on such a strange monster +as a steamer, must be accepted as a decided proof +that the old order was changing, giving place to +the new. The prince was undoubtedly nervous, not +knowing what should befall him on his expedition. +</p> + +<p> +The first ordeal through which he had to pass +was that of personal contact with foreigners, of whom +he had perhaps never seen one in Peking. His introduction +was carefully organised by Li Hung-chang, +and it was at Tientsin that the prince first met +with foreign officials, who waited upon him at separate +audiences. The foreigners were as much +charmed with his Highness as he expressed himself +to have been with them, so that he embarked on his +cruise free from anxiety. His attendants, however,—on +whom and on Li Hung-chang all the responsibility +of course rested,—continued to feel anxious +during their passage across the Gulf. This feeling +became for a moment acute when, on landing at Port +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_317' name='Page_317'>[317]</a></span> +Arthur, they were met by a British admiral and +staff with a guard of honour. It is an actual fact +that the sight of strange armed men waiting for the +prince, working on oriental traditions, did suggest a +trap, for the idea of capture by treachery is never +wholly absent from the Chinese mind. The Government +had taken the wise precaution of attaching to +the prince an experienced and capable foreigner in +whom he reposed perfect confidence, and Mr Detring +explained foreign customs and forms of courtesy to +the prince and his suite in a way which completely +reassured them. Among all the dignitaries in the +prince's suite, however, there was not one capable +of taking in the entirely novel ideas which were +presented to them. One man only, of quite subordinate +rank—whether a Manchu or a Chinese by +birth is unknown to the writer—a confidential agent +of the Seventh Prince in business matters, seized +the entire programme of foreign etiquette the moment +it was explained to him, and through him the whole +ceremony passed smoothly and agreeably to all parties. +The name of this official was Chang Yi, who has since +been taking a leading part in mining, railway, and +other progressive enterprises in China. +</p> + +<p> +On his return to Peking Prince Ch'un in a memorial +to the Throne reported fully the incidents of his cruise +to the gulf ports. Not long after a naval board was +established in Peking, with the prince at its head. +As a step in the direction of centralising the naval +authority, which included also the direction of the +land defences, the establishment of a Board of Admiralty +in the capital was certainly a progressive +one; but as its members possessed neither knowledge +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_318' name='Page_318'>[318]</a></span> +nor experience of naval or military affairs its authority +was much attenuated, almost every question +having to be referred back to Li Hung-chang in +Tientsin. Any chance that might have existed of +Prince Ch'un himself inspiring the new Board and +bringing it up to a state of efficiency was lost +through his Highness falling into ill-health, from +which he never recovered, but after a lingering illness +died in 1890. +</p> + +<h3> +VI. THE EMPEROR ASSUMES THE GOVERNMENT, 1889. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +The Emperor Kwanghsu comes of age in 1889—Audience of foreign +Ministers arranged—Derogatory conditions—Second audience refused +by Ministers—Accepted by Austrian and British envoys. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In 1889 his Majesty Kwanghsu attained his majority +and married. But his coming of age was a +somewhat gradual process, with intervals between each +step, as if the empress-regent, who alone determined +the time and the seasons, were either mistrustful +of the capacity of her nephew or reluctant to lay +down the reins of authority. The emperor, kept in +leading-strings, was allowed to assume some of the +functions of an autocrat, but not all. This slow unfolding +of the imperial blossom had this result among +others, that it procured a welcome respite from the +bitter ordeal of granting an audience to the representatives +of foreign States. It was well understood +that the foreigners had for sixteen years been looking +forward to the emperor's assumption of power +as to the consummation of their diplomatic function, +and that as soon as a decent interval had been +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_319' name='Page_319'>[319]</a></span> +allowed to the young monarch after his majority, +the subject would become pressing. +</p> + +<p> +It had been discussed in whispers for nearly two +years, when, to the astonishment of everybody, including +even the members of the Tsungli-Yamên +themselves, an imperial decree was issued in December +1890 in kindly terms ordering preparations +to be made to receive the foreign Ministers after +the Chinese New Year—that is, in the February +following. Since nobody owned to having been in the +secret, the act was set down to the emperor's gracious +initiative, and was hailed with enthusiasm as +the opening of a new era. The Great Wall had at +last fallen; the pretensions to superiority for which +the Chinese had made such great sacrifices were +suddenly abandoned, and henceforth equality with +foreign nations was to be the basis of their diplomatic +intercourse. +</p> + +<p> +The hope was shortlived, for as soon as the details +of the imperial reception came to be arranged with the +Tsungli-Yamên all the old difficulties appeared in an +aggravated form. The foreign ministers, having pondered +the question for eighteen years, had unanimously +resolved that they would not accept an audience in the +building used for the reception of tributary princes, +where the ceremony of 1873 had taken place, but +only in the imperial palace, or not at all. The +whole value of the audience was the acknowledgment +it signified of international equality. The idea that it +would facilitate business must have been long before +abandoned. The form, therefore, was everything, and +the Chinese Ministers were resolved that the "tributary" +form should be adhered to. They became urgent +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_320' name='Page_320'>[320]</a></span> +in their appeals to the reasonableness of the foreign +Ministers. They had gone to expense in renovating +the hall, Tz-kwang-ko; they had no other place available; +the imperial decree must be obeyed, and this +admitted of no postponement. +</p> + +<p> +Yielding to these arguments, the foreign Ministers +agreed to a compromise. They would, for this time +only, repair to the Tz-kwang-ko, but never again. The +ceremony took place therefore on 5th March 1891. +There were two receptions—first an audience to the +various foreign Ministers separately, next a general +reception of the whole of them. The diplomatic body +soon felt the consequences of their retrograde step, for +when they came to discuss details of the audience of +the following year, the Chinese interposed a simple <i>non +possumus</i> to every demand which implied the acknowledgment +of equality. A reception within the palace +without the <i>kotow</i> could not even be discussed. No +accommodation between the opposing views being +possible, there was no audience in 1892. The diplomatic +body were solidly united in maintaining the +dignity of their respective countries, and by ceasing to +solicit, they left the onus of discovering a solution of +the question on the Chinese themselves. The audience +was of no practical value to the foreigners, while the +withholding of it placed the Chinese so much in the +wrong that they might safely have been left to their +own devices. +</p> + +<p> +Before, however, the pressure to extricate themselves +and their sovereign from an untenable position had +become too severe, a diversion in their favour was +created by the flying visit of an Austrian envoy, who +seemed ready to present his credentials on any terms +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_321' name='Page_321'>[321]</a></span> +whatever, so that the formalities were quickly got over, +and he enabled to conclude his mission. The Chinese +availed themselves of this unexpected opportunity, and +the emperor granted an audience to M. Biegeleben in +another hall or pavilion outside the palace, which +thenceforth became known locally as the Palais +Biegeleben. +</p> + +<p> +At the end of 1892, not long after the Biegeleben +incident, a new British Minister arrived in Peking. Not +apparently considering himself bound by the compact +to which his predecessor was a party, he, without the +knowledge of his diplomatic colleagues, accepted an +audience on the same derogatory terms as the Austrian +envoy had done, and the reactionary policy of the +Chinese thus enjoyed a complete, if temporary, triumph. +This proceeding of the British Minister was deeply +resented by the diplomatic body, most of all by the +Russian Minister, Count Cassini, himself a new arrival, +and the circumstance did not tend to smooth the +subsequent intercourse between the parties. +</p> + +<h3> +VII. THE VISIT OF THE CZAREVITCH, 1891. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Worthy reception in Peking impossible—Attempted substitution of provincial +reception—Czarevitch visits only the Russian communities in +China. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Closely connected in point of time, and possibly by +a more vital link, with the imperial audience was the +voyage of the Czarevitch to India, China, and Japan in +1890-91. There was no precedent in China for the +reception of the member of any foreign royal family. +In the days before the first audience the Duke of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_322' name='Page_322'>[322]</a></span> +Edinburgh, while in command of the Galatea, visited +Peking, but strictly <i>incognito</i>, no visits being exchanged +with any Chinese. But times had changed considerably +in the twenty years that had since elapsed, and with an +emperor of full age on the throne things that were +winked at during his minority could no longer be so +lightly treated. The Chinese Government were, in +fact, perfectly conscious of the responsibility which lay +upon them to show courtesy to so distinguished a visitor +as the heir to the throne of Russia, and they took +timely measures for his reception. +</p> + +<p> +The position of the audience question convinced the +Ministers that it would be impossible to receive him +worthily in Peking, since to do so would be to admit +equality with foreign States. The first care of the +Chinese, therefore, was to induce his Imperial Highness +to stay away from the capital. The Russian Government +were told that Li Hung-chang, representing the +Chinese Emperor, would meet the Czarevitch at Chefoo, +and that his reception by other Governors of provinces +would be deemed equivalent to one by the emperor in +person. The Russian Government fell into the trap, +and the programme of provincial receptions would have +been carried out but for the eccentricity of Chang Chih-tung, +the governor-general of the Hu provinces on the +Yangtze. He, with the other provincials, had received +the instructions about the reception of the Czarevitch, +but he alone treated the order with contempt, not even +deigning to answer it or to explain his reason. The +order did not emanate from Peking, and he would not +accept a mandate from an equal. Evidently the emperor +had no hand in drawing up the programme, and +this Chang had the best means of knowing, for he had +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_323' name='Page_323'>[323]</a></span> +a brother in the Inner Council. This action of a high +authority throws full light on the difference between +an imperial and a provincial transaction, as the Chinese +themselves regard it. +</p> + +<p> +In keeping with this independent attitude of Chang +was the rudeness with which he received the officer +deputed by the Russian admiral to arrange details of +the reception at Wuchang. In this way the intended +imposture was exposed. But if the Russian Government +had been too easily led into a false position, it +must be admitted they extricated themselves cleverly, +by simply demanding a yellow chair for the Czarevitch, +a colour reserved exclusively for the emperor. As +this could not be conceded the official ceremonies fell +through, and the Czarevitch contented himself with +visiting the Russian communities at the Chinese ports. +He then proceeded to Japan, where a brilliant reception +awaited him; and from Japan to Vladivostock, +where he turned the first sod of the Trans-Siberian +Railway, 19th May 1891. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i323" id="i323"></a> +<img src="images/i-p323.jpg" width="304" height="147" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_324' name='Page_324'>[324]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXVI. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE TONGKING QUARREL.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Rapid advance of French towards China proper—The Black Flags—Discussions +between France and China—Attempted negotiations—Conquest +of Tongking decided upon—Chinese feared attack on Canton—City defenceless—Negotiation +with France recommended—Captain Fournier +concludes convention with Li Hung-chang in Tientsin—Strong opposition +in the capital—Collision between forces in Tongking—French make +war on China—Peace concluded through customs agency, April 1885—The +Li-Fournier convention ratified. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The progress of the French in the annexation of Cochin +China, Annam, and Tongking was phenomenally rapid. +These aggressions on her tributary States were far from +agreeable to China, but no effective means of resistance +was proposed. The Chinese policy, wrote Sir R. Alcock,<a name='FA_26' id='FA_26' href='#FN_26' class='fnanchor'>[26]</a> +"has been one of drift, and letting things slide into irretrievable +confusion and disaster for want of courage +and decisive action at the right time. Between the +Dupuis and Garnier expeditions, in which a handful +of men were seizing towns, storming citadels, and terrorising +the Annamite mandarins and king into virtual +submission to any terms dictated to them, and Captain +Rivière's very similar proceedings in 1883, there was +abundant time and opportunity for China either to +fight or to negotiate with effect, but she did neither." +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_325' name='Page_325'>[325]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +When, however, the advance of the French brought +them within measurable distance of the southern provinces +of China proper, a more serious view of the invasion +was forced upon the Government. A body of +irregular troops, called the Black Flags, for some time +stood in the way of the French, who designated them +"pirates." The status of these Black Flags was, indeed, +somewhat ambiguous, as they had been virtually outlawed +by the Chinese. But when it was seen that they +were harassing the French, the provincial authorities +recognised that they were fighting the battle of China +and of her tributary. The Annamese Government had, +in the first instance, invited the assistance of the Black +Flags, and the Chinese Government officially encouraged +them, while hoping to evade direct responsibility +for doing so. The French had made the useless mistake +of wounding China in a tender spot by destroying the +seal granted to the Annamese sovereign by the emperor, +and it was probably this insult rather than the territorial +seizures which induced China to reinforce the +Black Flags by a body of imperial troops, and to lay +down distinctly the line which she would consider herself +bound to defend. +</p> + +<p> +The annexation of Annam became the subject of protracted +discussions between France and China. The +diplomacy of the Marquis Tsêng in Paris, and of Li +Hung-chang in China—a convention had actually been +concluded between the latter and the French Minister, +Bourrée—failed to arrest the progress of France, and +the question between the two countries reached a burning +point after the capture by the French of Sontay +and Bacninh in the spring of 1884. +</p> + +<p> +The Chinese envoy had declared to M. Ferry that a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_326' name='Page_326'>[326]</a></span> +French advance on these places would be regarded by +his Government as a <i>casus belli</i>. Seeing, however, that +no action was taken by China after their actual capture, +the French took fresh courage, and their programme of +conquest became so much expanded that what had been +the dream of a few became the definitive policy of the +Republic. "The conquest of Tongking had been decided +upon in principle," wrote Admiral Jaurèguiberry to +Captain Rivière at the time when M. de Freycinet was +declaring that there should be no policy of aggression. +The taking of the two citadels sealed the policy of the +admiral and falsified that of the Foreign Minister. +From that point may be dated the important position +which France has since assumed in claiming to direct, +in conjunction with Russia, the destinies of the Chinese +Empire. +</p> + +<p> +On the fall of the two cities the Chinese officials of +the southern provinces were filled with consternation. +They feared that the successes of the French would +encourage them, if not to invade China, at least to force +a settlement with her on their own terms. They had +before them the brochure of Captain Rivière, commander +of the French forces in Tongking, in which he +advocated a quarrel with China as a preliminary to the +seizure of the three southern provinces, Kwangtung, +Kwangsi, and Yunnan. An obvious step towards the +execution of such a design would be an attack on the +provincial capital, Canton, an event which was not only +anticipated by the authorities, but was thought feasible, +and even probable, by disinterested onlookers. How +little prepared were the Chinese to resist such an attack +will be best understood by the measures they took to +avert it. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_327' name='Page_327'>[327]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +An officer of the Chinese customs service, Mr G. +Detring, returning from furlough, brought with him +the details of the Marquis Tsêng's abortive negotiations +in Paris. He arrived in China immediately after the +capture of the two strongholds of Sontay and Bacninh. +In proceeding from Hongkong to take up his +official post at Canton he accepted a passage in the +French <i>aviso</i> Volta, which conveyed Rear-Admiral +Lespès to the latter city. She was commanded +by Commandant Fournier, with whom Mr Detring had +been some years before on terms of intimacy in the +north of China. The principal topic discussed on +the passage was naturally Tongking, and, judging from +subsequent developments, it is reasonable to suppose +that the seeds of the settlement eventually concluded +between China and France were sown during that +short but interesting voyage. When Mr Detring +reported himself to the provincial authorities they +evinced the greatest anxiety as to what they conceived +to be the threatening attitude of the French against +Canton. Asked if their river defences were in a position +to resist attack, they frankly avowed that they +were not; but yet, being personally responsible for +the defence, they dared not confess the true state of +affairs to the Imperial Government. The viceroy +of Canton and the governor of Yunnan were already +under censure, and the military commanders in Tongking +were even threatened with decapitation "pour +encourager les autres." The Canton authorities +were thus, in fact, in the dilemma in which Chinese +provincial officials have so frequently found themselves +in dealing with foreign exigencies—responsible yet +helpless. Since they were avowedly incapable of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_328' name='Page_328'>[328]</a></span> +resistance, the viceroy and governor were advised at +once to open negotiations with the French, and, as a +first step, to report the actual position frankly to the +Central Government,—in other words, to Li Hung-chang, +who in this, as in all other crises, had to bear +the burden of every initiative. Having had experience +of the capacity of Mr Detring, first in the negotiating +of the Chefoo convention, and subsequently during +several years of official intercourse at Tientsin, Li +Hung-chang moved the Central Government to +summon the Canton commissioner of customs to Tientsin +for consultation. +</p> + +<p> +The way being thus partially opened to negotiation, +Rear-Admiral Lespès held himself in readiness to proceed +to Tientsin in response to any invitation that +might be conveyed to him. Captain Fournier was +sent on in advance to the rendezvous at Chefoo, where +he was to remain until the real views of the Chinese +Government respecting a settlement of the Tongking +dispute had been ascertained. The French having +set their hearts on extorting a large indemnity, it +was emphatically declared to them that China would +never pay one farthing. Any negotiation, therefore, +would be futile unless this question was first eliminated. +Having paved the way with Li Hung-chang, Mr +Detring next proceeded to Chefoo to invite Captain +Fournier to Tientsin. From previous good relations he +was <span lang="la"><i>persona grata</i></span> with Li, and on that account was +thought a not unfit agent with whom to discuss preliminaries +in anticipation of the arrival of his admiral. +But that there should be no mistake about the indemnity, +Captain Fournier was once more told that unless +it were dropped it would be useless his proceeding to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_329' name='Page_329'>[329]</a></span> +Tientsin. His doing so, therefore, was a tacit withdrawal +of that important item in the French demands. +Both parties being equally desirous of a settlement, all +official technical difficulties were promptly overcome, +and Captain Fournier, from a mere herald of the +French admiral, was by telegraphic instructions from +Paris at once promoted to the rank of plenipotentiary +for France, and this notwithstanding that there was +an accredited representative of the Republic eighty +miles off in Peking. The two negotiators, in short, +fell into each other's arms, and the convention of May +11, 1884, was the result. +</p> + +<p> +The peace so suddenly and irregularly patched up +was not, however, destined to endure. Li Hung-chang, +knowing better than any of his peers the risks +of a war with France, had stretched his authority to +the uttermost in concluding a treaty which practically +ceded Annam and Tongking to that Power. For though +in this as in all his other acts he carried with him the +approval of the empress-dowager, he knew that he had +to brave the ferocious opposition of the ignorant +fanatics of the capital, which he himself described as +the "howling of dogs." The moment the announcement +was made, indeed, the furies were let loose upon +him, and he had practically no support but that of the +empress-dowager; for the Tsungli-Yamên, so far as +they were not opposed to the treaty, were invertebrate. +It is necessary to bear in mind this critical +position of Li Hung-chang in order to understand the +series of blunders, misunderstandings, recriminations, +and actual war which ensued. +</p> + +<p> +After the ratification of the treaty, arrangements had +to be made for the withdrawal of the Chinese forces +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_330' name='Page_330'>[330]</a></span> +from the territory which had been ceded to France. +Captain Fournier, in an interview with Li Hung-chang, +presented a memorandum fixing the dates on which +the troops were to evacuate the several positions specified. +A long discussion appears to have taken place, +in which it is not difficult, from the circumstances +above referred to, to divine what the viceroy's attitude +must have been. He wished to avoid the invidious +responsibility of asking the Central Government to +order the withdrawal of the troops from Langson, as +to do so would obviously add fuel to the fire of +those powerful functionaries who were clamouring for +the repudiation of the treaty, and for the negotiator's +head. In vain endeavouring to obtain from Fournier +an indefinite delay in carrying out the stipulation for +the retirement of the Chinese troops, Li perhaps +trusted that the French commanders in Tongking +would themselves cut the knot by marching forward +with an adequate force and brushing away the Chinese +troops opposing them. The accomplished fact would +then have settled everything. +</p> + +<p> +It has been said that the clever interpreter, instead +of translating all the viceroy's arguments and explaining +his difficulties, summed the whole up to Captain +Fournier in two words, "Avancez donc"—advice which +would no doubt have been sufficient if only the French +military commander, Colonel Dugenne, had marched +with a reasonable force, or even if he had carried with +him a competent interpreter, through whom he might +have communicated with the Chinese commander. The +latter officer, however, when called upon to evacuate +the post, pleaded that he had received no instructions +to that effect, and asked for time to communicate +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_331' name='Page_331'>[331]</a></span> +with Peking. The letter to the French commander +containing these reasonable pleas for delay was either +wrongly translated or left untranslated for months. +In the meantime Colonel Dugenne advanced with a +small party, and was forced to retreat with loss, for +which he was not unjustly recalled by his own +authorities; and thereupon ensued the Franco-Chinese +war. +</p> + +<p> +This was not, however, the only <i>contretemps</i> in connection +with this lamentable outbreak. The Chinese +commander had actually telegraphed to Li Hung-chang +for instructions; but, still unwilling to face the +responsibility, the latter left the reply to his council, +among whom there happened to be for the moment +his evil genius, Chang Pei-lun, a fire-eating member +of the Tsungli-Yamên, who was on his way to take +up the post of governor of Fukien province and +Imperial Commissioner of the Foochow arsenal. +</p> + +<p> +Laudable efforts were made to repair the mischief, +and in the conferences which followed in Paris peace +was more than once all but assured; but owing to +a series of accidents and misunderstandings, in which +the authorities at Peking, the French representative +there, the French commanders on the Chinese coast, +and the telegraph were all implicated, the die was +cast in August 1884, and the war was continued till +the following April. +</p> + +<p> +For reasons of their own the French Government +were averse to calling the hostilities "war," preferring +reprisals and "intelligent destruction." By +whatever name it may be called, the French did not +distinguish themselves greatly in the conduct of the +operations. Their only feat of arms was the destruction, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_332' name='Page_332'>[332]</a></span> +at their anchorage in the river Min, of the +Chinese ships belonging to the Foochow squadron, +and of the arsenal, which, as Li Hung-chang bitterly +reflected, had been erected by "French genius." +Admiral Courbet found his destructive work easy, +having entered the river and taken up a position +in the rear of the batteries during time of peace. +The subsequent operations in Formosa were without +result; and the French Government refused permission +to Admiral Courbet to attack Port Arthur, on +the non-military ground of wishing to save the prestige +of <span lang='fr_FR'>"notre ami Li Hung-chang."</span> So far as the +naval operations were concerned, even when most +successful in intelligent destruction, they were quite +ineffective towards ending the war until the method +which has never failed to bring the Chinese Government +to terms was resorted to—the stoppage of the +grain-supply to the capital. This was accomplished +by a patrol of the coast for the purpose of intercepting +vessels carrying rice to Tientsin. The work +performed during the winter and spring of 1885 by +the French cruisers, in keeping the sea without any +base and performing their patrol duties in all weathers, +excited the admiration of seamen. It should be mentioned +that they were precluded from acting offensively +against the Yangtze by tacit understanding with Great +Britain and other Powers. +</p> + +<p> +If the breach of the peace between France and +China was a historical curiosity, the eventual settlement +of the dispute resembled a dramatic extravaganza. +The final incident of the war in Tongking +was the defeat of the French, followed by a panic, +caused apparently by General Négrier being wounded. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_333' name='Page_333'>[333]</a></span> +The force then made a disorderly retreat before +imaginary pursuers. In the meantime the empress-dowager +had given positive orders that peace should +be made on any terms. Both parties had thus come +round to the <span lang="la"><i>status quo ante bellum</i></span>—that is to say, +they were both equally urgent to obtain peace, as +they had been in May 1884. The agent in bringing +this about was Sir Robert Hart; and it was effected, +as great things usually are, by the adroit use of +very simple means. During the blockade of Formosa +a small Chinese lighthouse tender was captured by +the French admiral and detained. As she was essentially +non-combatant, and was serving the interests +of humanity in supplying the numerous lighthouses +on the coast of China for the benefit of the commerce +of all nations, Sir Robert Hart instructed his very +capable London agent, Mr Duncan Campbell, to go +to Paris and represent the case to the French +Ministers, with a view to obtaining the release of so +useful and harmless a vessel. In this manner the +door was opened to the larger negotiation. Mr +Campbell executed his delicate mission with so +much tact, that in the amicable conversations which +ensued between him and certain French officials the +idea of putting an end to a war of which both parties +were tired, and which, moreover, seemed objectless, +was ventilated; and in a few days authority was +telegraphed from Peking to Mr Campbell to sign a +protocol. +</p> + +<p> +This was done before the news of the French +reverse at Langson reached Paris. After such a +military success M. Jules Ferry could not imagine +that the Chinese Government would adhere to the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_334' name='Page_334'>[334]</a></span> +terms of the protocol, and therefore he kept the +whole negotiation secret from the Chambers. In the +meanwhile the mishap to the French troops, being +greatly exaggerated, excited such intense feeling in +France that M. Ferry, <i>le Tonkinois</i>, was obliged to +resign, with the treaty which might have saved him +in his pocket. As for the empress-dowager, she +recked nothing of the success of her brave troops +on the outskirts of the empire, but thought only of +the enormous expense of the war, which had been +unpleasantly brought home to her, and of matters +affecting her own convenience. She therefore had +no thought of going back on the treaty, but was +even more urgent than before to have it promptly +signed and ratified. The honours of the peace thus +fell in a few days to M. Ferry's successor. +</p> + +<p> +And what was the outcome of a year's fighting +which cost China 100,000,000 taels and France some +proportionate amount? A simple reaffirmation of the +Li-Fournier convention of May 1884! The convention +itself was short and simple—one clause only exciting +much interest during the negotiations, and that provoked +a hot discussion, not on the substance, but on +the verbal form. It was a stipulation by which the +two contracting parties consciously meant different +things, and each fought hard for a phrase sufficiently +subtle to allow each to interpret it in his own way +when the time came for the fulfilment of the treaty +provisions. The French were most desirous of binding +the Chinese to employ French industries in all their +new undertakings. China was equally resolute in +avoiding any such obligation. In the end each was +satisfied that he could read the treaty clause in his +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_335' name='Page_335'>[335]</a></span> +own favour. But the final victory in the struggle +would go to the side that was most persistent in forcing +its meaning into practice. The French Ministry had +announced to the Chambers a great victory for French +manufacturing industries, which were represented as +having by it obtained a monopoly in China. The +text of the treaty, even in the French version, did +not, indeed, bear this out; but the French had the +<i>primâ facie</i> argument on their side, that the introduction +of a clause in a treaty referring to the Chinese +patronage of French industries, however worded, must +have meant something more than merely to register +the common fact that China was at liberty to deal +with whom she pleased. In the end a compromise +was effected by China's giving to a French syndicate +the contract for excavating the basin and dock at +Port Arthur and certain orders for material, among +which was a famous military balloon, wonderfully +symbolic of the whole proceeding. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i335" id="i335"></a> +<img src="images/i-367.jpg" width="289" height="168" alt="" /> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_336' name='Page_336'>[336]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXVII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE FRENCH PROTECTORATE OF CHRISTIANS.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Alliance with Church the corner-stone of French conquest—Persistence +of French ambitions in the Far East—Protectorate of native Christians—Its +abuse by the propaganda—Forcible erection of cathedrals +in Peking—Imperial family aggrieved thereby—Negotiations for +removal of church from palace grounds—Mr Dunn's mission to Rome—Vatican +to send a nuncio—French Government vetos—French minister +vetos transfer of cathedral—Unless transaction placed in his +hands. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The claim of France to protect Christians against +the native authorities in the Far East constitutes +the basis and the origin of her present political position +in those countries. The propagation of the faith +was, indeed, a recognised element in the adventures +of other countries besides France; but she has, since +the eclipse of Portugal and Spain, enjoyed the distinction +of a working alliance with the Church in +furthering the foreign domination of both. "Church +and State, linked in alliance close and potential, played +faithfully into each other's hands," says Parkman +('Jesuits in North America'). In the reign of Louis +XIV. the kingdom of Siam was the object of their +joint attention. A missionary bishop persuaded the +most Christian king that to establish the Church in +Siam and convert king and country to the Catholic +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_337' name='Page_337'>[337]</a></span> +faith would open an effectual door for the extension +of French commerce. A century later another bishop +persuaded another Louis to interfere in the affairs of +Annam, and only the events of 1789 cut short an +expedition that was being prepared of politico-ecclesiastical +propagandism. Napoleon III. took up the +cause, and actually effected the conquest of Cochin +China; and Gambetta was so enthusiastic on the +subject that, while persecuting the Catholics in France, +he was ready to expend the forces of the Republic +in protecting them in distant countries. +</p> + +<p> +There is here, therefore, irrespective of persons or +forms of government, an unbroken tradition, which +furnishes a key to the successive operations of France +in the Far East. Thus when she resolved to join +England in hostilities against China in 1857 a pretext +was ready to hand in the murder of a Catholic +priest in the interior of the country, his presence there +being a defiance of the laws of the empire. There has +been flux and reflux in French policy, but no change +in its direction; and though prudence has from time +to time set limits to its full expression, the claim +to a special representation of Chinese Christians has +been consistently pursued as a cardinal object of the +French military, naval, and diplomatic forces in the +Far East. +</p> + +<p> +The treaties of 1858 for the first time authorised +travelling into the interior, and placed French subjects, +whether missionary or not, who availed themselves +of the permission, under the protection of +their own country. But ever since the convention +of Peking in 1860 it has been sought by indirect +and unobtrusive means to assume the protectorate +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_338' name='Page_338'>[338]</a></span> +over native Christians as well. The interpolated +clause in the Chinese, which was no part of the +authentic French version of the convention, lent a +certain colour to the pretension by seeming to recognise +communities of Chinese Christians as legal units +and fit subjects of international agreement between +China and France. Nevertheless, "French interference +between the Chinese authorities and the subjects +of the empire of China has never had any treaty +warrant or justification by the law of nations," wrote +Sir Rutherford Alcock in the 'Nineteenth Century,' +November 1886; and he added, "China has the +remedy in her own hands, to a certain extent, by +refusing to admit the pretension." The Chinese +Government had long been alive to the danger, as +its elaborate appeal to the reason of the Powers in +1871 amply testified, but its eyes were opened still +wider by the lesson of the Tongking war. A disposition +was thereafter evinced to withstand the claim +of the French, and the action of Germany afforded +sufficient support to the Chinese position, had the +Government only had the courage and perspicacity +to lean upon it. For in the Catholic propaganda +were missionaries of German origin, who were not +permitted to divest themselves of their nationality, +but were made to apply for their passports into the +interior not to the French, but the German, Legation +in Peking. Had Italy and Spain been equally independent, +the question of the French, or any other +protectorate, could scarcely have been entertained +without introducing the element of separate foreign +nationalism into the constitution of the Christian +communities in China, which would not, perhaps, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_339' name='Page_339'>[339]</a></span> +have been agreeable to the views of the Catholic +propagandists, for they naturally aspired to maintain +their independence as a compact ecclesiastical +organisation. +</p> + +<p> +The dread of the French protectorate was much +accentuated by the enforced restitution of ancient +buildings, the most conspicuous examples of which +occurred in the city of Peking itself, and even within +the area of the imperial palace. The sites of three +ancient churches being claimed by the French Minister, +the emperor's Government was compelled to violate +its sense of justice by evicting the existing owners. +The original building of one of the three was found +practically intact, though hidden by the houses built +round and against its walls. These of course had to +be cleared away, regardless of the rights of their +occupants. The interior fittings and decorations of +the church had disappeared, but, strange to say, +much of the wood carving and other ornaments were +gradually recovered from the old-curiosity shops, where +the parts not destroyed had, by the instinct of the +Wardour Street craft, been preserved, begrimed with +the dust of a hundred years and hopelessly unsaleable. +By patiently collecting these disjointed fragments and +piecing them together like a Chinese puzzle, the Fathers +were able gradually to restore the church to something +like its original state, so that it became itself an interesting +relic of the golden age of the Jesuits in Peking. +</p> + +<p> +The other two churches had been demolished, and +the sites converted to secular uses, requiring some +ingenuity to identify. When these sites were, under +the new dispensation, cleared of superincumbent buildings, +churches were erected as much exceeding the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_340' name='Page_340'>[340]</a></span> +original as the glory of the Jewish temple, rebuilt +after the Captivity, excelled that of the former house. +The restrictions imposed by the Government on the +style of the buildings, the last vestige of power which +they dared assert, bore lightly on the astute constructors +of the new churches. In deference to a +common Chinese objection, perhaps partly superstitious, +to lofty structures overlooking them, a limit +was set to the height of the new buildings. But +remonstrances after completion were easily disposed +of by the pious Fathers inviting the objectors to go +and measure the towers! The Chinese seem to have +the same constitutional dislike of a demonstration +that they have to a straight line or a right angle, +and a challenge like this never failed to put them to +silence. As to their neglect to exercise their right of +supervision during construction, the shortest way to +characterise it is merely to say it was Chinese. The +same kind of negligence also allowed roofs of cathedrals, +not in the capital alone, but in distant provinces, to +be covered with yellow tiles, a colour reserved exclusively +for imperial use. It is true the process was +disguised, for the benefit of those who chose to be +blind, by the tiles being whitewashed before being +sent aloft, leaving to the slow action of the weather +the gradual revelation of the imperial colour, which +might then, indeed, be represented as the act of +Heaven. Nothing is too transparent to deceive those +who are willing to be deceived. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i340" id="i340"></a> +<img src="images/i-p340.jpg" width="550" height="418" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">PEI-T'ANG CATHEDRAL IN PEKING, PURCHASED BY CHINESE GOVERNMENT. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The cathedral around which the greatest interest +centred, however, was the one which was erected +within the palace grounds. The site had been +granted by the great Emperor Kanghsi, the most +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_341' name='Page_341'>[341]</a></span> +imperial of the Manchu line, to the learned fathers +who cured his fever by administering Jesuits' bark, +then a new discovery, and whom he reckoned on +attaching to his house by the favours bestowed on +them. The new building was presumably erected +on or near the site of the old, against the most urgent +protests of the Court. Every inducement was offered +to the French—larger and better sites, perhaps other +compensations as well—if they would forego their demand +for the resumption of the ground; but the +French Government being set upon marking its ascendancy +by a permanent sign, compelled the erection of +the Pei-t'ang Cathedral on the spot indicated. The +Lazarists, who had succeeded to the Jesuits in North +China, had a kindly bishop at their head, who conceded +much in the structure of the new building to +soothe the feelings of the imperial family. Nevertheless, +stunted as they were, from the point of view +of architectural symmetry, the double towers of the +cathedral were visible from the palace, and the two +belfries commanded a view over a large part of the +precincts. The building was therefore an eyesore to +the inmates for twenty years, on the common ground +on which it would have been offensive even to a provincial +population, but still more as a staring monument +of the deepest humiliation the dynasty had +endured.<a name='FA_27' id='FA_27' href='#FN_27' class='fnanchor'>[27]</a> The empress-dowager bore the grievance, +but not with resignation, for soon after the affairs of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_342' name='Page_342'>[342]</a></span> +the empire assumed a settled aspect she urged her +Ministers to find a way to get rid of the obnoxious +building. +</p> + +<p> +Monseigneur Delaplace had, in his former diocese +of Chêkiang, rendered good service to the Government +in opposing the rebels, for which he was granted +high Chinese rank. Being dissatisfied with the action +of France after the Tientsin massacre of 1870, he +extricated his mission from the control of the French +Legation in Peking, and from that date till his death +in 1882 conducted its affairs in direct communication +with the Tsungli-Yamên. Fully recognising how +hateful his cathedral was to the Chinese, he co-operated +with Prince Kung and Wênsiang in their efforts +to remove it, and in 1874 he actually concluded an +agreement with them to that effect. But the contract +was vetoed by the French Government. The +sore was thus reopened and continued to fester until +1881, when there was so much excitement in the +capital that the Church and mission were thought +to be in great danger. During the Tongking troubles +the question of the cathedral was allowed to rest, but +no sooner was peace assured than the Court again +became restless, and with renewed urgency sought a +remedy for its grievance. +</p> + +<p> +The negotiations, which proved successful, were +entered upon in an irregular manner, such as has +characterised so many of the Chinese official acts. +An Englishman in Peking, who had had business +dealings with the Government, was asked one day by +the confidential factotum of Prince Ch'un whether he +could render assistance in the matter of the Pei-t'ang. +The case was explained at length, and the foreigner, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_343' name='Page_343'>[343]</a></span> +not being then aware of the negotiations of 1874, +suggested, as the most obvious course, trying to make +an arrangement with the Lazarist mission. The +Manchu shook his head, to signify the futility of that +proceeding. The enterprise thus seemed desperate, +unless the Imperial Government should exercise its +sovereign right of expropriation,—much too drastic a +measure for any Chinese Government to attempt. +</p> + +<p> +One hope only seemed to remain, a direct appeal +to the Vatican. This led to a long conversation on +the Papacy, and the Manchu official,<a name='FA_28' id='FA_28' href='#FN_28' class='fnanchor'>[28]</a> being a pious +and even a learned Buddhist, became intensely interested +in hearing much that was new to him respecting +the position and prerogatives of the European +Dalai Lama. Nor did the "great Western Saint," +whose vicegerent the Pope claims to be, fail to evoke +the deep reverence of both the Manchu and the +Chinese who were present, so that one might be almost +justified in appropriating words uttered on a +different occasion,—they were "not very far from the +kingdom" ruled by "the Western Saint." +</p> + +<p> +But the interesting question was, How was the +Vatican to be approached? By a qualified secret +agent intrusted with the full confidence of the +Chinese Court. The mission would be by no means +easy, for should its object become known, it would be +thwarted in advance from mere jealousy, if from no +other motive, by Lazarist and perhaps other Catholic +missions, so that access to the Supreme Pontiff would +be blocked at the outset. The mission would also be +certain to arouse the strenuous hostility of the French +Government. After discussing the problem from all +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_344' name='Page_344'>[344]</a></span> +sides for three hours, the Manchu cut it short by the +abrupt question, "Will you go?" "No," said the +foreigner; "such an undertaking requires quite other +qualities than any I possess. But," he added, after +considering the matter, "I think I know the man who +might carry it through." "Where is he? in Peking? +Bring him here," were rapped out like musketry-fire, +showing how urgent was the subject. The agent recommended +to him was Mr J. G. Dunn, a man of +genius and of varied accomplishments, a Catholic, and +having an extensive personal acquaintance with the +propaganda. He was at once invited to Peking, +when another long conference ensued, and Mr Dunn +was requested to draw up a memorandum on the +whole scheme for the information of Prince Ch'un. +After waiting some time for a response Mr Dunn left +the capital, decidedly disappointed, for he was eager +for a service so congenial to his character and feelings. +Indeed had the mission been created for the man, or +the man for the mission, the harmony between means +and ends could hardly have been closer. +</p> + +<p> +Several months elapsed before the question emerged +again from official obscurity, and the manner of it is +worth relating if only for the side-light it throws on +Chinese methods. Li Hung-chang paid a visit to the +capital in 1885, and soon after his return to Tientsin he +requested his secretaries to find out where Mr Dunn +was and to invite him by telegraph to come to see the +viceroy. Not knowing why he was sent for, any more +than Gordon did when summoned from India five years +before, Mr Dunn came, and Li at once entered on the +Pei-t'ang question, showing him his own memorandum +on the subject. The affair having been placed by +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_345' name='Page_345'>[345]</a></span> +Prince Ch'un in the hands of Li Hung-chang to be +carried through, Mr Dunn was promptly commissioned, +and in concert with the viceroy's secretary, the very +capable officer who now represents China at Washington, +the emissary's instructions and credentials were +drawn up. There were two separate instructions, and +no little confusion was caused thereby. +</p> + +<p> +On leaving China for Rome, Mr Dunn stipulated that +a competent intermediary should be appointed to interpret +his correspondence to Li Hung-chang, a +duty which was intrusted to the commissioner of +customs in Tientsin. The utility of this provision +was soon made manifest, for when telegrams began to +arrive from Rome, their purport was unintelligible, as +they seemed irrelevant to the expropriation of the +cathedral, which was Mr Dunn's special mission. +Irritated by this apparent aberration, the viceroy's +idea was to recall the emissary. But when it was +suggested that the copies of his credentials should be +first carefully examined the position became clearer. +One part of his instructions was then found to be +directed towards the question of the Christian protectorate, +and Mr Dunn was, in fact, diplomatising +with the Pope with a view to his appointing a nuncio +or apostolic delegate to China to represent all the +Catholic missions. The Chinese had not fully mastered +this idea, and even Li Hung-chang, who has a wonderful +memory, had forgotten the existence of the second +section of his instructions, which no doubt Mr Dunn +had drawn up himself. The Tsungli-Yamên, languid +and bemused, hesitated to express any opinion, and +assumed their habitual passive attitude. One person +alone really grasped the importance of having the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_346' name='Page_346'>[346]</a></span> +Church in China represented by the delegate of a +Power "which has no armies or fleets wherewith to +threaten or attack." The empress-dowager, when the +nomination of Mgr. Agliardi was announced, and his +coming depended on formal imperial invitation, sent the +urgent message to the Yamên, "Get that man here; +lose no time." +</p> + +<p> +Mr Dunn's negotiations with the Vatican of course +soon leaked out; notices appeared in the press; Mr +Punch had his little joke that though there was +evidently a good deal <i>doing</i>, the question was, Who +was <i>Dunn</i>? The French Government took the matter +up energetically through their Minister in Rome, and +their diplomatic efforts having failed, they presented an +ultimatum to the Pope which compelled him to cancel +the appointment of his nuncio. France threatening to +terminate the concordat, withdraw the subvention to +the Church in France, and sequestrate its ministers, +the Holy Father had no option but to submit. With +tears in his eyes he deplored his impotence to respond +to the invitation of China under such a truculent +menace to "his children in France." +</p> + +<p> +While these things were going on in Rome the +transference of the Pei-t'ang Cathedral, which had +been settled in principle through Mr Dunn, was then +taken up by the Lazarist Mission, and the popular Père +Favier was deputed by the Bishop of Peking to proceed +to Rome and to Paris to obtain from the Vatican and +the General of the Lazarist Order the specific authority +to negotiate the transfer. Having brought back the +necessary powers, a convention was shortly concluded +between Bishop Tagliabue and Li Hung-chang. The +Church made an excellent bargain, as it generally does: +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_347' name='Page_347'>[347]</a></span> +a new site of about thrice the area was granted close +to the old on the opposite side of the broad roadway, +and a bountiful compensation in money was +made for the trouble and cost of removal. But after +the agreement was signed the French Government +interposed its veto so far as to insist on being the +intermediary through whose hands the transaction +should pass. France also, it was said, had previously +essayed to <span lang="fr_FR"><i>marchander</i></span> with China for her consent, +but withdrew when it became clear that further obstruction +might entail untoward consequences. To +mark its satisfaction at the final solution of this +question, the Chinese Government eulogised all those +who had helped to bring it about, and bestowed +high rank on Bishop Tagliabue and the Abbé Favier +(now bishop). +</p> + +<p> +This transaction supplied a crucial test of French +policy and pretensions in China, the first concrete +expression of both that had been obtained since the +forcible restitution of Church property immediately +after the capture of Peking. The coercion, indeed, was +applied on this occasion to the Roman Pontiff and the +Catholic Church rather than to the Chinese Government; +but the latter were not so dull as not to see +to what ulterior objects the French scheme might be +extended, given convenient circumstances. They were, +in fact, really alarmed, and the question was discussed +with some warmth in the Chinese as well as in the +European press. "The end is not yet," wrote Sir +Rutherford Alcock; "China may be less open to intimidation +than heretofore, and assert her undoubted +right to refuse the recognition of an assumed protectorate +over Roman missions, irrespective of the nationality +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_348' name='Page_348'>[348]</a></span> +of their members." The French press espoused +the cause of the protectorate warmly, treating it as +a most valuable national asset. The Chinese press +took up the question in reply. Their view of the position +was comprehensively summed up in a native newspaper +in October 1886 in the following terms:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +It has been said by them of old time that when a man is +found acting injuriously to his own family but benevolently to +strangers his behaviour is unnatural, and there is something +hidden under the cloak of outward kindness. +</p> + +<p> +We have from time to time printed translations from various +foreign newspapers on the subject of the relations between +the Chinese Government and the Pope. Some days ago we +reproduced an article on the same subject from the 'Temps,' +a French newspaper of the highest authority. These articles +all indicate that the French Government is greatly troubled +at the prospect of losing what is called the right to protect +Christians in China. This is a question which has not hitherto +been much considered by Chinese statesmen. Those of +them who have been in Europe, or who have studied political +affairs there, know something of the importance of the issues +which are covered up in that apparently harmless word "protection"; +but it is hardly to be expected that the Ministers and +statesmen who have scarcely travelled beyond the walls of +Peking can realise the full significance of the phrase. Nothing +is better calculated to quicken the apprehension of the Government +on this point than the extraordinary excitement of +the French Government, which insists on protecting the Christians +in China whether they desire this protection or not. +For now that the French have so plainly shown their secret +designs, it would be impossible for China to acquiesce, by +word or deed, in the pretensions which France sets up. It is +rather suspicious that the French Government, the greatest +enemy of Christianity, which is constantly oppressing the +priests and confiscating their property in France, should be +so intensely desirous of protecting Christians in China, where +this protection is not required. A leading French statesman, +Gambetta, who died a few years ago, left as a legacy to his +followers the doctrine that the Church should be suppressed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_349' name='Page_349'>[349]</a></span> +in France but supported in all foreign countries. Gambetta +was a man who had no reverence for Heaven, and no religion, +and seems to have regarded Christianity as a disease which +he wished his own country to be rid of, but was not sorry to +see it spreading elsewhere. It is necessary to keep these ideas +in mind in order to understand the action of the French Government +to-day. +</p> + +<p> +It would be out of place here to discuss what Christianity +is. Like Buddhism, it had a very pure origin, and the living +principles of both are mercy, benevolence, and peace. But +both religions have in course of ages been overlaid with +doctrines and practices which have obscured the simplicity of +their origin, and even changed their character. But the greatest +misfortune to Christianity is that it has been made use of +by princes as a pretext for wars of aggression. In fact, nearly +all the wars of Europe for the last thousand years have been +in some way connected with religion. This is sometimes made +a reproach against Christianity, which professes to be founded +on peace and self-sacrifice, but the reproach is scarcely just. +Rather it is the peaceful character of Christianity which has +induced ambitious statesmen to make use of it to work out +their own designs, just as in private life unscrupulous men +are sometimes enabled to carry out questionable plans by using +the names of men of blameless character. We are only now +concerned with the political aspect of Christianity, not its +merits as a religion. The modern history of Turkey affords +the best illustration of the danger of allowing foreign Powers +to interfere in matters of religion. During the last hundred +years Russia has several times made war on Turkey, always on +the pretext of protecting Christians, and it is this which is +fast breaking up the Turkish empire. It is interesting to +observe that Russia and France follow the same policy in this +matter. When the French Legation withdrew from Peking +on the 2nd day of the 7th moon of the 10th year of Kwanghsu +(22nd August 1884), the affairs of the Christians were transferred +to the Russian Legation. The Ministers of the Tsungli-Yamên +remember very well how eagerly the Russian Minister +assumed the office of protector of Christians, going to +even greater lengths in the way of protection than the French +themselves had done. The reason for this is plain. Russia, +although she has none now, expects to have by-and-by many +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_350' name='Page_350'>[350]</a></span> +Christians in Mongolia and Manchuria who may be extremely +useful to her in her aggressive designs on China. Therefore +the Russian officials, always looking very far ahead, were most +anxious to establish a right of interference for the protection +of Christians. And they could do this without reproach when +they were acting not for themselves but for France during +war-time; well knowing that, whatever position she succeeded +in establishing for France, Russia could claim for herself when +the proper time came. But the more anxious Russia and +France are to assert the right of interfering with Chinese +Christians, the more resolute China should be in resisting all +such interference. The only safety for China is to treat +Christians, whether Chinese or foreign, exactly as all other +people are treated—to make no distinctions. Foreign missionaries +have the right to travel and reside in the interior; they +can exercise this right without getting passports from the +French Minister. The Catholic missions are composed of men +of all nations, but they all have Ministers in Peking to whom +they can apply for passports. Let the Germans get their +passports from the German Legation, the Spaniards from the +Spanish, Italians, Belgians, and Hollanders from their respective +Legations, but no European State has any right to arrogate +to itself the position of protector of missionaries in general. +</p> + +<p> +It is satisfactory to learn that the head of the Catholic +Church is of this opinion, and although grateful to France for +what she has done in the past, is now desirous of being free +from French protection in the future. To carry out these +views, the Pope is about to send to China a very high official +to reside in Peking and perform the functions of a Minister. +As the Pope has no troops and no territory, but is merely a +kind of Dalai Lama, there is no danger to China from opening +direct relations with him. The affairs of the missionaries can +then be dealt with in an open and straightforward manner, as no +fear of political traps will lurk behind. The Christians when +they know they are no longer protected by a military State +will understand that their security will depend on their own +wisdom in avoiding offence. And the officials and people, on +the other hand, will gradually learn that the Christians are +only anxious to lead virtuous lives, without any political ambition, +and they will respect them. The Imperial Government +will then also be able to extend its favour to all Christians +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_351' name='Page_351'>[351]</a></span> +and missionaries without the fear of nursing traitors in its +bosom. The missionaries have among them men of great +learning and much skill in sciences, which the Emperor Kanghsi—who +must always stand as the model for Chinese rulers—knew +very well how to utilise. The present generation possesses +men no less capable of rendering good services to China, +and there would be no reason for not using them if the suspicion +of their being agents of the French Government were +once cleared away. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Notwithstanding so much clear thinking, however, +the action of the Chinese continued, as before, nebulous. +They seemed never able to seize the bull by the horns, +but drifted on, allowing themselves constantly to be put +in the wrong, hoping perhaps to accomplish by illegitimate +means what was within their legal competence. +Afraid or unwilling to control the provincial authorities, +they allowed outrages to be perpetrated for which they +refused redress until coercion was applied, thus affording +to foreign Powers a not in all cases unwelcome pretext +for extending their protection even to Chinese +Christians. Within a month of the consummation of +the transfer of the Pei-t'ang Cathedral, and after +the Marquis Tsêng, fresh from Europe, had taken +his seat at the Board, the Tsungli-Yamên had fallen +into its chronic apathy with regard to Christians. +A missionary named Bodinier arrived in Peking from +distant Kweichow for the purpose of soliciting the +intervention or intercession of the French Legation +in favour of the persecuted Christians in that province. +While he was on his journey the Catholics +of Chungking in Szechuan were being similarly maltreated. +Certain disturbances in that great commercial +mart culminated in the attack on the house of a +wealthy Christian family, which resisted the assailants, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_352' name='Page_352'>[352]</a></span> +several of whom were killed in the affray. The magistrates, +who had been supine during the time when +the mischief was brewing, thereupon arrested the head +of the Lo family and condemned him to death,—an +exercise of authority which was held to be arbitrary, +and invidiously directed against Christians. Here was +an occasion when the Central Government should have +taken prompt action, and so deprived the French +Government of any pretext for interference. It was a +moment when that Government was less apt than usual +to put forth its power in the Christian cause. M. +Constans was Minister in China, and he was personally +not at all disposed to assume the protection of Chinese +Christians. Nevertheless, the case being urgent, and +the Tsungli-Yamên either cowardly or indifferent, M. +Constans broke through the rule he had laid down +for himself so far as to telegraph to Paris for instructions. +The reply was prompt, doubtless inspired by +the propaganda at home, to the effect that he should +take up the case of Mr Lo. Thus the Chinese threw +away a golden opportunity of showing to the world +that the Chinese Christians did not stand in need +of any foreign aid. An impartial investigation might +have shown, indeed, that the Christians were the +aggressors, and the local Chinese officials might have +been vindicated from the charges made against them. +But the Government's inaction constantly puts it in +the wrong even when it may be substantially in the +right. The same fatal course has been regularly pursued +even to our day, with results patent to all. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_353' name='Page_353'>[353]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXVIII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">BRITISH SERVICES: DIPLOMATIC, CONSULAR, AND +JUDICIAL.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Necessity for administrative and judicial control over British subjects—Consular +courts—Supreme court for China and Japan—<i>Personnel</i> of +the consular service—Functions of the diplomatic representatives—Absence +of distinction explained by apathy of Home Government—Need +of reform. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The frequent references throughout this work to the +part played by British agents in the development of +intercourse with China seem to call for a short account +of the character and status of the official machinery +which served for so many years as the principal +working joint between the two opposed systems of +civilisation. +</p> + +<p> +The relations between Great Britain and China were +necessarily at first experimental. The consuls appointed +to the five ports were selected with no special training, +and the chief superintendent, to whom they looked +for guidance, was scarcely better furnished than themselves. +Yet, as has been shown, the remoteness of the +consuls from their chief, and of both from the Government +they served, threw them much upon their own +resources. How the demand for independent initiative +was responded to by some of the individuals concerned +has been incidentally noticed in previous chapters. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_354' name='Page_354'>[354]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +From the time when it assumed direct relations with +China, the need of an effective control over British +subjects resorting to that country weighed heavily +on the British Government; for in exempting them +from native jurisdiction the Government took on itself +the responsibility for the good behaviour of its people. +The exercise of this control was necessarily tentative, +proceeding step by step as occasions arose. The unceasing +solicitude of the Government for the orderly conduct +of its subjects in China is testified by a long series of +Orders in Council conferring on the consuls and their +superintendent an almost despotic authority over the +persons of the British residents. The operation of +this arbitrary system was more satisfactory than could +have been expected, thanks to the high character of +the parties concerned and the common-sense which +governed their mutual relations. In their double capacity, +however, of protectors of Chinese and foreigners +against the inroads of British subjects, and of the +latter against the inroads of the Chinese, the consuls +soon discovered that the one part of their duty was easy +and the other difficult; and it is no matter for wonder, +therefore, if, following the line of least resistance, some +of them should have leaned to the side of repression +rather than to that of the encouragement of their +countrymen. This was noticeable even in judicial +proceedings, where the consul was supreme over his +own nationals, but had no authority over their opponents. +Some check on the consequences of consular +idiosyncrasies and defective legal knowledge +was maintained by a supreme court in Hongkong, +independent alike of the superintendent of trade and +of the governor of the colony, to which court appeals +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_355' name='Page_355'>[355]</a></span> +lay from consular decisions. This prerogative of the +colonial court was not unnaturally irksome to the +diplomatic and consular servants of the Foreign Office, +and was doubtless one cause of the coolness, not to +say antipathy, with which the colony has generally +been regarded by them. +</p> + +<p> +The treaties of 1858 and 1860 were followed by +a great development in all three services—diplomatic, +consular, and judicial. Some years previously the +China consular service began to be treated as a career +for which special preparation was required, the entry +being by competitive examination, through which +a certain number of students were annually sent out +to China, there to complete their education and then +take their part in executive work. When additional +ports were opened, therefore, making about twenty +in all, in 1861, there was the full complement of +qualified men ready to occupy the new consular posts, +each of them competent to be his own interpreter. +Diplomatic functions were at the same time withdrawn +from Hongkong, where they had been merely nominal +for eighteen years, and became centred in the Chinese +capital. A few years later the judicial authority, so +far as it related to the communities at the Chinese +ports, was also withdrawn from Hongkong, and was +conferred upon the Supreme Court for China and +Japan, having its headquarters in Shanghai, established +by the Queen's Order in Council of 1864. The new +court was inaugurated by Sir Edmund Hornby, who +brought to the work practical experience gained in +the Levant, the assistant judge being Mr C. W. Goodwin, +Barrister of the Inner Temple. This establishment +has furnished a solvent for many of the difficulties connected +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_356' name='Page_356'>[356]</a></span> +with British residence in the Far East. Adapted +with judgment to local circumstances, the court has +proved of immense assistance to the consuls, who, subordinated +judicially to the chief judge, could now obtain +from him proper guidance in their difficulties, a facility +of which they availed themselves freely. +</p> + +<p> +Although a great advance on what preceded it, the +Supreme Court could not of course escape from all the +drawbacks which affected the consular courts. As between +British subjects, it enjoyed the full powers of +law courts in the mother country; but as between +British subjects on the one hand, and the natives of +the country, or non-British residents, on the other, the +authority of the British court could only be exercised +over the former. This one-sided action has been to +some extent compensated in later times by the judicial +qualifications of consuls representing other Western +nationalities, who administer their own laws with the +same impartiality as the British courts do theirs. But +as regards the Chinese no such compensation operates, +for although the treaties make provision for the judicial +action of the Chinese authorities, their conceptions of +equity and forms of procedure being wholly alien to +those of the Western nations, their decisions seldom +satisfy the foreign litigant. An attempt to supply +a connecting-link between two radically different juridical +ideals was made in the setting up of mixed courts +for the purpose of dealing with petty cases between +natives and foreigners within the settlements of Shanghai. +These courts have been occasionally presided over +by honest and competent judges, assisted by able foreign +assessors; but as the native magistrates, being men of +low rank, could always be overruled by the local executive, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_357' name='Page_357'>[357]</a></span> +they lacked the power to make their decisions +effective. +</p> + +<p> +As it was impossible to set up a separate judicial +establishment at each treaty port where there was +but a handful of residents, the consuls had to continue +to perform magisterial duty with all the inconveniences +attending their double function. Efforts +were made by the Home Government to minimise +these disadvantages by infusing a modicum of legal +knowledge into the service, for which purpose they +offered inducements to consular officials who should +qualify as barristers. Notwithstanding all this, however, +the simple fact that a consul is bound in his +administrative capacity to take a part in matters +which may afterwards come before him as a judge +perpetuates an element of incongruity demanding an +uncommon degree of tact on the part of the official. +Some of the worst consequences to be apprehended +from this state of things are partially obviated by +the judge or assistant judge of the Supreme Court +going on circuit, when important cases in the consular +districts require it; but that expedient is only possible +at rare intervals. +</p> + +<p> +The wisdom with which the Supreme Court has +been directed is attested by the absence of incident +in its history, and by the universal tacit approval of +its proceedings. Its success, indeed, soon came to be +accepted so much as a matter of course that the true +source of it was forgotten. It was, however, recalled +vividly to the public memory by a certain retrograde +movement. After a quarter of a century of +satisfactory working her Majesty's Government took +a step which was equivalent to pulling out the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_358' name='Page_358'>[358]</a></span> +corner-stone of the edifice—the absolute independence +of the bench. In order to effect an economy in +salaries, it was ordained that the two incompatible +offices—the judicial and political—should be merged +into one, making the chief judge consul-general, and +the assistant judge consul for Shanghai. By this move +the judges became subordinate to the Legation in +Peking, and the Supreme Court itself was subjected +to all the evils of the dual function under which the +consuls had been labouring. Thanks to the exceptional +qualities of the holders of the double office, no glaring +scandal arose out of the unnatural combination; but +the protests of the community, and of the incumbent +of the two offices himself, were strong enough to induce +the Foreign Office, after a few years' trial, to +retrace their false step and restore the judge to his +independence. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The twenty consular establishments in China on +which the Select Committee of the House of Commons +reported in 1872 were manned by forty "effectives on +duty," besides a considerable contingent on furlough. +The ten posts subsequently created employ on an +average twenty more. Two complete generations of +officials have passed through the consular mill in fifty +years, which may be moderately reckoned at two +hundred men, all of them selected by a competitive +examination only one degree less stringent than that +for the Indian Civil Service, and nearly all of them +men of varied accomplishments. They have been +placed in every part of the wide empire of China, +and during their career have been shifted about so +that every one has had chances of interesting himself +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_359' name='Page_359'>[359]</a></span> +in localities strongly contrasted with each other, both +as regards official labour and personal recreation and +study. From a body of highly educated men so situated, +it was naturally to be expected that much enlightenment +would be obtained concerning China and +its people, and considerable progress made in the +promotion of amiable intercourse between them and +foreigners. These expectations have not been disappointed. +In the period immediately following the +peace of 1860 remarkable activity was shown by British +consular officers. The names of Meadows, Markham, +Alabaster, Oxenham, recall many exploits of exploration +in the interior during very troublous times. +Swinhoe, Baber, Hosie, Bourne, Spence, Davenport, +Parker, have continued the work and greatly extended +its area. Others have distinguished themselves in the +held of literary research, and some have found their +appropriate reward in honourable appointments in +English universities. On the whole, there has been +lack of neither energy nor capacity in the British +consular service; and yet it is a matter of common +remark, even by its members themselves, that in their +primary duty of promoting and defending the interests +of British commerce they have been unsuccessful. +Treaty rights, they admit, have not been safeguarded +at the Chinese ports, and this in spite of every apparent +incentive to exertion in their defence. A distinction, +however, must be drawn between an apparent incentive +which is general and remote, such as the patriotic +desire for the advancement of their country's interests, +and those influences which are nearer and more personal. +The attitude of the China consuls can only +be fairly estimated in its relation to that of their +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_360' name='Page_360'>[360]</a></span> +chief, and his again in relation to that of the Home +Government. "Like master, like man," is an adage +which fits the case, and it is to Peking and to London +we must look for the key to the character of the consular +rank and file. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The British Ministers at Peking have been selected +without any fixed rule. The first of the series was +taken from the diplomatic circle. The succeeding +three, whose term of office covered a period of twenty +years, were chosen from among the veterans of the +consular service. The next two were taken from the +junior ranks of diplomacy, and the seventh was a +military officer from Africa. The appointment of Sir +Robert Hart in 1885, which was cancelled by his wish, +afforded further illustration of the extreme catholicity +of the Government's elective faculty. +</p> + +<p> +The witnesses examined before the Select Committee +of the House of Commons in 1872 were unanimous in +insisting on the necessity for long and special training +for the office of consul in China, and this principle has +been strictly followed by the Government. But for +the higher post of superintendent of all the consuls +the Government has, at least since 1885, acted on the +theory that no such qualification is necessary. But +the task of a Minister to China is by no means an +easy one. It may be left undone, or it may be +done so badly that it were better not to be done at +all, but to discharge the duties of the office in a +creditable manner requires not only high training but +large capacity. The Minister has to conduct his +own diplomatic duties in the capital, in which not +the Chinese alone but all or nearly all his foreign +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_361' name='Page_361'>[361]</a></span> +colleagues are openly or secretly thwarting him. He +has at the same time to direct the proceedings of +twenty or thirty officers placed at great distances, +whom he has never seen, and every one of whom is +superior to himself in the knowledge of the conditions +to be dealt with. For such a duty it is +obvious that an officer sent from Europe must be +incompetent, the circumstances of the service in +China differing essentially from those prevailing elsewhere. +The new incumbent, unless he were a born +genius, could never get beyond the elementary lessons +of experience before, overtaken by promotion, he shakes +the Chinese dust off his feet for ever. Much might +of course be learned by personal observation at the +consular ports and conference with local officials and +people in the provinces, but it is somewhat singular +that this obvious source of intelligence has been taken +advantage of almost exclusively by those of the British +Ministers who stood the least in need of it. Indeed +the only one of them who made it a rule to visit the +treaty ports at intervals was Sir Rutherford Alcock, +whose long experience convinced him of the necessity +of constantly refreshing and extending his knowledge +of local circumstances and people. +</p> + +<p> +A service dispersed over such a large area as the +Chinese empire, carried on by despatches between +parties who were strangers to each other, and one +of whom at least had no personal knowledge of the +subjects treated, must have been characterised by +an absence of reality, and must have tended more +and more towards a perfunctory routine. For this, +however, the system of appointing Ministers who were +strangers to the country was not wholly responsible. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_362' name='Page_362'>[362]</a></span> +Long before the Ministers were so selected the secretaries +began to be sent from European schools, and thus +the consular service, disheartened by inadequate pay and +a constant menace of further diminution, saw the few +prizes of their profession withdrawn from their reach. +To serve his time quietly, therefore, to earn his pension +and retire without a stain on his character, became +more or less the consular ideal. Ambition was starved +among those who had to bear the burden and heat of +a thirty years' residence in China, when they saw good +posts thrown away upon men imported for two or three +years, who were almost useless, and who themselves +deplored their enforced idleness. The disadvantages +attending these exotic importations have been often +insisted upon. An old member of the consul staff +comments upon it in the following practical manner:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +In every country administered by the British Crown, or at +every Court at which there is a British representative, the +administrator or envoy has from the moment of his entering on +the duties of his office the assistance of an experienced staff, +well versed in the local history and traditions, or finds himself +in the midst of a society the language and usages of which are +familiar to him. In China, where we have been fighting and +negotiating for over fifty years, we are not so fortunate. A +Minister proceeds there, and on his arrival finds himself in a +new and to him unknown country, the staff which he may +bring with him being like himself utterly unacquainted with +the East and its peoples. The Minister is obliged either to +grope his way unassisted, or to rely on the aids and advice of +experienced (but not always disinterested) outsiders. Under +these circumstances his only wise course is to put himself +entirely in the hands of the permanent local staff, which, for +this purpose, means the Chinese Secretary. That officer, the +real motive force of the Legation, occupies a position of greater +importance than that of the nominal head of the mission, but, +with an irony which is not uncommon in Government administration, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_363' name='Page_363'>[363]</a></span> +he is the least appreciated member of the staff. His +salary is that of the junior ranks in the consular service, and +yet it is to him that the seniors in that service look for instructions +which he is incompetent to give them: the result may be +imagined. Why should these things be? The Indian Government +has in its service many men of brilliant attainments, and +of knowledge gained in long years of service in the East, who +might be called upon to fill the post of Minister which would +be suitable and congenial to them. And there is an abundance +of choice of junior Legation officers in the well-trained consular +service. Would it not be very advantageous if the working +hands in the Legation were chosen from the most competent +Chinese scholars in the consular service? +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Considering their initial qualifications, their social +standing, and their great opportunities, it must be admitted +that the men of distinction who have emerged +from the consular service during the last fifty years +seems disproportionately small. It is perhaps invidious +to mention names in this connection, but in +response to inquiries addressed to veterans in the +service, four men only are placed in the first rank +as the best representatives of the consular training +school. These are Sir Harry Parkes, Mr T. T. +Meadows, Mr H. N. Lay, and Mr W. F. Mayers. +Sir Robert Hart, it should be mentioned, left the +service so early, and Sir Rutherford Alcock joined +it so late, in life, that their distinguished careers can +scarcely be claimed as the product of the consular +nursery. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +It is impossible to look back over the forty years +which have elapsed since the new relations were +established in China without being struck by a +certain change which passed over the character of +the diplomatic and consular services between the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_364' name='Page_364'>[364]</a></span> +first decade of that period and the second. The +anxious years of the rebellion evoked much active +energy on the part of British officials. The serious +opposition to the operation of the treaties was met +by very vigorous action on the part of the consuls +at the ports and of the Minister at the capital. The +years 1868 and 1869 may be considered to have +marked the culminating-point of the British official +effort to enforce observance of the treaties in letter +and spirit, and to protect all commercial interests. +The change which came over the diplomatic and +consular services at the end of the first decade of +diplomatic relations may be likened to the rising +followed by the receding of a tide. Up till the +years we have specified, whatever the difficulties +which beset their office, the consuls showed earnestness +in the defence of the interests confided to them, +and acted on the conviction that their exertions were +pleasing to those who were set in authority over +them. Their sense of duty was sustained by the +hope of distinction. After 1869 the discovery was +made that the situation had been undergoing a +change of which the service had been unaware. +What was formerly deemed a merit had become a +demerit in consular officers, and on this discovery +zeal naturally fell to a discount. It was but a +reflex of the change that had crept over the spirit +of the British Foreign Office, a change which also +had escaped notice until circumstances forced it into +publicity. This seems to have originated with the +removal from the scene of Lord Palmerston, the +statesman who for forty years had stood in a general +way for what was manly and straightforward in the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_365' name='Page_365'>[365]</a></span> +British national character. Though he left a tried +and trusted colleague, Lord Clarendon, in charge of +the Foreign Office, and a sturdy permanent Under-Secretary, +perhaps the last custodian of the Palmerstonian +tradition, and who remained at his post for +five years longer, yet it was made evident by results +that the spirit which had animated that great department +of State had vanished. The Foreign Office +became nerveless and invertebrate, sentimental and +unstable. Those who had to do with it in the time +of Palmerston, Layard, and Hammond know that +since their time the officials bearing the same titles +have been of quite another calibre, have been swayed +by different influences, and above all have exhibited +no such knowledge of the affairs with which they +had to deal as their predecessors of the Palmerstonian +era. Many explanations may be given for +the new departure without disparagement of the +capacities of the individuals concerned. Such explanations +interest those who may desire to promote +reform in the constitution and the inspiration of the +Foreign Office. It suffices us merely to note the +fact by way of accounting for some of the shortcomings +which have been laid to the charge of our +representation in China. We have seen how easily +one Foreign Secretary yielded to the meretricious +solicitations of the envoy Burlingame, and how another +allowed himself to be cajoled by the Marquis Tsêng. +After these, and sundry other such, exhibitions it was +impossible for any Minister serving the country in the +Far East to place the old reliance on the support of +his Government. With John Bright, the implacable +opponent of Palmerston and his works, installed at the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_366' name='Page_366'>[366]</a></span> +Board of Trade, whose word was law on such matters +as Chinese commercial treaties, and apparently more +anxious to undo the work of Palmerston than to +promote a trade which both he and his department +unaffectedly despised, it was not likely that the commercial +communities trading with China should cherish +any hope of redress of grievances from a Government +whose face seemed set against them. Apathy, therefore, +became the principle, to keep the peace at all +sacrifices the avowed policy of British diplomacy in +China. The apparent exception to this rule in the +attempted reclamations in connection with the Margary +murder in 1875 afforded in its abortive ending a new +corroboration of the rule. The diplomatic and consular +establishments went on grinding out routine despatches +and publishing statistical reports, but with the tacit +understanding that whatsoever is more than these +cometh of evil. Under such conditions it was of little +consequence how the Peking representation might be +filled, since it has not for thirty years risen above +the level of comedy, the term applied to it by +those who have grown old in its service. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Such was the situation of affairs when the greatest +crisis in the history of China, or of foreign relations +with that country, was sprung upon the world in 1894. +A Legation equal only to clerical routine suddenly called +upon to play a part in a commotion which unhinged +the policy of the world was totally inadequate to the +strain, and as a consequence of the impotence of the +Foreign Office and its agent in China, the interests of +Great Britain and, what was only second in importance, +the interests of the Chinese empire were allowed to go +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_367' name='Page_367'>[367]</a></span> +by default. The Chinese were, and perhaps even still +remain, unconscious of the reasons of the collapse of +their empire. Perhaps something of the same kind +might be said of the British Foreign Office in regard +to the interests of Great Britain in China. Certainly +there is as yet little sign of a determination to reform +the mechanism of the country's representation, and +this, perhaps, because the preliminary step thereto +would be the reform of the Foreign Office itself. +And so the Legation goes on under the nominal headship +of a Minister who must be guided entirely by his +Chinese Secretary, an official of inferior rank and +position to the body of consuls whom he has to +control, and for whose authority they can never have +genuine respect. +</p> + +<p> +The recent upheaval has offered many new opportunities +of distinction for the consuls, especially in +the interior of China. That these openings have infused +new life into the consular ranks has been shown +in many ways during the last few years; and if natural +selection be allowed to operate freely and the best +men be not discouraged in their efforts for their +country's benefit by undue interferences from Peking, +where there is neither knowledge nor capacity to +guide them, it is still possible that the consular service +may play a valuable part in the reconstruction +of the foreign relations of China. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_368' name='Page_368'>[368]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXIX. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">CHINA AND HER RULERS.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Longevity of the State—Government by prestige—Necessity of adaptation +to European ideas—The Empress-dowager—Prince Kung—Wênsiang—Hu +Lin-yi—Tsêng Kwo-fan—Tso Tsung-tang—Chang Chih-tung—Li +Hung-chang—His long and consistent career—Efforts at reorganising +national forces. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The long continuance of a State more populous than +any other on record is a phenomenon which to thoughtful +minds can hardly fail to evoke a feeling akin to +reverence. De Quincey declared if he met a Chinaman +he would make obeisance to him, saying, "There goes +a man 2000 years old." Be the causes of this national +longevity what they may, the fact should make us +pause to consider on what foundation does this great +vital national system rest? The most realistic word-painter +of China represents the country as a collection +of villages, each being a unit of self-government,<a name='FA_29' id='FA_29' href='#FN_29' class='fnanchor'>[29]</a> and +in describing "village life" in minute detail, seems to +depict the great empire, of which each village is a +pattern in miniature. Dynasties may come and +dynasties may go, but the Chinese families, their +industries and their customs, go on for ever. It is +remarkable with what ease the people adapt themselves +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_369' name='Page_369'>[369]</a></span> +to changes in their ruling powers, regardless +of race or origin; indeed it is a noteworthy fact that +the rulers have for many centuries been more often +foreign than native.<a name='FA_30' id='FA_30' href='#FN_30' class='fnanchor'>[30]</a> Foreign, however, not quite in +the sense in which the word is so easily translated +"barbarian" by the Chinese, and applied by them to +the hated Aryans of the West. The rulers of China +have been of cognate races, more or less imbued with +the same generic ideas as the Chinese themselves, and +with tastes akin to theirs. How this succession of +dynasties, each established by violence, has coexisted +with the continuity of the grand national idea of the +emperor being the Son of Heaven can only be explained +by the very practical character of the race, +who accept the usurper as divinely appointed from the +moment he has proved himself successful. What holds, +and has held together from ancient times, this great +aggregate of mankind in common usages and ideas +is naturally a mystery to Occidentals, the cohesive +principle not being perceptible to them. China occupies +the unique position of a State resting on moral +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_370' name='Page_370'>[370]</a></span> +force,<a name='FA_31' id='FA_31' href='#FN_31' class='fnanchor'>[31]</a> a conception almost as alien to the Western +mind as material progress is to the Eastern, hence +the proposition is apt to be received with amused +contempt. Yet a State administered without police, +and ruled without an army, is a something which +cannot be explained away. Government by prestige +is, other things being equal, surely the most economical +as well as the most humane of all species +of government; but an obvious consequence is that +in emergencies the Government is beholden to +volunteers, and is often driven to enlist the services +of banditti and other forces proscribed by the law. +Imperial prestige, which embraces the relations of +the surrounding tributaries, is but an expansion of +the authority of the head of the family and of the +elders of the village, which rests on moral sanction +only. The first collision, however, with the material +forces of Christendom proved that in the system of +the modern world the Chinese principle of government +was an anachronism, and that moral must succumb +to physical force. Yet in the midst of the world's +triumph in the pricking of the great Chinese bubble, +it had been well to reflect what the kind of bubble +was that was being pricked. China with her self-contained, +self-secreted knowledge, could not be expected +to foresee how the impact of the West was +likely to affect her ancient polity. She had nothing +wherewith to compare herself, and no criterion of good +or evil except her own isolated experience; nor did +she know aught of human development except what +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_371' name='Page_371'>[371]</a></span> +was, so to speak, forcibly injected into her, but never +assimilated. What, then, could she do to be saved +but to take herself entirely to pieces like a house that +has to be rebuilt on a new plan, and so fit herself +for the companionship and competition of the worldly +Powers, from whose pressure she could by no means +escape? She had to put away the wisdom of ages, +the traditions of a civilisation unbroken for thousands +of years, and convert herself into a mechanical, scientific, +and military Power. Something more radical +than reform is involved in such a root-and-branch +change: it was not improvement but transformation +that was demanded. +</p> + +<p> +That some such essential changes are necessary to the +preservation of the Chinese empire is probably recognised +by all who interest themselves in the subject—including +a large ever-increasing number of the Chinese +themselves; but the gravity of the revolution may well +cause misgivings both as to its possibility and its incalculable +effects. Who among the Chinese rulers is +sufficient for such things? +</p> + +<p> +It is not always possible to locate the nervous centre +of any Government in the West, whether its form be +autocratic or representative. With regard to that of +China we may safely say it is never possible—at least +for any foreigner. The attempts which have been from +time to time made to assign acts of Government to +the will or influence of certain individuals have in +general proved in the sequel to have been far from +hitting the mark. The monarch under whose authority +the whole machine moves is not necessarily the directing +will: indeed he is very often little better than a +puppet. "The eunuchs, concubines, and play-actors, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_372' name='Page_372'>[372]</a></span> +who constituted the Court of the late Emperor Hsien-fêng, +the father of the present young emperor, had +more influence probably in bringing on the war that +led the Allies to Peking than any of the high officers +or Ministers," wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock in 1871. +Another writer put it in a more paradoxical form: +"There is in China something more powerful than +the Emperor, and that is the Viceroy; more powerful +than the Viceroy, and that is the Taotai; more powerful +than the Taotai, and that is the Weiyuen," meaning +that the power of obstruction, extending through +every grade of officialdom, is most widely diffused at +the base. Official responsibility and moral responsibility +do not therefore coincide—men in highest positions +being unable to do the things they would, while +the things they would not they are often obliged to +do. The Government is consequently carried on by +continual compromise beyond the limits to which we +are accustomed in Western Governments, because it is +not confronted with outspoken opposition with which it +can reason, but with a network of secret machinations +which can only be met by correlative tactics. But +though Government in China may seem by this state +of things to be reduced to an almost passive condition, +yet the individuality of statesmen is not altogether +destroyed. In some respects, indeed, the circumstances +we have noted rather favour the influence of men of +mark; for where the complicated machine is held in +a state of equilibrium by innumerable neutralising +checks, it would appear that any determined will +could set it in motion in a given direction. The +character of Chinese statesmen, therefore, is not a +factor to be ignored in considering either the present +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_373' name='Page_373'>[373]</a></span> +or the future of China, although the very partial +knowledge of them which is accessible to Europeans +must constantly lead to erroneous conclusions. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Of the statesmen who have appeared since the +opening of Peking in 1860, it would probably be fair +to consider the two emperors as negligible quantities. +The potent personage in the empire during that period +is no doubt the Empress-dowager, who has, in so far +as any one can be said to have done so, ruled China +for forty years. Apart from ethical considerations, +which have less to do with matters of government +than could be wished, the empress's characteristics are +clearness of purpose, strength of will, a ready accommodation +of means to ends, and frank acceptance of +the inevitable. There are no signs of the bigot or +the doctrinaire about her. Mundane in her objects, +she is practical in seeking them; and if to hold an +entirely anomalous position of authority opposed to +legitimacy and the traditions of the dynasty and the +empire be evidence of success, then the empress-dowager +must be admitted to be a successful woman. In the +position she has occupied, and still occupies, she would +appear to be the principal force in the State. Whatever +may be her power of initiative, which is so +attenuated in the high State functionaries, her power +of veto probably stands pre-eminent. +</p> + +<p> +The anomalous relations which have subsisted between +the empress-dowager and her imperial nephew +are too intricate for us to attempt to unravel them. +But the facts resulting from them, which are patent +to the world, point to conditions which are not without +danger to the empire. Indeed the Emperor himself +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_374' name='Page_374'>[374]</a></span> +constituted such a danger from the moment when +as an infant he was placed on the Dragon Throne by +usurped authority. His personal imperfections added +materially to that danger, and his final efforts to free +himself from the leading-strings of his patroness have +indefinitely enhanced the evil by destroying the personal +prestige of the sovereign. For what can be +thought of a Son of Heaven who has his prerogatives +doled out to him and again withdrawn by the will +of another, and where is the force to meet the crisis +in the State which may yet result from the illegitimacy +of the emperors succession? The worship +accorded throughout the empire to the Son of Heaven +may indeed be transferred unimpaired to a new possessor +of that dignity. But a reigning emperor shorn +of his governing faculty must, one would think, put +the allegiance of the people to a severe strain. How +far such considerations may go in weakening the ties +of loyalty in the provinces and in letting loose the +spectre of rebellion cannot be known, but it may be +guessed and feared. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Leaving out the Camarilla of the Court, of whom +nothing certain can be predicated, the executive +statesmen who have to outward appearance directed +the public affairs of the Chinese empire for forty years +may almost be counted on the fingers of one hand. +Prince Kung, the highest in station and nearest to the +throne, was rather a moderating than an active force +in the State, and his attention was very much divided +between public affairs and those of more personal concern. +His colleague, Wênsiang, was a more energetic +character. By common consent he was the most +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_375' name='Page_375'>[375]</a></span> +conscientious as well as the most liberal-minded +statesman that China has produced during the sixty +years of foreign intercourse. Mr Adkins, who knew +him intimately in the early days, says: "He was courteous +in manner and a lively conversationalist. He once +told me over the teacups that, if he could have his +will, every brick and stone of Hongkong city should +be torn down and thrown into the sea." This was +not the kind of language he held at a later period; +for, in a private interview with Sir Rutherford +Alcock in 1869, while admitting the hostility of his +class and that he himself had originally shared all +their prejudices, he declared that his long and intimate +relations with the foreign Legations had opened +his eyes to the favourable side of the foreign character +and progressive policy. Perhaps the best +account of this Manchu statesman is that given by +Sir Rutherford Alcock himself in an article in +'Fraser's Magazine,' 1871:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Wênsiang is by far the most distinguished, both from his +superior knowledge and his intellectual grasp of the position +occupied by China in its relations with foreign States.... As +a member of the Grand Secretariat, and vested with other high +functions, his influence is very great, both personal and official—subject, +nevertheless, to such attenuation as the active hostility +of a very powerful party of anti-foreign functionaries within +and without the palace can effect. This party, if party that can +properly be called which is composed of nearly the whole of the +educated classes of the empire—officials, literati, and gentry—are +unceasing in their opposition to all progressive measures, +whether emanating from the Foreign Board or elsewhere. But +Wênsiang is held in especial hatred as the known advocate of +a policy of progressive improvement with foreign aid and appliances. +The failure of the Lay-Osborn fleet very nearly +effected his ruin, and that of his patron the prince [Kung] also, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_376' name='Page_376'>[376]</a></span> +and has ever since told against his influence. The cost and +humiliation of that most disastrous experiment were all visited +on his head, and it has no doubt tended not solely to impair his +power, but also to render him more timid and less disposed to +make any further venture in the same direction. He has the +reputation among his own people of being honest, and foreigners +know him to be patriotic and earnest in what he believes to be +for the good of his country, while far in advance of all his contemporaries +in enlightened views as to how in the actual situation +of affairs that end may best be served. Upon occasions he +can be both bitter and sarcastic, and speaks out his mind plainly +enough against the pretensions of foreigners to shape everything +to their own ends in China. He nevertheless gets little credit +from the opposite faction for patriotism or a disinterested love +of his country, and of late there has been remarked, with failing +health, an expression of weariness, as if he were losing heart +and hope, and began to feel unequal to any further struggle. +With the ever-increasing demands for better execution of +treaties—in things often materially and legally impossible in +the present state of affairs, for larger facilities and increased +privileges on the foreign side, and the gathering of hostile +elements in front and all round him proceeding from the +Chinese national party, who would refuse everything, and, if +left to themselves, precipitate the country into another war +with the Western Powers, he may well feel weary. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Wênsiang, in short, suffered the fate of those who are +too liberal and too far advanced for their surroundings, +and became a martyr to his own disappointment. +Old before his time, and overwhelmed with +difficulties which he was unable to surmount, his +mind became depressed, and his death in 1876 cost +China the ablest, the best, and most devoted of +her public men. No doubt there have been good +and well-meaning men since his time, both in the +Tsungli-Yamên, the Great Council, and in the provincial +governments; but none of them has shown +any quality of leadership, and all have for the most +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_377' name='Page_377'>[377]</a></span> +part been content with the maxim, "Sufficient for +the day is the evil thereof." +</p> + +<p> +The comparatively early death of Hu Lin-yi, a +Hunanese, Governor of the province of Hupei, who, +in conjunction with Kuanwen, the Governor-General +of the Hu provinces, originated the scheme +for repressing the Taiping rebellion, prevented him +from receiving the credit of that notable achievement. +The institutions of the country paralysed +its defence, for a provincial army was an object of +dread to the Manchu rulers, while they possessed no +imperial organisation to cope with the calamity. +No attempt, therefore, could be made to organise +a force to resist the rebellion, and so the devastation +was allowed to spread from province to province +without check. Hu Lin-yi set himself to +overcome this difficulty, and thought out a scheme +by which the rebellion might be overcome. Before +taking any action, however, it was necessary that he +should bring the Peking Government to his views, +which he accomplished by first converting the Governor-General, +who was a Manchu. The two thereupon +joined in a memorial to the throne, praying +that they might be permitted to raise in the +Central Provinces a mobile military force to repel +the invasion of the insurgents. +</p> + +<p> +The nucleus of this force already existed in the +province of Hunan, where volunteer levies under the +leadership of Tsêng Kwo-fan, the father of the late +Marquis Tsêng, Minister to Great Britain, had done +good service in several small engagements with the +rebels. The execution of the general scheme of defence +against the rebels fell naturally, therefore, to the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_378' name='Page_378'>[378]</a></span> +lot of Tsêng, who during his subsequent governor-generalship +of the Lower Yangtze had the honour +of putting an end to the ravages of the Taipings. +No man was held in higher esteem among the counsellors +of the Chinese empire than this sagacious +statesman. At once moderate and resolute, he perceived +the need of accommodation to the exigencies +of the new time, and though he would have resisted +the ingress of foreigners to the uttermost, he had +the wisdom to see that this was no longer possible, +and the advice tendered to his sovereign, while +tempered to the susceptibilities of the Court, was +distinctly in favour of respecting the treaties and +avoiding conflict with foreign nations. +</p> + +<p> +A contemporary of Tsêng Kwo-fan, and his equal +in rank and authority, was Tso Tsung-tang, best +known as the Conqueror of Kashgar, where he was +credited with military exploits which history will +scarcely ratify. He was a thoroughgoing man, blunt +in manner, but straightforward, and loyal to his +engagements. He was somewhat rash and uncompromising, +seeking the end sometimes without considering +the means, and his opinion on matters of +State would have carried no weight but for his +reputation for exemption from the prevailing vice of +his class—financial corruption. This character obtained +him toleration for many originalities. On one +occasion he camped outside the walls of Peking for +several days because he refused to pay the customary +exactions of the officials in charge of the gates, so that +his audience of the emperor seemed likely to be indefinitely +postponed. But high officials in China of +austere views have usually a man of business in attendance +who oils the wheels while saving the face of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_379' name='Page_379'>[379]</a></span> +their master. Tso's money matters were in the hands +of a very politic gentleman of this class, and so the +Grand Secretary's entry into the city was duly arranged. +Tso had a lofty idea of the dignity of his country, and +of the necessity for its defending itself against all +enemies. To this end he threw his energies into the +development of the arsenal and shipbuilding-yard at +the Pagoda anchorage in the Foochow river. He was +generally considered an opponent of his younger contemporary, +Li Hung-chang, the one being held to +stand for the old conservatism of China, and the other +for its liberalisation. They were for many years the two +chief provincials, the one being Imperial Commissioner +for the southern and the other for the northern ports +of China. It was customary for the emperor to refer +important questions connected with foreign affairs to +these two advisers, whose opinions must very often +have neutralised each other. In the end Tso recognised +the necessity for a change of policy for the preservation +of the empire, but being himself too old to change +he recommended his rival, Li Hung-chang, to the +Throne as the fitting man to introduce needed innovations. +If the records are to be implicitly trusted +Tso would appear to have undergone a sort of death-bed +repentance, for in his political testament, a document +which is regarded with a kind of sacred authority +in China, he recommended to the throne the +improvements he had steadfastly opposed, including +even the introduction of railways into the country. +</p> + +<p> +Although out of the chronological order, we may +mention here another eminent official, distinguished by +many of the characteristics of Tso Tsung-tang, who has +been Governor of the province of Shansi, Governor-General +of the Canton provinces, and is now Governor-General +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_380' name='Page_380'>[380]</a></span> +of the central provinces. Wherever he has +been, Chang Chih-tung has proved himself bold and +original. His open mind has led him to take up +schemes warmly without counting the cost, and under +his inspiration immense sums have been spent in +both his viceroyalties for which but little return was +obtained, and of which indeed it was scarcely possible +to render a clear account. His reputation for purity, +however, has saved him from the consequences of his +recklessness, both in the eyes of the people and of the +Government, and enabled him to hold office long +enough to show some results of his expensive enterprises. +The great ironworks which he set up in +Hanyang, with very little consideration as to how they +were to become effective, have at last produced iron of +a quality sufficient to make inferior rails, thus giving +an earnest of the ultimate realisation of his dream of +rendering China independent of foreign countries. +Chang's literary power is of a very high order, his +style is terse and incisive, and this is a weapon which +renders him formidable in a country which cultivates +literature as a religion. To say that Chang Chih-tung +is the opponent of foreigners is merely to credit +him with the ordinary patriotism of his countrymen. +But though he often treats strangers with the studied +discourtesy which characterised the older generation of +Chinese officials, he has never allowed his prejudices to +stand in the way of free intercourse with any foreigner +whom he thought he could make subservient to some +purpose of his own. As a statesman Chang Chih-tung +has failed through intensity and want of comprehensiveness. +In fact he is not a statesman, but a +sciolist, and a trenchant essayist, unaccustomed to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_381' name='Page_381'>[381]</a></span> +accommodate his ideas to the circumstances of actual +life. He, too, has been a bitter opponent of Li Hung-chang, +which, however, did not hinder him from composing +a most fulsome panegyric on that statesman +on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, in which +he was credited with all the attributes of all the +heroes of Chinese mythology. The many fantastic +schemes which Chang has originated would in any +Western country have relegated their author to the +custody of the Commissioners of Lunacy. One of these +was to prevent foreign ships entering the Gulf of +Pecheli by sinking tiers of junks between Shantung +and Talien-wan; another was to catch the Japanese +soldiers in a gigantic locust-trap, consisting of a deep +trench to be dug at their supposed landing-place near +Shanhai-kwan, and the fact of this proposal being +seriously adopted and some miles of the trench actually +dug by the Chinese soldiers reveals more of the +military impotence of China than the most voluminous +dissertations. +</p> + +<p> +Without carrying the exhaustive process further, it +is safe to say that whatever concrete statesmanship +there has been in China during the past generation has +been embodied in the person of Li Hung-chang. He +alone has a continuous record, has followed a definite +line, and kept his ideals, like a captive balloon, strictly +attached to the earth on which he had to work. He +also was a literate of distinction, having taken the +highest degree, that of the Hanlin College. But +though his literary tastes have not been left wholly +uncultivated, they have never intruded themselves into +his conduct of affairs, so that an estimate of his position +cannot be based upon his writings, but only on his +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_382' name='Page_382'>[382]</a></span> +actions. He indulged in no speculations, propounded +no theories, but was eminently a man of fact. Contrary +to all Chinese tradition he laid himself out for +personal intercourse with foreigners, from whom he was +never weary of learning, and in doing so he braved the +odium of his peers, and incurred the charge of treason +as a truckler to barbarians. Living in the eyes of the +world, both of his own and foreign countries, for a +period of nearly forty years, he has been the one +familiar figure in modern China. His accessibility has +afforded to travellers and visitors endless opportunities +of delineation, so that if ever a Chinese of rank was +known throughout the world it must be Li Hung-chang. +</p> + +<p> +The interest attaching to this statesman consists in +his having in his own person, and without a party, +stood between the Old World and the New, having +devoted his life to working out in practice a <i>modus +vivendi</i> between them. His methods have been wholly +empirical and opportunist, and hence no synthesis of his +plan of operations is available, except such as we may +compose out of the facts themselves. A few cardinal +principles, nevertheless, stand out clearly in the life-work +of this statesman. One is that of reorganising +the defensive forces of the empire in accordance with +the lessons learned from foreign raids; a second has +been so to observe the treaties made with foreigners +as to afford them no ground for complaint; and a +third, when causes of difference arose, whether by +inadvertence or by design, to agree with the adversary +quickly. The following out of the first two +might very well have entailed upon Li the reproach +of favouring foreigners; the following out of the third +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_383' name='Page_383'>[383]</a></span> +may with greater justice have earned for him the +character of a peace-at-any-price man. So consistently +did he follow the line of action dictated by these principles, +that no attacks on foreigners or on Christian +missions have ever been tolerated within his jurisdiction. +During the twenty-four years of his governor-generalship +of Chihli, whose population is one of the +most turbulent in the empire, there was not a single +missionary outrage, his instructions to his district +officials being peremptory, that, right or wrong, they +must have no questions with foreigners. Had the +other viceroys been similarly minded and equally +resolute, no attacks on missionaries would have been +recorded throughout the Chinese Empire. Though +Li Hung-chang was as much anti-foreign at heart +as every true Chinaman must be, he endeavoured, +crudely following the example of the Japanese, to employ +foreign men and appliances in order the more effectually +to resist them. His pacific tendencies were no +proof of pusillanimity, but rather of a deep consciousness, +derived from personal experience, of the incapacity +of China to resist foreign attack. Li Hung-chang's +external policy, therefore, may be defined as the +strengthening of the country to meet invasion, and +the avoidance, while such preparations were being +made, of every cause of collision with foreigners. +These cardinal points had to be kept in view, like guiding +stars, amid the exigencies of daily affairs, which +alone were sufficient to fill up the measure of one +man's capacity. The administration of two populous +provinces, the superintendency of the maritime trade of +half the empire, and incessant consultations concerning +imperial affairs generally, constituted a burden which +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_384' name='Page_384'>[384]</a></span> +no one man could bear. While to these were added +the whole details of national defence, naval and military +reorganisation, the construction of a navy on +foreign lines, the whole of which was undertaken by Li +Hung-chang, working not only without a party but +practically without a staff, and at the mercy of technical +advisers who owed him no allegiance. The briefest +recapitulation of the duties so undertaken would be +enough to stagger the credulity of the most active +administrator of the West; the recital would suffice, +without any proof from experience, to show that these +labours of Hercules could never, in fact, be performed. +But the difference between performance and non-performance +marks the chasm which divides the Chinese +from the Western world, and distinguishes the order of +ideas and practice which make for the preservation, +from those which tend to the disintegration, of the +Chinese empire itself. The task from which the mass +of Chinese statesmen have recoiled, and which has only +been attempted in a persistent manner by Li Hung-chang +himself, was probably beyond the power of any +man and of any party. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +But here the inquiry suggests itself, why a strong-headed +and practical-minded man should have devoted +a lifetime to impossible achievements, and why +in a nation of great intellects the task should have +been virtually relegated to one man? The Chinese +are not fools; their mental capacity is second to that +of no other race. Their culture is excessive, though +narrow; and if we find them exhibiting in great +national affairs no more intelligence than that shown +by children in building castles of sand, it is natural +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_385' name='Page_385'>[385]</a></span> +to conclude that there is some fundamental misconception +either on their part or on ours of the +problem before them. But if we consider the Chinese +as belonging to the world of moral force, then their +misconception of all that belongs to the world of +physical force is not only explicable, but it is inevitable; +for between the two there is no common +ground on which even a compromise might be effected, +and the one must eternally misunderstand the other. +</p> + +<p> +The burden of the memorials of the Chinese high +functionaries on this subject have been that the +Middle Kingdom being overcome by the brute force +of the rebellious barbarians, the obvious way to restore +the lapsed authority of the empire was to +acquire the instruments of foreign strength. This +they diligently set themselves to do, but apparently +without the slightest comprehension of the secret of +the strength of the foreigners. The Chinese being +what they were, could no more win the secret of the +Western power by buying its weapons than a musical +tyro could hope to rival the greatest artistes by possessing +himself of a Stradivarius. Guns, ships, explosives +of the latest type, are worse than dummies without +the organised human force that gives them life. The +element which would have infused vitality into the new +organisation was the one thing beyond their imagination, +and so far as they did comprehend it, it +inspired them with aversion and awe, for it meant +in their eyes delivering the keys of power into the +hands of strangers. What was needed to regenerate +the army, to create a navy, to reform the finances, +was the liberal importation of men. This necessity +was no doubt partially perceived by Li Hung-chang +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_386' name='Page_386'>[386]</a></span> +and his like, but never entirely even by him; for +he remained throughout the one-eyed man among +the blind, groping after something which he could +only guess at. Teachers from Europe and America +were employed in the country, and natives were +sent to foreign countries to be instructed; but the +spirit of the new instruction was never allowed to +vitalise the organisation, and consequently all the +knowledge that was acquired by both methods remained +barren and unfruitful. Thus Li Hung-chang's +efforts fell short of their object, and China +continued to be the land of moral force for the +iron-shod physical forces to trample on. +</p> + +<p> +From the earliest period of his career Li Hung-chang +stood out far in advance of his fellows, and +in all the troubles which have beset the empire +during his time, it is he who has been thrust into +the breach and made to bear the brunt of its misfortunes. +Being the only man who did anything, he +was naturally made responsible for all, and critics, +both foreign and native, have had an easy task in +laying bare his failures, which his contemporaries +have escaped by confining themselves to official routine +and playing for their own safety. Though the +burden of the State has fallen upon the shoulders +of Li Hung-chang more than upon any other individual, +he has never flinched from the responsibility. +The occurrences of 1894 and subsequently +threw him into greater prominence than ever before. +Forced to carry on the war with Japan, during +which the defences of the empire for which he was +responsible completely broke down, he was next also +forced to make peace with that Power on very +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_387' name='Page_387'>[387]</a></span> +humiliating conditions. Seldom was a more pathetic +scene witnessed than the virtual controller of the +Chinese empire lying at the feet of a victorious +enemy in a foreign country, with the bullet of an +assassin in his cheek. More tragic still was his +return to the capital with the treaty of Shimonoseki. +An intense feeling against Li had been roused +throughout the country. The provincial officials with +singular unanimity denounced his treachery as they +considered it, for the treaty was in their eyes no less +disgraceful than the conduct of the war, for both of +which Li alone was deemed responsible. The sentiment +of the provinces was echoed in Peking, where +his enemies in high places had almost secured the +capital punishment of the negotiator, and failing that, +his assassination, from which fate he was only saved +by the veto of Prince Kung and the subsequent protection +of the empress-dowager. He was also in an +important sense under the protection of Russia, that +Power having undertaken to hold him harmless from +the consequences of his surrender to the Japanese. +In order to take him out of the way of the conspiracies +in Peking, Russia requested that an Imperial prince +might be sent to the coronation ceremony in 1896. +That being impossible by the laws of the empire, +which Russia very well knew, a substitute of the +highest rank had to be found, and thus Li Hung-chang +was designated, by the approval of the empress-dowager +and by the consent—reluctant it is believed—of +the Emperor, for the mission of congratulation to +the Czar. After the festivities at Moscow, Li made +the tour of Europe and the United States, meeting +everywhere with a distinguished reception. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_388' name='Page_388'>[388]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXX. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">CHINA'S AWAKENING.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Prestige gained, 1880-90—Yields to Japan in Korea while reasserting full +suzerainty—The lessons of adversity—Schemes for naval and military +reforms—Purchase and manufacture—Provincial system antagonistic +to reform—Li Hung-Chang's efforts—Faithful service of foreign +experts—Drill-instructors—Creation of a navy—Coast fortification—Superior +efficiency of navy compared with army—Corruption and +nepotism—Awakening of China apparent, not real. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The service of the navy in the conveyance of troops and +of a special envoy to Korea in 1882 was the first which +that luckless force was able to render to China. The +service was repeated on two other occasions: when a +High Commissioner was sent on a mission of imperial +condolence in 1890, and again when an assassin was +rescued from the revenge of counter-assassins and conveyed +safely from China to Korea in 1894. The little +kingdom thus played a considerable part in the awakening +scenes of the suzerain empire. +</p> + +<p> +On a retrospective view, indeed, it would appear that +during the period in question China passed the culminating-point +in her efforts to regain national prestige. +She had just asserted herself in an unexpected manner +in her dealings with Russia, playing a very different +part in regard to her distant and worthless possessions +in the north-west from what she had done twenty years +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_389' name='Page_389'>[389]</a></span> +before in regard to the integral part of her proper +territories in the north-east, which she had surrendered +with scarcely a protest. The world began to respect +China as a power. Her decisive action in Korea +showed that she was no longer disposed to permit her +neighbours to trifle with the question of her suzerainty +in that kingdom, and for ten years she was pre-eminent +there in fact as well as of right. Yet with a significant +qualification. For, being challenged by Japan while at +war with France in 1885, she was unable to vindicate +her sole supremacy in Korea, and was constrained to +admit her rival into partnership. Thus was the first +irrevocable step taken towards the future realisation of +the Japanese designs on the peninsula. A <i>condominium</i> +must ever be destructive to the policy of the less energetic +member, and the treaty concluded between Li +Hung-chang and Count Ito in 1885 was the fatal prelude +to the events of ten years later. As the treaties +granting to Russia a coequal right of navigating the +Amur and a joint ownership of the Usuri province +constituted the virtual surrender of Chinese rights, so +any treaty with Japan, no matter on what conditions, +respecting Korea, was a virtual abdication of the Chinese +suzerainty. The right in common to send troops into +Korea on notice given could have no other effect than +to deliver up the kingdom to the Power which was the +most alert in taking advantage of the agreement. In +giving up half her rights China retreated from an +inexpugnable position, and left herself no footing for +defending the remaining half, when its turn came to +be assailed. +</p> + +<p> +But with the irony which is the very pathos of +human and national decline, the outward pretence to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_390' name='Page_390'>[390]</a></span> +authority became more demonstrative as the substance +of the claim slipped away. Not for two hundred and +fifty years had China asserted her prerogative with +such uncompromising arrogance as when she sent an +imperial mission of condolence to the royal Court in +1890, years after the keystone of her Korean arch had +been pulled away. It was also about this period that +the Chinese Minister to England lent his name to a +manifesto warning the world of the coming resurrection +of China. "The sleep and the awakening" strictly +followed the law above alluded to, that hollowness, not +solidity, makes the loudest sound. +</p> + +<p> +But so many interests are now inextricably interwoven +with the destinies of China that her effort at +reform and its failure compel us to give attention to +the opening of a new chapter in the world's history. +The humiliating foreign invasions, the three rebellions +that shook the empire, and the numerous minor +risings, had all left their impression. The lessons +taught by these adversities had been taken to heart, +and the rulers of the empire were called upon to devise +a remedy. The first and most obvious desideratum +was, of course, naval and military reform, or rather +regeneration, whereby they might be strengthened to +speak with their enemies in the gates. On this subject +Chinese statesmen were absolutely at one with their +officious foreign advisers: it was a subject which inspired +many of the early homilies of the British +Minister, if no others. There was, however, this +essential difference in the conception of the means of +carrying out the reform, that the foreign advisers of +China were completely prepossessed by the notion that +an imperial executive, if it did not exist, must be +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_391' name='Page_391'>[391]</a></span> +promptly created, while nothing was further from +the imagination of the Chinese. They were entirely +prepossessed by their tradition and the state of +things actually existing, which they did not dream +of changing. That was the provincial system on +which the administration of the empire rested. The +fiasco of the Lay-Osborn flotilla, which was the +first crude attempt to mix the oil and vinegar of +the two conflicting systems, revealed the fundamental, +irreconcilable divergence between the two sets of +ideas, which rendered all advice from the one side to +the other futile, and co-operation impossible. That +palpable failure of the Central Government was calculated +to discourage fresh innovations from the same +quarter, and the incident was constantly referred to by +diplomatists as having blighted the promising career +of Wênsiang as a reformer, he being the minister personally +responsible for the scheme. +</p> + +<p> +The Chinese, nevertheless, proceeded according to +their own lights to set their house in order in so far as +its defensive services were concerned. The successful +employment of foreign arms and foreign auxiliaries in +the suppression of the Taiping rebellion showed them +the way. It was a natural but a fatal error, which the +Chinese have not to this day abjured, to attach too +much importance to the arms, and too little to the man +using them. They accordingly commenced in a rather +wild and wayward manner to buy weapons and munitions, +and then to set up in their own country the +means of manufacturing the simpler kinds. The chief +promoter, if not the originator, of these novelties was +Li Hung-chang, who continued to be the presiding +genius of military and naval reform, no matter in what +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_392' name='Page_392'>[392]</a></span> +province his official duties happened to lie. The personal +authority wielded by the Grand Secretary in provinces +beyond his own government was really a step +towards centralisation of the executive, and with time +and an adequate succession of followers in the same +path there is no telling what changes in the Government +system might not have been evolved from such a +nucleus. But the one-man power was unequal to any +great result; it also weakened with age, opposition, +and discouragement. The actual reforms inaugurated +remained strictly provincial, and even local. There +was no evidence of initiative or supervision from the +Central Government. The nearest approach to it was +the establishment of an arsenal at Tientsin by Chunghou, +the first superintendent of trade for the northern +ports, and a member of the imperial clan. It would +almost appear as if the Government had no concern +with the more distant parts of the country, and the +strange anomaly presented itself to the onlookers +of large sums being expended on the most modern +artillery and in the manufacture of thousands of arms +of precision while the Peking field force was equipped +with bows and arrows. +</p> + +<p> +There came a time at last when the necessity of +some kind of centralisation was forced on the Government. +It was after Prince Kung had been sent into +retirement in 1884, when his younger brother, the +father of the emperor, had decided to "come out" and +take a part in the executive government, and especially +after Prince Ch'un had made a short cruise in salt +water in 1886, that a Naval Board was established in +Peking itself with the prince at its head. The institution +was of course laughed at, as the beginnings of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_393' name='Page_393'>[393]</a></span> +things usually are, and its inefficiency was indeed +glaring enough. It would have taken a generation in +slow-moving China for such a board to have learned +the rudiments of its duties. +</p> + +<p> +What we are at the moment concerned with is the +naval and military reform of the twenty-five years +preceding the advent of Prince Ch'un to power. In +the purchase of war material no single system was +followed. The provincial rulers at Canton, Foochow, +Nanking, and Tientsin no doubt had to sanction what +was done within their respective provinces—a check +which might be perfunctory or conscientious—but +practically the management was in the hands of +subordinate officials without knowledge or training or +visible responsibility. As in war each Chinese regiment +fights for its own hand, or runs away as the case +may be, so in the supply of arms each local official did +pretty much what seemed right in his own eyes. +Hence the heterogeneous composition of <i>matériel</i>, one +small body of troops carrying in a campaign thirteen +different patterns of rifle, with ammunition still more +curiously diversified. +</p> + +<p> +Concerning the arsenals established under the +auspices of the various governors-general from Canton +even to Kirin in Manchuria, and under the technical +management of foreigners, the most remarkable point +to be noted—and it applies generally to the employment +of foreigners in China—is the faithful service the +Chinese have been able to command in circumstances +where it was hardly to be expected. An ignorant +employer and an expert employee is a combination apt +to engender the worst abuses, and the way the Chinese +selected their foreign executive—a marine engineer +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_394' name='Page_394'>[394]</a></span> +here, a surgeon of a marching regiment there, a naval +lieutenant somewhere else—was not the way, one would +have thought, to obtain either honesty or efficiency. +Yet the foreigners selected either possessed or acquired +adequate qualifications, and one and all rendered +devoted service to their employers. The position of +these foreigners, however, never was or could be one +of authority: whatever they did was under the orders +of their Chinese superior, who was often too ignorant +to weigh the reasons for what was done. In course of +time the natives themselves became more instructed, +but whether their half-knowledge was a help or a +hindrance to the work of their foreign experts is +problematical. Of the quality or quantity of the +<i>matériel</i> turned out in the various Chinese arsenals it +were useless to speak. It produced an illusory sense +of security, and for a time imposed equally on native +and foreigner. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was training entirely neglected. Drill-masters +were engaged. Schools were established in connection +with the arsenals, where naval instruction especially +was carried to a high standard. Students sent to +Europe proved themselves most apt to assimilate the +instruction given to them. Of those who distinguished +themselves at Greenwich may be mentioned +the present Minister to the Court of St James's. +Cadets were also received into the British navy, and +some very expert officers were turned out by these +means. A large number of youths were at one time +selected to be educated in the United States, remaining +there long enough to learn to read and write +English, and to become enamoured of Western life. +This educational experiment was interesting in many +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_395' name='Page_395'>[395]</a></span> +ways. The youths who were sent to America under +the care and at the instigation of the Cantonese, +Yung Wing, who had himself been educated in the +United States, were domiciled for the most part with +private families there; and they so imbibed the influence +of their surroundings that a high sense of +honour was developed in them. The writer can speak +from personal experience of the fidelity and efficiency +of some of these students. Captain Clayson, who had +several serving under him in the "Peiyang Squadron," +has said that although on their return to China the +authorities had distributed them in services other than +those for which they had been trained, yet because of +the school discipline they had been subjected to, and +the sense of honour developed by their contact with +Western people, he found them far more useful and +trustworthy than the men who had been trained in +Chinese naval schools. This experience seems to suggest +that there are good moral qualities of the Chinese +waiting, like the mineral ores in their country, for an +awakening influence. In all these progressive efforts +Li Hung-chang retained the lead, and his own +province was well in advance in educational enterprises. +Besides a military school with German, and +a naval school with English, instructors, he set up +within a mile of his Yamên a fairly furnished medical +school with a hospital attached. His special corps +of foreign-drilled troops was the best equipped and +best disciplined force in the empire. +</p> + +<p> +While all this progress was being made in the direction +of military efficiency, the naval requirements of the +country were not neglected. The failure of the undigested +Lay-Osborn scheme showed the Chinese that +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_396' name='Page_396'>[396]</a></span> +the naval problem must be attacked in a different +fashion. It was a false start, and they must begin +again. Accordingly, profiting by what they had heard +and seen of the efficient service rendered in their narrow +waters by foreign gunboats, the Chinese Government +contracted with the Armstrong firm for a small +flotilla carrying one heavy gun with a wide range of +fire. These craft were little more than floating gun-carriages; +but notwithstanding broad beam and flat +bottoms, they were moderately sea-worthy. They +were known as the Alphabeticals, from being named +after the Greek letters. This modest flotilla was the +nucleus of the Chinese navy. +</p> + +<p> +Attempts at naval construction were made at Shanghai, +Foochow, and Canton; but beyond providing work +and training for native artificers, and acting occasionally +as transports on a small scale, despatch-carriers, +and official yachts, the vessels turned out +from native yards rendered no service to the country. +The Chinese navy as a potential military arm only took +shape when Li Hung-chang was able to carry the +Government with him so far as to purchase effective +war-ships in Europe, to institute a system of training +under competent foreign officers, and to establish naval +harbours with docks and workshops. Two iron-clad +battleships, a respectable squadron of cruisers, and +some smaller craft, manned by trained crews and +officered by men who had received a regular naval +education and perfectly understood their duties, constituted +the fighting navy of China. The two English +officers who supervised the training, Captain Tracy at +Foochow and Captain Lang in the Gulf of Pechili, were +thoroughly satisfied with the capacity of both officers +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_397' name='Page_397'>[397]</a></span> +and men, and what was distinguished as the Peiyang or +Northern Squadron was brought up by the latter officer +to such a state of efficiency that he reckoned that a +further two years' drill would enable the Chinese to +take its place, on a small scale, among the best equipped +fleets in the world. +</p> + +<p> +And while the navy was developing so satisfactorily, +coast fortifications also made great progress. The +mouths of rivers were all defended by the best modern +guns; three naval ports in the Gulf of Pechili—Port +Arthur, Weihai-wei, and Talien-wan—were fortified at +great expense, and everything externally evinced a +determination on the part of China to place herself in +a position of independence, delivered from the fear of +foreign attack, except of course by land, and even that +had been partially provided for, as we have seen, by +the military establishments in Manchuria. +</p> + +<p> +Between the naval and the military preparations, +however, there was an immense disparity. The force +for which Li Hung-chang was personally responsible +was carefully drilled, armed, fed, and paid, and, given +competent leading, would no doubt have rendered a +good account of itself; but the army as a whole was +never brought to a state approaching efficiency. The +navy, on the other hand, possessed the best ships and +the best armament that money could buy, with the +most modern appliances for war, and its <i>personnel</i> was +subjected to the most careful discipline. The fortress +guns were also of the newest and best pattern, and +nothing was spared, apparently, to fit them for the +purpose for which they were intended. It was generally +conceded that the fortresses so armed were safe from +attack by sea. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_398' name='Page_398'>[398]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The explanation of the great difference between the +organisation of the sea and the land forces seems to be +that the former, being a new creation, was beyond the +range of criticism and was unhampered by any traditions, +while the reform of the army was merely +patching a worn-out garment. The immemorial conditions +of military service were unchanged. No army +was formed, but a series of local levies raised without +cohesion or central control. The foreign instructors +were kept strictly to their class-work, were subordinated +to the people whom they had to instruct, and +possessed no kind of authority. They were allowed +to drill the men, while the officers for the most part +held themselves above the drudgery of the parade-ground. +The few who had acquired a smattering of +military education in Europe were as helpless as the +foreign drill-masters to move their wholly ignorant +superiors. Hence abuses of the most grotesque kind +did not creep but rushed into every camp and every +school, reducing the scientific teaching to a hollow +farce. +</p> + +<p> +The familiar factors of peculation and nepotism +had an important influence on these naval and military +developments in China. Such things are no +monopoly of the Chinese. If corruption could ruin +a State, it would not be necessary to look so far +afield as China for national disasters. But the form +which the vice takes in China has a determining +effect on the administration quite irrespective of the +waste of resources and diminution of efficiency which +are common to corruption in all its forms. Thus if +we have to reconcile the lavish purchases of material +with the attenuation of <i>personnel</i>, we need +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_399' name='Page_399'>[399]</a></span> +only reflect that the former bring large emoluments +with little labour to the official employed, while the +training of men involves much work and little profit. +Further, if we want an explanation of the infinite +diversity of the arms which are furnished to the +troops, we may find it in the excessive competition +among officials for a share of the traffic, and the +interest which the higher authorities have in passing +without inspection what is purveyed by their subordinates. +</p> + +<p> +Nepotism in China is part and parcel of the +family system, which is the palladium of the nation. +Every military corps raised is essentially territorial; +and if ever it is moved from one province to another, +it looks to a territorial chief, and no stranger can +command it. Li Hung-chang's disciplined troops, if +not all of his own clan, were at least the natives +of his province and spoke his dialect. His subordinate +officials were blood relations and family adherents. +It needs no argument to show how such +a survival of feudalism militates against national +organisation. Pure feudalism, indeed, would be less +detrimental; for under it territorial exclusiveness +would at least be balanced by territorial responsibility, +but under the short-service system of China +a governor or governor-general may during his +three years' term throw everything into confusion +and half ruin the finances of a province with which +he is precluded from having any territorial tie, and +then proceed to another and repeat the performance. +The navy, though, as we have said, exempt +from the incubus of tradition, was nevertheless unable +to withstand the pressure of immemorial heredity. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_400' name='Page_400'>[400]</a></span> +As the first and principal naval school happened +to be at Foochow, it was natural that new +battleships and cruisers should be officered and +manned in the first instance by natives of Fukien +province. The admiral, however, hailed from another +province—that of Li Hung-chang. Though brave +and capable, Admiral Ting was uneducated, and +found it hard to hold his own among the captains +and lieutenants who had been to Greenwich and +could speak and write English, and some of them +French. Neither the Chinese admiral nor the English +co-admiral—who was led to believe he possessed +authority, but was deceived—were able to repress +the intrigues which ran riot among the Foochow +officers,—intrigues having for their object the complete +control of the fleet, the power of keeping out +and admitting whom they chose without reference +to qualifications, and the general determination to +subordinate the naval service to their personal and +family advantage. The presence of Captain Lang +was a hindrance to their schemes, and they intrigued +him out. But as the fleet belonged to the +north, they were unable to exclude northern seamen +from the country round Weihai-wei, who proved +when the day of trial came the most intelligent and +the staunchest force that China possessed. +</p> + +<p> +The Peiyang Squadron was the nearest approach +to an imperial navy that China ever possessed, and +yet it was so far provincial that it could not be +sent into the central or southern waters without +creating jealousy on the part of the local authorities, +just as if it had been a foreign force. In +1891, when anti-foreign riots in various places on +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_401' name='Page_401'>[401]</a></span> +the Yangtze threatened to endanger the peace of +the empire, the Imperial Government allowed foreign +ships of war to proceed up the river for the purpose +of preventing outbreaks rather than offend the +susceptibilities of the provincial authorities by employing +their own naval forces on that duty. During +that critical period the Peiyang Squadron was +cruising in Japanese waters while the Great River +was being patrolled by foreign gunboats. +</p> + +<p> +These various evidences of martial energy procured +for China the credit of a real awakening, and ensured +her the respect due to a serious Power. Yet +the unsoundness of the foundation on which her +new prestige rested was no secret to any one who +took the trouble to consider the facts, for all the +weaknesses we have mentioned, with many more, +were notorious to every foreign resident in China; +nor was there a naval officer of any nation who +did not regard the fighting value of the Chinese +fleet as nothing. Ships were good, officers and men +in themselves were passable, but without organisation, +while the whole force was governed by other +than militant principles. The attempted military reorganisation +could, in fact, have no vitality except +as a branch of a general reform of the administration, +the keystone of which was fiscal. Of this, +however, the Chinese rulers seemed to take no heed, +contenting themselves with snatching at what was +superficial and conspicuous to the eye. The Chinese +florists in the spring-time supply to hawkers shrubs +covered with blossom which is so cleverly attached +by fine wire to the twigs as almost to deceive +the elect. This is practically what the Chinese +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_402' name='Page_402'>[402]</a></span> +Government bad been doing with their national +defences, so that on the first trial they collapsed +like a sapless flower. These experiences have an +important bearing on the large problem of Chinese +reform and reorganisation, and indeed on the continued +existence of the empire. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i402" id="i402"></a> +<img src="images/i-p436.jpg" width="245" height="190" alt="" /> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_403' name='Page_403'>[403]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXXI. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE COLLAPSE.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +China clings to universal sovereignty—Demonstration of same towards +Korea—Irritating to Japanese—Their aspirations in Korea—Insurrection +in southern districts—Chinese troops sent there—Japanese +simultaneously occupy Korean capital—War between China and +Japan—China defeated—Causes and consequences—General sympathy +with Japan. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +We have seen that up to the end of 1892 the Chinese +Government clung to the figment of universal sovereignty. +Perhaps it was the figment that clung to +them, they not knowing how to drop it. When they +had, under stress, seemed to concede the principle of +equality, it was not done heartily, but to serve a +momentary purpose. Like a belligerent who continues +a guerilla warfare after concluding peace, they fought +inch by inch for the rags of the old prerogative after +having by treaty surrendered it. It had been long +predicted that their refusal or inability to bring their +theories into agreement with patent facts, and to come +into line with the Powers of the world, must lead to +tragic consequences. Foreign nations laughed at the +Chinese pretension as an innocent archaic survival. +But those individuals to whose lot it fell, in their own +persons, to suffer the continued humiliation which was +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_404' name='Page_404'>[404]</a></span> +a consequence of the survival, did not find the comedy +of the situation quite so congenial. The high-spirited +nation living in the closest neighbourhood to China, +using its language and literature, was naturally more +galled by the Chinese assumption than those distant +peoples who only suffered in the persons of their diplomatic +agents. Though it would be more than the +evidence warrants to say that the pretension of the +Chinese Government was directly provocative of the +events of 1894, yet it is certain that it had a full share +in filling the cup. Nowhere had the Chinese conception +of supremacy been exemplified in a more uncompromising +form than in her relations with Korea. Her +position as suzerain was a reality. She had in times +past defended her tributary at great cost, had marked +the relationship by permanent monuments, and had +maintained the rites necessary to keep her title alive. +As late as 1890 the tributary formalities were repeated +conspicuously before the world. In that year the +"Grand" Queen-Dowager Chao of Korea died. According +to custom the king despatched a messenger to +Peking to report the death to his suzerain. The envoy +presented his papers kneeling before the vice-president +of the Board of Rites. He was the bearer of a petition +from the king descanting on the miseries of his country, +and expressing regret that, owing to the straitened circumstances +of his Court, he might be unable to carry +out all the ceremonies required for the entertainment +of the usual mission of condolence from the emperor; +therefore, as "an infant trusting to the tender mercies +of his parents," the king begged that not a mission, but +a message only, might be returned to him by the hands +of his own envoy. The imperial decree in reply to this +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_405' name='Page_405'>[405]</a></span> +petition, while admitting the facts of the situation as +set forth by the king, nevertheless announced that the +customary usage must be maintained, only an important +concession would be made to the poverty of Korea in +the route which would be followed by the new mission. +Previous envoys had made the whole journey between +the two capitals by land, and after entering Korean +territory they had to pass many stations in their slow +march to the capital, involving much expense to the +country through which they travelled. All this would +be saved on the present occasion by the two commissioners +travelling by sea, and landing at Chemulpo, a +few miles only from the capital. The king had to submit +to the modified burden, if such he really considered +it. The ceremonies observed were elaborate and impressive. +Frequent prostrations by Korean officials +before the emperor's tablet, and before the Imperial +Commissioners, introduced the proceedings; afterwards +the king was taken charge of by the Chinese master of +ceremonies, led through a complicated ritual, and told +to bend, kneel, <i>kotow</i>, and stand erect at so many different +stages that the mere reading of the official +account of them is bewildering. The reporter's conclusion +gives the gist of the whole ceremonial from the +Chinese point of view: "The emperor's consideration +for his vassal State as evinced by his thoughtfulness in +matters pertaining to the mission is fathomless. How +admirable and satisfactory! And how glorious!" +</p> + +<p> +All this was unexceptionably correct, and in its fantastic +way expressed an actuality not to be contested. +Yet to the Japanese, with their antagonistic policy, we +can well understand that this renewed assertion of the +Chinese suzerainty, after the convention of 1885, must +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_406' name='Page_406'>[406]</a></span> +have been highly irritating. Scarcely less so was the +superior position habitually assigned to the Chinese +Resident over all the other foreign representatives at +the Korean Court. He alone at all times had the ear +of the king; he was the only one privileged to enter +the palace in his sedan chair, the others having to +leave theirs at the gate and walk. While abstaining +from interference in small things, the Chinese Resident +did, in fact, direct the national policy of Korea so far as +such a thing could be said to exist. +</p> + +<p> +As the affairs of Korea formed the occasion, if not +the cause, of the Japanese War in 1894, it might seem +desirable to refer once more to the troubles and misgovernment +of that country. To explain them would +be quite impossible, for to say that there are wheels +within wheels, intrigue within intrigue, the whole revolving +round a pivot of sordid corruption, is perhaps +the only general account that can be given of the state +of the Government and of its official hierarchy. But +the conflict between China and Japan held on its way +through the labyrinth of local intrigue, and eventually +produced a result which, strange to say, seems never to +have been anticipated by any one outside the Government +circles of Japan. The energetic Chinese Resident +at the Korean Court may perhaps have been needlessly +ostentatious in asserting the legitimate paramountcy of +China, but the aggression of the Japanese in various +parts of the country, and the extravagant claims they +founded upon these aggressions, really called for a +champion of Korean independence, a function which +Yuan Shih-kai<a name='FA_32' id='FA_32' href='#FN_32' class='fnanchor'>[32]</a> filled with considerable ability. The +subordination of Korea to China was nowhere visible +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_407' name='Page_407'>[407]</a></span> +except in Court relations. The subjugation of the +peninsula by the Japanese, on the other hand, was +rapidly bringing the population itself into bondage +to alien merchants, adventurers, and usurers, actively +supported by their own Government. If they had had +the patience to wait a few years, the Japanese must +have won Korea by energetic infiltration alone. +</p> + +<p> +But these things did not move fast enough for the +settled ambition of Japan, which she with diligence, +unanimity, and wonderful secrecy determined to develop +by force of arms. It would be idle to seek for +the causes of the war elsewhere than in this forward +national policy of Japan. Alert as she had been to +seize every chance that offered of detaching Korea +from her allegiance to China, her preparations were +not sufficiently complete to justify her unmasking her +whole policy until 1894, when the grand opportunity +for which she had been waiting, if she did not actively +assist in bringing it about, presented itself. What +proved to be an ill-advised interference of China in +the internal affairs of Korea furnished the occasion. +An insurrection had broken out in the southern part +of the peninsula, and the king had no forces to put +it down. Various versions had been circulated of the +extent and character of the insurrection; but when +it had continued for some time, and nothing was done +to check it, the advisers of the Chinese Government +became apprehensive of interference by some foreign +Power for the restoration of order. Strangely enough, +Japan was the very last quarter from which this +danger was anticipated. The Chinese at length summoned +resolution to send a force to the king's assistance +to put down the insurrection, but whether the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_408' name='Page_408'>[408]</a></span> +king in his heart desired this armed interference it +is impossible for us to say. +</p> + +<p> +Li Hung-chang was personally opposed to any +such expedition, and when goaded to action from +Peking, where the bellicose spirit had been generated, +he pointed out that no request had been received +from the king. This omission was also remarked upon +by the practical Admiral Ting, and both may have +hoped that the absence of so important a link in the +chain would enable them to avoid the overt action +which they had the best grounds for deprecating. +Such a hope, if it existed, was of brief duration; for +the King of Korea was induced, by influences brought +to bear on him, "to place himself in order" and implore +his suzerain for assistance, which the suzerain could no +longer withhold. Then was Li Hung-chang pressed +by that body whose characteristic was the negation +of initiative, the Tsungli-Yamên, and like a sluggish +horse which once takes the bit in its teeth, the Yamên +became as impatient for action as in all its previous +history it had been resolute in evasion. When but +a few days had elapsed since the issue of the order, +and the troops were not yet embarked, the Ministers, +quite ignorant of what was involved in sending a military +force across the sea, began to jeer Li Hung-chang +on his delay, hinting that he was perhaps growing stale +with age. The troops were, nevertheless, despatched +all too soon. On their landing at Yashan in Southern +Korea, the insurrection immediately collapsed: such +was the prestige of the imperial authority. +</p> + +<p> +In order to comply with the letter of the Li-Ito +convention China notified Japan officially of +the despatch of these troops, some 2000 in all, and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_409' name='Page_409'>[409]</a></span> +of the purpose for which they were sent. But +Japan had no need to wait for any such formal +intimation. She had her Intelligence Department, +remarkably alert. Japanese—not perhaps always +known as such—were employed in the Chinese official +bureaus, even in the most confidential departments, +while Japanese in disguise swarmed in all the military +centres. The Chinese telegraph service has no secrets +from any one who thinks it worth his while to possess +them. Consequently every detail of the preparation, +every point in the discussion, and every step in embarkation, +was punctually telegraphed by the Japanese +consul to the Foreign Office in Tokio. Hence it was +that Japanese troops arrived in Korea simultaneously +with the Chinese, only they numbered 10,000 against +2000, and instead of being assigned to the region of the +insurrection, in accordance with the provisions of the +Li-Ito convention, they marched straight to the capital +and took possession of the king. The insurrection +having collapsed, the Chinese troops were under orders +of withdrawal, and would have returned home in the +same transports that conveyed them to Korea but for +the unaccountable, and of course illegitimate, presence +of Japanese troops at the capital. Notwithstanding +the provocation to retain the Chinese troops in Korea +as a counterbalance to those, five times more numerous, +which had been sent by Japan, the Chinese authorities +were advised by their best friends to recall their troops, +even though the Japanese should thereby be apparently +left in possession of the field. The Chinese would in that +case have maintained an unassailably correct position, +and Japan would have had to dispense with her pretexts +for war. Evacuation by the Chinese had been +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_410' name='Page_410'>[410]</a></span> +actually decided upon, and the steamer Kowshing was +chartered for the purpose of bringing back the troops. +Before the measure was carried out, however, other +counsels prevailed, and that very ship was employed in +conveying more troops to reinforce the first expedition, +and in the midst of pretended negotiations for an +arrangement between the two Powers, the Japanese +sank the Kowshing on the high sea with all on +board. +</p> + +<p> +It is usual, as a matter of form, if nothing else, to +assign some specific cause for a war; but though +many able writers have essayed to explain the Japanese +action in 1894, they have all of them left the +question in greater obscurity than they found it. Nor +did the formal declaration of war by the Mikado throw +any light on the subject. A Japanese statesman +being asked what the war was about, replied bluntly, +"It is to defeat China," and the most elaborate exposition +of motives or policy does not carry us perceptibly +further than this concise and straightforward statement. +The Chinese Government itself held precisely +the same view as to the object of the war, though its +perceptions were so obscured that it was quite unaware +of its incapacity for defence. Neither did it during the +actual progress of hostilities realise the cause of its +defeat. Indeed there is no evidence to show that +China has even to this day discovered the secret of +her impotence. +</p> + +<p> +The course and immediate consequence of the war +itself have been set forth in many books, and are so +well known as to render it superfluous to enter into +any detail here. A few general points only need be +mentioned as a key to what followed. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_411' name='Page_411'>[411]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +1. Russia took unusual pains to dissuade Japan from +engaging in the war, pointing out in clear terms that +her interests would not allow her to be an indifferent +spectator of any changes on the continent of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +2. Great Britain next endeavoured to patch up the +supposed quarrel—which could never be defined in +words—between China and Japan, and on the day on +which her agent in Tokio expressed himself confident +that the differences, so far as he understood them, +would be arranged without recourse to war, the British +chartered transport Kowshing was sunk with 1200 men +on board. +</p> + +<p> +3. The solution of the question which would have +reconciled the views of the four Powers more immediately +concerned was the neutralisation of Korea. Great +Britain, Russia, and Japan were of one mind on this +subject, and China would have hailed such an escape +from her chronic embarrassment respecting Korea. +Why, then, was no attempt made to bring about such +a solution? Want of co-ordination, it would appear; +diplomatic paralysis. Though the views of each Power +separately ascertained were identical, none of them +would speak first, and there was no fifth party to +assume the initiative in bringing them to a common +understanding. The blame of this must be equally +distributed, though in point of fact there were degrees +of responsibility which it would be useless now to +recall. It is only one example the more of the great +gap which often yawns between professional diplomacy +and practical politics. +</p> + +<p> +The issue of the war was a foregone conclusion, both +by sea and land. China had no army, and the more +numerous her levies the more helpless they were before +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_412' name='Page_412'>[412]</a></span> +a disciplined enemy. The navy failed precisely +where it was expected to fail. It was an incomplete +machine, neglected and in disorder, deficient in many +essential things. Worst of all, there was no heart in +it. Captain Lang, R.N., and other British officers had +been expelled from the service through a conspiracy of the +captains in 1890, and thenceforth its deterioration became +rapid. The efficiency of the navy for its main +purpose was the last thing considered by the cabal. +They relied absolutely on the diplomatic resources of +Li Hung-chang to save them from any possible trial of +strength, and refused to face an alternative even by +way of argument. Bravery was by no means lacking +in the ranks, nor professional education among the +officers. There were some who had Nelson's maxims +at the tip of their tongue, and there were some who +added to a thorough naval training the spirit of devotion +which makes heroes. But these qualities were +isolated and incoherent; there was no tradition to +render them fruitful, no martial spirit, no disgrace for +the coward, no honour for the valiant. The fleet was +a body, defective enough at that, but without a soul. +The minds of the captains being set on quite other +objects than the efficiency of their service, when the +crisis threatened they were intent only on evading +collisions. The valour of the admiral, the fine sense +of duty of individual officers, and the fighting qualities +of a considerable body of the seamen, were swamped +in the prevailing pusillanimity of the service; the +choice spirits were discouraged by the fatuous neglect +at headquarters to supply the ordinary necessaries of +warfare. It was the writer's fortune to make a passage +in a Chinese protected cruiser in September 1894, a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_413' name='Page_413'>[413]</a></span> +few days before the great naval action off the Yalu, +and it was most pathetic to hear the defects pointed +out by the captain and first lieutenant—defects in ammunition +for the guns mounted, absence of gun crews, +so that in action men would have to be taken from one +gun to another and put to work for which they had +no training, everywhere the ship spoiled for want of +the ha'porth of tar. That particular vessel was not +disgraced in the Yalu fight, but was brought into Port +Arthur by the superhuman exertions of her officers, her +iron deck beams twisted by the fire and her plates red +hot. A second conversation with the captain and first +lieutenant after the action was but a painful commentary +on that of the week before. The one was prediction, +the other fulfilment. Perhaps the state of the +navy could not be more forcibly illustrated than by +the fact that the fleet was led into action at the Yalu +by a German military officer. +</p> + +<p> +China was indeed defeated, amid the applause of +Europe and the whole world, and the primeval law of +violence received a new consecration. This is the one +outcome of the war which seems likely to leave a +permanent impress on the surface of our civilisation, +for the spontaneous outburst from the four corners of +the earth cannot be referred to any venal or wire-pulling +agency. There had been foreign wars in China +before, wars entered upon after long discussion and +accumulating causes of quarrel. Their merits divided +the opinion of the world—they divided even the nations +that waged them; and the opposition was on one occasion +strong enough to overturn a British Government +that had actually entered into hostilities against China. +But in 1894 there was not a dissentient voice. The +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_414' name='Page_414'>[414]</a></span> +cause of the war was not known and not inquired into, +the universal enthusiasm was simply for the victor, as +such, without regard to anything but his military +prowess. That was what the world fell down and +worshipped. Not any righteous cause, or racial sympathy, +or community of interest, inspired their acclamations; +for none of these things were considered or +understood by the masses who chorussed the triumph +of the conqueror of China. English pens and tongues +beyond all others urged the victorious Power to make +crushing conditions of peace, and in the clamour traditional +landmarks were forgotten. The policy of saving +China, the great English milch cow, from destruction, +which had been patiently followed by Great Britain for +forty years, was thus suddenly submerged in a wave of +warlike enthusiasm. +</p> + +<p> +Press-made feeling was both stronger and had more +influence on the action of Government in England than +in any other country. The war had upset the balance +of power in Asia, but the press took no heed of that, +and urged with conspicuous success that the Japanese +should on no account be hindered in their seizure of +the spoils. Other countries, keeping a cooler outlook +on eventualities, were unable to regard the occupation +of Liao-tung by Japanese forces with the equanimity +with which it was viewed in England, though they +made no objection to the enormous indemnities forced +from China, which might indeed be philosophically +regarded by them as a tax levied specially on British +trade. Being threatened in her weakest frontier by +this ambitious military Power, Russia had intimated +before war began, in no ambiguous terms, that she +could not tolerate such a neighbour, and on the conclusion +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_415' name='Page_415'>[415]</a></span> +of peace she took steps to give effect to that +resolution. Russia had throughout the war been extremely +nervous about the possible action of Great +Britain, and would have gone considerable lengths to +come to an understanding with her; but towards the +end, when the pretensions of the Japanese began to +assume extravagant dimensions, their moral effect on +the Great Powers enabled her to dispense with English +favour by drawing France and Germany to her +support. The gravity of the Japanese demands was +the factor that drew the three Powers together, and +Li Hung-chang, when he went as envoy to Japan in +March 1895, assented to the indemnity and the surrender +of territory on the assurance given him that +the more excessive the conditions of peace he might +be forced to sign, the more certain were they to be +revised by the intervention of the Powers. The three +Powers proved strong enough to induce Japan to give +up Liao-tung for an increased indemnity, and the +future of the Far East thus was arranged in conferences +from which Great Britain had excluded herself. +There were several reasons for the abstention of +the British Government from taking a share in this +settlement. One was the complete failure of their +Intelligence Department before, during, and after the +war. But the fervour of the nation in deprecating +interference with the Japanese was a sufficient, and +no doubt a welcome, warrant for the inaction of the +Government. An experienced observer of English +public life remarked afterwards that he had never +known a situation in which the press, metropolitan +and provincial, had displayed such entire unanimity +and lavished such unmixed praise on the Government +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_416' name='Page_416'>[416]</a></span> +for its isolation. And yet it was a unanimity of +nescience, of simple abdication, the surrender of a +position in the Far East which had been built up +for two generations on the permanent interests of +the country, and which, sacrificed at the critical +moment, is gone beyond recall. The "new diplomacy," +uninstructed popular impulse, never had a freer +field; for the Government which it dominated was +scarcely more enlightened, and decidedly more apathetic, +than the nation itself. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i416a" id="i416a"></a> +<img src="images/i-p450.jpg" width="306" height="176" alt="" /> +</div> +<div class="figcenter p6"><a name="i416" id="i416"></a> +<img src="images/i-p416.jpg" width="339" height="550" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">MINISTERS OF THE YAMÊN OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. +<br /> +H.E. Shên Kuei-fên.<br /> +H.E. Tung Hsün.<br /> +H.E. Mao Chang-tsi.<br /> + +<span class="s08"><i>From a photo by J. Thomson, Grosvenor Street, W.</i></span></p> + +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_417' name='Page_417'>[417]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXXII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE RESETTLEMENT OF THE FAR EAST.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +An unsettlement—Interference of Russia, Germany, and France—China +reduced to dependence—Disintegration proceeds—France forces China +to violate her treaties with England—Russian approval—The loans +pressed upon China—Russia vetoes English loan, substituting a French +one, Russia standing security—Germany seizes Kiaochow—Russia seizes +Port-Arthur—England's remonstrance unheeded—A diplomatic correspondence +explained—British public aroused to importance of +the Far Eastern question—Call upon Government to take protective +action. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It would perhaps be in stricter accordance with facts +to describe what ensued on the Chinese collapse as a +process of unsettlement than resettlement, since no +man now living is likely to see the end of the +dislocation effected by the transactions of 1895. +The crude ingredients of national policy, stripped of +the international decencies with which they were +wont to be invested, were then thrown into the +caldron; elementary forces, naked and undisguised, +confronted each other; and the scramble which +moderate men had hoped to see indefinitely postponed +was entered into with the zest of a Cornish +wrecking raid. The officious interference of quasi-friendly +Powers to save the derelict empire from +mutilation proved, according to unvarying experience, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_418' name='Page_418'>[418]</a></span> +a remedy which was worse than the disease. Russia, +Germany, and France proceeded to treat China as a +No Man's Land; disintegration was the order of the +day. The example was, of course, contagious. Other +Powers, with no more substantial ground of claim +than was afforded by the defencelessness of China, +began whetting their knives to carve the moribund +carcass. +</p> + +<p> +A momentous transformation had been effected in +a few months. China now occupied the paradoxical +position of a protected State without protection; of a +sovereign State shorn of the power of fulfilling her +obligations. To this impossible situation the Government +itself had been an efficient contributor. During +the progress of the war China had, of her own motion, +thrown herself on the mercy of the world. Before all +the Powers, great and small, with whom she had intercourse, +she humbled herself in the dust, imploring them +collectively, separately, or anyhow, to save her from +her relentless foe. She, the titular mistress of the +world, grovelled thus at the feet of Powers to whom +she would not, even then, in plain words, have conceded +equality. And when assistance eventually came +it was imposed on her by external force. She could +make no conditions. +</p> + +<p> +The revolution which the revised treaty of Shimonoseki +effected in the international status of China +was naturally first realised by those who had brought +it about. China ceased to be a free agent; she +became a vassal, and not to one Power only. And +the intervening Powers lost no time in demonstrating +the fact, France taking the lead. Within two months +of the revision of the treaty of Shimonoseki the French +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_419' name='Page_419'>[419]</a></span> +Minister in Peking compelled China to sign a treaty +granting to France large territorial concessions on +which she had long had her eye, with commercial +privileges never before granted to any Power. But +the stipulations of the French convention were in +open conflict with those of an existing treaty with +this country, inasmuch as they gave to France a +portion of the Shan States, which had been expressly +reserved as a neutral zone in the treaty between +China and Great Britain. The British Minister, +pointing this out before the French treaty was +concluded, protested against its signature. The +Ministers of the Yamên admitted the justice of his +contention, nor can it be said the protest was unheeded. +With the Yamên it was a question solely +of the balance of power, and feeling that the French +force was the heaviest in the scale, they yielded to +that and signed the treaty with France in direct +violation of that which they had previously signed +with Great Britain. As if to leave no ambiguity +as to the true significance of the change of status +which had come over China, the Russian Minister +on the day following made a formal visit to the +Tsungli-Yamên, with more than the customary display, +to congratulate the Chinese Ministers on what +they had done, and to assure them of the approval +of his Government. +</p> + +<p> +This novel application of the law of force threw +out of gear the whole system of Chinese national +engagements, and was quite incompatible with normal +diplomatic relations. Formerly the struggle had lain +between China and all the Powers, her obligations to +whom were observed in proportion to the amount of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_420' name='Page_420'>[420]</a></span> +coercion applied by, or to be apprehended from, each. +From this resulted a chronic demand for the fulfilment +of agreements, and constant reclamations for +non-fulfilment. But now the native reluctance to +observe treaties was potentially reinforced by the +action of foreign Powers in not only condoning, +but explicitly insisting upon, China's violating her +engagements. +</p> + +<p> +It may be that this species of <span lang='fr_FR'><i>force majeure</i></span> was +not wholly unwelcome to the Chinese. It certainly +widened the field for their favourite tactics of playing +off one foreign Power against another. A better +answer than heretofore was now available to all demands +and remonstrances. "We should for our part +be most happy to do as you desire, but—what would +Russia say, what would France say?" Thus diplomacy +in China at once degenerated into a "tug of war" +contest, China herself being merely the rope which +was pulled. She was virtually ruled out of the active +management of her own affairs and became the <i>corpus +vile</i> for rival aggressors. +</p> + +<p> +Aggression sometimes assumed strange forms. One +of the first which the treaty of peace with Japan +developed was a remarkable competition in lending +money to the Chinese. The indemnities to be paid +to Japan were heavy, and it was obvious that China +must borrow. But before she had time to take any +step in that direction money was being thrust upon +her. First in the ranks were English loan-mongers, +who had had some experience in the business. Their +negotiations were slow and halting; and when they +had at last concluded a contract it was only to be +told that Russia objected to the transaction, and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_421' name='Page_421'>[421]</a></span> +required that China should borrow from French capitalists, +who were willing to lend on the guarantee of +Russia. The Chinese Government were absolutely +passive, not willingly, but of necessity; they had not +asked for the guarantee which Russia volunteered, and +were quite willing to accept the loan of £16,000,000 +sterling on the English terms. But Russia simply +insisted on their taking the French money, under an +ominous threat, while she herself stood security for +the solvency of China, thereby assuming the position +of first mortgagee on the revenues of that empire. +That accomplished, Russia stipulated that China should +contract no further loan for a period of six months. +</p> + +<p> +The precedent set by Russia and France of ignoring +the Government of China as an efficient factor in +negotiations respecting her territory or her obligations +was followed to the letter by Germany when in +November 1897 she took possession of the most important +naval harbour on the Chinese coast, with +an adequate hinterland, carrying elastic rights extending +over an immense area of country. Admiral +von Diedrichs reduced the question of the acquisition +to its very simplest expression. "Common-sense," he +submitted to the Chinese commandant, "must tell you +on which side the superior force lies, and therefore you +would be wise to make way for me without resistance." +With the prize in her hands, Germany next demanded +a formal title to what she had seized, and instead of +giving the German Minister his passports the Chinese +Government granted the request. +</p> + +<p> +In this unceremonious manner was the new status +of China embodied in monumental facts. She was +the common victim, having no power to bind or loose +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_422' name='Page_422'>[422]</a></span> +save in accordance with the dictates of her masters. +The Chinese Government seemed to have abdicated +sovereign functions. +</p> + +<p> +After France and Germany it was Russia's turn to +give tangible evidence of the real ascendancy she had +gained over the Chinese Imperial Government. Hers +was the only true mastery. The others might wrest +provinces and extort concessions from a prostrate +Government, but Russia alone reached the cerebral +centre and controlled—so far as outward effect went—the +volition of the organism. Negotiations, partly revealed +in 1895, showed conclusively the scope and +direction of her Chinese policy. It was profound and +practical, continuing on the lines that had proved so +successful in the past. The basis of it was an ostensible +friendship for China, out of which grew a protective +alliance, and the peculiar kind of partnership +which had constituted the intermediate stage in the +previous great territorial acquisitions of Russia. The +joint right of the two Powers—to the exclusion of all +others—to navigate the Amur and the Songari, and +the joint possession of the Usuri territory—"details +to be hereafter settled"—was now to be applied to the +coast and harbours of Liao-tung, of which Russia was +to have the use, afterwards defined in a treaty as the +"usufruct." The gentlest methods were to be used, +and so far as mere phrases were concerned, a matter on +which the Chinese always were punctilious, the utmost +consideration for their feelings was to be shown. +Russia had two immediate objects in view, both of +cardinal importance to her. The first was to obtain a +terminus for the Great Siberian Railway more southerly +than Vladivostock, which could only be obtained in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_423' name='Page_423'>[423]</a></span> +Korean or Chinese territory. The second—the necessary +corollary of the first—was to bring the territory +through which the railway should run within the +Russian administration. The sanction of China to a +branch of the Siberian Railway being carried through +Manchuria to a terminus on the Liao-tung littoral was +formally given in conferences between Li Hung-chang +and the Czar on the occasion of the coronation at +Moscow in 1896. The details were afterwards developed +in a way of which it is probable the Chinese +Government had little foresight; but it would have +made no difference, for to Russia nothing could be +denied. +</p> + +<p> +Out of these comprehensive projects of Russia—projects +which belonged to the very highest order of +imperial statecraft—arose a strange unequal duel +between Russian and British diplomacy, which has +also left its mark on history. Her Majesty's Government +and their agents abroad having been found +wanting in the matter of information during the +upheaval of the Far East, it appeared to be their <i>rôle</i> +to ignore and deny the facts upon which other Powers +were acting. In particular the whole Russian scheme +of utilising Chinese territory and controlling the +Chinese Government was discredited with considerable +vehemence. The consequence of this attitude of +scepticism was that whatever Great Britain might +resolve to do must be done in the dark. Assured by +their agents in the Far East that the bay of Kiaochow +was worthless, the British Government satisfied themselves +that Germany had made a poor bargain in +taking it. Dismissing as a phantasy the whole string +of facts concerning Russia's plans, the British Government +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_424' name='Page_424'>[424]</a></span> +exposed themselves to collision with those plans, +and received in consequence a series of diplomatic +humiliations, entailing upon the country permanent +disadvantages of a most substantial kind. Towards +the end of 1898, soon after the German seizure of +Kiaochow, a harbour which had also proved a convenient +winter rendezvous for the Russian fleet, the +announcement came from China that the latter had +received permission from the Chinese Government to +winter at Port Arthur on the opposite coast of Liao-tung. +Thereupon a discussion was raised between +London and St Petersburg concerning the prospective +designs of Russia. This discussion was stamped from +its origin with futility by previous communications +with the Russian Government, the purport of which +was inferred from a speech by Mr Balfour in +February 1896. On that occasion he declared that +the British Government would not only not oppose, +but would hail with satisfaction, the acquisition by +Russia of an ice-free port in the Pacific. As her +Majesty's Government held Russia to the pledge she +gave in 1886 to respect the integrity of the Korean +coast, it followed that the ice-free harbour contemplated +by Mr Balfour could only be in Chinese +territory, which, as affecting the dominating power of +Russia in the Far East, was greatly in advance of +what the occupation of a Korean harbour would have +been. Korea had been safe-guarded from encroachment +because it was the stepping-stone to China, but +the Russian lodgment on the inner waters of China +itself deprived Korea of most of its strategical value. +Hence Russia kept silence when Mr Curzon stated in +Parliament that the pledge held good which preserved +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_425' name='Page_425'>[425]</a></span> +the integrity of Korea, a pledge which had lost its +significance. This acquiescence in Russia's taking an +ice-free port on the Chinese coast was in direct contradiction +to other no less authoritative statements of the +British Government. As, for instance, the resolution +passed by the House of Commons, and accepted by +the Government, pledging them to maintain the +integrity of China, followed by the statement by the +Under Secretary of State that the Liao-tung coast +with its harbours constituted an integral part of the +Chinese dominions. It is obvious that this confusion +arose either from lack of information or lack of interest +in the subject, coupled in either case with absent-mindedness +on the part of the British Government. +But these inconsistencies of the members of the British +Government made no difference to the steady prosecution +of the Russian plans, which were now developed +with great rapidity. These pretensions were signalised +by two memorable incidents, following each other so +closely as to be practically simultaneous, in January +1898. The first was a new loan to the Chinese under +negotiation by British financiers, to assist which her +Majesty's Government was strongly urged by the +China merchants to give its guarantee to the lenders +as Russia had done in the case of the previous loan. +On being asked by the Foreign Office what securities +it would be proper to demand from the Chinese Government +as the equivalent of such British guarantee, +the British Minister at Peking replied that one of the +conditions should be the opening of Talien-wan as a +treaty port by the Chinese Government. Whether +he had considered in what way this concession was +to benefit the position of Great Britain was not disclosed. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_426' name='Page_426'>[426]</a></span> +The proposal was promptly vetoed by the +Russian Government, whose ambassador in London +urged strongly that "if we insisted on making Talien-wan +an open port we should be encroaching on the +Russian sphere of influence, and denying her in future +that right to the use of Port Arthur to which the +progress of events had given her a claim,"—adding, +that without having any designs on the territory, +"it was generally admitted that Russia might claim +a commercial <span lang='fr_FR'><i>débouché</i></span> upon the open sea, and that +in order to enjoy that advantage fully she ought to +be at liberty to make such arrangements with China +as she could obtain with respect to the commercial +<i>régime</i> which was to prevail there." +</p> + +<p> +The second incident was that two British war-vessels +which were anchored in Port Arthur—where, of +course, they had the same right to be as any other +foreign man-of-war—"made a bad impression" on the +Russian Government, and formed the subject of complaint +to the British Secretary of State. While denying +the right of Russia to comment on the movements +of British ships in Chinese waters, Lord Salisbury +nevertheless allowed the vessels in question to depart, +a movement which was reported with much colour of +truth in Peking and St Petersburg as having been +made by the order of Russia. +</p> + +<p> +Thus within one month the exposition of the Russian +designs was expanded from the first assurance of Count +Muravieff that the wintering of the ships was merely +for the temporary convenience of the fleet, to the +assertion of vague territorial rights over the coast and +harbours of Liao-tung. And Lord Salisbury observed +with plaintive naïveté in the month of March, that +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_427' name='Page_427'>[427]</a></span> +whereas his Government "had always looked with +favour upon the idea of Russia obtaining an ice-free +port on the Pacific, Russia had now given a most unfortunate +extension to this policy." It appears that +the eyes of the British Government were not opened +to the gravity of the situation until Russia, alleging +that an ice-free port on the Chinese coast (no +longer the Pacific) was a vital necessity to her, +thereupon took possession of Port Arthur and Talien-wan. +The British Government at the eleventh hour +opposed the proceeding, for the reason that "the influence +of Russia over the Government of Peking will be +so increased to the detriment of that of her Majesty's +Government, if the Russians are to have a lease of Port +Arthur and Talien-wan, that it seems desirable for us +to make some counter-move." Thus the British Government +were brought to see, when too late, what +those interested in Far Eastern affairs had been endeavouring +to tell them years before; and there seems +to be no doubt that the final discovery of the truth +was due to the efforts of one or two persistent writers +in the press during January and February 1898, but +chiefly to the action of a small independent section of +the British House of Commons led by Mr Yerburgh. +On such trifling accidents do great events sometimes +hang, that it seems probable that had Mr Yerburgh's +movement taken effect three months earlier British +ships would not have been withdrawn from Port +Arthur, neither would China have been ousted from +the possession of her only two naval harbours north of +the Yangtze—at least not just then. It would serve no +good purpose to follow the various explanations given +by Ministers of the British Crown of their diplomatic +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_428' name='Page_428'>[428]</a></span> +encounters with Russia. They will have little interest +for the historian. But a clear account of these transactions +given in a letter to the 'Times,' May 19, 1898, +may very well serve as a guide to future inquirers +into these matters:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Legend of Talien-wan.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Before the recent diplomatic struggle in the Far East is +allowed to pass away from the public mind, may I be permitted +to say a few words on one of its aspects which seems to have +received very little attention? +</p> + +<p> +The bad faith of the Russian Government has been strongly, +and not unreasonably, condemned; but no attempt has been +made to explain it, except on the popular hypothesis that a +double dose of original sin is normal in the Muscovite. It does +not seem to have occurred to any writer on the subject that +the Russians themselves may have a grievance, that they may +have acted under a sense of injury, or that, in their view, the +good faith of the British Government is not above reproach. I +believe they are mistaken; but it is none the less true that the +chain of facts on which they rely will well bear the interpretation +they place upon it. +</p> + +<p> +The great blot on the recently published "Correspondence +respecting the affairs of China" (No. 1, 1898) is that it takes +no account of its immediate <span lang="de_DE"><i>Vorgeschichte</i></span>. It relates to a +diplomatic struggle of which we last heard officially as far back +as 1887, when the Blue-book on Port Hamilton was published. +Since then many important things have happened, notably the +Chino-Japanese war and the intervention of Russia, France, and +Germany in the settlement of Shimonoseki. To ignore these +events is really to delude the public; for the chapter of Far +Eastern politics which begins with the German descent on +Kiaochow is little short of meaningless if the story of Shimonoseki +is passed over. Indeed the legend of Talien-wan itself +belongs to a policy which may easily be traced back half a +century. It is, however, not necessary for my purpose that I +should go behind the Shimonoseki intervention. What was the +object of that transaction? No one who has given any attention +to Far Eastern affairs has ever been under the slightest +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_429' name='Page_429'>[429]</a></span> +illusion on this point. The great problem of Russian statesmanship +since the foundation of the empire has been to reach the +open sea, first in the Baltic, then in the Euxine and the Mediterranean, +and, after the Crimean war, in the Pacific. Since +Muravieff and Nevelskoy opened the Amur Russia has neglected +no opportunity of pushing southward in order to get beyond the +line of winter ice, and every embarrassment of China has been +skilfully used by her to bring her nearer her goal. We in +England have consistently resisted this policy, and in 1886 we +thought to have finally defeated it when, by seizing Port Hamilton, +we extracted a pledge from Russia that she would not +occupy Korean territory "under any circumstances whatever." +To all outward seeming Russian expansion in the Far East was +thus stopped in the ice-bound harbour of Vladivostock. This, +however, was not the view of Russia herself. She was still +confident that an opportunity would be afforded her of realising +her ambition, for there were other harbours on the Pacific besides +those of Korea, and if the road to them was longer and +more difficult, Russian patience was equal to the task of covering +it. In these circumstances Japan, victorious in her war with +China, claimed and obtained the cession of the Liao-tung +peninsula, and thus threatened to shut the door for ever +against Russian access to the Pacific. The intervention of +the Powers which Russia thereupon organised was ostensibly +directed to the protection of the integrity and independence +of China, but no intelligent politician doubted at the time, +or has doubted since, that its real aim was to keep the Pacific +door open for Russia. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly after this event Lord Salisbury came into office. +The problem which then most urgently demanded his attention +was that of Armenia. Largely by its attitude in the Far East +the Rosebery Cabinet had left our relations with Russia in a +distinctly strained condition, and the one obvious remedy of the +Armenian horrors—the coercion of the Sultan—was blocked +by Russia. Lord Salisbury directed himself to the conciliation +of Russia, wisely recognising that nothing could be done in the +Near East without Russian goodwill and assistance. What +were the means he employed? I cannot say what private +negotiations may have taken place between the two Governments, +but we seem to have a sufficiently significant illustration +of the direction in which the Premier was disposed to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_430' name='Page_430'>[430]</a></span> +make concessions to Russia in a speech delivered by Mr Balfour +at Bristol on February 3, 1896. In that speech a British +Minister announced for the first time that this country would +not oppose Russian expansion to the Pacific. "I, for my part, +frankly state," he said, "that, so far from regarding with fear +and jealousy a commercial outlet for Russia in the Pacific +Ocean which would not be ice-bound half the year, I should +welcome such a result as a distinct advance in this far-distant +region." This statement made a profound impression all over +the world, as well it might, seeing that it implied the abandonment +of a policy which had been consistently and vigilantly +adhered to by Great Britain from the time of Lord Clarendon +to that of Lord Rosebery. +</p> + +<p> +A few days after Mr Balfour's Bristol speech—on February +20—it fell to Mr Curzon to explain in a negative way the +scope of his leader's pronouncement. An impression had got +abroad that the new policy implied the surrender of the pledge +given by Russia in 1886 with regard to the occupation of +Korean territory, and the Under Secretary was asked in the +House of Commons for his views on the subject. Mr Curzon +replied that "her Majesty's Government consider that the pledge +given by the Russian Government is still binding." Was this +a disavowal of the new Russophile policy. Obviously not: for +later in the year, at the Guildhall banquet, Lord Salisbury made +to Russia the friendliest overtures he has ever made in public +speech. At the same time he especially accentuated the novelty +of his attitude by asserting that "it is a superstition of an +antiquated diplomacy that there is any necessary antagonism +between Russia and Great Britain." +</p> + +<p> +The position, then, of the Government was apparently this: +they had abandoned the traditional hostility of this country to +Russian expansion towards the ice-free Pacific on condition that +it did not trench on Korean territory. It followed, then, that +they were not disposed to offer any hindrance to the acquisition +by Russia of a port on Chinese territory, westward of the +Korean frontier—that is, somewhere between the mouth of the +Yalu and Port Arthur. This must be clear to anybody who +cares to glance at a map. The upshot of the speeches of Mr +Balfour and Lord Salisbury and of the statement of Mr Curzon +was, in short, to invite Russia, whenever she might feel so disposed, +to plant the Russian flag on the southern coast of Manchuria. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_431' name='Page_431'>[431]</a></span> +This, at any rate, was the view taken in Russia, and, +for my part, I can see no escape from it. It is not a little significant +of the satisfaction caused in Russia by this interpretation +of the policy of Great Britain that, on November 25, a +fortnight after Lord Salisbury's speech, the Tsar at last consented +in principle to the British proposals for coercing the +Sultan of Turkey on the Armenian question. +</p> + +<p> +Now we come to the events of last November, when Germany +suddenly swooped down on Kiaochow. This step is +known to have been very distasteful to the Russian Government. +It was the first appearance of a European Power in the +northern waters of China, in a region which Russia had persuaded +herself was reserved for her own domination. Long +before the murder of the unfortunate German missionaries in +Shantung it was well known in St Petersburg that Germany +had her eyes on Kiaochow, and the Russian Minister at +Peking had more than once warned Li Hung-chang and urged +him to fortify the bay. The disappointment of Russia became +intensified when it was observed that the step taken by Germany, +was not resented in this country, and fears of an Anglo-German +alliance in the Far East began to possess the Russian +mind. Then suddenly there came the Talien-wan incident, +and Russia found herself once more confronted by the danger +which had threatened her in the treaty of Shimonoseki. +</p> + +<p> +The real significance of the Talien-wan incident has never +yet been fully set forth. Had Talien-wan been made a treaty +port, and thus given more or less of an international status, +Russia would have been practically shut out for ever from the +ice-free ocean. The only stretch of coast on which she could +obtain this outlet was, as I have already shown, the southern +coast of Manchuria from the Korean frontier on the Yalu to +Port Arthur. Now, if we examine this coast-line carefully we +shall find that there is only one spot capable of being transformed +into a commercial port, and that is Talien-wan. The +China Sea Directory (vol. iii.), published by the Hydrographic +Department of the Admiralty, gives us the fullest particulars +on this subject. It traces the coast-line in microscopic detail +and shows us that it has only five possible harbours. The first, +westward from the Yalu, is Taku-shan, the approach to which +is frozen during the winter months. The second is Pi-tse-wo,—here +the water is too shallow even for large junks. The third +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_432' name='Page_432'>[432]</a></span> +is Yen-tao Bay, the anchorage of which is bad, and in places +dangerous. The fourth is Talien-wan, and the fifth Port +Arthur. Talien-wan has all the advantages which are absent +from the other ports. It is ice-free, spacious, well sheltered, +with excellent anchorage and considerable commercial possibilities. +Is it surprising that Russia should have felt aggrieved +when it was proposed to make Talien-wan a treaty port? +</p> + +<p> +As a matter of fact, I believe Russia regarded this proposal +as an attempt to evade the assurance given by Mr Balfour in +his Bristol speech. She looked upon it as the design of a +powerful Anglo-German combination to exclude her for ever +from the China seas. It was to her mind a conspiracy of the +most dangerous kind, and she bent all her efforts to defeat it. +When she had defeated it she lost no time in securing her +position. She took Port Arthur as well as Talien-wan, for the +simple reason that her interpretation of the situation convinced +her that a commercial port overlooked by a great citadel in +foreign hands would be a vantage to her foes rather than a prize +to herself. Can she be altogether blamed for taking this view? +</p> + +<p> +The mistake the Russian Government made was in attaching +a serious meaning to the casual blunders of our Government, +and in imagining that these blunders marked a connected purpose, +if not a consistent policy. They were not to know that +the Russophile passage in Mr Balfour's Bristol speech was a mere +oratorical tag; that our friendly attitude towards Germany at +Kiaochow was only a sort of amiable tolerance of an act the +scope and consequence of which we had not measured; and that +our proposal to open Talien-wan was made at the suggestion of +our Minister at Peking, who, of course, knew what he was about, +while it was acquiesced in at home by Ministers who simply did +not know what they were doing. That Sir Claude Macdonald +designed the Talien-wan move as a check to Russia I have no +doubt; that Lord Salisbury never dreamed of this aspect of it I +am equally convinced. +</p> + +<p> +However that may be, one thing, I think, is clear. The sense +of injury and the complaints of bad faith are not all on one side. +In diplomacy, as in most of the affairs in this world, it is a wise +rule not to believe your opponent to be as stupid as he looks. +Russia at any rate paid us this compliment during the recent +negotiations. The result, no doubt, is that she has overreached +us. But whose fault is it? +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_433' name='Page_433'>[433]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +The Russian flag once hoisted over Port Arthur and +Talien-wan (by what nominal authority makes no difference +whatever to the fact) placed the new relation of +China to the rest of the world beyond all discussion. +China did not willingly surrender her territory: she +looked in vain for help, but found none. She weighed +in the balance the words and acts of one great Power +against the words and acts of another, and had no choice +but to place herself under authority of the strongest, +finally and irrevocably. That fact must be taken as the +master-key to her subsequent policy in all its phases. +</p> + +<p> +These several events succeeding each other in close +order awoke the British public from their optimistic +dream, and forced them to reflect that there was after +all something more in these Far Eastern readjustments +than had occurred to them when cheering on gallant +little Japan to the spoliation of China. The result +obtained was certainly not that which was contemplated +either by the nation or the Government when Great +Britain settled down into her isolation. When the +truth of the situation had revealed itself to the public +there was naturally a loud call for something to be +done to safeguard the commercial interests of the +country, if not to recover lost prestige; but the +Government were as far from having definite aims +in China as they had ever been, and while goading +them to action, the public was scarcely in a position +to advise what that action should be. Neither +had the Government, in spite of all that had taken +place, fully realised to what extent China had added +impotence to reluctance, for they continued to deal +with China very much as if the events of 1895 to +1898 had never happened. They were reluctant to recognise +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_434' name='Page_434'>[434]</a></span> +the fact that Russia, in possession of the Liao-tung +or Kwan-tung peninsula and of the railway line +connecting it with Siberia, held a noose round the neck +of the Peking Government, which she could tighten or +relax, conceal or parade, as circumstances required, and +that until some other Power or Powers were prepared +to speak with equal authority Russia must be paramount, +not by virtue of any convention, but as the outcome +of accomplished facts. +</p> + +<p> +Two measures adopted by Great Britain to rectify the +preponderance of Russia were the seizure, under a form +of negotiation, of the harbour of Weihai-wei and the +forcing of money upon the Chinese by way of loan. +The value of these strokes of policy has not yet become +apparent. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i434" id="i434"></a> +<img src="images/i-p470.jpg" width="253" height="161" alt="" /> +</div> +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_435' name='Page_435'>[435]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXXIII. +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="s08">THE OUTCOME.</span> +</h2> + +<h3> +I. THE SITUATION IN PEKING. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p class="center"> +A magnified repetition of experiences in Canton—Chinese unchanged—International +usages inapplicable. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Since the foregoing chapters were put into the +printer's hands the Far Eastern Question has reached +a crisis in which its ruling factors have been suddenly +exposed in their nakedness. But the searchlight now +thrown upon them casts a blacker shadow on the +unilluminated portions of the field. The events of +1900, while revealing the landmarks of past foreign +relations with China, have deepened the obscurity of +all that concerns the future of the Chinese State itself, +as well as of the position of the foreign Powers in +relation to it and to one another. International comity +is seen to have made no progress in sixty years; on +the contrary, the gulf that divides China from the +world yawns wider than ever, of which a striking +example is afforded by the telegrams lately exchanged +between the Chinese and the German Emperors. They +speak in tongues unknown to one another and are +mutually unintelligible, so that they have no common +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_436' name='Page_436'>[436]</a></span> +ground but that of brute force. Intercourse imposed +on them against their will and conscience has resulted, +naturally enough, in exhibiting the Chinese as the +enemies of the human family. +</p> + +<p> +The capture of the Taku forts and the occupation +of Peking by foreign troops were but a repetition of +similar incidents forty years before; and it is instructive +to observe how closely the lines of the +old precedents have been followed. Prisoners taken +treacherously, or envoys held as hostages; the threat +to kill them if foreign troops menaced the capital; +the devices to arrest the advance of the Allied forces; +the proposal to negotiate only when the Chinese +case became desperate; the ineradicable belief in the +credulity of foreigners; and the flight of the Court +when all other expedients failed,—were but another +rehearsal, with variations, of previous performances +at Canton, Nanking, and Peking. The parallel is +completed by the efforts of foreign Powers to coax +the emperor back to his capital. Nothing has been +changed, only the scale has been magnified, and the +civilised world, instead of one or two Powers, has +become directly interested in the catastrophe. Official +intercourse with China has thus continued on the +lines on which it began. The first British envoy +was treated as a malefactor, imprisoned, his letters +were intercepted, his communications cut off, his servants +withdrawn; he was guarded and threatened +by armed men posted at his door, and reduced to +dangerous subterfuges in order to get a message conveyed +to his countrymen outside. Canton in 1834 +was simply Peking in 1900, in embryo. A naval +force was required to relieve Lord Napier from his +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_437' name='Page_437'>[437]</a></span> +perilous situation then,<a name='FA_33' id='FA_33' href='#FN_33' class='fnanchor'>[33]</a> as a combined naval and +military force has been required to relieve the foreign +Ministers in Peking now. The cycle has been completed. +Every link in the chain connecting the opening +with the closing incidents of diplomatic intercourse +has been, on one side at least, homogeneous. Whatever +and whoever may have altered, the Chinese +certainly have not. Commissioner Lin, Viceroy Yeh, +Prince Tuan, the empress-dowager, and all wielding +authority, whether in name or not, have been true to +the Chinese ideal. They have all alike been blind to +the consequences of their acts, which have throughout +been characterised by the strategy of fools—momentary +success followed by overwhelming reverses, +resulting at each succeeding encounter in a further +invasion of the frontiers of their political independence. +</p> + +<p> +The crisis has been sufficiently prolonged to enable +the world to perceive what the Chinese mean by the +term negotiation. To them it signifies what it has +always done, a palaver to gain time, to hoodwink +an opponent, to escape from a threatened danger, to +purchase immunity by promises; a device to manage, +or, as they themselves express it, "to soothe and +bridle barbarians." As little now as at any former +period can they conceive the idea of a fair bargain +between equals. They but temporise as with a savage +or a dangerous beast. "Get rid of the barbarians" is +their unvarying <span lang='fr_FR'><i>mot d'ordre</i></span>, and it matters but little +to them what instruments are employed in carrying it +out. The office is one from which every statesman +instinctively shrinks, since if he fails in taming the +barbarians his case is referred to the Board of Punishments, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_438' name='Page_438'>[438]</a></span> +and if he succeeds he incurs the contempt of +all classes for the concessions by which he has purchased +peace. It is hardly possible for him in any case +to escape degradation. Be it therefore Lin, Kishen, +Kiying, Yeh, Kweiliang, Wênsiang, Chunghou, Li Hung-chang, +or any one else, Chinese negotiators, whatever +their apparent success in averting a danger, are morally +certain to come to a bad end; and for the reason +which caused the failure of Lord Napier in 1834, the +impossibility of reconciling two principles which are +wholly incompatible. As negotiation under such conditions +can only be nugatory, a lengthened experience +has made it clear that neither the negotiator nor the +negotiation avails anything, but solely the manner in +which the Chinese are held to their engagements, even +when imposed on them by force, and the strictness with +which the common duties of civilised nations are exacted +from them, with or without written agreements. +</p> + +<p> +One feature in the recent Peking episode distinguishes +it from previous experiences. A Government communicating +with foreign Powers through its own envoys, +doling out through them garbled information, while +isolating the envoys of those same Powers within its +capital, and planning, and if not doing its best to effect, +their extermination, at least openly approving the attempt, +is surely unexampled in human history. The +proposal of such a Government, on the failure of its +plans to "negotiate for peace," would be the most sardonic +of practical jokes if we could disconnect it from +the evidence implied in the proposal of the estimate of +foreign nations which is ingrained in the Chinese moral +constitution. Obviously, however, such a Government +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_439' name='Page_439'>[439]</a></span> +has placed itself beyond the pale of international relations, +and it is hardly possible to conceive any restoration +of the old or evolution of a new <i>régime</i> which can +place China in the rank of civilised Powers. +</p> + +<p> +We are, in fact, thrust back on the conclusion +arrived at by Lord Napier in 1834: "That Government +is not in a position to be dealt with or treated +by civilised nations according to the same rules as +are acknowledged and practised among themselves." +Yet, instead of being treated with less, the Chinese +Government has received greater consideration than +is accorded by one Western State to another. Prerogatives +implying superiority have been conceded to +it by consent of all the foreign Powers—a false principle +which has now produced its natural result. +</p> + +<p> +The usages of Western Courts, therefore, being wholly +inapplicable in China, no matter what Government may +rule there, international relations of the European type +must be, as they have hitherto been, an illusory ideal, +and some new form of intercourse, corresponding more +closely to the realities of the case, must take the +place of that which has proved so totally unworkable. +Should foreign nations, by reason of differences +among themselves or the magnitude of the problem, +hesitate to act up to this view of the situation, the +continuance of a status which is essentially false to +the facts must lead to some still more tragic catastrophe +than any that has yet taken place. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_440' name='Page_440'>[440]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +II. THE CHRONIC CAUSE. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Hostility of Government and people—Fostered by immunity—Cause of +animosity as set forth by Chinese—Incitements to outrage—Chinese +press calumnies—Compared with European—Effect on the Chinese of +international vituperation. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It must be admitted that the attitude of the Chinese +has been quite consistent: from first to last they have +resisted the foreign impact <span lang="la"><i>per fas et nefas</i></span>, using such +weapons as they could command, while avoiding, according +to their lights, the risk of reprisals. Their lights +have indeed deceived them, their resistance has failed, +and their methods stand condemned. But it is beside +the question to inveigh against their barbarity, for +"what is bred in the bone comes out in the flesh," +and in human relations there are permanent facts +which have to be accepted, like the skin of the +Ethiopian and the spots of the leopard. Since +foreigners have, for their own purposes, broken into +a hornet's nest, it is idle for them to prescribe the +manner of retaliation unless they are prepared to go +through with their aggression and to enforce obedience +to their own canon. +</p> + +<p> +The constant feature in all Chinese attacks on +foreigners has been the immunity from punishment +of the real instigators. Massacres of foreigners have +been condoned, for the blood-money exacted for them +was no punishment to criminals who did not contribute +to the payment. All attempts on the part +of foreign agents to make guilty officials responsible +for their outrages have been frustrated by the Government, +who have invariably held the persons of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_441' name='Page_441'>[441]</a></span> +officials exempt from punishment at the instance of, +or for injuries done to, foreigners. In Chinese eyes +injury to foreigners is meritorious in the abstract, and +to be rewarded rather than punished. Foreign Powers +have in practice acquiesced in this fatal principle, for +though on rare occasions they have successfully insisted +on the removal of some obnoxious official, the +Government have taken care to nullify the penalty +by promoting him to a better post. The various +attempts that have been made by foreign representatives +to collect evidence to support a legal charge +against the instigators of outrages have been baffled +by the inflexible determination of the Government to +shield the official as well as the non-official leaders of +riots. The foreign method of seeking redress, being +thus foredoomed to failure, is obviously not suited to +the circumstances. +</p> + +<p> +But while foreigners were pursuing their object by a +hopeless path, the Chinese administration itself provided +the simpler and more efficacious remedy of +holding the chief authority of every province responsible +for misgovernment, as well as for crimes and +misdemeanours committed within his district. In the +words of Sir Rutherford Alcock, "Each province constitutes +a separate state in its administration; to +compensate for this the emperor can appoint and +remove every official, from the Governor-General downwards, +at his pleasure. And they are each and all +individually and collectively held responsible for all +that may happen in the limits of their jurisdiction." +By the custom of the country, therefore, the guilt of +the highest official is assumed whenever any disturbance +of the peace takes place or crime is committed +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_442' name='Page_442'>[442]</a></span> +within his government. He may transfer it, if he can, +and ferret out evidence in his own exculpation; but +errors of judgment, pleas of good intentions, and palliatives +of that kind are not admitted, and not offered. +Why foreigners have never appealed to this fundamental +principle of Chinese administration, and have +preferred relying on their own crude procedure and +strange methods of collecting evidence while practically +acquiescing in the immunity of Chinese officials, +has never been satisfactorily explained. For it is only +in matters concerning foreigners that the persons of +Chinese officials are held sacred. The Government +have no scruples with regard even to the highest in +rank when they make themselves obnoxious to the +powers that be. Degradation, deprivation, chains, +imprisonment, and the headsman's broadsword, are +ever ready to vindicate the majesty of the law when +the Court awards the penalty. But foreigners are +treated as outside the law, which is the gravamen of +the Chinese offence against them. The constitution +of the country afforded them a clear ground for demanding +that the traditional principle of responsibility +should be put in force for their protection. It was, in +fact, applied spontaneously by Li Hung-chang in the +province of which he was viceroy, with the result that +Chihli was exempt from outrages on foreigners for +nearly a quarter of a century. Why was the system +not extended to all the provinces of the empire? +Had not the foreign representatives the natural right +of demanding the benefit of Chinese institutions, or +did they consider their exotic substitute as preferable? +</p> + +<p> +A wrong road can never lead to a right destination; +sins of omission and commission have alike to be atoned +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_443' name='Page_443'>[443]</a></span> +for, and the cost accumulates at compound interest. +The result of sparing prefects and governors the consequences +of the evil deeds permitted within their jurisdiction +is that the Western Powers are now confronted +with the more serious dilemma of sparing the throne +itself and tolerating the continuance of anti-foreign +outrages, or of doing stern justice towards the guilty even +though the heavens should fall. A retrospective glance +over the history of sixty years might help towards a +solution even of this momentous problem. Have the +sacrifices of principle that have hitherto been made in +order to save the empire, or the dynasty, been efficacious +to these ends? The answer of history is No; +on the contrary, they have accelerated the ruin of +both. +</p> + +<p> +The provoking cause of recent outbreaks against +foreigners in all parts of the Chinese empire may be +gathered from the proceedings of the conspirators, +from their placards and lampoons, and from their secret +correspondence. The keynote of all these is general +detestation of foreigners, special enmity to Christianity +and its accessories, and aversion to the symbols of +material progress. Hatred of foreigners now shows +itself as a passion which binds the provinces together +as nothing else has ever been known to do. Their +expulsion is a cause which is held to justify the +vilest deeds done in its name. Nor is the present +state of things a growth of yesterday. The ferment +has been working for forty years—to go no further +back—with many sporadic outbreaks to mark its +progress. It was not nipped in the bud, as it +might perhaps have been. Exhibitions of ill-feeling +had been habitually disregarded by foreigners, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_444' name='Page_444'>[444]</a></span> +who in their readiness to blame each other for provoking +them, were accustomed to repel obvious explanations, +and to go far afield for theories which would +exonerate themselves at the expense of their neighbours. +If stones were thrown or abusive epithets +shouted, "It was only the children." Only the children! +As if more conclusive testimony to any prevailing +sentiment were possible.<a name='FA_34' id='FA_34' href='#FN_34' class='fnanchor'>[34]</a> In Peking itself the +foreign Ministers set the example of palliating these +abuses, and the only wonder is that the fire has smouldered +so long without bursting into flame. During +thirty years—to speak only of the recent period—missionaries +in the interior have encountered the growing +hostility of the people, which they have ascribed, +perhaps too exclusively, to the machinations of "literati +and gentry," forgetting that the torch would be +applied in vain to a substance that was not inflammable. +</p> + +<p> +Not that the machinations of the official and literary +classes of the country are by any means to be held of +little account, for they have been the most potent +factor in fomenting and directing the passions of the +people. What corresponds in China to a newspaper +press has been constantly employed in vilifying the +character and execrating the designs of foreigners, and +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_445' name='Page_445'>[445]</a></span> +holding them up continually to the contempt and +hatred of the Chinese people. There was no effective +means of contradicting the calumnies which were daily +poured forth from every centre of population. Attempts +have, indeed, been made by special counterblasts +in the form of missionary publications in the chief +citadel of hostility, and in a less polemic form in the +periodicals in the Chinese language conducted by foreigners, +yet these have had little more effect on the +popular beliefs than a leading article in the 'Times' +has upon the flood of anti-English literature that is +poured out every day from Continental journals. From +an observation of the calumnies which are so unquestioningly +accepted by European populations we may partly +judge of the effect of a constant stream of the same +class of vituperative literature among the still more +ignorant people of China. The features of both are the +same. In Europe, as in China, there is no crime that +the lowest savages have ever committed which is not +attributed, with impassioned eloquence and with the +finest literary skill, to those who are held up to the +popular animosity. In Europe, as in China, the ruling +powers encourage the virulence of the press. In countries +where the Government exercises direct control, +and in others where the connection is less official, extravagances +are permitted which can serve no other +purpose than that of making the objects of the invective +so odious that a quarrel with them is rendered +popular in advance. European Governments thus play +with fire, as the Chinese have done, but in the case +of the latter the incendiary policy has worked out its +logical result. +</p> + +<p> +Nor should it be forgotten that since, in these days, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_446' name='Page_446'>[446]</a></span> +the Chinese have the fullest access to European literature, +the calumnies of one nation by another are calculated +to confirm their conviction of the turpitude of all. +Neither is their armoury confined to the international +amenities of the Western press. The charges habitually, +and as a matter of course, made against their +own countrymen by British writers and speakers would +justify a stranger people, already predisposed thereto, +in forming the worst opinion of English character. +During the saturnalia of a general election, when the +fountains of the great deep are broken up, no baseness, +no falsity, no treachery, is too gross to be attributed, +not to the rabble, but to the chosen leaders of the +people. Such things being circulated throughout the +world, preserved in indelible ink, can the enemies of +the British nation, or at least the prejudiced Chinese, +be greatly blamed for accepting the character of our +people on such unimpeachable evidence? Should we +not judge them on analogous testimony? From whatever +sources they gather their ideas, however,—whether +from the study of foreign newspapers, from their own +observation of the ways of foreign men and women, +or from the gross libels published by their literati,—there +is no reason to doubt that the unfavourable +opinion which the Chinese entertain of foreigners is +held by them in good faith. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_447' name='Page_447'>[447]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +III. IMMEDIATE PROVOCATION. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Shock of the Japanese war—European spoliation of China—Anarchy +apprehended therefrom—Reminiscence of Taiping rebellion—Proposals +for moderating foreign inroads—Lawlessness of foreign Powers—Chinese +yield to force but nurse resentment—The missionary irritant. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +What has caused the chronic anti-foreign movement +to swell suddenly to imperial dimensions, and to explode +simultaneously in the capital and in distant provinces, +is a larger question than we can attempt to answer. +As contributory causes, however, there are certain facts +lying on the surface of foreign relations which are too +suggestive to be passed over. The Japanese war of +1894-95, and the train of events following it, noted +in a previous chapter, struck at the vital centre of +the Chinese empire. Foreigners of all nations applied +force to China, not to defend person or property, but +to divide up the empire in disregard of the Government +and the people, both assumed to be moribund. The +partition of China was discussed in the Western press +as a matter in which the Government and natives of +the country had no concern. Open doors, spheres of +influence, concessions, protectorates—the various modes +in which the Chinese oyster was to be cooked and +served—were treated solely as questions of rivalry and +preponderance between the Western Powers. The +people were not indeed ignored, for the aggressors +reckoned on them as their most valuable asset, the +raw material of prospective armies, the source of labour +supply for excavations and earthworks, and of the +payable traffic for railways and other exotic enterprises. +But there is more in human nature than a +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_448' name='Page_448'>[448]</a></span> +capacity to dig or obey a drill-sergeant, and it is +precisely the elements which were disregarded by political, +financial, and industrial adventurers which have +risen up in judgment against them. The grandiose pronouncements +of the foreign press during the last two +or three years were by no means lost on the Chinese +Government. These writings showed that the ambitions +of foreign countries had no limits, while the +gratification of them was absolutely incompatible with +the retention of any semblance of independent authority +by the rulers of the country. +</p> + +<p> +Reasoning after the fact, and from effect to cause, +is apt to be fallacious, but when the circuit is completed +by the joining of prediction with realisation, +some confidence may be felt in the soundness of the +conclusion. Those who have observed the condition +of China with a sympathetic eye have been for years +labouring under the deepest apprehension for the peace +of the country. The Japanese war accentuated this +feeling, and the subsequent ruthless proceedings of +the Western Powers deepened the apprehension. As +the forces of aggression could in nowise be restrained, +anxious, but inadequate and altogether ineffectual, +attempts were made to avert their worst effects. +Warnings were not wanting that "dangers which +might have slept for generations to come had been +suddenly brought within the range of practical politics, +and that unless measures of precaution were taken in +time, what happened in 1894-95 would sooner or later +happen again, ... that the Chinese Empire would +be brought to the verge of disruption; for all the +forces, external and internal, which make for anarchy +would be let loose, and the empire would be powerless +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_449' name='Page_449'>[449]</a></span> +alike to resist dismemberment by the aggressive Powers +or the subversion of authority by internal upheaval." +The paper from which we quote, doubtless one of many +such drawn up in 1896, goes on to say: "However +desirous some, or even all, of the Great Powers might +be of saving China from dissolution, they would be +paralysed by their own jealousies, and they would +perhaps be more concerned to avert a general war +among themselves than to prevent calamity in China. +A crisis might thus arise more direful in its consequences +than the chronic crisis in the Ottoman Empire, +and a reign of havoc would follow in which millions +would perish where the loss of thousands now excites +the indignation of the civilised world.<a name='FA_35' id='FA_35' href='#FN_35' class='fnanchor'>[35]</a> No circumstances +would be wanting to intensify the horror, for it +would not be even civil war, but promiscuous rapine +as aimless and as uncontrollable as a forest fire. A +generation has scarcely passed since China was desolated +by the scourge of the Taiping rebellion, which is +thought to have destroyed a population equal to that +of a first-class European State; and a new outbreak +of the like kind would be more hopeless, inasmuch as +the factors which were eventually brought into play +to extinguish the conflagration in 1862-64 would now +be wanting, or would be rendered inoperative by the +complex circumstances above indicated." +</p> + +<p> +The spectre was anarchy, the provocatives aggression +and dismemberment; and the permanent interests of +international commerce were appealed to to avert the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_450' name='Page_450'>[450]</a></span> +calamities foreshadowed. "Dismemberment, from the +point of view of the general interests of trade, would +be little better than anarchy." Severe pressure was +being put on the Chinese Government—even in 1896, +when these and similar forebodings were uttered—to +permit free communication by steam and rail, and +the development of the mineral resources of their +country. It was from such sources that the immediate +danger to the integrity of the territory and +the peace of the State was apprehended, while, on +the other hand, the need for the innovations was +freely granted. "The Chinese having neither men +nor appliances capable of undertaking either the construction +or management of railways, must be wholly +dependent on foreigners for their inauguration. This +state of things, fully recognised on all sides, has led +speculators and promoters of all nations to besiege +the Chinese authorities with offers of the means of +construction and with demands for concessions. But +considering the relative positions of China and the +Western nations, it cannot but be admitted that the +Chinese have done well to refuse to listen to such +proposals. Rival concessionaires working under the +ægis of extra-territoriality in the interior would be +the axe at the root of the tree of China's integrity." +</p> + +<p> +The problem of preserving the independence and +integrity of China, while permitting the opening of +the interior of the country to foreign enterprise, was +felt to be one of the gravest importance, not to be +settled by the clamour either of rival concession-hunters +or the intrigue of rival States. "Inland +residence," wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock, in 1868, +"will bring weakness to the nation and death to the +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_451' name='Page_451'>[451]</a></span> +Government, and must eventuate in greater anarchy +than has yet been seen.... Right of residence in +the interior is hardly compatible with an extra-territorial +clause." +</p> + +<p> +The essential condition of safety for the country was +evidently, therefore, to bar the acquisition of territorial +rights by any foreign Government or company. +With this view it was urged that at least the ownership +and control of railways and mines should be retained +in the hands of the Government itself, under +a competent organisation in which foreign skill and +experience should be effectively represented. As the +then existing railway line of 200 miles was of such a +character, a development of the same system was +recommended for the larger schemes which were +thought to be impending. The foreign Powers were +urged to assist China in putting her house in order +and in adapting her administration to the exigencies +of the time. +</p> + +<p> +Such were among the proposals made in 1896, and +not disapproved by the Powers to which they were +addressed. But common action thereon by foreigners +was hindered by mutual rivalry and distrust, while the +Chinese Government on its part showed neither inclination +nor capacity—any more than it had ever done—to +meet its difficulties by comprehensive measures. It +preferred the ancient system of resisting, in detail +and in secret, the advances of foreigners,—a policy of +traps and snares and entanglements. Possibly the +paralysis of despair had already reached the nerve +centres of Chinese statesmanship, or the desperate +scheme of a general expulsion of foreigners had begun +to fascinate the leading spirits. Certain it is no +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_452' name='Page_452'>[452]</a></span> +practical <i>rapprochement</i> was effected, or even seriously +attempted, between the contending forces. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime, however, the invaders would brook no +delay,—they had no time for temporising tactics. The +"ugly rush" began—syndicate rivalled syndicate, and +Government Government, in dividing up the <i>corpus vile</i>. +Within twelve months of the period just referred to +Germany led the way in the dismemberment of China +by cutting off a slice of Shantung; Russia promptly +followed in Liaotung; then Great Britain took Weihai-wei +as a set-off, and assumed an interest in the central +zone keener than that of the Chinese Government +itself. Other Powers followed with imperious demands +for portions of Chinese territory, on no ground whatever +except that China was weak. Every law save +the law of the strongest was suspended. Justice and +mercy were thrown to the winds. And yet the orgies +of spoliation were followed by no change in the outward +forms of diplomatic relations with the Chinese +Government. Foreign representatives continued to +negotiate as if the power of that Government remained +intact, though to assume, for one purpose, that there +was neither sentient organism nor sovereign authority +in China, and for another, that the Government retained +its full competence,<a name='FA_36' id='FA_36' href='#FN_36' class='fnanchor'>[36]</a> was obviously to bring chaos +into their intercourse. As a consequence, diplomatic +correspondence with China since 1898—the British +share of which, so far as has been published, extends +to a thousand pages—is but a harvest of Dead Sea +Fruit. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_453' name='Page_453'>[453]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +But Chinese relations being a compound of courtesy +and force on the part of foreign Powers, it is not difficult +to divine which of the two must be the dominant +factor. Though they bowed their heads in morose +silence before their conquerors, Chinese statesmen retained +sufficient vitality to discriminate between platonic +diplomacy and the "mailed fist," yielding in all things +to menace, in nothing to argument. To seize territory, +under this <i>régime</i>, presented less difficulty than to +obtain redress for trivial injuries. Aggressive Powers +were respected according to the measure of their +aggression, while those who concerned themselves with +the preservation of the empire met with no recognition +whatever. British schemes were thwarted at +every point, while other Powers ran riot throughout +the territory. For this reason the Chinese Government +collectively, and individual mandarins, have +been stigmatised as anti-British, as if to be so were +a blot upon their escutcheons. No doubt they are; +but to assume on that account that the Chinese +rulers are pro-Russian, pro-French, or pro-German is +more than the premisses seem to warrant. History +and tradition are alike opposed to such an idea. +That peculiar kind of patriot, the friend of every +country but his own, is not much in evidence in +China. The vainest and most jealous nation on earth +was not likely in a moment to suppress its self-love, +invert its whole character, and welcome an army of +foreign adventurers, no matter of what nationality, +who came in the guise not of servants but masters. +And, setting sentiment aside, the Chinese were not +blind to the material consequences of the foreign +schemes which were pressed on them, but were as +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_454' name='Page_454'>[454]</a></span> +keenly alive to the danger of intrusting railway and +mining enterprises to foreigners as they had always +shown themselves to be when their military and naval +armaments were concerned. The memorials of provincial +authorities clearly prove this. If, therefore, +they admitted the disruptive agency into their country, +it was from no love of the interlopers, but solely by +way of submission to superior force, and under the +same mental reservation with which they had subscribed +to all their previous treaty engagements. +</p> + +<p> +The chronic missionary irritant mentioned in previous +chapters had been steadily spreading, and the hostility +evoked by it as steadily increasing. Christianity being +the only character in which foreigners had presented +themselves to the view of the masses, the extirpation +of it stood in the forefront of the anti-foreign programme. +The disasters which the governing classes +had always apprehended from the extension of foreign +missions had suddenly assumed the form of a concrete +reality. All that its opponents had for generations +foretold became fact: their administration was being +undermined, their traditions set at nought, their very +territory wrenched from them in the name of the +foreign religion. Propagandism was finally unmasked +by the German Emperor in the uncompromising manner +characteristic of that potentate. The Name that is +above every name was openly made subservient to +the lust of conquest. China saw at last that she +was really doomed through the instrumentality of the +religion which she had engaged herself to tolerate. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_455' name='Page_455'>[455]</a></span> +</p> + +<h3> +IV. THE DYNASTIC FACTOR. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Irregularity of the succession—Defensive position of the empress-dowager—Cantonese +reformers influence emperor—Regent's alarm, vengeance +and reaction—The new heir-apparent. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Ever since the <i>coup d'état</i> in January 1875, whereby +the empress-regent by her own fiat placed her infant +nephew on the throne of her deceased son, to the exclusion +of more legitimate heirs, the dynastic question +has been regarded by Chinese patriots as a certain +source of future trouble.<a name='FA_37' id='FA_37' href='#FN_37' class='fnanchor'>[37]</a> The imperial dignity was +not the only matter involved in the succession, but a +vast amount of property also, and so many members +of the imperial clan were interested in the result that +it was deemed certain that the partisans of legitimacy +would lie in wait for an opportunity of enforcing the +claims of the rightful heir. As it is customary to +attribute the acts of statesmen to personal motives, +it has never been doubted that the interest of the +empress-regent in setting the reigning emperor on the +throne was sufficiently explained by her own lust of +power. We know what is done, but do not always +know what is prevented, and in the case of the families +of both the elder brothers who were passed over, there +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_456' name='Page_456'>[456]</a></span> +may have been practical as well as judicial reasons to +justify even a <i>coup d'état</i> which supplanted them. +From what has recently been revealed of the character +of Prince Tuan, for example, the exclusion of +his progeny may possibly have been a providential +deliverance. +</p> + +<p> +Be these things as they may, however, and be her +ulterior motives what they may, the solicitude of the +empress-regent has been constantly directed to protecting +the weak point in her dynastic defences. The +childlessness of the present emperor, as well as the +misfortunes of the empire since he assumed the reins +of power in 1889, of course added indefinitely to her +anxiety, while at the same time serving to keep alive +the pretensions of the elder branches. +</p> + +<p> +Speaking, as we have done throughout, only of what +is apparent, the succession question was brought to the +point of incandescence by certain events in 1898. +Great and justifiable discontent had arisen in the +provinces with the manner in which the affairs of the +empire had been conducted, resulting in humiliation +and calamity. The idea of doing something to stem +the tide of misgovernment by enforcing the lessons +of recent misfortune was freely discussed. But the +Chinese have not discovered any method of remedying +grievances except insurrections in one form or +another, on a small or on a large scale. A movement +of this character has been on foot in the Canton +province ever since the Japanese war. These revolutionary +conspiracies have indeed been so well organised, +and so powerfully supported, that once, if not oftener, +the provincial city of Canton has narrowly escaped +capture. The agitation has been directed nominally +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_457' name='Page_457'>[457]</a></span> +against the Manchu Government. Whether directly +associated with the insurrectionary propaganda or +not, another body afterwards challenged public notice +under the name of Reformers. As in the case of the +insurrectionary movement, many Government officials +secretly gave their adhesion to the cause, and inspired +the leaders with confidence in the ultimate success +of their schemes. +</p> + +<p> +Reform had been preached continuously to China +from every foreign pulpit for forty years. "Reform +or perish" was the regular formula—words so easily +written that no resident, tourist, publicist, foreign +official, or any one with a pen or a tongue, refrained +from reiterating them continually. Individually every +Chinese official with whom foreigners came in contact +joined in the cry. But though the general demand was +unanimous, there was diversity in the details, and in +such a case the details were everything. A dozen +writers, each insisting on the necessity of thorough +reform, would postulate separately some indispensable +preliminary to any reform whatsoever. These indispensable +preliminaries, added together, would have left +nothing for the substantive portion of the programme; +by them Chinese administration would have been renovated +from top to bottom. Such was the difficulty +which friends and critics experienced in knowing +where to begin in their efforts to reduce the general +to the particular. +</p> + +<p> +In 1898, however, a bold attempt was made to +launch a comprehensive scheme of reform by imperial +fiat. A Cantonese named Kang Yu-wei, backed by +a body of opinion,—of the extent and value of which +different estimates may be formed, "financed," of +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_458' name='Page_458'>[458]</a></span> +course, as popular leaders must be,—obtained the ear +of the emperor, and induced him to promulgate a +budget of edicts of startling novelty. Being deemed +revolutionary, they excited alarm in the Imperial +Court. What were the specific grounds of alarm +may be easily surmised. Foreigners who refer it +exclusively to the question of reform may possibly +take as partial a view of this as they have done +of other Court movements. What is known is, that +the empress-regent, always ready to strike when her +interest or her schemes have been threatened, pounced +on the unfortunate emperor, and by force of will and +the parental authority which counts for so much in +China, and in virtue of the Great Seal which she had +reserved when handing over her trust, made him revoke +his revolutionary edicts, hunted out his dangerous counsellors +and punished them as traitors. The embers of +reform were thus for the time ruthlessly stamped out. +Of the ethics of these proceedings it is needless to +speak: not ethics but strength decided the issue; +nature's primeval law was not suspended in favour +of the adventurous spirits who flew at such high +game. A reaction against all reform naturally set +in, and the old struggle was renewed: between conservation +and revolution, viewed from the Chinese +Court side; between purity and corruption, viewed +from that of the Reformers. +</p> + +<p> +But the quarrel cannot be restricted to so simple +an issue as either of these. The question between +the Reformers and the Court was complicated by +sundry important considerations. In the first place, +the capture of the Emperor by Kang Yu-wei was +directly inspired by the teaching of foreign missionaries. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_459' name='Page_459'>[459]</a></span> +In the second place, the movement originated +in the same southern provinces whence the Taiping +rebellion itself had sprung, and where conspiracies +against the Government had been active since 1895. +And thirdly, the reform agitation was ostentatiously +patronised by the foreign, or at least by the English, +press, while the leaders of the insurgents found a +safe asylum, if not an effective base of operations, +in Hongkong and in foreign countries. Taking these +circumstances together, therefore, whatever may be +thought of the intrinsic merits of the double agitation, +it could scarcely be expected that the Powers +which saw themselves so seriously menaced should +draw any such fine distinction between the ostensible +objects of the reformers and of the revolutionaries, +as to regard the one with complacency while suppressing +the other. The most abject of governments +and the most timid of animals will resist to +the death an attack which threatens their existence. +There would be nothing unnatural, therefore, in the +resentment of the Imperial Government against its +disaffected people being, by the process which is so +familiar to us in family quarrels, temporarily diverted +from the domestic to the foreign enemy, against +whom the combined hostility of all parties in the +Chinese State might, for the time being, be concentrated. +</p> + +<p> +Without, however, attempting to assign their relative +values to all or any of these factors in the question, it +seems evident that the events of 1898 revealed the +elements of a drama in which the contending factions +in the Court were forced to show their colours. The +course of the conflict during the year and a half following +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_460' name='Page_460'>[460]</a></span> +the autumn of 1898 has probably been obscured +rather than elucidated by the contradictory reports +and fluctuating comments which have been so freely +disseminated with but slight regard to the authenticity +of their origin. But the nomination of a grandson +of Prince Tun as heir-apparent, which was decreed +in January 1900, looks like a belated, if not compulsory, +recognition of the prior claims of that Princes family, +and a confession that the Emperor Kwanghsu has +kept the rightful heir twenty-five years out of his +inheritance; for the grandson now selected possesses +no right which the grandson set aside in 1875 did not +possess. The relations of Prince Tuan, the father of +the emperor designate, with the empress-regent are +as obscure as the intricacies of palace politics usually +are to contemporary foreign observers. Fortunately, +however (in one sense), the cross-currents and undercurrents +of the Court, the question who are confederates +and who rivals, who betrayers and who +betrayed, in the imperial camp, are matters which +have to a great extent been deprived of their significance. +Under normal conditions the dynastic imbroglio +might have had a perturbing influence on +the policy of foreign Powers, but the explosion of +last summer has relegated all such domestic questions +to a secondary place. When the correspondent of the +'Times' could report that there was "no Government" +in Peking, the <i>personnel</i> of that Government lost its +practical interest. The old order, with its sins and +sorrows, has indeed passed away, but to find a substitute +for it is a problem that will tax the wisdom +as well as the forbearance of the world. The anarchy +which has been so long dreaded is actually upon us, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_461' name='Page_461'>[461]</a></span> +and the prospective horrors of it are assuredly not +lessened by the outbreak being signalised in the +capital rather than in the provinces. +</p> + +<h3> +V. THE CHINESE OUTBREAK. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p class="center"> +Chinese methods of expelling foreigners—Secret societies—The +Boxers. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Considering as a whole, therefore, the succession of +crushing blows which during the past six years have +been dealt against the integrity of China by open +enemies and dissimulating friends, we may conceive, +at least partially, the hatred of foreigners which exists +in the country. In this case we are not driven to +assume any wide difference between the Chinese and +races more nearly allied to ourselves, nor need we +seek to account for their demonstrations by defects +in their moral or religious training. Had even the +whole population of China been miraculously converted +to Christianity, as suggested by Sir Robert +Hart ('Fortnightly Review,' November 1900), it is +not permissible to assume that they would have +continued turning the other cheek to so many +smiters. If we suppose the case of any Western +nation subjected to the experiences through which +the Chinese have had to pass at the hands of +foreign dictators, the mode in which it would act +may afford us some measure by which to gauge +the excesses of the Chinese. +</p> + +<p> +The origin and organisation of the recent outbreak +will no doubt be a topic of discussion for some +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_462' name='Page_462'>[462]</a></span> +time to come, and it is not within our province to +anticipate the final verdict on it. But, as in certain +contagious diseases which become constitutional, the +angry symptoms first show themselves at the point +of infection, it is interesting to note that the German +sphere in Shantung enjoys the distinction of being +the cradle of the principal agency producing the +cataclysm. The prominence suddenly attained by +the Boxer movement is probably fortuitous, due to +its casual connection with high personages. Secret +societies are nothing new, nor societies of divers +sorts which have scarcely the pretence of secrecy. +As weeds spring up where cultivation is neglected, +these social growths may be considered in the light +of spontaneous efforts to occupy ground left vacant +by the constituted Government,—a sort of excrescence +of autonomy rising and falling according as the +administration is less or more efficient. The members +of these societies may be ascetics who follow strict +rules of living, defenders of popular rights, or mere +"bullies" who may be hired. They bear virtuous +titles, but it is safe to assume that the ostensible +object of the associations is in practice invariably +lost in schemes of a different complexion. Sometimes +in collision, at other times in collusion, with +the established Government, these societies are a +mobile factor, a sort of shifting ballast, always to +be reckoned with in the Chinese economy. +</p> + +<p> +As the Boxers are an athletic corps, drilled and +exercised, it was natural to inquire, when their imposing +force stood revealed, how such a formidable +movement could have been organised among the +Chinese people without the fact becoming known to +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_463' name='Page_463'>[463]</a></span> +the foreign residents in the country. One answer is, +that those who saw what was going on and warned +their countrymen were decried as alarmists, and +then held their peace. The wisest were but little +wiser than their neighbours, for as weather prophets +easily forecast the character of the following season, +while they are at fault as regards that of the next +twenty-four hours, so those who are able to predict +with confidence the remote future in China are often +the most blind to the nearer future which is reckoned +by days or months. But incredulity was excusable +in the present case, for the extent and apparent +suddenness of the movement were really unprecedented. +Such a force has not been mobilised and +kept in the field in a militant condition without +immense effort and liberal supplies, for though pillage +might go far, it would not go all the way in supporting +so large a body for any length of time. The +junction of the Boxers with imperial troops, the +relations of the commanders to members of the imperial +family, and the influence of the movement on +the question of the dynastic succession, are all matters +on which light will be welcome; for as no military +invasion of the territory has ever called forth such +a general enthusiasm of resistance, interesting, indeed, +will be the discovery of the real genesis of a rising +at once spontaneous and aggressive. +</p> + +<p> +The most practical observation, however, that +foreign nations have been forced to make during the +crisis is that, whatever might have been the separate +designs of those who presided over the general movement, +the rallying flag of the combination was the +extermination of foreigners. That was the pretext +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_464' name='Page_464'>[464]</a></span> +which, for the time being at least, reconciled all +antagonisms and satisfied all consciences. It seemed +as if the long-accumulated hatred of the Chinese had +gathered to a head, and its whole force had been concentrated +in one supreme effort to sweep the aliens +throughout the empire into the sea. That elaborate +preparation had been made to carry this into effect +seems to be placed beyond doubt, the rulers of China +evidently conceiving that the effort would be successful. +</p> + +<p> +The excuse put forward in palliation of an anti-crusade +headed by the highest personages in the +empire bears an interesting family resemblance to the +apology usually made for rebels. Being beguiled by +false prophets, they believed they would succeed;<a name='FA_38' id='FA_38' href='#FN_38' class='fnanchor'>[38]</a> and +success would have justified the venture. The facts +are such as no subsequent negotiations, no treaties, no +modifications of government, no reform, no professions +of any kind, can ever explain away. +</p> + +<h3> +VI. THE CRUX. +</h3> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p> +Concert of foreign Powers unstable—Divergent aims—Aggressive and +non-aggressive Powers—Unpromising outlook—The progress of Russia +the only permanent element. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +If conflicting forces in China have been united in +an effort to expel the foreigners, so the non-Chinese +world has been forced into temporary agreement in +order to extinguish a conflagration which endangered +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_465' name='Page_465'>[465]</a></span> +all interests. But the Powers assembled to execute +judgment and restore order in China present a picturesque +diversity of ulterior aims. Their unity can +hardly, therefore, be expected to survive the emergency +which gave it birth. After the storm has passed—if it +does pass—the permanent policy of the several Powers +may be expected to resume its normal sway. Of the +character of these different policies we are not left in +doubt, for in the history of the past six years it has +been revealed in overt acts bearing a higher authority +than the most solemn official manifestoes. +</p> + +<p> +The principal Powers concerned may be ranged in +three groups—the aggressive, the non-aggressive, and +the absorbent. Under the first must be ranked Japan, +France, and Germany. Facts which cannot lie have +proved that these three Powers have long cherished +designs upon the territory of China. No doubt they +flatter themselves with the belief that their rule +over such portions of Chinese soil as may come under +their control would be a blessing to mankind, an +opinion which it would serve no good purpose to +controvert. And they reckon that, in addition to +the higher civilisation which they propose to confer +on the Chinese people and Government, they will +secure material advantages for their own populations. +The ruling characteristic, however, of this policy is +that it is factitious, adventurous, and ideal, in search +of interests to defend rather than framed for the +defence of interests existing. It is essentially, therefore, +an aggressive policy, though, in a sense, also +progressive. Dividing the world into communities to +be conquered and nations who are fitted to conquer +them, it represents the primeval moving power in +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_466' name='Page_466'>[466]</a></span> +ethnic evolution. But it is a policy quite unsuited +for co-operation, and the attempt to yoke together +Governments, certain of whom are moved empirically +by facts as they exist and as they arise, and others +by the desire of creating facts, ends—as all concerts +of antagonistic interests must end—most likely in +explosion. A safe calculation may be made as to +the action of a non-aggressive Power, under given +circumstances, as the action of a man of business +may be approximately inferred from obvious considerations +of pecuniary advantage. But in the case of +States with ideal policies, like France and Germany, +no such forecast can be made. This radical divergence +between the aims of the Powers who are called +upon to decree the fate of China must render a +sincere agreement between them, under any circumstances, +impossible; and if the policy of one of them +should happen to be directed by a political genius +ambitious of distinction, the course of the whole would +be subject to aberrations incalculable. It is true that +the Governments which have marked out for themselves +these extensive plans of aggression may begin to perceive +that their proceedings in China have been +somewhat in advance of any justification, also that +they have been reckoning without their host, and that +to found and maintain empires in further Asia may +put a strain upon their resources out of proportion to +the material gains to be derived from the enterprise. +Perceiving that their "vaulting ambition may o'erleap +itself" and land them on the off-side of the horse, they +may show themselves willing, for the moment, to +attenuate the significance of their previous energy. +The discovery that the conquest of China involves +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_467' name='Page_467'>[467]</a></span> +something more than a military promenade may induce +them to make professions which, however sincere for +the time being, accord but indifferently with established +facts. In the procession of history, however, +it is the facts and not the words which ultimately +prevail. +</p> + +<p> +And this is the only canon by which it is safe to +interpret the apocalyptic exchange of notes just announced +between Great Britain and Germany, whose +significance, like that of the conversation of a Chinese, +lies in the things which are not said. Considered as +a convention, it must be classed with those elastic +bargains of which several examples occur in the preceding +narrative, in which one party has a definite +aim and the other not, and which is therefore destined +to be employed exclusively to the advantage of the +former. <span lang="la"><i>Vigilantibus non dormientibus servit lex.</i></span> +Without knowing what secret inducements led to +such a declaration of policy between Great Britain +and Germany it is impossible to assign a value to +it. Its most authoritative expositors in the German +press rejoice in the fact that it pins Great Britain +down to the only policy which she has ever pursued, +or ever will,—a policy in which her public utterances +have throughout coincided with her overt acts,—that, +namely, of opening Chinese and all other markets not +for herself but for the whole world on equal terms. +An agreement, however, which does not arrest French +encroachments in the south, Russian appropriations +in the north, nor German exclusive exploitations in +Shantung or elsewhere, contributes little to that +maintenance of the integrity of China which is its +professed object. Neither the world at large nor +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_468' name='Page_468'>[468]</a></span> +China herself will benefit greatly by a verbal restriction +on the one Power to whom the "open door" +and the integrity of China are articles of political +religion and of undeviating practice. And the clause +which solemnly reserves to the two parties the right +of consulting together in certain contingencies gives +to the transaction a very platonic character. But a +covenant whose meaning is veiled is always a hazardous +operation, even in private life, where the power +of definite interpretation lies with the more aggressive +of the two parties. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The non-aggressive Powers may be defined as those +whose citizens have established in the country a substantial +position, which their Governments have been +slow to protect. The principal representatives of this +group are Great Britain and the United States, whose +interests in China have many times been defined as +commercial, and not territorial. They have acted consistently +on the conviction that there is no country +in the world where conquest for the sake of commerce +was less justifiable than in China, which possesses a +large population inured to labour, accustomed to the +luxuries of a civilised society, and with unsurpassed +aptitude for business. No special credit is due to the +two Anglo-Saxon nations for their recognition of these +circumstances, except in so far as it indicates an intelligent +appreciation of their own interests. They desire, +as an ordinary trader or manufacturer would, that a +good customer may be kept on his legs, and that a +promising inheritance shall not be alienated from the +next generation of their merchants. Their policy, +however, being essentially passive and conservative, +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_469' name='Page_469'>[469]</a></span> +suffers from the defects of these qualities, and is liable +to be overborne by the more energetic action of the +Powers which we have ventured to place in the +aggressive class. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +There remains the third group, which consists of +one member, and that is Russia. Although Russia +is in effect more aggressive than all the others put +together, her annexations have been conducted under +a different formula from those of Germany, France, +or Japan. It is not merely that she has avoided +hostilities, and effected her purpose by patient and +adroit diplomacy, but that her acquisitions of Chinese +territory have not been of the "wild-cat" order, but +genuine integral additions to her existing possessions. +The expansion of Russia, whether a matter to be deplored +or applauded, is at any rate a natural growth, +unduly forced at times, but steady and progressive. +It is the shadow of this secular advance of Russia +that covers the whole Far Eastern situation, and has +in fact done so for nearly fifty years. The character +of her progress could not be better described, even +with the lights we now possess, than it was by Sir +Rutherford Alcock as far back as 1855. With rare +clearness of vision and firmness of touch he thus foretold +the position which Russia was destined to occupy +in the Far East:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +China has long been impotent. Russia has within the last +few years, by force of diplomacy, appropriated half the province +of Manchuria, the ancient patrimony of the reigning dynasty, +and with it the command of the river Amur. If this other +great Leviathan ... has not yet swallowed the whole empire, +it can only be that, great as are its capacities, there are limits +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_470' name='Page_470'>[470]</a></span> +imposed by nature to the powers of deglutition and digestion in +the largest boa-constrictor or predatory animal yet discovered. +In the mean time the danger is more immediate and menacing +to Europe than to China, perhaps; for Russia has at Sakhalin, +the mouth of the Amur, and the adjoining coasts of the Western +continent, laid the foundation for a position as menacing to +European commerce as any now existing at the opposite extremity +in the Baltic. Stretching with giant arms across the +whole breadth of Northern Asia and Europe from fastnesses at +each end, Asiatic hordes, directed by Western genius and science, +are held in leash, ready to let slip over the fair and fertile +south of both continents. The wealthiest regions of both +Europe and Asia are at once threatened by this modern +colossus.... China, India, and the kingdoms of Southern +Europe form but the three different stages of invading progress. +Long before the whole of such a gigantic scheme of rule and +conquest can have its accomplishment in China—the most +helpless as well as the richest of all the victims—Russia will +be enabled to reap the first-fruits and take instalments of the +larger and more distant spoil, by controlling the trade of +Northern China and the rich European trade so recently +developed in its seas. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Russia alone has a policy independent at once of +accidents, autocrats, shifting governing bodies, and +of all personalities, weak or strong. With the accumulated +force of past achievements, an unbroken tradition, +and great military forces massed on a frontier which is +no frontier, Russia among the other Powers now masquerading +in the Far East is as the iron vessel floating +among the earthenware pots. Russian publicists, in +order to strengthen the dominant position to which +they aspire, have been proclaiming with increasing +insistency that they are the only nation who can +deal with the Chinese Question because they are +themselves an Asiatic people. They justify this pretension +by their primitive Asiatic military ethics,<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_471' name='Page_471'>[471]</a></span> +and it is an instructive spectacle to see their forces +massacring Chinese populations wholesale while their +diplomatists are ostentatiously shielding those in high +places from the just consequences of their crimes. +The German Emperor has said many clever and some +foolish things, but perhaps he never did a wiser one +than in making over his schemes of vengeance to his +august ally, for the work is more becoming to an +Asiatic than a Teutonic people. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +From an areopagus composed of these incongruous +elements great achievements are expected, but the +comparison between the end and the means inspires +little confidence as to the result. The task itself is +gigantic enough to appal the boldest political experimenter +that ever lived, while its complexity involves +insoluble contradictions. China, the very Government +itself, has been guilty of outrages against foreign +nations such as no nation can forgive another. The +foreign Powers have been openly and persistently +defied—their people massacred throughout the empire. +Yet the nations so hated and flouted assume +that they have a mission to fulfil in setting up a +stable Government in China, a Government to be +created for their own convenience, with which they +may in future negotiate,—a puppet Government, therefore, +yet one which is to maintain peace and good +order throughout a vast empire by the prestige of its +authority over a loyal and devoted people. As buttresses +to the stability of the new <i>régime</i>, "the loyal +southern viceroys," as they are termed—loyal to whom, +or to what?—deriving authority, it is to be presumed, +from the Government which is to be patronised by<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_472' name='Page_472'>[472]</a></span> +foreigners, are expected to meet the convenience of the +dictators and prevent anarchy in the provinces. In +short, the subjective Chinaman, as we have ventured +to call the fabulous animal so often evolved from +Western consciousness, is once more to be brought +on the scene, and do everything that is expected of +him. +</p> + +<p> +A puppet Government is an intelligible thing, +but of a puppet pulled by a dozen strings no +clear conception can be formed. Such, however, has +been the anomalous history of foreign relations with +China, that the identical state of things now threatening +has not been absent from the minds of observers for a +whole generation. The missionary question alone was +thought likely to result in a deadlock between China +and the Powers. More than thirty years ago Sir +Rutherford Alcock was impressed with the destructive +effect of "each treaty Power dictating to the Government +and coercing its officers in their jurisdiction +wherever Christians were concerned." This, he thought, +"would tend to paralyse and bring into contempt the +executive, leading to a process of disintegration fatal +to the existence of the Empire." What was then +thought applicable to the missionary field now affects +the whole range of international intercourse and of +Chinese government. We are, in fact, confronted by +two anarchies of most serious portent—anarchy in the +administration of China, and anarchy among the +foreign Powers who are so active in that country. +From the beginning of the intervention to protect +the Legations anarchy among the Allies has been the +predominant feature: it was that which frustrated +effective action in June, and led to such severe loss +and suffering. Anarchy alone can account for the<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_473' name='Page_473'>[473]</a></span> +lawless proceedings at Tientsin, Peking, and on the +Chinese coast, which on any other hypothesis would +be a disgrace to civilisation. Anarchy has characterised +all the utterances of the Western Powers. +Beginning at the wrong end with great swelling words +full of sound and fury, the Powers who assumed to +lead have gradually toned down their threats as they +obtained more light on the situation and on their own +incapacity to deal with it. The latest expression of +this incapacity is the Anglo-German Agreement, already +referred to, which perpetuates the fallacy of +excluding the Chinese factor from the China question. +Yet out of, even by means of, this confusion it is +expected that order may be established in China! +<span lang="la"><i>Similia similibus!</i></span> +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In this desperate imbroglio the ultimate advantage +will no doubt fall to those members of the unnatural +coalition who have the clearest views and the firmest +resolution in giving effect to them. The dubious and +vacillating Powers frittering away their political forces, +espousing every contradiction in succession, and turning +in weariness from the disgusting scenes in which +they will have reluctantly participated, will in all probability +leave the path open for their neighbours who +have steadier aims and fewer scruples. +</p> + +<p> +Russia has been in real, though not nominal or +legal, possession of Manchuria since 1896. She has +absorbed in times past many stony deserts and barren +solitudes, but in Manchuria she has for the first time +acquired a rich territory with an all-important sea-base +and a virile population, whereby her dominant +position in Eastern Asia has been rendered inexpugnable. +China lies at her feet. Obviously, therefore,<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_474' name='Page_474'>[474]</a></span> +her interests in that empire are not only distinct +from, but opposed to, those of every other Power: +for while they may desire (1) to support an efficient +government and keep the empire of China on its legs, +and (2) to cut off slices of the territory for their +own use,—two contradictory and mutually destructive +policies,—Russia has no need to be anxious, either +as to the efficiency of any Chinese Government or +as to her own ulterior interests in the territory. +The looser the substance to be absorbed the more +painless will be the process of absorption. Once +established in strength in Manchuria, disorder on +her frontier may afford the perhaps not unwelcome +opportunity of restoring order on her own terms,—of, +in fact, continuing the process by which Siberia with +Central and North-Eastern Asia have, in the course +of two hundred years, been gradually incorporated +into the Russian Empire. "It may well be doubted," +wrote Sir Rutherford Alcock in 1868, "if this vast +empire (of China) is not too large to be any longer +governed from Peking. It is impossible to conceive +a more disadvantageous site for the capital." Disadvantageous, +perhaps, to China, whose centre of +gravity lies a thousand miles to the south; but not +disadvantageous to a Power whose strength is consolidated +five hundred miles to the north.<a name='FA_39' id='FA_39' href='#FN_39' class='fnanchor'>[39]</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_475' name='Page_475'>[475]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +And the veto which Russia has exercised over the +acts of the Chinese Government since 1895, whereby +she has been able, at her pleasure, to frustrate the +enterprises of other Powers, is not likely to fall into +abeyance when that Government has been prostrated +by its own folly. For the weaker the Chinese Government +becomes the greater will be its need of correction +and guidance. But we have only to imagine half-a-dozen +Powers, each aspiring, and some of them fully +resolved, to exercise their special veto over the proposals +of the others, to realise the tragic complexity of +the international problems which now present themselves +for solution. A government holding together +three hundred millions of people ripened for rebellion, +potentially at war with the rest of the world, and +yet governing under multiple tutelage—such is the +prospect before us. Of all the legacies which the nineteenth +bequeaths to the twentieth century, there is none +more portentous than that of the sick giant of the +Far East. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="i475" id="i475"></a> +<img src="images/i-p475.jpg" width="159" height="183" alt="" /> + +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_476' name='Page_476'>[476]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +CHAPTER XXXIV. +<br /> +<br /> + +<span class="s08">SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK'S LATER YEARS.</span> +</h2> + +<div class="ch_summ"> +<p class="center"> +Retirement—Literary work—Social and charitable occupations—Geographical +Society—Borneo—Failing health—Active to the end. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +After twenty-seven years' service in the Far East +Sir Rutherford Alcock spent the remaining twenty-seven +years of his life in his own country, not in +the placid enjoyment of a well-earned leisure or in +mere literary recreation, but in labours incessant for +the good of his countrymen. Though the scene had +changed, the methodical habits of his business life +remained unaltered, and were directed in their full +activity to the duties that presented themselves in +England. +</p> + +<p> +During his whole active life Sir Rutherford had +cherished the hope of occupying his years of leisure +with work for the sick and needy. His visit to +England, 1856-58, perhaps gave the definite direction +to this aspiration, and led him to see that hospitals, +schools, prisons, and similar institutions would afford +the best available medium through which he could +reach the object of his desires. No sooner, therefore, +was he released from official service than the ex-army +surgeon returned to his first love. The associations<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_477' name='Page_477'>[477]</a></span> +of his youth were bound up with the two hospitals in +Westminster where he had studied. There, accordingly, +after the lapse of forty years, his active connection +with the medical schools was resumed. Residing +in the immediate vicinity, Sir Rutherford was +able to devote a large share of his time to the +affairs of Westminster Hospital, giving back with +interest what he had received from his nursing +mother. He was a regular visitor there: before +long he joined the Board, and became a prominent +figure at its meetings. Being appointed one of the +vice-presidents, an office he held till his death, he +was, through his constant attendance, the working +chairman of the board. There was much good work +waiting to be done in the control and direction of +the routine service of the establishment, and still +more in the way of improvements required to adapt +the machine to the needs of the time. Hospitals in +general were by no means in a satisfactory condition +thirty years ago, and the Westminster was certainly +no better than its neighbours. The sanitary state of +the establishment was antiquated and unfavourable to +the patients. But the structural changes necessary +to improve this and to extend the accommodation, +and the heavy expenditure involved, demanded first-rate +financial and organising capacity, as well as unremitting +labour,—desiderata which Sir Rutherford +was eminently qualified to supply. The nursing was +at such a low level as amounted almost to a scandal. +Drastic remedies, in short, and in many directions, +were called for. But reform from within is proverbially +an unpromising undertaking, the <i>personnel</i> being +identified with conservative traditions. That kind of<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_478' name='Page_478'>[478]</a></span> +parsimony which is in effect the worst extravagance, +inasmuch as it yields no adequate return, was a +serious obstacle to improvement. It was not their +fault, but that of the system of which they were +but creatures, that nurses and other attendants were +so perfunctory and so inefficient. It was the system, +therefore, that had to be reformed, and into that +work Sir Rutherford Alcock threw himself <span lang="it_IT"><i>con amore</i></span>. +In his labours for the improvement of the hospital +he was supported throughout by the cordial co-operation +of the late Lady Augusta Stanley. We +are indebted to his colleague, Mr George Cowell, +F.R.C.S., for a short reference to the work initiated +and carried through by Sir Rutherford Alcock, and +for a warm tribute to the zeal and ability which +he brought into the service:— +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Most of the many valuable reports on such subjects as the +nursing, admission of out-patients, structural alterations, and +improved sanitation were written by him, and endorsed by the +committees over which he so ably presided. The writer of this +notice remembers the early controversies with reference to the +nursing, and the growing complaints which failed to receive +attention until Sir Rutherford came on the scene. Hospital +committees in those days were not so liberal as they are now, +and all increase in the wages of the nurses was absolutely +refused for many years. The result of this parsimony was that +as the general rate of wages increased, the best nurses were +enticed away by better pay elsewhere, and Westminster had +gradually come to be nursed by a lower and lower class, and +indeed thirty years ago it was not an unheard-of thing to convict +a nurse for consuming brandy ordered for the patient. The +medical staff were obliged to make a stand against this crying +evil, and at last, with the assistance of Sir Rutherford, and in +spite of the determined opposition of the then senior physician, +a change was made, and the cost of the nursing was doubled at +a bound. +</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_479' name='Page_479'>[479]</a></span></p> +<p> +Sir Rutherford was chairman of the Westminster +Ophthalmic Hospital for sixteen years, and of the +Hospital for Women in Soho Square, to both of which +institutions he rendered great services. He was member +of the Council of the House of Charity for assisting +those who have seen better days, and chairman +of the Nursing Home founded by Lady Augusta +Stanley, in which he took a keen interest. He was +also a Poor Law Guardian and a leader in sundry charitable +and other parochial work, his experiences of +which he likened to the steps of a dancing-master—"two +forward and one backward, with no very sensible +advance in any one direction." One important step +forward he did, however, succeed in making, and that +was in obtaining trained nurses for sick inmates of +workhouses. His efforts, while connected with St +George's Union, were specially devoted to the treatment +of the sick: he also took a great interest in the +emigration of pauper children to Canada. +</p> + +<p> +As a member of the committee of the Charity Organisation +Society he laboured for many years in a variety +of ways to bring about unity of action between that +body and the Board of Guardians. In connection with +the Westminster District Board of Works, Board of +Parochial Trustees, Western Dispensary, and Westminster +Nursing Committee, he rendered innumerable +services to the populous districts controlled by these +organisations. Having been elected to the Board of +Works in 1875, Sir Rutherford was at once placed +upon the Sanitary Committee, to which the Board +delegated the administration of the Public Health Acts +then in force. The vestry clerk of St Margaret's and +St John's records that the Sanitary Committee of the<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_480' name='Page_480'>[480]</a></span> +District Board of Works was Sir Rutherford's favourite +field of work—an impression which was no doubt also +formed by the executive officers of the other spheres of +his multifarious activity. The members of the Board +were at that time greatly occupied in combating the +evils resulting from the overcrowded and insanitary +condition of their district, and Sir Rutherford was +largely instrumental in urging upon the Home Office +the necessity of legislation to compel medical practitioners +and heads of families to give notice of cases of +infectious diseases—efforts which eventually resulted +in the Act of Parliament of 1889. +</p> + +<p> +In 1881 he was appointed a member of the Royal +Commission to investigate the London smallpox and +fever hospitals, to the formation of which he had contributed +powerfully by his reports and articles and +labours in the Medical Conference. In 1882 he presided +over the Health Department of the Social Science +Congress. +</p> + +<p> +In all the social and philanthropic objects to which +he devoted himself he was an original worker, never +a follower of routine or one to say ditto to another +man's opinions. Whatever he undertook he +did thoroughly, and with a single eye to the main +purpose. His various activities brought him into +contact with all sorts and conditions of men, but +chiefly with those on the pathetic side of social life—the +unfortunate, the debilitated, the improvident, the +suffering. He shirked none of his obligations to the +meanest of these, and would suffer the greatest personal +inconvenience rather than fail in fulfilment of +the smallest promise, or in gratifying the slightest +request. This punctilious observance of the minor<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_481' name='Page_481'>[481]</a></span> +duties was remarked as a prominent feature in his +character. An intimate friend writes, "How I wish +I could convey even a faint idea of his kindly and +sympathetic friendship, which left the feeling that he +was on a plane above one in his lofty sense of love +and duty." Pure philanthropy, genuine economy, and +sound finance being his guiding principles in all social +undertakings, and whatever he undertook being pushed +through to a successful issue, he by degrees acquired +a reputation for efficiency and tenacity. It was not +surprising that his energetic character should have +gained him the credit of aggressiveness, or, as Mr +Co well puts it, "bellicose individuality," which, however, +served him in good stead in every post he +occupied. We have already seen throughout his +official career how he was stimulated by controversy: +he was at his best as a fighting man. +</p> + +<p> +The high qualities which Sir Rutherford devoted +to his labours of love received flattering recognition +from the Queen, who applied to him to draw up the +regulations and rules of the institution by which +deserving nurses were to be benefited in commemoration +of her Majesty's Jubilee. This honour he accepted +from her Majesty on the condition that he should have +for colleagues in the work Sir James Paget and the +Duke of Westminster, a request which was graciously +granted. The balance of the Women's Jubilee offering +of 1887 was £70,000, of which fund the three were +appointed trustees. They decided that it should be +applied to the foundation of an institution to promote +the education and maintenance of nurses for the sick +poor in their own homes. When the scheme had been +matured a royal charter of incorporation was granted,<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_482' name='Page_482'>[482]</a></span> +wherein the governing body was styled "The Queen +Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses," the three +trustees being appointed to act permanently in that +capacity, and also as members of the Council of the +Institute. "Sir Rutherford," says the Rev. Arthur +Peile, Master of St Katharine's, "continued to the +last to take an unfailing interest in the work, and +in many valuable ways aided the committee and +council by his advice. From his wide grasp of the +subject in its various bearings he was able to make +important suggestions." The Diamond Jubilee and +the incidents connected with the celebration interested +Sir Rutherford greatly during the last year of his life, +and the medal he received on the occasion was valued +by him more highly than any other distinction, because +he knew that the bestowal of it was the spontaneous +act of the Queen herself, for whom he had a deep +personal affection. +</p> + +<p> +To the larger public Sir Rutherford Alcock was +perhaps best known by his work in connection with +the Royal Geographical Society, on the committee of +which he served for twenty years. Elected President +in 1876, it fell to him to receive Sir George Nares on +his return from his Arctic expedition in that year, +and Mr H. M. Stanley on his return from the Congo +in 1877. His various presidential addresses to the +Society itself, and to the geographical section of the +British Association, are replete with well-digested +summaries of the progress of geographical exploration +throughout the world. His comprehensive treatment +of the subject assisted very much, if not to make +geography a science, at least to lift it out of the +region of mere technical knowledge, and to assign to<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_483' name='Page_483'>[483]</a></span> +the study of it the social and political significance +now universally attached to the description of the +earth's surface. Personally he did much to stimulate +enterprise of that kind in various regions. As Chairman +of the African Exploration Fund, he took an +active share in the labours which resulted in the +despatch of Mr Keith Johnston and Mr Joseph +Thomson to East Africa, and, by bringing the country +into notice, had such important results in the direction +of the opening up of that part of the continent. +Speaking of him a few days after his death, the +President, Sir Clements Markham, said: "Judicious, +patient, and courteous, he was esteemed by us all, +and his able advice helped us out of many a difficulty. +The period of his presidency will always be +remembered for the energy with which he advocated +African exploration, the result of his efforts being +represented by the memorable expeditions of Joseph +Thomson." +</p> + +<p> +We have already had occasion to remark on the +personal interest which Sir Rutherford had taken +during the earlier years of his service in China and +Japan in the London Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862.<a name='FA_40' id='FA_40' href='#FN_40' class='fnanchor'>[40]</a> +Indeed the Japanese "show" in the latter was virtually +organised by him. His well-known sympathy with, +and interest in, all industrial and artistic collections led +to his being chosen as British Commissioner to the +Paris Exhibition of 1878. +</p> + +<p> +About the same time a question of imperial concern +claimed Sir Rutherford's active intervention: that was +colonisation in the Eastern Archipelago. Borneo, the<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_484' name='Page_484'>[484]</a></span> +largest island in the world after Australia, has from +time to time excited considerable interest in Great +Britain. The romantic career of the Rajah of +Sarawak, Sir James Brooke, on the west coast, had +much to do with bringing that part of the world +into public notice. Adopting as his country the +domain made over to him by the native chiefs, Rajah +Brooke laboured among his people like a missionary +of civilisation, trampled out the savage customs of +the natives, and after many trials gained the confidence +of the people by his justice and firmness, and +eventually brought the country into a state of prosperity +and good order. In this he was loyally +seconded by Captain Keppel, now Admiral of the +Fleet, whose 'Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido' +is a graphic story of their joint adventures among +pirates and head-hunters. Coal having been found +in Labuan, adjoining the Rajah's territory, that island +was acquired by Great Britain in 1847, under treaty +from the Sultan of Brunei, who engaged not to make +any cession of his territory without her Majesty's +consent, and established as a Crown colony. +</p> + +<p> +The Netherlands and Spain claimed between them, +upon a vague tenure, enormous tracts of the coast +of Borneo and the adjoining archipelago, effectually +blocking all progress in these regions. There still +remained, however, an important section of the +northern part of that immense island unappropriated +by the white man. Portions of this tract had been +leased to an American citizen, who transferred it to +an American company; but being unable to furnish +the capital either to pay the stipulated rent or to +develop so enormous a property, in 1877 the holders<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_485' name='Page_485'>[485]</a></span> +were glad to part with all their rights to an English +association consisting of Baron von Overbeck and Mr +(now Sir) Alfred Dent, who undertook to pay the +agreed tribute to the Sultans of Borneo and Sooloo. +Possessing this immense estate, with the sovereign +rights inherent in the proprietor, the English association +made arrangements to develop the property. +Agents were sent out to occupy certain points on +the coast, and a provisional government, suited to +the requirements of the place, was set up. But +the administration putting too heavy a strain upon +a private individual, Mr Dent set to work to find +assistance in his undertaking. +</p> + +<p> +At this juncture, 1879, Sir Rutherford Alcock, impressed +by the important strategical position of the +island of Borneo, lying close to the track of vessels +traversing the China Sea, its possession of several +good harbours, and prospective coal supply, joined Mr +Dent in his efforts to place the British occupation of +the Bornean harbours on a secure basis. As a first +step it was necessary to organise a company with +sufficient capital to take over the government and +utilise the resources of the territory. This may well +have seemed at the time not only an arduous but +an impossible undertaking; for nothing short of a +royal charter could supply the necessary guarantee +to attract capitalists, and to assure them that their +property investment would eventually be productive. +The era had long gone past when royal charters were +granted to merchant adventurers. Such an institution, +therefore, seemed an anachronism, opposed to +the spirit of the age. Nor was the political colour +of the British Government at the time encouraging<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_486' name='Page_486'>[486]</a></span> +to imperial schemes of any description. In spite of +these difficulties the knowledge of affairs and insistency +of Sir Rutherford Alcock and the other promoters +enabled them eventually to succeed in pushing +their enterprise with the Government to the point +of obtaining a charter of incorporation in November +1881. On the faith of this charter a company was +formed, of which the capital now stands at £2,000,000, +under the title of the "British North Borneo Company." +Sir Rutherford Alcock became the chairman, +which post he continued to fill during the ten years +which may be considered the probationary stage of +the company. To him it owed much of its success +in overcoming the numerous difficulties incidental to +starting so novel a venture; and among his other +labours in its behalf he drew up a full and elaborate +handbook of North Borneo. It was not a trading, +but a governing and a land-owning company, its +revenues consisting of royalties paid by private +adventurers for the privileges of mining, agriculture, +and so forth, licences and the necessary taxes on +commerce. But the interests of a dividend-earning +and a governing company were so nearly incompatible +that no little ingenuity as well as patient effort +were required to bring about reconciliation between +the two elements. +</p> + +<p> +The affairs of the company have been conducted +with great perseverance, the exploitation of the territory +by means of planting, mining, and industries of +various kinds having been handed over to subsidiary +companies created for the purpose, while the parent +body maintains its position as overlord, administering +the whole territory.<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_487' name='Page_487'>[487]</a></span> +</p> + +<p> +But amidst his numerous preoccupations in England +Sir Rutherford never loosened his grasp on the events +which were transpiring in the distant field to which +his official life had been devoted. As the only competent +and persistent critic of these events, he did as +much as one man could to turn the eyes of his +countrymen towards their most important interests +in Further Asia. Nearly every passing event was +noticed briefly by him in the columns of the daily +press, while the permanent features of the Far Eastern +problem, which are only now beginning to dawn upon +the consciousness of the nation, were copiously dealt +with in the monthly magazines and in the more +stately pages of the 'Edinburgh Review.' Sir Rutherford's +contributions to periodical literature, forming a +tolerably complete repertory of the questions arising +out of the intercourse of Europe with Eastern Asia, +would fill many volumes. As late as 1896 the subject +was still uppermost in his mind. "In China," he +then wrote, "there is a far larger Eastern question +than what is occupying us at Constantinople. An +open port for Russia, a railroad across Russia, with +the French scheming for our commerce in the Indo-Chinese +peninsula,—the whole situation is full of +danger to all our interests in China." And during +the last year of his life the thought of all that had +been lost to the country through sheer neglect seemed +to weigh heavily on his mind. That his constant +premonitions of coming changes passed practically unheeded +by the public to whom they were addressed +is unfortunately true; and it is trite to say that it +would have been well for this country if the warnings +of such serious writers as this had been taken to<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_488' name='Page_488'>[488]</a></span> +heart before instead of after the deluge. But that +would have been a historical anomaly, for mankind +has learned little since the days of Noah. +</p> + +<p> +Under the valid plea of advancing age and failing +health Sir Rutherford during his last years relinquished +one after another the offices which he had filled with +so much earnestness and good faith. Deafness alone +obliged him to retire from the active chairmanship of +the Westminster Hospital, though his attendances at +the weekly meetings of the Board were unremitting +to the very end. As late as July 1897 he took a +leading part in measures he deemed urgent for the +wellbeing of the institution. During the Jubilee +celebrations he was able to receive a formal visit from +a party of twelve Dyak police from British North +Borneo, under the command of Mr Wardrop. The +Committee of the Jubilee Nurses continued to meet +at his house, and he did work for the institution during +the summer. While at Wimbledon with his family +in August, he was seized by an illness from which he +rallied sufficiently to be brought home to his house +at Westminster, where he came under the medical +care of his old friend and physician, Dr Lionel Beale. +Among the few friends who were admitted to see +him during the last month of his life were the Dean +of Westminster, Lord Lister, Mr Edmund Bagshawe +of Bath, and one or two others. His strength was +then gradually failing, though he retained his intellect +unimpaired till within a few days of the end, on +November 2, 1897. He was buried in Merstham +churchyard. His widow, nearly his own age, survived +him sixteen months, dying in March 1899. How +much the maintenance of the husband's long life of<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_489' name='Page_489'>[489]</a></span> +active usefulness owed to the support and encouragement +of a judicious and devoted wife must remain +behind the veil. She had her reward. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="map" id="map"></a> +<img src="images/i-map.jpg" width="563" height="600" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"> +MAP OF +EASTERN ASIA +TO ILLUSTRATE +THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA IN THE VICTORIAN ERA<br /> +<span class='smcap'>By Alexander Michie</span><br /> +<a href="images/map-l.jpg">View larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p> +It may be interesting in conclusion to add a few +words of Sir Rutherford Alcock's estimate of himself, +which occur in a letter to the friend who had pressed +him on the subject of biography, written within a year +of his death. "In worldly things," he said, "I have +been exceptionally favoured by opportunities, many +of them unanticipated, and rather fortuitous than by +any efforts or merits. My early life was marked by +a great rashness, and a readiness to accept responsibilities +which savoured much of presumption and confidence +from conceit in my powers to deal with whatever +fell in my way—very different from my retrospect +in old age and the sobered estimate my judgment is +now disposed to form of all I undertook and accomplished, +and the risks I accepted, through my fifty +years of active life." +</p> + +<p> +If, however, age be the season appropriate for judgment, +youth is the time for laying up the materials for +it; and he who takes no risks achieves nothing worthy +of being judged. We estimate the man by his record +rather than by his own review of it, falling back on +the criterion, valid in all circumstances, "By their +fruits ye shall know them."<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_490' name='Page_490'>[490]</a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +INDEX. +</h2> + +<hr class="l15" /> + +<div class="index"> +<ul class="idx"> + +<li class="alpha">Adkins, Mr, reports foreign atrocities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>; + in charge of Peking legations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>; + intimate with Hangki, ii. <a href="#Page_140" >140</a>; + on mixed commission regarding redress of commercial grievances, ii. <a href="#Page_212" >212</a>; + interview with Li, ii. <a href="#Page_244" >244</a>, <a href="#Page_245" >245</a>.</li> + +<li>Alabaster, Sir Challoner, ii. <a href="#Page_206" >206</a>, <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>.</li> + +<li>Alcock, John Rutherford— +<ul class="idx"> +<li><i>Chronological sequence of career</i>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li>Birth and early years, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; + medical education, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; visit to Paris, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; + medical work, i.8; campaign in Portugal, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>; + campaign in Spain, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; + publications on surgery, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; + appointed Inspector of Anatomy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; + marriage, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>; + paralysis of hands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>; + appointed consul at Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; + residence at Amoy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; + at Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>; + Consular Reports (1845-46), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; + appointed to Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; + Tsingpu affair, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; + Taiping occupation of Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>; + custom-house plans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; + promoted to Canton consulate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>; + death of his wife, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; + literary work, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>; + first furlough, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>; + Memorandum requested by Foreign Office, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>; + appointed Consul-General in Japan and granted title of Plenipotentiary, ii. <a href="#Page_14" >14</a>; + arrival in Yedo, ii. <a href="#Page_15" >15</a>-<a href="#Page_17" >17</a>; + journey up the Inland Sea, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>, <a href="#Page_42" >42</a>; + expedition to Fujiyama, ii. <a href="#Page_41" >41</a>, <a href="#Page_42" >42</a>; + leaves Yedo on furlough (1862), ii. <a href="#Page_50" >50</a>; + made K.C.B., ii. <a href="#Page_70" >70</a>; + completes 'The Capital of the Tycoon,' ii. <a href="#Page_70" >70</a>; + made D.C.L. of Oxford University (1863), ii. <a href="#Page_484" >484</a> <i>note</i>; + returns to Yedo, ii. <a href="#Page_70" >70</a>; + second marriage, ii. <a href="#Page_73" >73</a>; + recalled by Earl Russell, ii. <a href="#Page_87" >87</a>, <a href="#Page_88" >88</a>; + leaves Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_91" >91</a>; + publishes 'Art and Art Industries of Japan,' ii. <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>; + publishes Japanese Grammar, ii. <a href="#Page_103" >103</a>; + appointed minister to China, ii. <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>; + efforts against coolie trade, ii. <a href="#Page_168" >168</a>, <a href="#Page_171" >171</a>, <a href="#Page_172" >172</a>; + favours Burlingame mission, ii. <a href="#Page_194" >194</a>, <a href="#Page_195" >195</a>; + departure for Europe, ii. <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>; + criticisms of Far Eastern events, ii. <a href="#Page_476" >476</a>, <a href="#Page_477" >477</a>; + work for Westminster Hospital, ii. <a href="#Page_478" >478</a>-<a href="#Page_480" >480</a>; + various public and charitable works, ii. <a href="#Page_480" >480</a>, <a href="#Page_481" >481</a>, <a href="#Page_483" >483</a>; + receives Jubilee medal from the Queen, ii. <a href="#Page_483" >483</a>; + work regarding colonisation in Borneo, ii. <a href="#Page_485" >485</a>-<a href="#Page_488" >488</a>; + illness and death, ii. <a href="#Page_488" >488</a>, <a href="#Page_489" >489</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li> <i>Personal characteristics</i>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Aggressiveness, ii. <a href="#Page_482" >482</a>.</li> +<li> Alertness, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_100" >100</a>.</li> +<li> Appearance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +<li> Appreciative faculty, ii. <a href="#Page_139" >139</a>.</li> +<li> Art, love of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>.</li> +<li> Common-sense, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li> Courage and nerve, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_100" >100</a>, <a href="#Page_126" >126</a>.</li> +<li> Courtesy, ii. <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> +<li> Duty, devotion to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>, <a href="#Page_138" >138</a>, <a href="#Page_482" >482</a>.</li> +<li> Energy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_482" >482</a>, <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> +<li> Enthusiasm, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_491' name='Page_491'>[491]</a></span></li> +<li> Formality, ii. <a href="#Page_139" >139</a>.</li> +<li> Geniality to intimates, ii. <a href="#Page_139" >139</a>.</li> +<li> Grasp of fundamentals and breadth of view, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>.</li> +<li> Hospitality, ii. <a href="#Page_139" >139</a>.</li> +<li> Industry, ii. <a href="#Page_139" >139</a>.</li> +<li> Judgment and farsightedness, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> +<li> Kindness and sympathy, ii. <a href="#Page_482" >482</a>.</li> +<li> Loyalty, ii. <a href="#Page_138" >138</a>.</li> +<li> Lucidity of style, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +<li> Practical philosophy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +<li> Reserve, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_121" >121</a>.</li> +<li> Resolution, ii. <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>.</li> +<li> Responsibility, fearlessness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_489" >489</a>.</li> +<li> Thoroughness and earnestness of purpose, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_181" >181</a>, <a href="#Page_361" >361</a>, <a href="#Page_481" >481</a>.</li> +</ul></li></ul></li> + +<li>Alcock, Lady, marriage of, ii. <a href="#Page_73" >73</a>; + death of, ii. <a href="#Page_489" >489</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Alcock_Mrs" id="Alcock_Mrs">Alcock, Mrs</a> (<i>née</i> Bacon), marriage of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>; + arrival in Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>; + death of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="America" id="America">America</a>, Americans (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Powers">Powers</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li>British support advantageous to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>.</li> +<li> Burlingame mission to, ii. <a href="#Page_192" >192</a>, <a href="#Page_193" >193</a>, <a href="#Page_196" >196</a>, <a href="#Page_197" >197</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese trade with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; + Chinese traders in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; + "dummy" Chinaman evolved by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>; + action against Chinese emigration, ii. <a href="#Page_174" >174</a>; + Chinese youths educated in, ii. <a href="#Page_394" >394</a>, <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>.</li> +<li> Custom-house co-operation omitted in treaty of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; + customs not levied by, at Shanghai in Taiping rebellion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>.</li> +<li> Disputes of French and British with (1849), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>.</li> +<li> Foochow developed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +<li> Japan, naval demonstration off, ii. <a href="#Page_2" >2</a>; + Mr Harris's treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_3" >3</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_39" >39</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>; + Minister remains in Yedo during assassination period, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>; + Japanese mission to, ii. <a href="#Page_47" >47</a>; + artillery officers declined by Japanese, ii. <a href="#Page_110" >110</a>.</li> +<li> Korean expedition from, ii. <a href="#Page_178" >178</a>, <a href="#Page_179" >179</a>.</li> +<li> Li's visit to, ii. <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>.</li> +<li> Missionaries from, in Yangtze expedition, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>.</li> +<li> Non-aggressive policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_468" >468</a>.</li> +<li> Opium included in Tientsin treaty at instance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>.</li> +<li> Shipping industry in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>.</li> +<li> Silk industry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>.</li> +<li> Taiping rebellion, joint action with British at Shanghai during, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li> +<li> Tientsin Conference attended by (1854), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; + at Tientsin later with Lord Elgin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>.</li> +<li> Toleration clause in treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Amoy— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's residence at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li> 'Times' pronouncement against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Amur, the, Russian acquisitions on, ii. <a href="#Page_252" >252</a>, <a href="#Page_422" >422</a>.</li> + +<li>Anatomy Act, Alcock appointed Inspector under, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Anderson, Dr John, cited, ii. <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>.</li> + +<li>Annam, French conquest of, ii. <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>, <a href="#Page_324" >324</a>, <a href="#Page_325" >325</a>.</li> + +<li>A'Pak, exploit of, against lorchas, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Arbuthnot, G., on Japanese currency, ii. <a href="#Page_19" >19</a>, <a href="#Page_22" >22</a>, <a href="#Page_23" >23</a>.</li> + +<li>Arrow, crew of, seized by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; + Lord Elgin's view of incident, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li>Atami, Springs of, Alcock's visit to, ii. <a href="#Page_32" >32</a>, <a href="#Page_42" >42</a>.</li> + +<li>'Attaché at Peking, The,' cited, ii. <a href="#Page_444" >444</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Australia, attitude of, towards Chinese emigrants, ii. <a href="#Page_174" >174</a>.</li> + +<li>Austria, envoy from, received in audience at Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_320" >320</a>, <a href="#Page_321" >321</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Baber, Colborne, ii. <a href="#Page_150" >150</a>, <a href="#Page_272" >272</a>, <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>.</li> + +<li>Bacon, Miss. <i>See</i> <a href="#Alcock_Mrs">Alcock, Mrs.</a></li> + +<li>Baldwin, Major, assassination of, ii. <a href="#Page_91" >91</a>.</li> + +<li>Balfour, the Right Hon. A. J., speech of, regarding Russian ports, ii. <a href="#Page_425" >425</a>, <a href="#Page_430" >430</a>, <a href="#Page_432" >432</a>.</li> + +<li>Balfour, Captain George, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernard, W. D., cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Biegeleben, M., ii. <a href="#Page_320" >320</a>, <a href="#Page_321" >321</a>.</li> + +<li>Bird, Lieutenant, assassination of, ii. <a href="#Page_91" >91</a>.</li> + +<li>Birileff, Count, at Tsushima, ii. <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>-<a href="#Page_114" >114</a>.</li> + +<li>Blakiston, Captain, cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li>Bonham, Sir George, succeeds Sir J. Davis at Hongkong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>; + rebuffed by Seu, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>; + applies to Alcock for information, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_492' name='Page_492'>[492]</a></span> + asked to defend Nanking against Taipings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; + Alcock's despatch to (1852), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + +<li>Borneo, Alcock's interest in British development of, ii. <a href="#Page_485" >485</a>-<a href="#Page_488" >488</a>.</li> + +<li>Bowring, Sir John, demands right of entry into Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>; + Russian despatches brought to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>; + plenipotentiary at Hongkong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; + dealings with Yeh, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; + visit to Tientsin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; + protects factories at Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; + influenced towards strong measures, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; + policy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_323">323</a> <i>note</i>; + superseded, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + +<li>Boxers, ii. <a href="#Page_462" >462</a>, <a href="#Page_463" >463</a>.</li> + +<li>Bright, the Right Hon. John, confidence of, in Sir R. Hart, ii. <a href="#Page_164" >164</a>-<a href="#Page_166" >166</a>; + attitude of, towards China trade, ii. <a href="#Page_365" >365</a>, <a href="#Page_366" >366</a>.</li> + +<li>Brodie, Sir Benjamin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Brown, J. McLeavy, ii. <a href="#Page_194" >194</a>.</li> + +<li>Brown, Major-General, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>.</li> + +<li>Browne, Colonel Horace, ii. <a href="#Page_266" >266</a>, <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>.</li> + +<li>Bruce, the Hon. Frederick—Tientsin treaty brought home by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>; + repulsed at Taku forts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>; + British minister at Peking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>; + prohibits Englishmen from visiting Peking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>; + adopts determined attitude, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; + refuses to defend Ningpo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>; + Gordon's interview with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>; + supports Burgevine's cause, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>; + implicated in the Lay-Osborn flotilla failure, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>; + applauds Gordon's resentment against Li, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>; + policy and diplomacy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_407">407</a>; + correspondence with Prince Kung, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>; + confuses legal authority of himself and Supreme Court, ii. <a href="#Page_124" >124</a>, <a href="#Page_125" >125</a>; + succeeded by Alcock, ii. <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>; + anecdote of his housekeeper, ii. <a href="#Page_152" >152</a>; + relations with Inspector-General of Customs in Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_156" >156</a>, <a href="#Page_159" >159</a>, <a href="#Page_160" >160</a>.</li> + +<li>Burgevine, General, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li>Burlingame, the Hon. Anson, mission of, as Chinese envoy, ii. <a href="#Page_192" >192</a>-<a href="#Page_198" >198</a>; + Alcock's approval of the mission, ii. <a href="#Page_194" >194</a>, <a href="#Page_195" >195</a>; + Alcock's subsequent view, ii. <a href="#Page_217" >217</a>; + British Government influenced by mission, ii. <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>, <a href="#Page_209" >209</a>; + negotiates American treaty giving full privileges to Chinese immigrants, ii. <a href="#Page_174" >174</a>; + asserts Chinese welcome to missionaries, ii. <a href="#Page_232" >232</a>.</li> + +<li>Burma— + Browne, Colonel H., expedition under, ii. <a href="#Page_266" >266</a>, <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>. + King of, ii. <a href="#Page_269" >269</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Campbell, Duncan, ii. <a href="#Page_333" >333</a>.</li> + +<li>Canton— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock promoted to consulate of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Arrogant hostility and excesses of population, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +<li> Arrow incident, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>.</li> +<li> Blockade of river (1839), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Commerce carried on during hostilities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_158" >158</a>.</li> +<li> Conditions of life in, in early days, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li> D'Aguilar's destruction of river defences, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>.</li> +<li> Davies, Sir John, policy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li> +<li> Entry, right of, refused, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>.</li> +<li> Factories attacked (1846), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>; + burned (1856), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. + Foochow sensitive to disturbances in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>.</li> +<li> French attack feared, ii. <a href="#Page_326" >326</a>-<a href="#Page_328" >328</a>.</li> +<li> Merchants in, imprisoned, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; + views of, disparaged, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; + characteristics of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; + influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; + friction between Sir J. Davis and, ii. <a href="#Page_119" >119</a>.</li> +<li> "Merchants' War," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a> <i>seq.</i></li> +<li> Naval construction attempted at, ii. <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>.</li> +<li> Occupation of, by Allied troops, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; + Kowloon concession obtained during occupation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>; + evacuated by Allies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>.</li> +<li> Portuguese relief of, in sixteenth century, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>; + Portuguese crews slaughtered by Cantonese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +<li> Revolutionary conspiracies in neighbourhood of, ii. <a href="#Page_456" >456</a>.</li> +<li> Shameen site acquired, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>.</li> +<li> Smuggling insignificant at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>.</li> +<li> Taipings at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>.</li> +<li> War of 1839-42—blockade of river, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>; + destruction of Bogue forts and junks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>; + forts restored, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; + recaptured, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; + fire-raft attempts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; + British attack stopped by Elliot, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; + ransom taken for the city, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_493' name='Page_493'>[493]</a></span> + departure of British troops, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>; + evil effects of ransoming, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="War_1857" id="War_1857">War of 1857</a> ("The Merchants' War"), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a> <i>seq.</i></li> +<li> Weddell's bombardment of (1655), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>.</li> +<li>'Capital of the Tycoon, The,' passages quoted from, ii. <a href="#Page_10" >10</a>, <a href="#Page_15" >15</a>, <a href="#Page_31" >31</a>, <a href="#Page_32" >32</a>, <a href="#Page_71" >71</a>-<a href="#Page_73" >73</a>; + independent judiciary advocated in, ii. <a href="#Page_126" >126</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + +<li>Ceylon, growth of tea trade with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Challenger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Chamberlain, Basil Hall, quoted, ii. <a href="#Page_96" >96</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Chang Chih-tung, rudeness of, regarding the Czarevitch, ii. <a href="#Page_322" >322</a>, <a href="#Page_323" >323</a>; + characteristics and policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_380" >380</a>, <a href="#Page_381" >381</a>.</li> + +<li>Chang Yi, ii. <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>.</li> + +<li>Chantrey, Sir F. L., Alcock's studies under, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li>Chefoo— +<ul class="idx"> +<li>Convention of. <i>See under</i> <a href="#Chefoo">Treaties</a>.</li> +<li>Czarevitch to be received at, ii. <a href="#Page_322" >322</a>.</li> +<li>Early exploration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Chêkiang, Taiping campaign in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + +<li>Chesney, Colonel, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>China (<i>for particular persons, towns, &c., see their titles</i>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Admiralty board, ii. <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>, <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>, <a href="#Page_392" >392</a>, <a href="#Page_393" >393</a>.</li> +<li> Army— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Abuses in, ii. <a href="#Page_398" >398</a>.</li> +<li> Arms, diversity of, ii. <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>, <a href="#Page_393" >393</a>, <a href="#Page_399" >399</a>.</li> +<li> Discipline lax, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>.</li> +<li> Honour, military, non-existent in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>.</li> +<li> Li's efforts for, ii. <a href="#Page_188" >188</a>, <a href="#Page_190" >190</a>, <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>, <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Black Flags, ii. <a href="#Page_325" >325</a>.</li> +<li> Boxers, ii. <a href="#Page_462" >462</a>, <a href="#Page_463" >463</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Chose jugée</i>, instance of, ii. <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#commerce">Commerce</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Commercial community in Britain keenly alive to affairs in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>.</li> +<li> Consuls. <i>See below under</i> <a href="#Foreigners">Foreigners</a>.</li> +<li> Coolie trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_168" >168</a>-<a href="#Page_174" >174</a>.</li> +<li> Corruption and laxity inherent in government of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Court— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Audience, right of, approved by Li, ii. <a href="#Page_186" >186</a>; + granted by Emperor Tungchih (1873), ii. <a href="#Page_260" >260</a>, <a href="#Page_261" >261</a>; + by Kwanghsu (1891), ii. <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>-<a href="#Page_320" >320</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese, not Manchu, influence predominant at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>.</li> +<li> Dynastic arrangements of the Empress-Dowager, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>, <a href="#Page_455" >455</a> <i>and note</i>, <a href="#Page_456" >456</a>.</li> +<li> Flight of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_436" >436</a>; + proposed removal during Japanese War, ii. <a href="#Page_474" >474</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> <a name="Custom_house" id="Custom_house">Custom-house</a>. <i>See below under</i> <a href="#taxation">Taxation</a>.</li> +<li> Decentralisation the principle of government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_408">408</a>.</li> +<li> Drift, policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_324" >324</a>.</li> +<li> Emigration, ii. <a href="#Page_168" >168</a>, <a href="#Page_169" >169</a>, <a href="#Page_171" >171</a>-<a href="#Page_174" >174</a>.</li> +<li> "Ever Victorious Army," campaign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>;</li> +<li> disbandment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>.</li> +<li> Exhibition of 1851, represented at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>, <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Foreigners" id="Foreigners">Foreigners</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Aims of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>.</li> +<li> Assistance from, distrusted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; + made use of, ii. <a href="#Page_385" >385</a>, <a href="#Page_386" >386</a>; + faithfully rendered, ii. <a href="#Page_393" >393</a>, <a href="#Page_394" >394</a>.</li> +<li> Conciliatory and subservient attitude of British, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>; + of Portuguese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>.</li> +<li> Confidence between native merchants and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li> Consistent attitude of, desirable, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_222" >222</a>.</li> +<li> Consular Courts, drawbacks of, ii. <a href="#Page_125" >125</a>, <a href="#Page_126" >126</a>, <a href="#Page_354" >354</a>, <a href="#Page_356" >356</a>, <a href="#Page_357" >357</a>.</li> +<li> Consular officials, peculiar responsibilities of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_92">92</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_353" >353</a>, <a href="#Page_354" >354</a>, <a href="#Page_360" >360</a>; + numbers and qualifications of, ii. <a href="#Page_358" >358</a>, <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>.</li> +<li> Degradation and indignities imposed upon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>.</li> +<li> Force, policy of, the condition of security for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_221" >221</a>, <a href="#Page_222" >222</a>.</li> +<li> Hatred and contempt for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_29" >29</a>, <a href="#Page_440" >440</a>, <a href="#Page_441" >441</a>, <a href="#Page_443" >443</a>-<a href="#Page_446" >446</a>, <a href="#Page_461" >461</a>, <a href="#Page_463" >463</a>, <a href="#Page_464" >464</a>.</li> +<li> Ignorance of Chinese prevalent among, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>.</li> +<li> Immunity for wrongs against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_494' name='Page_494'>[494]</a></span></li> +<li> Inland residence, Alcock's view of, ii. <a href="#Page_450" >450</a>, <a href="#Page_451" >451</a>.</li> +<li> Legation, British. <i>See</i> <a href="#peking">Great Britain—Peking</a>.</li> +<li> Legations, diplomatic difficulties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>; + relieved by military force, ii. <a href="#Page_437" >437</a>.</li> +<li> Life-and-death jurisdiction over, claimed by government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li> Negotiation with, Chinese view of, ii. <a href="#Page_274" >274</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="#Page_437" >437</a>.</li> +<li> Pioneers, general character of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>.</li> +<li> Policy adopted towards—"rule by misrule," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>; + perfidy and denial of human rights, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; + resistance and ejection, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_437" >437</a>; + degradation in the eyes of the people, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>; + "refractory subjects" treatment, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>.</li> +<li> Proclamations and placards against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_236" >236</a>, <a href="#Page_242" >242</a>.</li> +<li> Supreme Court for China and Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_355" >355</a>-<a href="#Page_358" >358</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Fortifications, ii. <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>.</li> +<li> Futai, position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>.</li> +<li> Helplessness and paradoxical position of, ii. <a href="#Page_418" >418</a>, <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>, <a href="#Page_422" >422</a>, <a href="#Page_433" >433</a>, <a href="#Page_452" >452</a>.</li> +<li> Hong merchants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Hoppo, position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>.</li> +<li> Illegality of administration in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li> International ethics of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Japanese_War" id="Japanese_War">Japanese War</a> (1894), Li's responsibilities regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_386" >386</a>, <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>; + no reasonable cause for, ii. <a href="#Page_410" >410</a>; + deprecated by Russia, ii. <a href="#Page_411" >411</a>; + sinking of the Kowshing, ii. <a href="#Page_410" >410</a>, <a href="#Page_411" >411</a>; + bombardment of Têngchow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; + China's defeat, ii. <a href="#Page_411" >411</a>-<a href="#Page_413" >413</a>; + universal applause, ii. <a href="#Page_413" >413</a>, <a href="#Page_414" >414</a>; + indemnity exacted, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>; + indemnity supplied by Russian loan, ii. <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>; + results of the war, ii. <a href="#Page_447" >447</a>; + proposed removal of Chinese Court during, ii. <a href="#Page_474" >474</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> <a name="Junks" id="Junks">Junks</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Build and appearance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese authorities' control of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>.</li> +<li> Coasting trade conducted by, in China and Japan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>.</li> +<li> Convoy system, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>.</li> +<li> Grain fleet blockaded at Shanghai (1845), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li> blockaded by French in Tongking quarrel, ii. <a href="#Page_332" >332</a>.</li> +<li> "Shantung junks," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li> Value of trade by, at Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Korea, relations with. <i>See</i> <a href="#korea">Korea</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Lorchas" id="Lorchas">Lorchas</a>, tonnage of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; + atrocities connected with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; + colonial registers granted to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>.</li> +<li> Maritime Customs. <i>See below under</i> <a href="#taxation">Taxation—Custom-house</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#missionaries">Missionaries</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Moral force the sanction of rule, ii. <a href="#Page_370" >370</a> <i>and note</i>, <a href="#Page_385" >385</a>.</li> +<li> Navy— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Beginnings of, ii. <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>.</li> +<li> Board of Admiralty, ii. <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>, <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>, <a href="#Page_392" >392</a>, <a href="#Page_393" >393</a>.</li> +<li> British instruction in, ii. <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>.</li> +<li> Li's efforts for, ii. <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>, <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>.</li> +<li> Nepotism in, ii. <a href="#Page_398" >398</a>-<a href="#Page_400" >400</a>.</li> +<li> Organisation lacking in, ii. <a href="#Page_401" >401</a>, <a href="#Page_412" >412</a>, <a href="#Page_413" >413</a>.</li> +<li> Peiyang Squadron, ii. <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>, <a href="#Page_400" >400</a>.</li> +<li> Tradition, unhampered by, ii. <a href="#Page_398" >398</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Nepotism in, ii. <a href="#Page_398" >398</a>-<a href="#Page_400" >400</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Opium_Trade">Opium trade</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Passports, two forms of, ii. <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Piracy">Piracy</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Populace, excesses of, connived at by Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; + coerced by Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; + feared by Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_424">424</a>; + direct diplomatic negotiations with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>.</li> +<li> "Progress," no word for, ii. <a href="#Page_136" >136</a>.</li> +<li> Provincial officials, smuggling undertaken by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; + power of, ii. <a href="#Page_184" >184</a>, <a href="#Page_372" >372</a>; + responsibility of, ii. <a href="#Page_441" >441</a>, <a href="#Page_442" >442</a>.</li> +<li> Punishments, difficulties of ensuring, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_427">427</a>; + not inflicted for wrongs against foreigners, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>.</li> +<li> Real estate, importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>; + missionary problem complicated by question of, ii. <a href="#Page_234" >234</a>, <a href="#Page_235" >235</a>.</li> +<li> Rhubarb exported from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li> Salt trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_442">442</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_188" >188</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Smuggling">Smuggling</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Supreme Court, award given against Alcock by, ii. <a href="#Page_124" >124</a>; + independence of, ii. <a href="#Page_354" >354</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_495' name='Page_495'>[495]</a></span> + removal of, to Shanghai, ii. <a href="#Page_355" >355</a>; + subordinated to British legation, ii. <a href="#Page_358" >358</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Taiping" id="Taiping">Taiping</a> Rebellion— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Burgevine's defection to rebels, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>.</li> +<li> Canton, at, Yeh asks British aid against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>.</li> +<li> Chêkiang campaign against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> +<li> Commerce continued during, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>.</li> +<li> Devastation caused by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_449" >449</a>.</li> +<li> End of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> +<li> Foreign desperadoes attacked by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>.</li> +<li> Imperial measures against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>; + view of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>.</li> +<li> Magnitude of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li> Maritime Customs the important outcome of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>.</li> +<li> Nanking, capture of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Ningpo, capture of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>.</li> +<li> Russian attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>.</li> +<li> Shanghai captured, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; + besieged by Imperial troops, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; + collision between foreigners and troops, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>; + French bombardment of city, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; + rebel refugees in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; + departure of rebels from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Yangtze, rebel strongholds and operations on the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Taotai, status of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="taxation" id="taxation">Taxation</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Custom-house— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chefoo Convention provisions of, ii. <a href="#Page_277" >277</a>, <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>, <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>, <a href="#Page_281" >281</a>, <a href="#Page_286" >286</a>, <a href="#Page_287" >287</a>.</li> +<li> Hongkong, station at, desired by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; + refused, ii. <a href="#Page_216" >216</a>; + established, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_288" >288</a>.</li> +<li> Korea, established in, ii. <a href="#Page_295" >295</a>.</li> +<li> Macao, established at, ii. <a href="#Page_288" >288</a>.</li> +<li> Maritime Customs Inspector, position and work of, in Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_156" >156</a>-<a href="#Page_160" >160</a>, <a href="#Page_162" >162</a>-<a href="#Page_167" >167</a>.</li> +<li> Revision of treaty made an affair of, ii. <a href="#Page_213" >213</a>, <a href="#Page_216" >216</a>, <a href="#Page_217" >217</a>.</li> +<li> Shanghai, at, unsatisfactory conditions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>; + customs collected by consuls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>; + promissory notes cancelled by British Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; + American exemption, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; + re-establishment of custom-house, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>; + period of free trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; + Alcock's scheme of mixed control, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Inland, proposed commutation of, ii. <a href="#Page_214" >214</a>-<a href="#Page_216" >216</a>, <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>; + commutation provided by treaty (1869), ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>, <a href="#Page_220" >220</a>; + area of, increased by Chefoo Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_277" >277</a>, <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>, <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>, <a href="#Page_281" >281</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Likin" id="Likin">Likin</a> taxes, German minister's view of, ii. <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>; + nature of, ii. <a href="#Page_280" >280</a> <i>note</i>; + grievance of, ii. <a href="#Page_285" >285</a>.</li> +<li> Native trade, on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Tributaries, position towards, ii. <a href="#Page_258" >258</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Tsungli" id="Tsungli">Tsungli</a>-Yamên— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Audience difficulties raised by, ii. <a href="#Page_319" >319</a>, <a href="#Page_320" >320</a>.</li> +<li> Ch'ing, Prince, a member of, ii. <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>.</li> +<li> Circular addressed to Provincial Governors by, ii. <a href="#Page_182" >182</a>, <a href="#Page_183" >183</a>.</li> +<li> Creation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>.</li> +<li> Etiquette, codification of, suggested for, ii. <a href="#Page_279" >279</a>.</li> +<li> Formosa riots, action regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_205" >205</a>.</li> +<li> Function of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>.</li> +<li> Gordon's representations to, ii. <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>.</li> +<li> Helplessness of, ii. <a href="#Page_419" >419</a>.</li> +<li> Ito's attempt to negotiate with, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> +<li> Korean expedition urged by, ii. <a href="#Page_408" >408</a>.</li> +<li> Kung, Prince, a member of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; + dismissed by Empress, ii. <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>.</li> +<li> Margary murder, action regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>.</li> +<li> Maritime Customs Inspector, attitude towards, ii. <a href="#Page_160" >160</a>.</li> +<li> Mixed commission regarding redress of commercial grievances, represented on, ii. <a href="#Page_211" >211</a>.</li> +<li> Yangchow affair, action in, ii. <a href="#Page_202" >202</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> War with Great Britain (1839-1842). <i>See under</i> <a href="#War_1857">Canton</a>; + with Great Britain (1857), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a> <i>seq.</i>; + with Great Britain and France (1860), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + with Japan (1894). <i>See above</i> <a href="#Japanese_War">Japanese War</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_496' name='Page_496'>[496]</a></span></li> +<li>Women, position of, ii. <a href="#Page_140" >140</a>, <a href="#Page_141" >141</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Chinese— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Appearances valued by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Commercial aptitude and honesty of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_28" >28</a>.</li> +<li> Industry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese contrasted with, ii. <a href="#Page_8" >8</a>, <a href="#Page_27" >27</a>-<a href="#Page_29" >29</a>, <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>, <a href="#Page_131" >131</a>, <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>.</li> +<li> Kindliness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_155" >155</a>.</li> +<li> Manchus contrasted with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>.</li> +<li> Toleration of, ii. <a href="#Page_228" >228</a>, <a href="#Page_233" >233</a>.</li> +<li> War customs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ch'ing, Prince, anecdote of, ii. <a href="#Page_153" >153</a>, <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>; + efficiency of, as president of Tsungli-Yamên, ii. <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>.</li> + +<li>Chinnery, George, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Choshiu. <i>See</i> <a href="#Nagato">Nagato, Prince of</a>.</li> + +<li>Christianity (<i>see also</i> <a href="#missionaries">Missionaries</a>), toleration clause for, in Tientsin treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>; + Chinese view of, ii. <a href="#Page_349" >349</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Ch_un" id="Ch_un">Ch'un</a>, Prince, son of, adopted as Emperor by Empress-mother, ii. <a href="#Page_262" >262</a>; + made Empress's coadjutor, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>; + voyage of, ii. <a href="#Page_316" >316</a>, <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>; + illness and death of, ii. <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>; + memorial regarding Vatican mission submitted to, ii. <a href="#Page_344" >344</a>.</li> + +<li>Chunghou, Tientsin massacre foreseen by, ii. <a href="#Page_239" >239</a>; + mission to France, ii. <a href="#Page_241" >241</a>; + to Russia, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>; + establishes arsenal at Tientsin, ii. <a href="#Page_392" >392</a>.</li> + +<li>Chungking, residence in, opposed, ii. <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>; + persecutions of Christians in, ii. <a href="#Page_351" >351</a>.</li> + +<li>Chusan, capture and occupation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>; + reoccupied, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; + retained till 1846, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>; + restored, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>; + contrasted with Hongkong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Clarendon, Lord, Mr Burlingame's success with, ii. <a href="#Page_197" >197</a>, <a href="#Page_198" >198</a>, <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>, <a href="#Page_209" >209</a>; + reprimands Mr Medhurst, ii. <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>, <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>; + trusted by Lord Palmerston, ii. <a href="#Page_365" >365</a>.</li> + +<li>Cochin China, French conquests in, ii. <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>, <a href="#Page_324" >324</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="commerce" id="commerce">Commerce</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> China, in— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's despatch on trade between Europe, India, and China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; + his investigations prior to revision of treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_181" >181</a>.</li> +<li> Aptitude of Chinese for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_28" >28</a>.</li> +<li> Arbitrary interference of Chinese Government with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li> Balance of trade against China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +<li> British treaty the model for others, ii. <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>.</li> +<li> Chefoo Convention, internal taxation area increased by, ii. <a href="#Page_277" >277</a>, <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>, <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>, <a href="#Page_281" >281</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese language essential to commercial agents, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li> Code of law, establishment of, suggested, ii. <a href="#Page_279" >279</a>.</li> +<li> Co-hong system, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>.</li> +<li> Compradoric system, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>.</li> +<li> Confidence between Chinese and foreigners, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li> Drawbacks to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>.</li> +<li> Imports and exports, nature of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>; + present value of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_171">171</a> <i>note</i>; + shipments from United Kingdom in various years, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>.</li> +<li> Intercourse of British and Americans with China caused by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +<li> Losses in early days, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>.</li> +<li> Merchants in Britain, Chinese affairs closely followed by (1839-40), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>; + merchants in China, aims and work of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; + complaints of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_119" >119</a>; + influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; + characteristics of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>; + representations of, to Lord Elgin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>.</li> +<li> "Merchants' War," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a> <i>seq.</i></li> +<li> Mixed Commission regarding redress of grievances, ii. <a href="#Page_211" >211</a>, <a href="#Page_212" >212</a>.</li> +<li> Native trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +<li> Peking, in, ii. <a href="#Page_148" >148</a>, <a href="#Page_149" >149</a>.</li> +<li> Pioneer expeditions (1859), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li> Ports overcrowded with goods, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; + number open in 1861, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>.</li> +<li> Precarious position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +<li> Real estate a valuable asset, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>.</li> +<li> Shipments from United Kingdom in various years, values of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>.</li> +<li> Simplicity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li> Transit of goods, ii. <a href="#Page_214" >214</a>-<a href="#Page_216" >216</a>, <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>-<a href="#Page_220" >220</a>.</li> +<li> Value of, in 1839, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>.</li> +<li> War no bar to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_158" >158</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_497' name='Page_497'>[497]</a></span></li> +<li> Gold discoveries a stimulus to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Japan, in— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Development of, ii. <a href="#Page_116" >116</a>-<a href="#Page_118" >118</a>.</li> +<li> Merchants, preference of, for Yokohama to Kanagawa, ii. <a href="#Page_17" >17</a>, <a href="#Page_18" >18</a>, <a href="#Page_123" >123</a>; + regret of, at Alcock's recall, ii. <a href="#Page_89" >89</a>; + interests of, at variance with diplomatic, ii. <a href="#Page_119" >119</a>-<a href="#Page_124" >124</a>, <a href="#Page_126" >126</a>.</li> +<li> Methods of, ii. <a href="#Page_27" >27</a>, <a href="#Page_28" >28</a>.</li> +<li> Profits of, in early days, ii. <a href="#Page_20" >20</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="#Page_29" >29</a>.</li> +<li> Value of, annually, ii. <a href="#Page_117" >117</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> <a href="#Opium_Trade">Opium</a>, <a href="#Silk">Silk</a>, <a href="#Tea">Tea</a>. <i>See those titles.</i></li> +<li> Straits, with, suggested by Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Comprador, position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li>Confucianism, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li>Consular Court system, drawbacks of, ii. <a href="#Page_125" >125</a>, <a href="#Page_126" >126</a>, <a href="#Page_354" >354</a>, <a href="#Page_356" >356</a>, <a href="#Page_357" >357</a>.</li> + +<li>Cooke, Wingrove, quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>; + cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_323">323</a> <i>and note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li>Coolie trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_168" >168</a>-<a href="#Page_174" >174</a>.</li> + +<li>Cooper, W. M., on coolie trade, ii. <a href="#Page_170" >170</a>.</li> + +<li>Cowell, George, appreciation of Alcock, ii. <a href="#Page_479" >479</a>, <a href="#Page_480" >480</a>.</li> + +<li>Curzon, the Hon. George, speech regarding Russian pledge concerning Korea, ii. <a href="#Page_424" >424</a>, <a href="#Page_430" >430</a>.</li> + +<li>Czarevitch, visit of, to China and Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_321" >321</a>-<a href="#Page_323" >323</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha"><a href="#Daimios">Daimios</a>. <i>See under</i> Japan.</li> + +<li>Davis, Sir John, Manchus and Chinese contrasted by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>; + policy of, in Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; + diplomatic negotiations with the populace, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; + succeeds Sir H. Pottinger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; + policy regarding Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; + Canton merchants' complaints against, ii. <a href="#Page_119" >119</a>; + decision of, reversed by Supreme Court, ii. <a href="#Page_124" >124</a>.</li> + +<li>De Mas, M., anecdote of, ii. <a href="#Page_444" >444</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>De Quincey cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Delamarre, M., ii. <a href="#Page_230" >230</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Delaplace, Mgr., ii. <a href="#Page_341" >341</a>, <a href="#Page_342" >342</a>, <a href="#Page_394" >394</a>.</li> + +<li>Detring, G., accompanies Prince Ch'un on his voyage, ii. <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>; + relations with Capt. Fournier, ii. <a href="#Page_327" >327</a>; + summoned to Tientsin, ii. <a href="#Page_328" >328</a>; + assists Li regarding Mr Dunn's mission, ii. <a href="#Page_345" >345</a>.</li> + +<li>Dunn, J. G., ii. <a href="#Page_344" >344</a>-<a href="#Page_346" >346</a>.</li> + +<li>Dupont, M., Alcock's studies under, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Dutch— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Japanese instructed by, ii. <a href="#Page_98" >98</a>.</li> +<li> Macao, commercial establishment at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +<li> Nagasaki, ii. <a href="#Page_10" >10</a>, <a href="#Page_11" >11</a>.</li> +<li> Portuguese commercial rivalry with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +<li> Promptness of, as paymasters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="East_India_Co" id="East_India_Co">East India Company</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Commercial methods of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>.</li> +<li> Employees pampered by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>.</li> +<li> Macao, commercial establishment at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +<li> Officials of, employed in Chinese consular posts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li> Opium trade of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li> +<li> Shipping of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>.</li> +<li> Subservience of, towards Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li> Tea trade developed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Eitel, Dr, cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_199">199</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Elgin, Earl of, cruise in the Furious, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>; + contrasts Hongkong and Chusan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>; + on Tientsin conference (1854), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; + conduct of Hongkong affairs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>; + aversion to his Chinese mission, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>; + services in Indian Mutiny, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>; + concludes Tientsin treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>; + hurried departure from Tientsin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>; + visit to Japan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>; + diplomatic success there, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_1" >1</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>; + defends his China policy in House of Lords, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>; + predisposed to illusions regarding Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>; + misgivings as to Chinese good faith, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; + return to Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; + negotiates with Treaty Commissioners at Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; + estimate of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>; + voyage up the Yangtze (1558), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>; + second mission to China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>; + negotiations with Prince Kung, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; + succeeded by his brother, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Elliot, Captain Charles, subservience of, to Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; + offers to suppress opium trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>; + surrenders opium cargoes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; + imprisoned in Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; + appointed joint-plenipotentiary with Rear-Admiral Elliot, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>; + left in sole charge, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_498' name='Page_498'>[498]</a></span> + recalled, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; + confidence of, in Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>; + contradictory nature of his commission, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_92">92</a> <i>note</i>; + strictures on opium trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li>Elliot, Rear-Admiral the Hon. George, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Empress—Dowager of China, Prince Ch'un the coadjutor of, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>; + <i>coup d'état</i> executed by, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>, <a href="#Page_455" >455</a>; + enmity with Prince Kung, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>; + attitude towards Li, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_329" >329</a>, <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>; + view of Tongking affair, ii. <a href="#Page_329" >329</a>, <a href="#Page_334" >334</a>; + characteristics of, ii. <a href="#Page_373" >373</a>; + power of, ii. <a href="#Page_455" >455</a> <i>and note</i>; + reformers punished by, ii. <a href="#Page_458" >458</a>.</li> + +<li>Eulenberg, Count, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_40" >40</a>.</li> + +<li>Evans, General de Lacy, appreciation of Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>; + Alcock under, in Spanish Legion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>"Ever-Victorious Army," campaign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; + disbandment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li>Exhibition of 1851, Alcock's collection of exhibits for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>, <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>; + influence of, on foreign trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Exhibition of 1862, Alcock's collection of samples for, ii. <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>, <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> + +<li>Exhibition, Paris, Alcock British Commissioner to, ii. <a href="#Page_485" >485</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Favier, Bishop, ii. <a href="#Page_144" >144</a>, <a href="#Page_346" >346</a>, <a href="#Page_347" >347</a>.</li> + +<li>Foochow— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's appointment as consul at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; + his commercial researches at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>.</li> +<li> American enterprise a stimulus to tea trade at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +<li> Canton disturbances reflected in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>.</li> +<li> Naval construction attempted at, ii. <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>; + naval school at, ii. <a href="#Page_400" >400</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of (1844), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; + further development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li> Situation and importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>.</li> +<li> 'Times' pronouncement against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +<li> Trade at, nature of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; + sea-borne trade at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Formosa— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> French blockade of, ii. <a href="#Page_333" >333</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese invasion of, ii. <a href="#Page_255" >255</a>.</li> +<li> Missionary riots in, ii. <a href="#Page_203" >203</a>-<a href="#Page_205" >205</a>, <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Fortune, Robert, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Fournier, Captain, ii. <a href="#Page_327" >327</a>-<a href="#Page_330" >330</a>.</li> + +<li>France, French (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Powers">Powers</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Aggressive policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_465" >465</a>, <a href="#Page_466" >466</a>.</li> +<li> British cordially supported by, in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>; + in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_45" >45</a>, <a href="#Page_81" >81</a>, <a href="#Page_105" >105</a>; + regarding Chinese emigration, ii. <a href="#Page_172" >172</a>.</li> +<li> Cochin China, conquest of, ii. <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>, <a href="#Page_324" >324</a>.</li> +<li> Concession of land obtained by (1849), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>; + extorted by (1895), ii. <a href="#Page_419" >419</a>.</li> +<li> Coolie trade, efforts against, ii. <a href="#Page_172" >172</a>.</li> +<li> Customs Inspector proposed by Alcock from consular service of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin followed to Tientsin by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>.</li> +<li> Loan to China, ii. <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>.</li> +<li> Missionary enterprise of, ii. <a href="#Page_175" >175</a>-<a href="#Page_177" >177</a>, <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>, <a href="#Page_225" >225</a>, <a href="#Page_229" >229</a>-<a href="#Page_232" >232</a>, <a href="#Page_234" >234</a>, <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>, <a href="#Page_238" >238</a>, <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>; + protectorate of Christians the aim of, ii. <a href="#Page_336" >336</a>-<a href="#Page_342" >342</a>, <a href="#Page_346" >346</a>-<a href="#Page_352" >352</a>.</li> +<li> Peking campaign (1860), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>.</li> +<li> Russia supported by, after Japanese War, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>; + their approval of French acquisitions, ii. <a href="#Page_419" >419</a>.</li> +<li> Shanghai settlement and "concession" of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>.</li> +<li> Silk industry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>.</li> +<li> Taipings' support by British resented by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +<li> Tientsin Conference attended by (1854), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>.</li> +<li> Tongking quarrel, ii. <a href="#Page_325" >325</a>-<a href="#Page_334" >334</a>.</li> +<li> Yangtze expedition of MM. Simon and Dupuis, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Freeman-Mitford, Mr, anecdote cited from, ii. <a href="#Page_444" >444</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Fujiyama, Alcock's expedition to, ii. <a href="#Page_41" >41</a>, <a href="#Page_42" >42</a>.</li> + +<li>Futai, position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Germany, Germans (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Powers">Powers</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Aggressive policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_465" >465</a>, <a href="#Page_466" >466</a>.</li> +<li> Alcock, appreciation of, by Peking resident, ii. <a href="#Page_138" >138</a>.</li> +<li> Anglo-German agreement, ii. <a href="#Page_467" >467</a>, <a href="#Page_468" >468</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>.</li> +<li> Armenian massacres, attitude towards, ii. <a href="#Page_449" >449</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Chinese attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>.</li> +<li> Influence of, increasing, ii. <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>, <a href="#Page_254" >254</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese attitude towards, ii. <a href="#Page_40" >40</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Kiaochow">Kiaochow</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Korean expedition of, ii. <a href="#Page_179" >179</a>.</li> +<li> Military instruction of Chinese undertaken by, ii. <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>.</li> +<li> Missionaries kept to their nationality, ii. <a href="#Page_338" >338</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_499' name='Page_499'>[499]</a></span></li> +<li> Peking, legation established in, ii. <a href="#Page_254" >254</a>.</li> +<li> Propagandism unmasked by, ii. <a href="#Page_454" >454</a>.</li> +<li> Russia supported by, after Japanese War, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>.</li> +<li> Shantung sphere of, disturbances in, ii. <a href="#Page_462" >462</a>.</li> +<li> Silk industry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>.</li> +<li> Toleration clause in treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_225" >225</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Transit duty extension, Count Bernstorff on, ii. <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gibson, Mr, ii. <a href="#Page_204" >204</a>-<a href="#Page_206" >206</a>, <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>.</li> + +<li>Giquel, Prosper, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + +<li>Gordon, Captain C. G., commands the "Ever-Victorious Army," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; + quarrels with Li, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>; + honoured by Chinese Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>; + attempts at intercourse with Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>; + appreciated by Li, ii. <a href="#Page_189" >189</a>; + summoned by Chinese Government, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>, <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>.</li> + +<li>Gorogiu, function of the, ii. <a href="#Page_108" >108</a>.</li> + +<li>Grant, Sir Hope, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Granville, Lord, negotiates ratification of Chefoo Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_284" >284</a>-<a href="#Page_287" >287</a>.</li> + +<li>Great Britain (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Powers">Powers</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Anglo-German agreement, ii. <a href="#Page_467" >467</a>, <a href="#Page_468" >468</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>.</li> +<li> Borneo, colonisation in, ii. <a href="#Page_485" >485</a>-<a href="#Page_487" >487</a>.</li> +<li> Good faith of, recognised by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_190" >190</a>.</li> +<li> Inconsistent policy of, in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese War, attitude towards, ii. <a href="#Page_413" >413</a>-<a href="#Page_416" >416</a>, <a href="#Page_433" >433</a>.</li> +<li> Loan offered to China, ii. <a href="#Page_420" >420</a>; + forced on her, ii. <a href="#Page_434" >434</a>.</li> +<li> Narrowness of view among politicians in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_319">319</a>.</li> +<li> Naval instruction of Chinese undertaken by, ii. <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>.</li> +<li> Non-aggressive policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_468" >468</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="peking" id="peking">Peking</a>, Legation in— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chinese Secretaryship, ii. <a href="#Page_132" >132</a>, <a href="#Page_362" >362</a>, <a href="#Page_363" >363</a>, <a href="#Page_367" >367</a>.</li> +<li> Deterioration in personnel of, ii. <a href="#Page_360" >360</a>-<a href="#Page_362" >362</a>, <a href="#Page_364" >364</a>, <a href="#Page_366" >366</a>, <a href="#Page_367" >367</a>.</li> +<li> Establishment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>.</li> +<li> Intelligence department defective, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>, <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +<li> Subordination of, to Inspector-General of Customs, ii. <a href="#Page_165" >165</a>, <a href="#Page_166" >166</a>.</li> +<li> Supreme Court for a time subordinate to, ii. <a href="#Page_358" >358</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Russian acquisitions, attitude towards, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>-<a href="#Page_433" >433</a>.</li> +<li> Weihai-wei seized by, ii. <a href="#Page_434" >434</a>.</li> +<li> Yedo, <a name="Legation" id="Legation">Legation</a> in, assaulted, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>-<a href="#Page_38" >38</a>; + indemnity demanded, ii. <a href="#Page_65" >65</a>, <a href="#Page_66" >66</a>; + burnt, ii. <a href="#Page_62" >62</a> and <i>note</i>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Greenwell, Dora, appreciation of 'Life's Problems' expressed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Gros, Baron, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_230" >230</a>.</li> + +<li>Gurdon, Lieutenant, ii. <a href="#Page_205" >205</a>.</li> + +<li>Guthrie, G. J., Alcock's medical studies under, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; + recommends Alcock to Mr O'Meara, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Hakodate, opening of, for ships' supplies, ii. <a href="#Page_4" >4</a>; + neglected by merchants, ii. <a href="#Page_12" >12</a>; + Russian representative at, ii. <a href="#Page_104" >104</a>.</li> + +<li>Hankow— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Abandonment of, by inhabitants in Taiping scare, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>.</li> +<li> Consular officer established at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>.</li> +<li> Development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin's voyage to (1858), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>.</li> +<li> Hope's visit to (1861), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Harris, Townsend, ii. <a href="#Page_3" >3</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_39" >39</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>.</li> + +<li>Hart, Sir Robert, temporarily Inspector-General of Chinese Maritime Customs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; + implicated in the Lay-Osborn flotilla failure, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>; + an authority on Gordon's reconciliation with Li, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>; + position and work of, as Inspector-General of Customs in Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_157" >157</a>, <a href="#Page_160" >160</a>, <a href="#Page_162" >162</a>-<a href="#Page_167" >167</a>; + appointed British Minister in China, but resigns post, ii. <a href="#Page_166" >166</a>; + on Mixed Commission regarding redress of commercial grievances, ii. <a href="#Page_211" >211</a>-<a href="#Page_215" >215</a>; + action in the Margary murder case, ii. <a href="#Page_274" >274</a>; + influence on the Chefoo Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_276" >276</a>; + invites Gordon to help Chinese, ii. <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>; + obtains recall of Tibetan mission, ii. <a href="#Page_310" >310</a>; + obtains peace with France, ii. <a href="#Page_333" >333</a>; + 'Fortnightly Review' paper cited, ii. <a href="#Page_461" >461</a>.</li> + +<li>Hodges, Colonel, takes Alcock on to his staff, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>; + appreciation of Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Holt, Mr, ii. <a href="#Page_203" >203</a>, <a href="#Page_204" >204</a>, <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>.</li> + +<li>Hong merchants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Hongkong— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Administration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>.</li> +<li> Advantages of site, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>.</li> +<li> Alcock's visit to (1869), ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>.</li> +<li> Bank of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>.</li> +<li> British contempt for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; + Government's attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_500' name='Page_500'>[500]</a></span></li> +<li> Buildings in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>.</li> +<li> Cession of, and occupation by British, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese traders and mechanics in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>; + shipowners in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; + escaped criminals numerous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>; + improvement of general character, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>.</li> +<li> Chusan contrasted with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li> Coolie trade, efforts against, ii. <a href="#Page_168" >168</a>, <a href="#Page_169" >169</a>.</li> +<li> Cost of voyage to, in early days, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>.</li> +<li> Customs station at, desired by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; + refused, ii. <a href="#Page_216" >216</a>; + established, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_288" >288</a>.</li> +<li> Development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>.</li> +<li> Dislike of, by diplomatic and consular officials, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_355" >355</a>; + by Chinese Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_216" >216</a>.</li> +<li> Early record of (1816), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin's aversion to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>.</li> +<li> Emigration from, ii. <a href="#Page_173" >173</a>.</li> +<li> Industries of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>.</li> +<li> International character of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>.</li> +<li> Junk trade under Chinese control, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>.</li> +<li> Kiying House, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>.</li> +<li> Macao contrasted with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>.</li> +<li> Piracy headquarters at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +<li> Pottinger, Sir H., first governor of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>.</li> +<li> Reformers safe in, ii. <a href="#Page_459" >459</a>.</li> +<li> Schools in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +<li> Supreme Court in, ii. <a href="#Page_354" >354</a>, <a href="#Page_355" >355</a>.</li> +<li> Tonnage entered and cleared at, in 1898, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_277">277</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Yokohama guard despatched from, ii. <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hong-tjyong-on, ii. <a href="#Page_299" >299</a>-<a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> + +<li>Hope, Admiral Sir James, Yangtze formally opened by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>; + commands British naval contingent in Peking campaign, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>; + repulsed at Taku forts (1859), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; + visits Peking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>; + relations with Taipings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>; + opinion on Taiping Rebellion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; + vigorous policy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>; + friendship with Admiral Protêt, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>; + comradeship with Ward, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; + advises strong measures in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_55" >55</a>; + scheme for offensive measures in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_59" >59</a>; + correspondence with Capt. Birileff regarding Tsushima, ii. <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>-<a href="#Page_114" >114</a>.</li> + +<li>Hoppo, position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Hsienfêng, Emperor, death of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>.</li> + +<li>Hu Lin-yi, ii. <a href="#Page_377" >377</a>.</li> + +<li>Huang, Governor-General, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + +<li>Hunter, W. C., quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_20" >20</a> <i>note</i>; + cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li>Hwang-chu-ke, massacre of Englishmen at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Ignatieff, General, assists Sir H. Grant, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + negotiates cession of Vladivostock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; + attitude towards British Legation and Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>.</li> + +<li>Ilipu, Commissioner, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>India— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's visit to (1869), ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>.</li> +<li> Calcutta Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese imports from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#East_India_Co">East India Company</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Elgin's opportune arrival in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>.</li> +<li> Gordon summoned from, ii. <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Opium_Trade">Opium trade</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Tea trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +<li> Tibetan expedition, ii. <a href="#Page_305" >305</a>-<a href="#Page_310" >310</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Inouyé, Count, British Legation building burnt by, ii. <a href="#Page_62" >62</a> <i>note</i>; + return from Europe and mission to Choshiu, ii. <a href="#Page_80" >80</a>, <a href="#Page_81" >81</a>; + mission to Korea, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> + +<li>Ito, Count, return from Europe and mission to Choshiu, ii. <a href="#Page_80" >80</a>, <a href="#Page_81" >81</a>; + mission to Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Japan (<i>for particular persons, towns, see their titles</i>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Aggressive policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_254" >254</a>-<a href="#Page_256" >256</a>, <a href="#Page_465" >465</a>, <a href="#Page_466" >466</a>.</li> +<li> Art of, ii. <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>, <a href="#Page_103" >103</a>.</li> +<li> Assassination period in, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>-<a href="#Page_38" >38</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese War. <i>See under</i> <a href="#Japanese_War">China</a>.</li> +<li> Consuls in, peculiar responsibilities of, ii. <a href="#Page_121" >121</a>.</li> +<li> Currency of, ii. <a href="#Page_18" >18</a>-<a href="#Page_27" >27</a>.</li> +<li> Customs of, ii. <a href="#Page_33" >33</a>.</li> +<li> Czarevitch's visit to, ii. <a href="#Page_323" >323</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Daimios" id="Daimios">Daimios</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Coinage of, ii. <a href="#Page_25" >25</a>, <a href="#Page_26" >26</a>.</li> +<li> Hostility of, to foreigners, ii. <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>-<a href="#Page_41" >41</a>, <a href="#Page_43" >43</a>.</li> +<li> Legation guards provided by, ii. <a href="#Page_51" >51</a>, <a href="#Page_53" >53</a>.</li> +<li> Processions of, ii. <a href="#Page_34" >34</a>, <a href="#Page_56" >56</a>.</li> +<li> Tycoon's relation to, ii. <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>, <a href="#Page_60" >60</a>-<a href="#Page_65" >65</a>, <a href="#Page_67" >67</a>, <a href="#Page_68" >68</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_93" >93</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Elgin's visit to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>; + his diplomatic success, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_1" >1</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>.</li> +<li> Exhibition of 1862, represented at, ii. <a href="#Page_102" >102</a>, <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_501' name='Page_501'>[501]</a></span></li> +<li> Foreigners, supervision of, ii. <a href="#Page_8" >8</a>; + early pleasant relations with, ii. <a href="#Page_9" >9</a>, <a href="#Page_29" >29</a>-<a href="#Page_31" >31</a>; + hatred of, ii. <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>-<a href="#Page_41" >41</a>, <a href="#Page_43" >43</a>, <a href="#Page_58" >58</a>, <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>, <a href="#Page_93" >93</a>; + retrograde policy towards, ii. <a href="#Page_47" >47</a>-<a href="#Page_49" >49</a>; + use made of, ii. <a href="#Page_95" >95</a>-<a href="#Page_98" >98</a>, <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>, <a href="#Page_131" >131</a>, <a href="#Page_191" >191</a>, <a href="#Page_255" >255</a>; + help of, declined when unasked, ii. <a href="#Page_110" >110</a>.</li> +<li> Formosa invaded by, ii. <a href="#Page_255" >255</a>.</li> +<li> Gorogiu, function of the, ii. <a href="#Page_108" >108</a>.</li> +<li> Hong's vendetta pursued in, ii. <a href="#Page_300" >300</a>, <a href="#Page_301" >301</a>.</li> +<li> Inland Sea, Alcock's expedition up, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>, <a href="#Page_42" >42</a>; + Prince of Nagato's blockade of, ii. <a href="#Page_69" >69</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>.</li> +<li> Korea, treaty with, ii. <a href="#Page_256" >256</a>, <a href="#Page_257" >257</a>; + Korean outbreak against, ii. <a href="#Page_294" >294</a>, <a href="#Page_297" >297</a>, <a href="#Page_298" >298</a>; + equality with China in, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>, <a href="#Page_303" >303</a>, <a href="#Page_389" >389</a>; + aggression in, ii. <a href="#Page_406" >406</a>, <a href="#Page_407" >407</a>, <a href="#Page_409" >409</a>.</li> +<li> Liao-tung claimed by, ii. <a href="#Page_429" >429</a>.</li> +<li> Liuchiu Islands claimed by, ii. <a href="#Page_256" >256</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of, to foreign intercourse (1858), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li> Portuguese expelled from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +<li> Prosperity of, ii. <a href="#Page_32" >32</a>.</li> +<li> "Rudeness," term for, ii. <a href="#Page_34" >34</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Russian admiral in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>.</li> +<li> Samurai, anecdote of, ii. <a href="#Page_33" >33</a> <i>note</i> 1.</li> +<li> Silk industry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_191">191</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Sport in, ii. <a href="#Page_127" >127</a>-<a href="#Page_129" >129</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Japanese— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chinese contrasted with, ii. <a href="#Page_8" >8</a>, <a href="#Page_27" >27</a>, <a href="#Page_29" >29</a>, <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>, <a href="#Page_131" >131</a>, <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>.</li> +<li> Combination, power of, ii. <a href="#Page_94" >94</a>.</li> +<li> Imitation, faculty of, ii. <a href="#Page_94" >94</a>-<a href="#Page_97" >97</a>.</li> +<li> Practical comprehension of circumstances, ii. <a href="#Page_7" >7</a>.</li> +<li> Seriousness of, ii. <a href="#Page_94" >94</a>.</li> +<li> Tenacity and resolution of, ii. <a href="#Page_16" >16</a>, <a href="#Page_93" >93</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a href="#Junks">Junks</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Kanagawa— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> American treaty signed at, ii. <a href="#Page_39" >39</a>.</li> +<li> Massacre of Russians at, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>.</li> +<li> Moss, Mr, arrested for shooting game near, ii. <a href="#Page_123" >123</a>, <a href="#Page_128" >128</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of (1859), ii. <a href="#Page_12" >12</a>.</li> +<li> Riding party from, attacked, ii. <a href="#Page_55" >55</a>-<a href="#Page_57" >57</a>.</li> +<li> Yokohama preferred to, by foreign merchants, ii. <a href="#Page_17" >17</a>, <a href="#Page_18" >18</a>, <a href="#Page_123" >123</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Kang Yu-wei, reform programme of, ii. <a href="#Page_457" >457</a>, <a href="#Page_458" >458</a>.</li> + +<li>Kashgaria, rebellion in, ii. <a href="#Page_290" >290</a>, <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> + +<li>Kennedy, Vice-Admiral Sir W. R., cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li>Keppel, Admiral, diary entry regarding opium clipper, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; + appreciation of Dent's hospitality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>; + operations against war-junks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_318">318</a>; + aids Consul Medhurst in Yangchow affair, ii. <a href="#Page_202" >202</a>; + report on Formosa missionary affair, ii. <a href="#Page_204" >204</a>; + details force to aid Mr Gibson, ii. <a href="#Page_205" >205</a>; + appreciation of Chunghou, ii. <a href="#Page_239" >239</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Kiaochow" id="Kiaochow">Kiaochow</a>, German seizure of, ii. <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>; + British opinion, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>; + Russian attitude, ii. <a href="#Page_431" >431</a>.</li> + +<li>Kim Ok Kun, ii. <a href="#Page_298" >298</a>-<a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> + +<li>Kishen, appointment of, to negotiate with British, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; + conciliatory manner of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; + good faith and courtesy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li>Kiying, Commissioner, appointed to treat with Sir H. Pottinger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; + courtesy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; + pleasant nature of intercourse with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>; + impotence of, before Cantonese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; + high-handed manner of, after restoration of Chusan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>; + agreement concluded with (1847), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>; + effects postponement of foreign entry into Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>; + popular memorial to Sir J. Davis inspired by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; + affability of, to governor of Hongkong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; + supplementary treaty with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; + no redress from, against a Chih-hsien, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="korea" id="korea">Korea</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> American expeditions to, ii. <a href="#Page_178" >178</a>, <a href="#Page_179" >179</a>.</li> +<li> China, tribute embassies to, ii. <a href="#Page_148" >148</a>;</li> +<li> reverence for, ii. <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>; + embassy of condolence from, ii. <a href="#Page_404" >404</a>, <a href="#Page_405" >405</a>; + privileges of, ii. <a href="#Page_406" >406</a>.</li> +<li> Foreign ferment in, ii. <a href="#Page_295" >295</a>.</li> +<li> French annexation of, ii. <a href="#Page_176" >176</a>, <a href="#Page_177" >177</a>.</li> +<li> Hong honoured by Court, ii. <a href="#Page_301" >301</a>, <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese, treaty with, ii. <a href="#Page_256" >256</a>, <a href="#Page_257" >257</a>; + brutality of, ii. <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>; + equality of, with China, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>, <a href="#Page_303" >303</a>, <a href="#Page_389" >389</a>; + aggression of, ii. <a href="#Page_406" >406</a>, <a href="#Page_407" >407</a>, <a href="#Page_409" >409</a>.</li> +<li> Jesuit propagandism in, ii. <a href="#Page_175" >175</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of, by China, ii. <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>.</li> +<li> Port Hamilton incident, ii. <a href="#Page_303" >303</a>, <a href="#Page_305" >305</a>.</li> +<li> Russian pledge regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_424" >424</a>, <a href="#Page_425" >425</a>.</li> +<li> Söul, <i>émeute</i> in, ii. <a href="#Page_294" >294</a>, <a href="#Page_296" >296</a>-<a href="#Page_298" >298</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Kowloon, concession of, acquired by Parkes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_502' name='Page_502'>[502]</a></span></li> + +<li>Kuldja, Russian claims regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_290" >290</a>-<a href="#Page_293" >293</a>.</li> +<li>Kung, Prince, Lord Elgin's negotiations with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; + signs Peking treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + deceived by Ignatieff, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; + member of Tsungli-Yamên, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; + Gordon's interviews with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>; + implicated in the Lay-Osborn flotilla failure, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>; + executes <i>coup d'état</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>; + correspondence with British Minister, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>, 409; + high-handed tone of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_410">410</a>; + intimate relations with British Legation, ii. <a href="#Page_134" >134</a>, <a href="#Page_135" >135</a>; + efforts against coolie trade, ii. <a href="#Page_171" >171</a>, <a href="#Page_172" >172</a>; + declines responsibility for Korean persecutions, ii. <a href="#Page_176" >176</a>; + action in Yangchow affair, ii. <a href="#Page_202" >202</a>; + circular regarding missionaries, ii. <a href="#Page_231" >231</a>; + Sir T. Wade's remonstrance to, on Chinese official tone, ii. <a href="#Page_244" >244</a>; + present at audience of foreign Ministers, ii. <a href="#Page_261" >261</a>; + imperial claims of, ii. <a href="#Page_263" >263</a>; + enmity between Empress and, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>; + action regarding Margary case, ii. <a href="#Page_274" >274</a>; + dismissed by Empress, ii. <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>; + efforts regarding Pei-t'ang Cathedral, ii. <a href="#Page_342" >342</a>; + moderating influence of, ii. <a href="#Page_374" >374</a>; + vetoes proposed assassination of Li, ii. <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>.</li> +<li>Kuper, Rear-Admiral Sir Augustus, attack on Satsuma, ii. <a href="#Page_67" >67</a>; + operations against Prince of Nagato, ii. <a href="#Page_80" >80</a>, <a href="#Page_81" >81</a>; + appeals to Foreign Office regarding Alcock's recall, ii. <a href="#Page_89" >89</a>.</li> +<li>Kwanghsu, Emperor, selected by Empress, ii. <a href="#Page_263" >263</a>; + comes of age, ii. <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>; + childlessness of, ii. <a href="#Page_456" >456</a>; + reform programme adopted by, ii. <a href="#Page_458" >458</a>.</li> +<li>Kweiliang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Lane-Poole, Stanley, cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>.</li> +<li>Lang, Captain, ii. <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>, <a href="#Page_400" >400</a>, <a href="#Page_412" >412</a>.</li> +<li>Lay, H. N., residence of, at Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_118">118</a> <i>note</i>; + Inspector-General of Customs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; + negotiates Tientsin treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>; + Osborn flotilla fiasco, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>; + summary of Chinese affairs (1858-63), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_410">410</a>; + fidelity to Chinese Government, ii. <a href="#Page_160" >160</a>; + observation on residence of Ministers, ii. <a href="#Page_261" >261</a>; + representative of consular training school, ii. <a href="#Page_363" >363</a>.</li> +<li>Lay-Osborn flotilla, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>; + Wênsiang and Prince Kung discredited by failure of scheme, ii. <a href="#Page_375" >375</a>, <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>.</li> +<li><a href="#Likin">Lekin, likin</a>. <i>See under</i> China—Taxation.</li> +<li>Lhassa, Bengali's friendly visits to, ii. <a href="#Page_305" >305</a>; + Indian expedition attempted, ii. <a href="#Page_306" >306</a>-<a href="#Page_310" >310</a>; + protracted negotiations at, ii. <a href="#Page_311" >311</a>, <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>.</li> +<li>Li Han-Chang, ii. <a href="#Page_272" >272</a>.</li> +<li>Li Hung-Chang, foreigners enlisted by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; + dismisses Burgevine, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; + rejects the Lay-Osborn flotilla, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>; + Gordon's quarrel with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>; + memorial of, regarding revision of treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_184" >184</a>-<a href="#Page_190" >190</a>; + influence of, in foreign affairs, ii. <a href="#Page_190" >190</a>, <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_313" >313</a>, <a href="#Page_314" >314</a>; + succeeds Tsêng Kwo-fan and Chunghou, ii. <a href="#Page_242" >242</a>; + interview with Consul Adkins, ii. <a href="#Page_244" >244</a>, <a href="#Page_245" >245</a>; + negotiates opening of Korea, ii. <a href="#Page_259" >259</a>; + ascendancy of, in imperial counsels, ii. <a href="#Page_264" >264</a>, <a href="#Page_329" >329</a>; + appointed to treat with Sir T. Wade on Margary murder, ii. <a href="#Page_274" >274</a>, <a href="#Page_275" >275</a>; + negotiates Chefoo Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_275" >275</a>-<a href="#Page_277" >277</a>; + Gordon's interviews with, ii. <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>; + action in Korean <i>émeute</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_294" >294</a>; + Count Ito's negotiations with, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>; + arranges voyage of Prince Ch'un, ii. <a href="#Page_316" >316</a>; + deputed to meet the Czarevitch at Chefoo, ii. <a href="#Page_322" >322</a>; + Annam negotiations, ii. <a href="#Page_325" >325</a>; + summons Mr Detring to Tientsin, ii. <a href="#Page_328" >328</a>; + concludes Fournier Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_329" >329</a>; + arranges Vatican mission, ii. <a href="#Page_345" >345</a>; + opposed by Tso Tsung-tang, ii. <a href="#Page_379" >379</a>; + characteristics and policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_381" >381</a>-<a href="#Page_386" >386</a>; + promotes naval and military reform, ii. <a href="#Page_382" >382</a>, <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>, <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>, <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>; + no anti-foreign outbreaks in province of, ii. <a href="#Page_383" >383</a>, <a href="#Page_442" >442</a>; + responsibilities of, regarding Japanese War, ii. <a href="#Page_386" >386</a>, <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>; + progressive efforts of, ii. <a href="#Page_395" >395</a>; + opposed to Korean expedition, ii. <a href="#Page_408" >408</a>; + agrees to Manchurian branch of Siberian railway, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +<li>Liao-tung— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Japanese occupation of, ii. <a href="#Page_414" >414</a>; + cession of, for indemnity, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>.</li> +<li> Russian acquisition of, ii. <a href="#Page_422" >422</a>, <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>'Life's Problems,' appreciation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Likatchoff, Commodore, ii. <a href="#Page_112" >112</a>, <a href="#Page_114" >114</a>.</li> + +<li>Lin, Commissioner, measures of, against opium trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; + demands life-and-death jurisdiction, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; + reply of, to Macaese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; + superseded, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; + custom-house administration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_503' name='Page_503'>[503]</a></span></li> + +<li>Lindsay, W. S., cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; + quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Liuchiu Islands, ii. <a href="#Page_256" >256</a>.</li> + +<li>Livadia, treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> + +<li><a href="#Lorchas">Lorchas</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> + +<li>Lowder, Mrs, Alcock's marriage with, ii. <a href="#Page_73" >73</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Macao" id="Macao">Macao</a> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Portuguese">Portuguese</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> British refugees expelled from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; + plenipotentiaries repair to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Celebrities of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_298">298</a>.</li> +<li> Clerks from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li> Coolie trade at, ii. <a href="#Page_169" >169</a>, <a href="#Page_174" >174</a>.</li> +<li> Custom-house established at, ii. <a href="#Page_288" >288</a>.</li> +<li> Elliot's retirement to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +<li> Hongkong contrasted with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>.</li> +<li> Peacefulness and salubrity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>.</li> +<li> Piracy tolerated at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>.</li> +<li> Population of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>.</li> +<li> Portuguese occupation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Macaulay, T. B., ii. <a href="#Page_307" >307</a>.</li> + +<li>MacCunn, James, cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_243">243</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Macdonald, Sir Claude, ii. <a href="#Page_432" >432</a>.</li> + +<li>MacDonnell, Sir Richard, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>Manchuria— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chinese troops in, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> +<li> Russian acquisition of coast, ii. <a href="#Page_252" >252</a>, <a href="#Page_469" >469</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>.</li> +<li> Siberian railway to pass through, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Manchus— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chinese contrasted with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>; + complementary to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>.</li> +<li> Courtesy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_140" >140</a>, <a href="#Page_153" >153</a>.</li> +<li> Moderation and humanity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Women, position of, ii. <a href="#Page_140" >140</a>, <a href="#Page_141" >141</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Margary, Augustus Raymond, ii. <a href="#Page_266" >266</a>, <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>.</li> + +<li>Markham, Sir Clements, appreciation of Alcock, ii. <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> + +<li>Mas, M. de, anecdote of, ii. <a href="#Page_444" >444</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Mayers, W. F., ii. <a href="#Page_363" >363</a>.</li> + +<li>Meadows, Taylor, Alcock compared with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>; + distinguished services of, ii. <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>; + representative of consular training school, ii. <a href="#Page_363" >363</a>.</li> + +<li>Medhurst, Mr, foreign atrocities reported by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>; + map made by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_432">432</a>; + action in Yangchow affair, ii. <a href="#Page_199" >199</a>-<a href="#Page_201" >201</a>; + reprimanded by Lord Clarendon, ii. <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>, <a href="#Page_208" >208</a>.</li> + +<li>Mikado of Japan, sanction of, necessary to treaties, ii. <a href="#Page_39" >39</a>, <a href="#Page_63" >63</a>, <a href="#Page_85" >85</a>; + sanction obtained, ii. <a href="#Page_90" >90</a>; + Tycoon's relation to, ii. <a href="#Page_60" >60</a>-<a href="#Page_65" >65</a>, <a href="#Page_71" >71</a>-<a href="#Page_73" >73</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_85" >85</a>, <a href="#Page_92" >92</a>, <a href="#Page_93" >93</a>; + expulsion of foreigners ordered by, ii. <a href="#Page_63" >63</a>; + administrative functions assumed by, ii. <a href="#Page_92" >92</a>, <a href="#Page_255" >255</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="missionaries" id="missionaries">Missionaries</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's views on, ii. <a href="#Page_223" >223</a>, <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>, <a href="#Page_227" >227</a>, <a href="#Page_230" >230</a>, <a href="#Page_231" >231</a>, <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>.</li> +<li> American, on Yangtze expedition, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>.</li> +<li> Charges against, ii. <a href="#Page_236" >236</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese view of, ii. <a href="#Page_177" >177</a>-<a href="#Page_179" >179</a>.</li> +<li> Control of, Chinese scheme for, ii. <a href="#Page_246" >246</a>-<a href="#Page_248" >248</a>.</li> +<li> Disunion among the Powers caused by, ii. <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>.</li> +<li> French enterprise regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_175" >175</a>-<a href="#Page_177" >177</a>, <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>, <a href="#Page_225" >225</a>, <a href="#Page_229" >229</a>-<a href="#Page_232" >232</a>, <a href="#Page_234" >234</a>, <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>, <a href="#Page_238" >238</a>, <a href="#Page_253" >253</a>; + their aim a protectorate of Christians, ii. <a href="#Page_336" >336</a>-<a href="#Page_342" >342</a>, <a href="#Page_346" >346</a>-<a href="#Page_352" >352</a>.</li> +<li> Hongkong, in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>.</li> +<li> "Indiscretions" of, emphasised by their Governments, ii. <a href="#Page_243" >243</a>.</li> +<li> Irritation and disruption caused by, ii. <a href="#Page_203" >203</a>-<a href="#Page_205" >205</a>, <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>, <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>, <a href="#Page_226" >226</a>-<a href="#Page_233" >233</a>, <a href="#Page_238" >238</a>, <a href="#Page_246" >246</a>, <a href="#Page_248" >248</a>, <a href="#Page_249" >249</a>, <a href="#Page_454" >454</a>.</li> +<li> Kang Yu-wei inspired by, ii. <a href="#Page_458" >458</a>.</li> +<li> Korea, in, ii. <a href="#Page_175" >175</a>, <a href="#Page_177" >177</a>-<a href="#Page_179" >179</a>.</li> +<li> Li's advice regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_187" >187</a>; + his policy towards, ii. <a href="#Page_383" >383</a>, <a href="#Page_442" >442</a>.</li> +<li> Publications of, ii. <a href="#Page_445" >445</a>.</li> +<li> Russian Peking establishment, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>.</li> +<li> Tientsin massacre, ii. <a href="#Page_238" >238</a>, <a href="#Page_239" >239</a>; + French ambassador's note on, ii. <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>; + results of, ii. <a href="#Page_240" >240</a>-<a href="#Page_244" >244</a>.</li> +<li> Tsingpu attack, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Mito, Prince of, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>, <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>, <a href="#Page_40" >40</a>, <a href="#Page_41" >41</a>.</li> + +<li>Mongol market in Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_147" >147</a>, <a href="#Page_148" >148</a>.</li> + +<li>Montauban, General (Count Palikao), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Morrison, Robert, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Moss, Mr, ii. <a href="#Page_123" >123</a>, <a href="#Page_124" >124</a>, <a href="#Page_128" >128</a>.</li> + +<li>Mouravieff-Amurski, Count, at Yedo, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>; + warns Japanese against British designs, ii. <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>; + gives assurances regarding Russian fleet, ii. <a href="#Page_426" >426</a>.</li> + +<li>Mutsu, Count, anecdote of, ii. <a href="#Page_96" >96</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Nagasaki— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's arrival at, ii. <a href="#Page_14" >14</a>.</li> +<li> Coins not used in trade at, ii. <a href="#Page_18" >18</a>.</li> +<li> Dutch trade at, ii. <a href="#Page_10" >10</a>, <a href="#Page_11" >11</a>.</li> +<li> Legation from Korea conveyed to, ii. <a href="#Page_294" >294</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_504' name='Page_504'>[504]</a></span></li> +<li> Opened for ships' supplies, ii. <a href="#Page_4" >4</a>.</li> +<li> Welcome to foreigners at, ii. <a href="#Page_9" >9</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="Nagato" id="Nagato">Nagato</a>, Prince of, hostile action of, ii. <a href="#Page_67" >67</a>, <a href="#Page_69" >69</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>; + operations against, ii. <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>-<a href="#Page_81" >81</a>; + Japanese students sent to Europe by, ii. <a href="#Page_80" >80</a>; + justifies his anti-foreign action, ii. <a href="#Page_82" >82</a>; + results of his defeat, ii. <a href="#Page_86" >86</a>.</li> + +<li>Namoa, typical sale of opium at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li>Nanking— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Capital, proposed as, ii. <a href="#Page_474" >474</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Important position of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>.</li> +<li> Lay-Osborn flotilla, connection with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>.</li> +<li> Robertson's mission to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>.</li> +<li> Taipings at, British aid asked against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; + Admiral Hope's dealings with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Nanking_Treaty">Treaty</a>. <i>See under</i> Treaties.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Napier, Lord, experiences of, in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; + views on Chinese government, ii. <a href="#Page_439" >439</a>.</li> + +<li>Neale, Lieutenant-Colonel Edward St John, in charge of British Legation at Yedo, ii. <a href="#Page_50" >50</a>; + attack on British Legation described by, ii. <a href="#Page_51" >51</a>, <a href="#Page_52" >52</a>; + congratulated by Japanese on his escape, ii. <a href="#Page_54" >54</a>; + action after Richardson murder, ii. <a href="#Page_58" >58</a>; + negotiations with Japanese, ii. <a href="#Page_62" >62</a>-<a href="#Page_67" >67</a>.</li> + +<li>Newchwang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li>Ningpo— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> A'Pak's exploit at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +<li> Characteristics of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>.</li> +<li> Occupation of, by British, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li> Piratical stronghold near, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>.</li> +<li> Taipings, captured by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>; + captured from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>; + base of British and French during Chêkiang campaign, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> +<li> 'Times' pronouncement against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="alpha">Oliphant, Laurence, cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_2" >2</a>; + quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_9" >9</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="#Page_11" >11</a> <i>note</i>; + wounded by Japanese, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>, <a href="#Page_37" >37</a>; + invalided home, ii. <a href="#Page_46" >46</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Opium_Trade" id="Opium_Trade">Opium trade</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +<li> Cash payments the rule in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Chefoo Convention, introduced into, ii. <a href="#Page_281" >281</a>, <a href="#Page_283" >283</a>; + stimulated by, ii. <a href="#Page_289" >289</a>.</li> +<li> Clippers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>.</li> +<li> Contraband before 1858, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; + legalisation of, urged by Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_418">418</a>; + effected, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; + recognised by Tientsin treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>.</li> +<li> Elliot's offer to suppress, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>; + his attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li> +<li> Foochow, at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>.</li> +<li> Hostility of Chinese attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +<li> Importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_418">418</a>.</li> +<li> Lin's measures against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +<li> Postal communication dependent on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>.</li> +<li> Smuggling connected with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li> Surrender of opium at Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_54">54</a> <i>and note</i>.</li> +<li> Transit dues, proposed increase of, ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>; + duty trebled, ii. <a href="#Page_284" >284</a>, <a href="#Page_286" >286</a>.</li> +<li> Value of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Osborn, Captain Sherard, Yangtze explored by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; + in command of flotilla refused by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>; + cited, ii. <a href="#Page_2" >2</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Paget, Sir James, appreciation of Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Palikao, Count, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Palmerston, Lord, successful Chinese policy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>; + the China dissolution, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_319">319</a>; + change in foreign policy after death of, ii. <a href="#Page_364" >364</a>, <a href="#Page_365" >365</a>.</li> + +<li>Paris, Alcock's first visit to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>; + Campbell's mission to, ii. <a href="#Page_333" >333</a>.</li> + +<li>Parkes, Sir Harry, interpreter to Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; + appreciation of Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>; + accompanies Alcock to Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; + despatched with Robertson to Nanking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; + compiles returns of sea-borne trade at Foochow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>; + obtains Kowloon concession, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>; + action regarding the Arrow incident, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; + remonstrates with Yeh, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; + Lord Elgin's appreciation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_326">326</a> <i>note</i>; + commissioner at Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>; + successful administration there, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>; + deplores Lord Elgin's hurried departure from Tientsin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>; + reward offered for head of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; + seized and imprisoned by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>; + released, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + visits Peking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>; + attached by Lord Elgin to Admiral Hope, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_505' name='Page_505'>[505]</a></span> + describes abandonment of Hankow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>; + attack on, in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_90" >90</a>; + succeeds Alcock in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_130" >130</a>; + views on Chinese action regarding Formosa and Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_255" >255</a>; + negotiates treaty regarding Korea, ii. <a href="#Page_297" >297</a>; + death of, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>; + representative of consular training school, ii. <a href="#Page_363" >363</a>.</li> + +<li>Pechili Gulf, cruise in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>; + defences suggested for, ii. <a href="#Page_381" >381</a>; + fortifications of ports in, ii. <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>.</li> + +<li>Peiho river, demonstration off mouth of (1840), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>; + defences of (1860), 350. + <i>See also</i> <a href="#Taku">Taku forts</a>.</li> + +<li>Peking— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Blockade of, a means of coercing Government, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Legation">British Legation</a>. <i>See under</i> Great Britain.</li> +<li> Campaign of 1860, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Chose jugée</i>, case of, ii. <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>.</li> +<li> Convention signed at (1886), ii. <a href="#Page_310" >310</a>.</li> +<li> Disadvantages of, as site for capital, ii. <a href="#Page_474" >474</a> <i>and note</i>.</li> +<li> Distant view of, ii. <a href="#Page_143" >143</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin's error in omitting to visit, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_337">337</a> <i>and note</i>.</li> +<li> Fur market, ii. <a href="#Page_149" >149</a>.</li> +<li> German Legation established in, ii. <a href="#Page_254" >254</a>.</li> +<li> Health of, ii. <a href="#Page_144" >144</a> <i>note</i>.</li> +<li> Hostility of natives in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>.</li> +<li> Inaccessibility of, ii. <a href="#Page_142" >142</a>.</li> +<li> Innovations after 1884, ii. <a href="#Page_315" >315</a>.</li> +<li> Insanitary condition of, ii. <a href="#Page_144" >144</a>, <a href="#Page_145" >145</a>.</li> +<li> Lama temple, ii. <a href="#Page_145" >145</a>, <a href="#Page_146" >146</a>.</li> +<li> Legations, diplomatic difficulties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>; + relieved by military force (1900), ii. <a href="#Page_437" >437</a>.</li> +<li> Macaulay's mission to, ii. <a href="#Page_307" >307</a>, <a href="#Page_308" >308</a>.</li> +<li> Maritime Customs Inspector established in, ii. <a href="#Page_156" >156</a>.</li> +<li> Mules and camels, ii. <a href="#Page_147" >147</a>.</li> +<li> Pei-t'ang Cathedral, erection of, ii. <a href="#Page_341" >341</a>; + transfer of, ii. <a href="#Page_346" >346</a>, <a href="#Page_347" >347</a>.</li> +<li> Prohibitions against English visitors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>.</li> +<li> Residence of British representative at, suggested in merchants' memorial (1839), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>; + residence included in Tientsin treaty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>; + right of residence suspended, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>.</li> +<li> Russian mission in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>.</li> +<li> Sarat Chandra Das, visit of, ii. <a href="#Page_308" >308</a>-<a href="#Page_310" >310</a>.</li> +<li> Social Life in, ii. <a href="#Page_138" >138</a>-<a href="#Page_142" >142</a>.</li> +<li> Street traffic in, ii. <a href="#Page_149" >149</a>-<a href="#Page_153" >153</a>.</li> +<li> Summer retreat from, ii. <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>, <a href="#Page_155" >155</a>.</li> +<li> Temple of Heaven, ii. <a href="#Page_146" >146</a>.</li> +<li> Treaty signed at (1860), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pin Ch'un, ii. <a href="#Page_137" >137</a>, <a href="#Page_186" >186</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Piracy" id="Piracy">Piracy</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's views on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>.</li> +<li> British action against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_299">299</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>.</li> +<li> Foreigners engaged in, in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>; + foreigners subjected to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +<li> Hongkong headquarters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +<li> Portuguese leniency to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>; + their earlier assistance against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +<li> Prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li> Steam traffic a blow to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +<li> Taiping Rebellion complicated by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Popoff, M., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li>Port Arthur— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> British evacuation of, ii. <a href="#Page_426" >426</a>.</li> +<li> Ch'un, Prince, meets British Admiral at, ii. <a href="#Page_317" >317</a>.</li> +<li> Fortifications of, ii. <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>.</li> +<li> French abstain from attacking, ii. <a href="#Page_332" >332</a>; + French syndicate entrusted with construction works at, ii. <a href="#Page_335" >335</a>.</li> +<li> Russian acquisition of, ii. <a href="#Page_424" >424</a>-<a href="#Page_427" >427</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Portugal, Alcock's work as army surgeon in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>; + on Anglo-Portuguese Commission regarding claims of British auxiliaries, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Portuguese" id="Portuguese">Portuguese</a> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Macao">Macao</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Chinese cupidity conciliated by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>.</li> +<li> Convoy trade carried on by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +<li> Ming dynasty supported by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +<li> Obligations to Great Britain disregarded by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> and <i>note</i>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pottinger, Sir Henry, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Powers" id="Powers">Powers</a>, Western— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Anarchy among, ii. <a href="#Page_472" >472</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>.</li> +<li> Audience granted to, by Emperor Tungchih, ii. <a href="#Page_261" >261</a>; + by Kwanghsu, ii. <a href="#Page_318" >318</a>-<a href="#Page_320" >320</a>.</li> +<li> British covertly attacked by, to Japanese government, ii. <a href="#Page_107" >107</a>-<a href="#Page_110" >110</a>.</li> +<li> Chefoo Convention, feeling regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_276" >276</a>, <a href="#Page_277" >277</a>, <a href="#Page_281" >281</a>.</li> +<li> Classification of, ii. <a href="#Page_465" >465</a>.</li> +<li> Danger to be apprehended from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_420">420</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_506' name='Page_506'>[506]</a></span></li> +<li> "Dummy" Chinaman evolved by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_472" >472</a>.</li> +<li> Korea, inaction regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_411" >411</a>.</li> +<li> Missionary problem, unity not possible regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_237" >237</a>.</li> +<li> Rivalry of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_447" >447</a>, <a href="#Page_451" >451</a>, <a href="#Page_475" >475</a>.</li> +<li> Spoliation of China by, ii. <a href="#Page_417" >417</a>, <a href="#Page_418" >418</a>, <a href="#Page_447" >447</a>, <a href="#Page_452" >452</a>.</li> +<li> Taiping Rebellion, attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li>"Progress," no Chinese equivalent for, ii. <a href="#Page_136" >136</a>.</li> + +<li>Protêt, Admiral, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses, Alcock's work for, ii. <a href="#Page_482" >482</a>, <a href="#Page_483" >483</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Real estate, value of, in the Far East, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li>Rennie, Dr, quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_146" >146</a>.</li> + +<li>Rhubarb, Chinese export of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Richardson, Mr, murder of, ii. <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>, <a href="#Page_56" >56</a>, <a href="#Page_57" >57</a>; + redress for, ii. <a href="#Page_65" >65</a>, <a href="#Page_66" >66</a>.</li> + +<li>Robertson, Vice-Consul, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_210" >210</a>.</li> + +<li>Royal Geographical Society, Alcock's work for, ii. <a href="#Page_483" >483</a>, <a href="#Page_484" >484</a>.</li> + +<li>Roze, Admiral, ii. <a href="#Page_177" >177</a>.</li> + +<li>"Rudeness," Japanese term for, ii. <a href="#Page_34" >34</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Russell, Earl, approves Alcock's measures, ii. <a href="#Page_45" >45</a>, <a href="#Page_86" >86</a>; + negotiates with Japanese envoys, ii. <a href="#Page_49" >49</a>; + advocates firm policy in Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_59" >59</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>; + recalls Alcock, ii. <a href="#Page_87" >87</a>, <a href="#Page_88" >88</a>; + desires Alcock's return to Japan, ii. <a href="#Page_89" >89</a>.</li> + +<li>Russia, Russians (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Powers">Powers</a>)— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Absorbent policy of, ii. <a href="#Page_469" >469</a>, <a href="#Page_470" >470</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>, <a href="#Page_474" >474</a>.</li> +<li> Akbar despatches incident, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +<li> Amur, acquisitions on the, ii. <a href="#Page_252" >252</a>, <a href="#Page_429" >429</a>.</li> +<li> Ascendancy of, in China, ii. <a href="#Page_422" >422</a>, <a href="#Page_434" >434</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>, <a href="#Page_475" >475</a>.</li> +<li> British friction with, ii. <a href="#Page_321" >321</a>.</li> +<li> Czarevitch visits China, ii. <a href="#Page_321" >321</a>-<a href="#Page_323" >323</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin followed to Tientsin by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>.</li> +<li> French in concert with, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>; + their acquisitions approved by, ii. <a href="#Page_419" >419</a>.</li> +<li> Japan—squadron at Yedo, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>; + represented by M. Goskavitch, ii. <a href="#Page_104" >104</a>; + Tsushima affair, ii. <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>-<a href="#Page_114" >114</a>.</li> +<li> Japanese War deprecated by, ii. <a href="#Page_411" >411</a>; + Japanese claims modified by, ii. <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>.</li> +<li> Kuldja incident, ii. <a href="#Page_290" >290</a>-<a href="#Page_293" >293</a>.</li> +<li> Li protected by, ii. <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>, <a href="#Page_415" >415</a>.</li> +<li> Liao-tung acquired by, ii. <a href="#Page_422" >422</a>, <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +<li> Livadia, treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> +<li> Loan to China guaranteed by, ii. <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>.</li> +<li> Manchurian coast acquired by, ii. <a href="#Page_252" >252</a>, <a href="#Page_469" >469</a>.</li> +<li> Military ethics of, ii. <a href="#Page_470" >470</a>, <a href="#Page_471" >471</a>.</li> +<li> Peking, establishment in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_154" >154</a>.</li> +<li> Port Hamilton incident, ii. <a href="#Page_303" >303</a>-<a href="#Page_305" >305</a>.</li> +<li> Protectorate of Christians assumed by, ii. <a href="#Page_349" >349</a>, <a href="#Page_350" >350</a>.</li> +<li> Respect accorded to, by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>; + by Japanese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_104" >104</a>.</li> +<li> Siberian railway, beginning of, ii. <a href="#Page_323" >323</a>; + Manchurian branch of, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>.</li> +<li> Taiping Rebellion, attitude towards, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>.</li> +<li> Talien-wan seized by, ii. <a href="#Page_427" >427</a>; + 'Times' extract on the proceeding, ii. <a href="#Page_428" >428</a>-<a href="#Page_432" >432</a>.</li> +<li> Tea supply of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +<li> Tientsin massacre, ii. <a href="#Page_239" >239</a>, <a href="#Page_241" >241</a>.</li> +<li> Toleration clause in treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>.</li> +<li> Vladivostock, acquisition of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; + Czarevitch's visit to, ii. <a href="#Page_323" >323</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="alpha">Salisbury, Lord, additional article to the Chefoo Convention signed by, ii. <a href="#Page_287" >287</a>; + speech regarding Russian ports, ii. <a href="#Page_426" >426</a>, <a href="#Page_430" >430</a>; + Russia conciliated by, ii. <a href="#Page_429" >429</a>.</li> + +<li>Samqua, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li>Samurai, status of, ii. <a href="#Page_33" >33</a> <i>note</i> 2.</li> + +<li>Sarat Chandra Das, ii. <a href="#Page_306" >306</a>, <a href="#Page_308" >308</a>-<a href="#Page_310" >310</a>.</li> + +<li>Satsuma, Prince of, riding party attacked by retinue of, ii. <a href="#Page_58" >58</a>; + attack on, ii. <a href="#Page_67" >67</a>, <a href="#Page_68" >68</a>; + appeals to Mikado against Prince of Nagato, ii. <a href="#Page_69" >69</a>; + friendly to foreigners, ii. <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>.</li> + +<li>Seventh Prince. <i>See</i> <a href="#Ch_un">Ch'un, Prince</a>.</li> + +<li>Seward, George F., ii. <a href="#Page_174" >174</a>, <a href="#Page_178" >178</a>.</li> + +<li>Seymour, Sir Michael, naval commander-in-chief at Hongkong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; + relations with Sir J. Bowring, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; + operations in the "Merchants' War," i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li>Shanghai— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock appointed to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; + testimonial to him from foreign residents in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_507' name='Page_507'>[507]</a></span> + his visit to (1869), ii. <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>.</li> +<li> Apathy of residents regarding Exhibition samples, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Capture of, in first China War, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>.</li> +<li> Chamber of Commerce at, reviews Supplementary Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>.</li> +<li> Chunghou, condemned at meetings in, ii. <a href="#Page_241" >241</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Custom_house">Custom-house</a>. <i>See under</i> China—Taxation.</li> +<li> Development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>.</li> +<li> French concession in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>.</li> +<li> Inland trade from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +<li> Kim assassinated in, ii. <a href="#Page_301" >301</a>.</li> +<li> Lindsay's mission to (1832), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li> Naval construction attempted at, ii. <a href="#Page_396" >396</a>.</li> +<li> Neighbourhood of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of (1843), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li> Self-reliance of community in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>.</li> +<li> Silk trade facilitated by opening of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>.</li> +<li> Smuggling centre at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Supreme Court for China and Japan established at, ii. <a href="#Page_355" >355</a>-<a href="#Page_358" >358</a>.</li> +<li> Taipings, danger from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>.</li> +<li> Thirty mile radius established round, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>.</li> +<li> Tientsin treaty negotiations conducted at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>.</li> +<li> Tonnage famine at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +<li> Tsingpu affair, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Yokohama guard of Beloochis sent from, ii. <a href="#Page_78" >78</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shantung— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> German seizure of port in, ii. <a href="#Page_421" >421</a>; + British opinion on seizure, ii. <a href="#Page_423" >423</a>; + Russian attitude, ii. <a href="#Page_431" >431</a>.</li> +<li> Scenery of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>.</li> +<li> Unrest most violent in, ii. <a href="#Page_462" >462</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Shaw, Sir Charles, sketch of career of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>; + appreciation of Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Shimadso Saburo, ii. <a href="#Page_58" >58</a>, <a href="#Page_59" >59</a> <i>and note</i>.</li> + +<li>Shimoda, opening of, ii. <a href="#Page_4" >4</a>.</li> + +<li>Shimonoséki, Straits of, blockaded by Prince of Nagato, ii. <a href="#Page_69" >69</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>; + forts at, captured by Allies, ii. <a href="#Page_83" >83</a>.</li> + +<li>Shimonoseki treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>, <a href="#Page_418" >418</a>.</li> + +<li>Shipping— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Convoy system in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>.</li> +<li> Disguise of boats for Chinese coasting trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>.</li> +<li> East India Company's, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>.</li> +<li> Gold discoveries' effect on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>.</li> +<li> Hanseatic and Scandinavian, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Junks">Junks</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> +<li> <a href="#Lorchas">Lorchas</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> +<li> Merchant owners, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>.</li> +<li> Navigation Law repealed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>.</li> +<li> Opium clippers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Piracy">Piracy</a>. <i>See that title.</i></li> +<li> Revival of British, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>.</li> +<li> Silk cargoes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li> Steam brought into general use, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>; + effect on piracy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +<li> Tea clippers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shore, the Hon. Henry N., cited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_213">213</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li><a name="Silk" id="Silk">Silk</a>, Chinese trade in, importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_191">191</a> <i>and note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; + shipping of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; + Japanese trade in, ii. <a href="#Page_116" >116</a>.</li> + +<li>Smith, Arthur, cited, ii. <a href="#Page_368" >368</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Smuggling" id="Smuggling">Smuggling</a>— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's efforts against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; + extract from his report on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>.</li> +<li> Elliot's offer to suppress, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +<li> England, in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li> Prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>.</li> +<li> Salt merchants vigilant against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +<li> Trade disastrously affected by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Solomon, King, Chinese characteristics of, ii. <a href="#Page_369" >369</a> <i>note</i>.</li> + +<li>Spain, Alcock's work as army surgeon in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; + on Commission regarding payment of Foreign Legion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; + rheumatic fever contracted at San Sebastian, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li>Stanley, Lady Augusta, Alcock's work with, ii. <a href="#Page_479" >479</a>, <a href="#Page_480" >480</a>.</li> + +<li>Staveley, Brigadier-General, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + +<li>Stirling, Sir James, Japanese treaty of, ii. <a href="#Page_4" >4</a>.</li> + +<li>Swatow, ii. <a href="#Page_206" >206</a>.</li> + +<li>Swinhoe, Consul, ii. <a href="#Page_181" >181</a>, <a href="#Page_204" >204</a>, <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha"><a href="#Taiping">Taiping Rebellion</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> + +<li><a name="Taku" id="Taku">Taku</a> forts, British repulse at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>; + strengthened by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; + captured by Allies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; + occupied by Allies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>; + captured (1900), ii. <a href="#Page_436" >436</a>.</li> + +<li>Talien-wan— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> British suggestion regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_425" >425</a>.</li> +<li> Fortifications of, ii. <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_508' name='Page_508'>[508]</a></span></li> +<li> Russian seizure of, ii. <a href="#Page_427" >427</a>.</li> +<li> 'Times' letter on, ii. <a href="#Page_428" >428</a>-<a href="#Page_432" >432</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Tao-kuang, Emperor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Taotai, status of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Tartars, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li><a href="#taxation">Taxation</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> + +<li><a name="Tea" id="Tea">Tea</a> trade— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Clippers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>.</li> +<li> Consumption of tea, quality and quantity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Duties heavy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +<li> Foochow famous for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +<li> Hankow a new centre for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li> Importance of, in early Chinese trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>; + decline of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Thomson, J., quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Tibet, Bengali's friendly visits to, ii. <a href="#Page_305" >305</a>; + Indian expedition attempted, ii. <a href="#Page_306" >306</a>-<a href="#Page_310" >310</a>; + attack on British Sikkim, ii. <a href="#Page_311" >311</a>.</li> + +<li>Tientsin— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Arsenal established at, by Chunghou, ii. <a href="#Page_392" >392</a>.</li> +<li> Ch'un, Prince, introduced to foreigners at, ii. <a href="#Page_316" >316</a>.</li> +<li> Conference at (1840), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; + (1854), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>.</li> +<li> Elgin's treaty. <i>See</i> Treaties—Tientsin; + his hurried departure from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>.</li> +<li> Gordon's interviews with Li at, ii. <a href="#Page_292" >292</a>.</li> +<li> Gutzlaff's expedition to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#missionaries">Massacre at</a>. <i>See under</i> Missionaries.</li> +<li> Peking campaign, base of Allied troops during, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; + garrison left in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Tientsin">Treaty of</a>. <i>See under</i> Treaties.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ting, Admiral, ii. <a href="#Page_400" >400</a>, <a href="#Page_408" >408</a>.</li> + +<li>Tông-chow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Tongking, French conquest of, ii. <a href="#Page_326" >326</a>.</li> + +<li>Trade. <i>See</i> <a href="#commerce">Commerce</a>.</li> + +<li>Treaties— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's stand for integrity of, ii. <a href="#Page_101" >101</a>.</li> +<li> Anglo-German Agreement, ii. <a href="#Page_467" >467</a>, <a href="#Page_468" >468</a>, <a href="#Page_473" >473</a>.</li> +<li> Calcutta Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_312" >312</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Chefoo" id="Chefoo">Chefoo</a> Convention, negotiation and provisions of, ii. <a href="#Page_275" >275</a>-<a href="#Page_280" >280</a>, <a href="#Page_310" >310</a>, <a href="#Page_311" >311</a>; + criticism of, ii. <a href="#Page_280" >280</a>, <a href="#Page_251" >251</a>; + ratification of, ii. <a href="#Page_284" >284</a>, <a href="#Page_287" >287</a>.</li> +<li> Disregard of, chronic, ii. <a href="#Page_214" >214</a>, <a href="#Page_359" >359</a>.</li> +<li> Fournier Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_329" >329</a>.</li> +<li> Japan—Commodore Perry's, ii. <a href="#Page_2" >2</a>; + Townsend Harris's, ii. <a href="#Page_3" >3</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_39" >39</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>; + Sir J. Stirling's, ii. <a href="#Page_4" >4</a>; + Lord Elgin's, ii. <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>, <a href="#Page_99" >99</a>.</li> +<li> Li-Ito Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_302" >302</a>, <a href="#Page_303" >303</a>, <a href="#Page_389" >389</a>, <a href="#Page_408" >408</a>, <a href="#Page_409" >409</a>.</li> +<li> Livadia, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> +<li> "Most-favoured-nation" clause, ii. <a href="#Page_3" >3</a>, <a href="#Page_5" >5</a>, <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>, <a href="#Page_215" >215</a>, <a href="#Page_232" >232</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Nanking_Treaty" id="Nanking_Treaty">Nanking</a>, signing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; + Chinese hostility to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; + supplement to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>; + English opposition to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>; + working of, summed up by Alcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>; + evaded by Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_214" >214</a>; + restrictions of boundary imposed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>.</li> +<li> Peking (1860), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + (1886), ii. <a href="#Page_310" >310</a>.</li> +<li> St Petersburg, ii. <a href="#Page_293" >293</a>.</li> +<li> Shimonoseki, ii. <a href="#Page_387" >387</a>, <a href="#Page_418" >418</a>.</li> +<li> <a name="Tientsin" id="Tientsin">Tientsin</a>, ports opened by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>; + signing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>; + provisions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>; + residence at Peking a stipulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>; + Chinese view of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>; + suspension of residence clause, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; + ratified at Peking, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; + regarded as model for other Powers, ii. <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>; + revision preparations, ii. <a href="#Page_180" >180</a>-<a href="#Page_183" >183</a>; + revision discussed, ii. <a href="#Page_211" >211</a>-<a href="#Page_218" >218</a>; + supplementary convention signed, ii. <a href="#Page_218" >218</a>; + reviewed, ii. <a href="#Page_219" >219</a>, <a href="#Page_220" >220</a>; + not ratified, ii. <a href="#Page_220" >220</a>, <a href="#Page_221" >221</a>.</li> +<li> Toleration clauses, ii. <a href="#Page_224" >224</a>, <a href="#Page_225" >225</a>.</li> +<li> Yeh's contempt for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Tsên-Yü-ying, ii. <a href="#Page_270" >270</a>-<a href="#Page_273" >273</a>.</li> + +<li>Tsêng, the Marquis, negotiates ratification of Chefoo Convention, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>; + negotiates treaty at St Petersburg, ii. <a href="#Page_293" >293</a>; + Annam negotiations, ii. <a href="#Page_325" >325</a>; + member of Tsungli-Yamên, ii. <a href="#Page_351" >351</a>.</li> + +<li>Tsêng Kwo-Chuan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>Tsêng Kwo-fan, operations in Taiping Rebellion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>; + memorial regarding revision of treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_184" >184</a>; + intercourse with foreigners, ii. <a href="#Page_189" >189</a>; + action in Yangchow affair, ii. <a href="#Page_199" >199</a>-<a href="#Page_203" >203</a>; + action regarding Tientsin massacre, ii. <a href="#Page_240" >240</a>, <a href="#Page_243" >243</a>; + volunteer levies under, ii. <a href="#Page_377" >377</a>; + characteristics of, ii. <a href="#Page_378" >378</a>; + expulsion of foreigners suggested by, ii. <a href="#Page_464" >464</a> <i>note</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_509' name='Page_509'>[509]</a></span></li> + +<li>Tsushima, designs on, attributed to British, ii. <a href="#Page_108" >108</a>, <a href="#Page_109" >109</a>, <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>; + to French, ii. <a href="#Page_110" >110</a>; + Russian occupation of, ii. <a href="#Page_111" >111</a>-<a href="#Page_114" >114</a>.</li> + +<li>Tsingpu affair, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li>Tso Tsung-tang, ii. <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>, <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>, <a href="#Page_279" >279</a>.</li> + +<li><a href="#Tsungli">Tsungli-Yamên</a>. <i>See under</i> China.</li> + +<li>Tuan, Prince, characteristic action of (1900), ii. <a href="#Page_437" >437</a>; + progeny of, not in the succession, ii. <a href="#Page_456" >456</a>; + relations of, with Empress Regent obscure, ii. <a href="#Page_460" >460</a>.</li> + +<li>Tun, Prince, imperial claims of son of, ii. <a href="#Page_263" >263</a>; + grandson of, nominated heir-apparent, ii. <a href="#Page_460" >460</a>.</li> + +<li>Tungchih, Emperor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_260" >260</a>-<a href="#Page_262" >262</a>.</li> + +<li>Tycoon of Japan, Lord Elgin's treaty with, ii. <a href="#Page_6" >6</a>, <a href="#Page_7" >7</a>; + guards of, at foreign legations, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>, <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>, <a href="#Page_44" >44</a>, <a href="#Page_51" >51</a>-<a href="#Page_53" >53</a>; + Daimios' relation to, ii. <a href="#Page_38" >38</a>-<a href="#Page_41" >41</a>, <a href="#Page_60" >60</a>-<a href="#Page_65" >65</a>, <a href="#Page_67" >67</a>, <a href="#Page_68" >68</a>, <a href="#Page_76" >76</a>, <a href="#Page_93" >93</a>; + autograph letter to the Queen, ii. <a href="#Page_46" >46</a>; + the Queen's reply, ii. <a href="#Page_48" >48</a>; + envoys sent by, to Great Britain, ii. <a href="#Page_48" >48</a>, <a href="#Page_49" >49</a>; + second mission, ii. <a href="#Page_74" >74</a>, <a href="#Page_75" >75</a>; + Mikado's relation to, ii. <a href="#Page_71" >71</a>-<a href="#Page_73" >73</a>, <a href="#Page_85" >85</a>, <a href="#Page_92" >92</a>; + regret at Alcock's recall, ii. <a href="#Page_88" >88</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">United States. <i>See</i> <a href="#America">America</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Vatican, appeal to, ii. <a href="#Page_343" >343</a>.</li> + +<li>'Village Life in China' cited, ii. <a href="#Page_368" >368</a>.</li> + +<li>Vladivostock, Russian acquisition of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; + Czarevitch at, ii. <a href="#Page_323" >323</a>.</li> + +<li class="alpha">Wade, Sir Thomas, action in Taiping Rebellion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_133" >133</a>; + Inspector of Customs at Shanghai, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; + at Peking with Alcock (1865), ii. <a href="#Page_131" >131</a>; + career and characteristics of, ii. <a href="#Page_132" >132</a>-<a href="#Page_134" >134</a>; + views of, on Maritime Customs Inspectorship, ii. <a href="#Page_163" >163</a>, <a href="#Page_164" >164</a>; + on supplementary convention to Tientsin treaty, ii. <a href="#Page_220" >220</a>; + <i>chargé d'affaires</i> at Peking, ii. <a href="#Page_239" >239</a>, <a href="#Page_244" >244</a>; + views of, on audience of foreign Ministers, ii. <a href="#Page_261" >261</a>, <a href="#Page_262" >262</a>; + negotiations regarding Margary case, ii. <a href="#Page_270" >270</a>-<a href="#Page_275" >275</a>, 278; + negotiates Chefoo Convention, ii. <a href="#Page_275" >275</a>-<a href="#Page_279" >279</a>; + views of, on Chinese legislation, ii. <a href="#Page_279" >279</a>.</li> + +<li>Ward, Mr, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + +<li>Weihai-wei— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> British seizure of, ii. <a href="#Page_434" >434</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese forlorn hope at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>.</li> +<li> Early exploration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>.</li> +<li> Fortifications of, ii. <a href="#Page_397" >397</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Wênsiang, member of Tsungli-Yamên, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; + discredited by Lay-Osborn flotilla fiasco, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_375" >375</a>, <a href="#Page_391" >391</a>; + intimate relations with British Legation, ii. <a href="#Page_134" >134</a>, <a href="#Page_135" >135</a>; + concurs in strong measures against rioters, ii. <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>; + dislike of Hongkong, ii. <a href="#Page_216" >216</a>; + circular regarding control of missions attributed to, ii. <a href="#Page_246" >246</a>; + efforts regarding Pei-t'ang Cathedral, ii. <a href="#Page_342" >342</a>; + high qualities of, ii. <a href="#Page_374" >374</a>-<a href="#Page_376" >376</a>.</li> + +<li>Westminster Hospital, Alcock's work for, ii. <a href="#Page_478" >478</a>-<a href="#Page_480" >480</a>.</li> + +<li>Winchester, Consul, on Japanese currency, ii. <a href="#Page_18" >18</a>, <a href="#Page_23" >23</a>.</li> + +<li>Wolseley, Lieutenant-Colonel, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>.</li> + +<li>Wu, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li>Wusung— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Challenger on the bar at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li> Hong captured at, ii. <a href="#Page_301" >301</a>.</li> +<li> Opium trade at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Thirty mile radius, included in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="alpha">Yakub-beg, ii. <a href="#Page_290" >290</a>, <a href="#Page_291" >291</a>.</li> + +<li>Yangchow riot, ii. <a href="#Page_198" >198</a>-<a href="#Page_203" >203</a>, <a href="#Page_207" >207</a>.</li> + +<li>Yangtze river— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Advance of 200 miles up (1842), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; + Lord Elgin's voyage to Hankow (1858), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>.</li> +<li> Blockade of, suggested, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>.</li> +<li> Opening of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Yedo— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Alcock's arrival at, ii. <a href="#Page_15" >15</a>-<a href="#Page_17" >17</a>.</li> +<li> <a href="#Legation">British Legation</a>. <i>See under</i> Great Britain.</li> +<li> Choshiu's establishment at, destroyed, ii. <a href="#Page_83" >83</a>.</li> +<li> Hostility to foreigners, ii. <a href="#Page_35" >35</a>.</li> +<li> Legations, withdrawal of, to Yokohama, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>; + foreign guards at, ii. <a href="#Page_45" >45</a>; + improved residence for, ii. <a href="#Page_50" >50</a>.</li> +<li> Social conditions in, ii. <a href="#Page_122" >122</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Yeh, Viceroy, evades demands for right of entry into Canton, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>; + hostile to native shipowners, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; + asks British aid against Taipings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; + attitude towards foreigners, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; + offers reward for English heads, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>; + contemptuous of treaties, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>; + superseded, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; + capture and death of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a id='Page_510' name='Page_510'>[510]</a></span></li> + +<li>Yerburgh, Mr, ii. <a href="#Page_427" >427</a>.</li> + +<li>Yokohama— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Foreigners' residence prepared by Japanese at, ii. <a href="#Page_13" >13</a>; + improved, ii. <a href="#Page_90" >90</a>.</li> +<li> Garrison of British troops in, ii. <a href="#Page_77" >77</a>, <a href="#Page_78" >78</a>, <a href="#Page_84" >84</a>.</li> +<li> Legations' withdrawal to, during assassination period, ii. <a href="#Page_36" >36</a>.</li> +<li> Merchants' preference for, to Kanagawa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Tycoon's inability to maintain order in, ii. <a href="#Page_74" >74</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Yuan Shih-kai, ii. <a href="#Page_406" >406</a>.</li> + +<li>Yunnan— +<ul class="idx"> +<li> Burmese expedition and murder of Mr Margary, ii. <a href="#Page_266" >266</a>, <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>; + negotiations regarding, ii. <a href="#Page_267" >267</a>-<a href="#Page_276" >276</a>; + settlement of affair, ii. <a href="#Page_278" >278</a>.</li> +<li> Rebellion in, ii. <a href="#Page_290" >290</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div class='footnotes'> + +<h2 class="chap1"> +FOOTNOTES +</h2> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_1'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_1'>[1]</a></span> "We are never for a moment unwatched; ... if my servant runs after +a butterfly, a two-sworded official runs after him."—Laurence Oliphant, +Letter from Yedo, July 1861. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_2'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_2'>[2]</a></span> "As a general rule, our guardians exercise their functions with civility; +when they are impertinent, one has to submit as one would to one's jailor.... +With entire humility, one is in no danger whatever."—Oliphant, 2nd +July 1861. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_3'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_3'>[3]</a></span> The effect of the commercial isolation of Japan on the value of general +commodities was no less striking. The first foreign traders might have +bought with eyes shut nearly every article that was offered to them, so +great was the disparity of prices between Japan and her nearest markets. +Mr Hunter gives an interesting example. "I had in go-downs," he says, +"8000 piculs of sapan-wood imported from Manila unsaleable at one dollar +and a quarter per picul, which was about its cost. Immediately that the +opening of the port of Simoda to foreign trade was announced officially, an +English vessel was chartered to carry it there. Brief—it was sold for 35 +dollars per picul, and the proceeds were invested in Japanese vegetable +wax at a cost of 6½ dollars, and sold for $17 the picul (133⅓ lb. English)," so +that in the short voyage from China to Japan and back the capital multiplied +seventy times! +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_4'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_4'>[4]</a></span> A story is told of two Samurai meeting on a bridge which was too +narrow to allow of their passing each other. Neither being willing to +give way, they were about to settle the difficulty at the point of the sword, +when a peasant, strolling along the dry bed of the stream, offered to extricate +them without loss of dignity on either side. Amused at his impertinence, +and curious to see how he would effect his purpose, they consented +to humour him; and when each, following his instructions, was seated in +one of the baskets at either end of the pole he was carrying, he swung it +round on to the opposite shoulder, asked pardon, bowed, and went on his +way, leaving them each facing in the direction in which he would proceed. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_5'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_5'>[5]</a></span> Ieyasu says the Samurai are the masters of the four classes. Agriculturists, +artisans, and merchants may not behave in a rude manner towards +Samurai. The term for a rude man is, "other than expected fellow"; and +a Samurai is not to be interfered with in cutting down a fellow who has +behaved to him in a manner other than is expected. The Samurai are +grouped into direct retainers, secondary retainers and nobles, and retainers +of high and low grade; but the same line of conduct is equally allowable +to them all towards an "other than expected fellow." +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_6'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_6'>[6]</a></span> "All my old friends have disappeared," writes Laurence Oliphant on +his return to Yedo as secretary of Legation. "One who was an especial +favourite of mine when I was here last, ripped himself up a short time +ago; and two of the other commissioners are disgraced, and it is supposed +have followed his example. This was all on account of their friendship +for foreigners. Every one, down to the lowest interpreter, who has +had anything to do with the introduction of foreigners, has disappeared +or been disgraced." +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_7'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_7'>[7]</a></span> This man, Murioka by name, became afterwards well known to +foreigners, and was always ready to talk freely about the whole transaction. +When asked why he struck at a lady he would reply, "How +should I know, never having seen a foreign woman, least of all on +horseback?" +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_8'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_8'>[8]</a></span> It was a common thing for a Daimio to rid himself of the irksome +obligations of his position by abdicating in favour of his son. On better +acquaintance Shimadso Saburo proved a most genial old gentleman. Three +years later he entertained Sir Harry and Lady Parkes at his capital most +hospitably. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_9'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_9'>[9]</a></span> Count Inouyé, the foremost statesman of the new Japan, is said to have +confessed that he set fire to the British Legation with his own hand with +the express object of embarrassing the Tycoon's Government. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_10'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_10'>[10]</a></span> The following souvenir of Count Mutsu, Foreign Minister of Japan, +who died in 1897, told by Mr J. F. Lowder and quoted in 'Things Japanese' +by Mr Basil Hall Chamberlain, affords a graphic illustration of this +point. "In the very early Sixties, when he was in his nineteenth or twentieth +year, he was in Nagasaki desirous of acquiring a knowledge of English. A +lady of my acquaintance taking an interest in him used to devote an hour +or two every morning to teaching him to read and write, but it was not +long before he came to me despairing of his slow progress, and asking +whether I could not give him a berth on board ship where nothing but +English was spoken. Believing him to be physically too weak to stand +such an ordeal, I endeavoured to dissuade him, but without success; and +so with some misgivings I shipped him as a cabin-boy, which was the only +position I could obtain for him, on board a small British schooner that used +in those days to voyage between Nagasaki and Shanghai. How long he +remained on board I cannot say, but my recollection is that it was a very +considerable time." +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_11'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_11'>[11]</a></span> The foreign trade of Japan now (1900) approximates 40 millions +sterling, exports and imports being very nearly balanced. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_12'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_12'>[12]</a></span> There is more truth than may appear in the bishop's paradox. Peking +is singularly free from epidemics, except occasionally of smallpox. When +Shanghai suffered so severely from cholera in 1862, there were two British +regiments quartered there—one, the 67th, within the native city, amid +filth and stagnant water; the other, the 31st, in the foreign settlement, in +quarters carefully selected by the surgeon, Dr Rennie. The 31st lost a +third of its strength; the 67th suffered very little. Writing in August +1860 from Peitang, a town 500 yards square in the midst of a great swamp, +into which 17,000 men were huddled, Sir Hope Grant says: "Notwithstanding +the pestilential nature of the place, our troops, wonderful to say, +never enjoyed better health." +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_13'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_13'>[13]</a></span> See <i>infra</i>, "Revision of the Treaty," <a href="#Page_210" >pp. 210-222</a>. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_14'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_14'>[14]</a></span> <span lang="la"><i>Vide</i></span> 'U.S. Diplomatic Corresp.,' vol. ii. for 1867, p. 424. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_15'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_15'>[15]</a></span> He now knows better. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_16'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_16'>[16]</a></span> Germany in her treaty made no profession, but simply stipulated for +toleration. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_17'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_17'>[17]</a></span> M. Eugene Simon, one of the most distinguished of the French consuls +in China, in his book, <span lang='fr_FR'>'La Cité Chinoise,'</span> awards the credit of this performance +to M. Delamarre, <span lang='fr_FR'>"un prêtre des Missions étrangères,"</span> who acted +as Baron Gros' interpreter. <span lang='fr_FR'>"Je tiens,"</span> says M. Simon, <span lang='fr_FR'>"le fait de plusieurs +sources, et entre autres de M. Delamarre, qui se glorifait beaucoup de sa +supercherie."</span> +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_18'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_18'>[18]</a></span> Compare "Jesuits' Estates Act" in Canada, 1890, for which Mr Mercier +was decorated by the Pope. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_19'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_19'>[19]</a></span> It will be understood that a concise view of the general mission question +is all that is here aimed at, no distinction being drawn between branches +of the propaganda. Important as are their differences viewed from the +foreign standpoint, they are practically ignored by the Chinese, as we see +from the impartiality with which they visit resentment on all. Our +concern is with the impression produced by the propaganda as a whole, +gathered as far as possible from Chinese evidence and not from the +hypothetical arguments of foreign disputants. In other words, it is the +political bearing of the movement which alone we are endeavouring to +illustrate. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_20'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_20'>[20]</a></span> This measure was intended by the Chinese Government to facilitate +the local settlement of disputes where the facts were known, and so obviate +incessant appeals to the Central Government. It has not fulfilled its purpose, +partly because an important section of the propaganda declined to +avail itself of the concession offered to them. Indeed the form of the +concession implies a hierarchy which only Catholic missions possess. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_21'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_21'>[21]</a></span> For an unvarnished narrative of both the French and the Russian +advances the reader cannot do better than consult Mr Gundry's 'China +and her Neighbours,' Chapman & Hall, 1893. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_22'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_22'>[22]</a></span> "Experience shows us that in the eyes of the Chinese negotiation is +a sign of weakness."—Sir <span class='smcap'>F. Bruce.</span> +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_23'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_23'>[23]</a></span> "<i>Likin</i> is in its nature an oppressive institution only continued in force +owing to the necessity of providing resources to meet the army expenditure +in the north-west."—'Peking Gazette,' January 18, 1875. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_24'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_24'>[24]</a></span> See <i>infra</i>, <a href="#Page_343" >p. 343</a>. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_25'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_25'>[25]</a></span> See <i>infra</i>, <a href="#Page_330" >p. 330</a>. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_26'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_26'>[26]</a></span> 'Contemporary Review,' December 1884. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_27'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_27'>[27]</a></span> The effect of these imposing edifices, which dwarf into insignificance +the most pretentious native buildings, is well exemplified in the approach +to Canton, where the French cathedral church, erected on the site of the +Viceroy Yeh's <i>yamên</i>, is the only object visible, and where the idea of a +permanent memorial of defeat is well realised. It is not a conciliatory +policy; irresistible force is required to maintain it. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_28'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_28'>[28]</a></span> See <i>supra</i>, <a href="#Page_308" >p. 308</a>. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_29'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_29'>[29]</a></span> Village Life in China. By Arthur Smith, D.D. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_30'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_30'>[30]</a></span> An ingenious friend, who was kind enough to read this passage in MS., +sent me the following suggestive note: "King Solomon was a thorough +Chinaman, crafty, gaining the throne although the fourth and youngest son +of his mother; killing off the kingdom-maker, Joab, and murdering the +lawful heir, Adonijah. His fondness for pomp and joss pidjin, witness the +Queen of Sheba and the Temple; love of trade, his ventures with King +Hiram to Ophir. His apathy in military affairs, leading to the breaking +up of the empire. His love of sententious maxims, Proverbs. His truly +Chinese and non-Hebrew syncretism, worshipping Ashtoreth, Moloch, and +Chemosh, as well as Jehovah. Now David, judging by the weak characters +of his children, was, like many famous men in history, the reverse of prepotent. +Solomon was a son of erewhile widow Bathsheba. Uriah being a +Hittite, she was presumably one also. So Solomon would be practically +a Hittite—i.e., Mongolian or Tartar; a striking example of the newly-named +but long-observed phenomenon called telegony or 'throwing back.' +Solomon 'threw back' to the first sire, Uriah." +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_31'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_31'>[31]</a></span> "The boasted influence that the Government of China possesses over its +subjects is almost entirely <i>moral</i>, and they really do not possess the power +to cope with a popular tumult, which is the object of their greatest dread."—H. +Parkes, at Foochow, May 1, 1846, <i>æt.</i> seventeen. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_32'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_32'>[32]</a></span> The same who is now governor of Shantung. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_33'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_33'>[33]</a></span> See <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42732/42732-h/42732-h.htm#Page_38">vol. i. p. 38</a>. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_34'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_34'>[34]</a></span> Mr Freeman-Mitford, in 'The Attaché at Peking,' recently published, +tells the following good story illustrative of this (p. 168). M. de Mas, the +Spanish Minister, happening to be at the house of Hêng-Chi, and knowing +that he had a little son of whom he was inordinately proud, thought it +would be a very pretty compliment if he asked to see the little boy, who +was accordingly produced, sucking his thumb after the manner of his years. +Him his father ordered to pay his respects to M. de Mas—that is to say, +shake his united fists at him in token of salutation; instead of which the +child, after long silence and much urging, taking his thumb deliberately +out of his mouth roared out "Kwei-tzŭ" (devils) at the top of his voice +and fled. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_35'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_35'>[35]</a></span> Referring to the massacre of Armenian Christians, with regard to which +Germany took up a very different attitude from that now assumed towards +China—a circumstance, by the way, which serves to reduce the "Christian" +factor in the present intervention to its proper value. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_36'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_36'>[36]</a></span> Or, as M. Paul Boell expresses it, <span lang="fr_FR">"Traitant la Chine tantôt comme +un pouvoir tout à fait formidable, tantôt comme une puissance nègre de +septième ordre."</span> +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_37'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_37'>[37]</a></span> Kwanghsu, being first cousin to the deceased Emperor Tungchih, +could not, according to Chinese usage, be his heir. In adopting him, +therefore, as posthumous heir to the previous Emperor Hsienfêng, his +uncle, the Regent left her own son, the Emperor Tungchih, without an +heir, promising to supply the want from the future offspring of Kwanghsu, +or by some other adoption; but against this procedure strong protests +were made. The arrangement, however, conferred upon the Dowager-Empress, +as the widow of Hsienfêng, the authority of a mother over his +heir, a circumstance which to a large extent accounts for the filial deference +the reigning emperor has always paid to his adoptive mother. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_38'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_38'>[38]</a></span> Thirty years ago the great Nanking viceroy, Tsêng Kwo-fan, assured +the Government in a memorial to the throne that if the question of treaty +revision could not be satisfactorily arranged with foreigners, he had forces +enough under his orders to drive them all into the sea. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_39'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_39'>[39]</a></span> The question of removing the capital to a more convenient site has +been discussed academically—by foreigners—for many years, their view +being that Nanking would be the most suitable. No doubt a central point +open to the sea would be more convenient for the maritime Powers, but +that is evidently not an advantage which commends itself to the Chinese +themselves. During the Japanese war their strategists urged the removal +of the Court from Peking to Signan fu in Shensi, simply on the ground of +the inaccessibility of the latter site. The transport was prepared and the +Emperor was ready, but the Empress-Dowager vetoed the project. +</div> + +<div class='footnote' id='FN_40'> +<span class='label'><a href='#FA_40'>[40]</a></span> In 1863 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree +of D.C.L. +</div> +</div> + +<p class="center p4"> +THE END. +</p> + +<p class="center p4"> +PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. +</p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44548 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |