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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:44:09 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:44:09 -0700 |
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diff --git a/44495-h/44495-h.htm b/44495-h/44495-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c2de80 --- /dev/null +++ b/44495-h/44495-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,26187 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of History Of Civilization in England, Vol. III, by Henry Thomas Buckle. + </title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + + body {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + h1 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + h2 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 1.5em; + clear: both; + } + + p {margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + + p.title {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; + line-height: 1.4em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + + p.noindent {margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: 10%; + text-align: justify; + font-size: 1em; + line-height: 1.4em; + text-indent: 0; + } + + hr.hr65 {width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; + clear: both; + } + + hr.hr95 {width: 95%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 2.5%; + margin-right: 2.5%; + clear: both; + } + + div.note {border: black 1px dashed; + padding: 0.5em; + } + + ul {list-style-type: none; + font-size: 1em; + text-indent: -1em; + } + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + + td.chaptitle {text-align: left; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + td.page {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + .tdc {text-align: center;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 5%; + text-align: center; +} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ + +.poem-container {text-align: center;} + + .poem {display: inline-block; + text-align: left; + } + + .stanza span, + .stanza div, + .stanza p { + display: block; + line-height: 1.2em; + margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; + margin-top: 0; + } + + .poem br {display: none;} + + .poem .stanza {padding: 0.5em 0;} + + .poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; + } + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44495 ***</div> + +<h1>HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN ENGLAND.</h1> + +<p class="title">BY<br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 150%">HENRY THOMAS BUCKLE.</span><br /><br /><br /> +IN THREE VOLUMES.<br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%">VOL. III.</span><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%"><i>NEW EDITION.</i></span><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 150%">TORONTO:<br /> +ROSE-BELFORD PUBLISHING COMPANY,</span><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%">60 YORK STREET.<br /> +1878.</span></p> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> + +<h2>ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table summary="TOC"> + <colgroup> + <col width="90%" /> + <col width="10%" /> + </colgroup> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 125%">CHAPTER I.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND TO THE END OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle"> </td> + <td class="page">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Scotland and Spain are very dissimilar in regard to loyalty</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But are very similar in regard to superstition</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Scotch unite liberality in politics with illiberality in religion. +This is the largest and most important fact in their history; and the rest +of the Volume will be occupied in investigating its causes</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Influence of physical geography</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_5">5–7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Roman invasion of Scotland </td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_7">7–9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Irish invasion of Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Norwegian invasion of Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_11">11–12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">English invasion of Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_12">12–17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The injury which these invasions inflicted upon Scotland stopped the +growth of towns, and thereby favoured the power of the nobles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The power of the nobles was still further favoured by the physical +structure of the country</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_19">19–20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">And by the weakness of the Crown</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_20">20–21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence their authority had, before the close of the fourteenth century, +become enormous. The Crown, completely overshadowed by them, could derive +no aid from the citizens, because, owing to the circumstances just mentioned, +there were no cities</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_21">21–23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">For, industry was impossible, and the commonest arts were unknown</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_23">23–26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Evidence of the scanty population of the Scotch towns</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_26">26–30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">They were too feeble and insignificant to elect their own magistrates</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_32">32–33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The municipal element being thus imperfect, the only ally, which the +Crown could possibly find, was the Church</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_34">34–35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, a coalition between the kings and the clergy against the nobles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The clergy were the only body who could withstand the nobles. Causes of +the great influence of the clergy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_35">35–44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 125%">CHAPTER II.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Early in the fifteenth century, the alliance between the Crown and the +Church against the nobles, became obvious</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">James I. attacked the nobles, and favoured the Church; hoping thereby to +establish the supremacy of the throne</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But his policy failed, because it was opposed by the operation of general +causes</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_47">47–48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Besides failing, it produced his own destruction</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Power of the Douglases, who were at the head of the southern nobility</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_49">49–50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">James II. murdered the chiefs of that family</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_51">51–52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Crown, in its efforts against the nobles, was encouraged by the clergy; +and before the middle of the fifteenth century, the Church and the +aristocracy were completely estranged from each other</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_52">52–54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">James III., like James II. and James I., allied himself with the clergy +against the nobles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_55">55–56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Their power, however, was too deeply rooted to be shaken; and in 1488, +they put the king to death</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Still, and notwithstanding these successive failures, James IV. followed the +same policy as his predecessors</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">So did James V. Consequently the nobles imprisoned him, and ejected the +clergy from all offices in the state</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1528, James V. escaped; the Crown and the Church regained the ascendant, +and the principal nobles were banished</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">From this moment, the nobles hated the Church more than ever. Their hatred +brought about the Reformation</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_58">58–59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Active measures of the government against the nobles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_60">60–61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The nobles revenged themselves by becoming Reformers</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">James V., on the other hand, threw himself entirely into the arms of the Church</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_62">62–63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">As the nobles took the opposite side, and as the people had no influence, +the success or failure of the Reformation in Scotland was simply a question of the success or failure of the aristocratic power</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_65">65–68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1542, the nobles openly refused obedience to James V.; and their treatment +of him at this critical period of his life, broke his heart</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_68">68–69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle"> +Directly he died, they regained authority. The clergy were displaced, and +measures favourable to Protestantism were adopted</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_69">69–72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1546, Cardinal Beaton was assassinated, and Knox began his career<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_74">74–75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Subsequent proceedings of Knox</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_76">76–77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">While Knox was abroad, the nobles established the Reformation</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He returned to Scotland in 1559, by which time the struggle was nearly over</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1559, the queen regent was deposed; the nobles became supreme; and, in +1560, the Church was destroyed</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_80">80–84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Immediately this revolution was completed, the nobles and the preachers +began to quarrel about the wealth of the Church</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The nobles, thinking that they ought to have it, took it into their own hands</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_85">85–88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Thereupon, the Protestant preachers said that the nobles were instigated by +the devil</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_88">88–90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Morton, who was at the head of the nobility, became enraged at the +proceedings of the new clergy, and persecuted them</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_91">91–92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">A complete rupture between the two classes</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The clergy, finding themselves despised by the governing class, united themselves +heartily with the people, and advocated democratic principles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1574, Melville became their leader. Under his auspices, that great +struggle began, which never stopped until, sixty years later, it produced +the rebellion against Charles I.</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The first manifestations of this rebellious spirit was the attack on the +bishops</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1575, the attack began. In 1580, episcopacy was abolished</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_96">96–97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But the nobles upheld that institution, because they loved inequality for +the same reasons which made the clergy love equality</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_97">97–100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Struggle between the upper classes and the clergy respecting episcopacy </td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_100">100–103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1582, James VI. was imprisoned; and his captivity was justified by the +clergy, whose democratic principles were now openly proclaimed</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_103">103–104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Violent language used by the clergy against the king and against the nobles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_104">104–109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Their leader, Melville, personally insulted the king, and they were probably +privy to the Gowrie conspiracy in 1600</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Still, the clergy, notwithstanding the indecency of their conduct, conferred +the greatest of all boons upon Scotland, by keeping alive and nurturing the +spirit of liberty</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_111">111–114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 125%">CHAPTER III.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1603, the King of Scotland became also King of England, and determined +to use his new resources in curbing and chastising the Scotch clergy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_115">115–122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His cruel treatment of them</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_122">122–124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1610, James, backed by the power of England, forced episcopacy upon +Scotland. Courts of High Commission were also set up</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_125">125–127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Tyrannical conduct of the bishops</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_127">127–129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Meanwhile, a reaction was preparing</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_129">129–132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1637, the reaction declared itself, and, in 1638, the bishops were +overthrown</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_132">132–133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The movement being essentially democratic, could not stop there, but quickly +spread from the Church to the State. In 1639, war was made upon Charles I. +by the Scotch, who, having defeated the king, sold him to the English, who +executed him</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_134">134–136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Scotch, before they would crown Charles II., compelled him to humble +himself, and to confess his own errors and the errors of his family</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_136">136–137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But, after Charles II. mounted the throne of England, he became powerful +enough to triumph over the Scotch. He availed himself of that power to +oppress Scotland even more grievously than his two predecessors had done</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_137">137–140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Happily, however, the spirit of liberty was strong enough to baffle his +attempts to establish a permanent despotism</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Still, the crisis was terrible, and the people and their clergy were +exposed to every sort of outrage</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_141">141–146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Now, as before, the bishops aided the government in its efforts to enslave +Scotland. Being hated by the people, they allied themselves with the Crown, +and displayed the warmest affection towards James II., during whose reign +cruelties were perpetrated worse than any previously known</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In 1688, another reaction, in which the Scotch again freed themselves from +their oppressors</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The only powerful friends of this bad government were the Highlanders</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Reasons which induced the Highlanders to rebel in favour of the Stuarts</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_151">151–153</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Highland rebellions of 1715 and 1745 were not the result of loyalty</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_153">153–159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">After 1745, the Highlanders sank into complete insignificance, and the +progress of Scotland was uninterrupted</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_159">159</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Beginning of the trading spirit</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_160">160–161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Connexion between the rising of the trading spirit and the abolition, in +1748, of hereditary jurisdictions</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_161">161–162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The abolition of these jurisdictions was a symptom of the declining power +of the Scotch nobles, but not a cause of it</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">One cause of the decline of their power was the union with England, in 1707</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_162">162–167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Another cause was the failure of the Rebellion of 1745</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The nobles being thus weakened, were, in 1748, easily deprived of their right +of jurisdiction. In this way, they lost the last emblem of their old authority</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_169">169–170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">This great democratic and liberating movement was aided by the growth of +the mercantile and manufacturing classes</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_171">171–172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">And their growth was itself assisted by the Union with England</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Evidence of the rapid progress of the industrious classes in the first half +of the eighteenth century</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_173">173–183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">During the same period, a new and splendid literature arose in Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_183">183–184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But, unfortunately, this literature, notwithstanding its bold and inquisitive +spirit, was unable to diminish national superstition</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_184">184–186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">It is the business of the historian to ascertain the causes of its failure. +If he cannot do this, he cannot understand the history of Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The first and most essential quality of an historian, is a clear perception +of the great scientific doctrine of Law. But whoever seeks to apply this +doctrine to the whole course of history, and to elucidate, by its aid, the +march and theory of affairs, is met by obstacles which no single mind can +remove</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_186">186–190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 125%">CHAPTER IV.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="blockquot">AN EXAMINATION OF THE SCOTCH INTELLECT DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The rest of the Volume will be occupied with a still closer investigation of +the double paradox presented by the history of Scotland; namely, 1st, that +the same people should be liberal in politics, and illiberal in religion; +and, 2nd, that the free and sceptical literature which they produced in the +eighteenth century, should have been unable to lessen their religious +illiberality</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Their religious illiberality was the result of the immense power possessed +by their clergy in the seventeenth century. The causes of that power will +be examined in the present chapter</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_192">192</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The failure of their literature in diminishing this illiberality during +the eighteenth century, was the result of the peculiar method of the +inquiry adopted by the Scotch philosophers. The causes of the universal +diffusion of that method, the nature of the method, and the consequences +of it, will be examined in the next chapter, which will conclude the +Volume</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_192">192–193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Circumstances in the seventeenth century favourable to the influence of +the Scotch clergy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_193">193–197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">While the English war against Charles I. was essentially political, the +Scotch war against him was essentially religious</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_197">197–200</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Though this was the effect of Scotch superstition, it was also a cause of +its further progress</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, in the seventeenth century, secular interests were neglected, and +theological ones became supreme. Illustration of this, from the zeal of +the people to hear sermons of inordinate frequency and of terrible +length; so that they passed the greater part of their lives in what were +erroneously termed religious exercises</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_203">203–206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The clergy availed themselves of these habits to extend and consolidate +their own authority</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_205">205–206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Their great engine of power was the Kirk-Session. Tyranny of the +Kirk-Sessions</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_206">206–210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Monstrous pretensions of the clergy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_210">210–212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Cases in which it was believed that these pretensions were upheld and +vindicated by miracles</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_212">212–220</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The clergy, becoming elated, indulge in language of extraordinary +arrogance</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_221">221–227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">They asserted that miracles were wrought in their behalf, and often on +their persons</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_228">228–229</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Effect of these proceedings upon the Scotch mind</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_230">230–232</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The clergy, to intimidate the people, and bring them completely under +control, advocated horrible notions concerning evil spirits and future +punishments</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_232">232–243</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">With the same object they propounded notions more horrible still, +respecting the Deity, whom they represented as a cruel, passionate, and +sanguinary Being</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_245">245–252</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">They moreover declared that harmless and even praiseworthy actions were +sinful, and would provoke the Divine wrath</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_251">251–262</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">To prevent such imaginary sins, the clergy made arbitrary regulations, +and punished those who disobeyed them, sometimes by flogging, and +sometimes by branding with hot irons, and sometimes in other ways</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_262">262–263</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Specimens of the sins which the clergy invented</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_264">264–268</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The result was, that all mirth, all innocent gaiety, all demonstrations +of happiness, and nearly all physical enjoyments, were destroyed in +Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_268">268–269</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, the national character was mutilated. For, the pleasures of the +body are, in our actual condition, as essential a part of the great +scheme of life, and are as necessary to human affairs, as are the +pleasures of the mind</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_269">269–271</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But the clergy, by denouncing these pleasures of the senses, do what they +can, in every country, to diminish the total amount of happiness of which +humanity is susceptible, and which it has a right to enjoy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_271">271–275</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In no Protestant country have the clergy pushed these narrow and unsocial +tenets so far as in Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_275">275–276</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Indeed, in some respects, the Scotch clergy were more ascetic than those +of any branch of the Catholic Church, except the Spanish; since they +attempted to destroy the affections, and to sever the holiest ties of +domestic love</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_276">276–279</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 125%">CHAPTER V.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="blockquot">AN EXAMINATION OF THE SCOTCH INTELLECT DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Scotch philosophical literature of the eighteenth century, was a +reaction against the theological spirit of the seventeenth</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But the peculiarity of the philosophy which now arose, is that, instead +of being an inductive philosophy, it was a deductive one</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_281">281–282</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">This is well worthy of notice; because the inductive method being +essentially anti-theological, it might have been expected that the +opponents of the theological spirit would have followed that method</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_282">282–284</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The truth, however, was, that the theological spirit had taken such hold +of the Scotch mind, that it was impossible for the inductive method to +gain a hearing</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_284">284–289</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, the secular philosophy of the eighteenth century, though new in +its results, was not new in the method by which those results were +obtained</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In this respect, Scotland is similar to Germany, but dissimilar to +England</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_289">289–290</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Summary of the most important distinctions between induction and +deduction</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The whole of the Scotch philosophy, physical as well as metaphysical, is +deductive</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hutcheson's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_292">292–304</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Its results and tendency</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_292">292–299</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Its method</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_299">299–304</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Adam Smith's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_304">304–330</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> and his <i>Wealth of Nations</i> are +different parts of one subject. To understand either, we must study both</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_304">304–305</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His deductive method depended upon a suppression of premisses</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_304">304–309</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Account of his <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i></td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_309">309–314</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Account of his <i>Wealth of Nations</i></td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_314">314–330</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hume's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_331">331–349</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His want of imagination</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_331">331–332</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Importance and novelty of his doctrines</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_333">333–337</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His method was eminently deductive; and he, like Adam Smith, cared little +for experience</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_337">337–341</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, his injustice to Bacon, whose method was diametrically opposed to +his own</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_338">338–339</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His <i>Natural History of Religion</i></td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_342">342–348</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Comparison between the method of this work, and the method employed by +Cudworth</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Reid's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_349">349–361</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His timidity made him look at the practical tendency of speculative +doctrines, instead of confining himself to the question of their truth or +falsehood</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_349">349–354</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But a philosopher should deem it his business to ascertain new truths, +without regard to their consequences</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_349">349–350</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Reid attacked Hume's method, because he disliked the results to which +that method had led</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_354">354–355</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">And yet, in raising his own philosophy, he followed the very same method +himself</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_355">355–359</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Estimate of the value of what Reid effected</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_359">359–360</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Opposition between the method of Reid and that of Bacon</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_360">360–361</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In physical philosophy, the deductive method was equally prevalent in +Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_361">361–seq.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The laws of heat</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Indestructibility of force. Interchange of forces</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_362">362–365</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Black's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_367">367–377</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His theory of latent heat prepared the way for subsequent discoveries</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_367">367–371</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His method was deductive, and does not come under any of the rules of the +Baconian philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_371">371–372</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He reasoned from his principles speculatively, instead of +occupying himself with a long course of experiments</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_372">372–377</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">To do this was to indulge the imagination, which is deemed dangerous by +the inductive school of English physicists. But, in the pursuit of truth, +we need all our powers; and the advance of physical science is retarded +by our neglect of the imaginative and emotional faculties</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_377">377–382</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Black, therefore, did immense service by giving free scope, to the +imagination. The same plan was pursued by his successor, Leslie</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_383">383</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Leslie's philosophy of heat</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_383">383–388</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He derived great aid from poetry</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_385">385</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">And was unjust to Bacon, whose inductive views he disliked</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Fire and water are the two causes which have altered, and are still +altering, the crust of the earth. The supposition that volcanic action +was formerly more powerful than at present, is quite consistent with the +doctrines of an unbroken sequence of events, and of the uniformity of +natural laws</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_388">388–390</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The action of fire and water on the crust of the earth, may be studied +deductively, by computing separately the probable operation of each. Or +they maybe studied inductively, by observing their united effects, and +rising from the effects to the causes; while the deductive plan is to +descend from the causes to the effects</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_390">390–391</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Of these two methods, the English followed the inductive; the Scotch and +Germans followed the deductive</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">English geology founded by William Smith</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">German geology founded by Werner</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_393">393–395</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Scotch geology founded by Hutton</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The English observed effects in order to ascertain causes. The Germans, +assuming water to be the cause, reasoned from it to the effects. The +Scotch, assuming heat to be the cause, made its principles the first step +in their argument</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_391">391–396</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Reasons which made the Scotch geologists argue from the principles of +heat, instead of, like the German geologists, arguing from the principles +of water</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Though Hutton founded the theory of metamorphic rocks, and ascribed such +immense importance to heat, he would not take the trouble of examining a +single region of active volcanos, where he might have seen those very +operations of nature, respecting which he speculated</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But, by a deductive application of the principles unfolded by Black, he +arrived at a conclusion concerning the consolidation of strata by heat</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_399">399–400</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">That conclusion was entirely speculative, and unsupported by experience</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Though experiment might perhaps verify it, no one had yet made the trial; +and Hutton was too averse to the inductive method to undertake the +investigation himself</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_400">400–401</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Sir James Hall afterwards took the matter up, and empirically verified +the great idea which Hutton had propounded</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_401">401–402</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Watt's invention of the steam-engine, and discovery of the composition of +water</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_402">402–406</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Contrast between the method by which he, as a Scotchman, discovered the +composition of water, and the opposite method by which the Englishman, +Cavendish, made the same discovery at the same time</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_404">404–406</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle"> +Nature of the evidence of the supposed difference between the organic and +inorganic world. Life is probably a property of all matter</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_406">406–410</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Assuming, however, for the purposes of classification, that the organic +world is fundamentally different from the inorganic, we may divide +organic science into physiology and pathology</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_410">410–412</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The two great Scotch pathologists are Cullen and John Hunter. Hunter, +having a larger mind than Cullen, was also a physiologist</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_412">412</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Account of Cullen's philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_413">413–427</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His love of theory</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Theory, though necessary in science, is dangerous in practice</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_414">414–416</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Difference between the science of pathology and the art of therapeutics</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_417">417–418</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Comparison between the method of Cullen's pathology and the method +employed by Adam Smith</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_417">417–419</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Cullen's theory of the solids</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_420">420–seq.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He refused to inquire into the truth of the principles from which he +argued</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_421">421–422</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His conclusions, like his premisses, represent only a part of the truth, +and were extremely one-sided. Still, their value is unquestionable, +forming, as they did, a necessary part of the general progress</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_423">423–424</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His theory of fever</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_424">424–426</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His nosology</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_426">426–427</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The philosophy of John Hunter</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_428">428–458</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His grandeur, and, unfortunately, his obscurity of language</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_428">428–430</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In his mind, the inductive and deductive methods struggled for mastery. +Their conflict oppressed him. This is one of the causes of the darkness +of his thoughts and consequently of his style</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_429">429–432</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His natural disposition was towards deduction</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But circumstances made him inductive, and he collected facts with +untiring industry</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_432">432–434</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">By this means he made a large number of curious physiological discoveries</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_434">434–436</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He traced the history of the red globules of the blood, and arrived at +the conclusion that their function is to strengthen the system rather +than to repair it</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_436">436–437</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Long after his death, this inference was corroborated by the progress of +miscroscopical and chemical researches. It was especially corroborated by +Lecanu's comparison of the blood in different sexes, and in different +temperaments.</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_439">439</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hunter's inquiries concerning the movements of animals and vegetables</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_439">439–441</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">He recognized the great truth that the sciences of the inorganic world +must be the foundation of those of the organic</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His object was, to unite all the physical sciences, in order to show +that, the operations of nature being always uniform, regularity prevails +even amidst the greatest apparent irregularity</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_443">443–444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Hence, aiming chiefly at a generalization of irregularities, his +favourite study was pathology</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_444">444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In his pathological inquiries, he took into account the malformations of +crystals</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">As a physiologist, he was equalled or excelled by Aristotle; but as a +pathologist, he is unrivalled for the grandeur of his views</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_446">446–447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">In pathology, his love of deduction was more obvious than in physiology</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">His pathological speculations respecting the principles of +action and the principles of sympathy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_448">448–452</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">But his English contemporaries, being eminently inductive, so disliked +his method, that he exercised scarcely any influence over them</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">This is the more observable, because his discoveries respecting disease +have caused him to be recognized as the founder of modern surgery, and +the principal author of the doctrines now taught in the medical +profession</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_454">454–457</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Such were the great results achieved by Scotchmen in the eighteenth +century. Difference between this splendid literature and the wretched +productions of the Scotch mind in the seventeenth century.</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_458">458–460</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Notwithstanding this difference, the deductive method was supreme in both +centuries</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The deductive method strikes the senses less than the inductive. Hence, +induction being more accessible to average understandings, is more +popular than deduction. Hence, too, the teachings of an inductive +philosophy are more likely to affect national character than the teaching +of a deductive philosophy</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_461">461–464</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Theology forms the only exception to this rule</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_464">464–465</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The Scotch literature of the eighteenth century, being essentially +deductive, was, on that account, unable to affect the nation. It was, +therefore, unable to weaken national superstition</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_465">465–469</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">Superstition and religious illiberality still existing in Scotland</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_469">469–471</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">The notions countenanced there respecting the origin of epidemics. +Correspondence which, in consequence of those notions, took place, in +1853, between the Scotch Church and the English Government</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_471">471–476</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chaptitle">These superstitions are eminently irreligious, and are everywhere +becoming effaced, as physical science advances. Nothing else can touch +them. Hence the gradual liberation of the human mind from the slavish and +unmanly fears by which it has long been oppressed</td> + <td class="page" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_476">476–482</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 175%;">HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN ENGLAND.</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND TO THE END OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</div> + +<p>In the preceding view of the rise and decay of Spain, +I have sought to exhibit the successive steps by +which what was formerly one of the greatest nations of +the earth, was broken, and cast down from its high +estate. As we look back on that scene, the picture is, +indeed, striking. A country rich in all natural productions, +inhabited by a brave, a loyal, and a religious +people, removed, too, by its geographical position from +the hazards of European revolutions, did, by the operation +of those general causes which I have indicated, +suddenly rise to unparalleled grandeur; and then, without +the occurrence of any new combination, but by a +mere continuance of the same causes, fall with an equal +velocity. Yet, these vicissitudes, strange and startling +as they appear, were perfectly regular. They were the +legitimate consequence of a state of society, in which +the spirit of protection had reached its highest point, +and in which, every thing being done for the people, +nothing was done by the people. Whenever this happens, +there may be great political progress, but there +can be no really national progress. There may be accessions +of territory, and vast increase of fame and of power.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +There may be improvements in the practice of administration, +in the management of finances, in the organization +of armies, in the art and theory of war, in the tricks +of diplomacy, and in those various contrivances by which +one nation is able to outwit and insult another. So +far, however, from this benefiting the people, it will +injure them in two different ways. In the first place, +by increasing the reputation of the ruling classes, it +encourages that blind and servile respect which men +are too apt to feel for those who are above them, and +which, wherever it has been generally practised, has +been found fatal to the highest qualities of the citizen, +and therefore to the permanent grandeur of the nation. +And, in the second place, it multiplies the resources of +the executive government, and thus renders the country +unable, as well as unwilling, to correct the errors of +those who are at the head of affairs. Hence, in Spain, +as in all countries similarly circumstanced, it was at the +very moment when things were most prosperous at +the surface, that they were most rotten at the foundation. +In presence of the most splendid political success, +the nation hastened to its downfall, and the crisis was +fast approaching, in which, the whole edifice being overturned, +nothing would be left, except a memorable +warning of the consequences which must ensue, when +the people, giving themselves up to the passions of +superstition and loyalty, abdicate their own proper +functions, forego their own responsibility, renounce +their highest duties, and degrade themselves into passive +instruments to serve the will of the Church and +the throne.</p> + +<p>Such is the great lesson taught by the history of +Spain. From the history of Scotland, we may gather +another lesson, of a different, and yet of a similar, kind. +In Scotland, the progress of the nation has been very +slow, but, on the whole, very sure. The country is +extremely barren; the executive government has, with +rare exceptions, been always weak; and the people have +never been burdened with those feelings of loyalty which +circumstances had forced upon the Spaniards. Certainly, +the last charge that will be brought against the Scotch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +is that of superstitious attachment to their princes.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +We, in England, have not always been very tender of +the persons of our sovereigns, and we have occasionally +punished them with what some consider excessive +severity. With this, we have been frequently taunted +by the more loyal nations of the Continent; and, in +Spain in particular, our conduct has excited the greatest +abhorrence. But, if we compare our history with that +of our northern neighbours, we must pronounce ourselves +a meek and submissive people.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> There have +been more rebellions in Scotland than in any other +country; and the rebellions have been very sanguinary, +as well as very numerous. The Scotch have made war +upon most of their kings, and put to death many. To +mention their treatment of a single dynasty, they murdered +James I. and James III. They rebelled against +James II. and James VII. They laid hold of James V.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +and placed him in confinement. Mary, they immured +in a castle, and afterwards deposed. Her successor, +James VI., they imprisoned; they led him captive about +the country, and on one occasion attempted his life. +Towards Charles I., they showed the greatest animosity, +and they were the first to restrain his mad career. Three +years before the English ventured to rise against that +despotic prince, the Scotch boldly took up arms, and +made war on him. The service which they then rendered +to the cause of liberty it would be hard to overrate; +but the singular part of the transaction was, that +having afterwards got possession of the person of Charles, +they sold him to the English for a large sum of money, +of which they, being very poor, had pressing need. Such +a sale is unparalleled in history; and although the Scotch +might have plausibly alleged that this was the only +gain they had derived, or ever could derive, from the +existence of their hereditary prince, still the event is +one which stands alone; it was unprecedented; it has +never been imitated; and its occurrence is a striking +symptom of the state of public opinion, and of the feelings +of the country in which it was permitted.</p> + +<p>While, however, in regard to loyalty, the opposition +between Scotland and Spain is complete, there is, strange +to say, the most striking similarity between those countries +in regard to superstition. Both nations have +allowed their clergy to exercise immense sway, and +both have submitted their actions, as well as their +consciences, to the authority of the Church. As a +natural consequence, in both countries, intolerance has +been, and still is, a crying evil; and in matters of religion, +a bigotry is habitually displayed, discreditable indeed +to Spain, but far more discreditable to Scotland, +which has produced many philosophers of the highest +eminence, who would willingly have taught the people +better things, but who have vainly attempted to remove +from the national mind that serious blemish which mars +its beauty, and tends to neutralize its many other admirable +qualities.</p> + +<p>Herein lies the apparent paradox, and the real difficulty, +of Scotch history. That knowledge should not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +have produced the effects which have elsewhere followed +it; that a bold and inquisitive literature should be found +in a grossly superstitious country, without diminishing +its superstition; that the people should constantly withstand +their kings, and as constantly succumb to their +clergy; that while they are liberal in politics, they +should be illiberal in religion; and that, as a natural +consequence of all this, men who, in the visible and +external department of facts and of practical life, display +a shrewdness and a boldness rarely equalled, should +nevertheless, in speculative life, and in matters of theory, +tremble like sheep before their pastors, and yield assent +to every absurdity they hear, provided their Church has +sanctioned it; that these discrepancies should coexist, +seems at first sight a strange contradiction, and is surely +a phenomenon worthy of our careful study. To indicate +the causes of this anomaly, and to trace the results to +which the anomaly has led, will be the business of the +remaining part of this volume; and although the investigation +will be somewhat lengthy, it will not, I hope, +be considered prolix, by those who recognise the importance +of the inquiry, and are aware how completely +it has been neglected, even by those who have written +most fully on the history of the Scottish nation.</p> + +<p>In Scotland, as elsewhere, the course of events has +been influenced by its physical geography; and by this +I mean, not only its own immediate peculiarities, but +also its relation to adjoining countries. It is close to +Ireland; it touches England; and by the contiguity of +the Orkney and Shetland Isles, it was eminently exposed +to the attacks of that great nation of pirates, +which for centuries inhabited the Scandinavian peninsula. +Considered merely by itself, it is mountainous +and sterile; nature has interposed such obstacles, that +it was long impossible to open regular communications +between its different parts, which, indeed, in regard to +the Highlands, was not effected till after the middle of +the eighteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Finally, and this, as we shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +presently see, was a matter of great importance, the +most fertile land in Scotland is in the south, and was,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +therefore, constantly ravaged by the English borderers. +Hence, the accumulation of wealth was hindered; the +growth of towns was discouraged, by the serious hazards +to which they were liable; and it was impossible to develop +that municipal spirit, which might have existed, if +the districts most favoured by nature had been situated +in the north of Scotland, instead of in the south. If +the actual state of things had been reversed, so that the +Highlands were in the south,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and the Lowlands in the +north, it can hardly be doubted, that, after the cessation +in the thirteenth century of the great Scandinavian invasions, +the most fertile parts of Scotland, being comparatively +secure, would have been the seat of towns, +which the active spirit of the people would have caused +to prosper, and the prosperity of which would have introduced +a new element into Scotch affairs, and changed +the course of Scotch history. This, however, was not +to be; and, as we have to deal with events as they actually +are, I will now endeavour to trace the consequences +of the physical peculiarities which have just +been noticed; and by coördinating their results, I +will, so far as I am able, show their general meaning, +and the way in which they have shaped the national +character.</p> + +<p>The earliest fact with which we are acquainted +respecting the history of Scotland, is the Roman invasion +under Agricola, late in the first century. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +neither his conquests, nor those of his successors, made +any permanent impression. The country was never +really subjugated, and nothing was effected except a +military occupation, which, in spite of the erection of +numerous forts, walls, and ramparts, left the spirit of +the inhabitants unbroken. Even Severus, who, in the +year 209, undertook the last and most important expedition +against Scotland, does not appear to have penetrated +beyond the Firth of Moray;<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and directly he +retired, the natives were again in arms, and again +independent. After this, nothing was attempted upon +a scale large enough to give a chance of success. +Indeed, the Romans, far from being equal to such an +effort, were themselves deteriorating. In their best +days, their virtues were the virtues of barbarians, and +even those they were now about to lose. From the +beginning, their scheme of life was so one-sided and +imperfect, that the increase of wealth, which improves +the civilization of really civilized countries, was to the +Romans an irreparable mischief; and they were corrupted +by luxury, instead of being refined by it. In +our time, if we compare the different nations of Europe, +we find that the richest are also the most powerful, the +most humane, and the most happy. We live in that +advanced state of society, in which wealth is both the +cause and the effect of progress, while poverty is the +fruitful parent of weakness, of misery, and of crime. +But the Romans, when they ceased to be poor, began to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +be vicious. So unstable was the foundation of their +greatness, that the very results which their power +produced, were fatal to the power itself. Their empire +gave them wealth, and their wealth overthrew their +empire. Their national character, notwithstanding its +apparent strength, was in truth of so frail a texture, +that it was ruined by its own development. As it +grew, it dwarfed. Hence it was, that, in the third and +fourth centuries, their hold on mankind visibly slackened. +Their authority being undermined, other nations, +of course, stepped in; so that the inroads of those +strange tribes which came pouring from the north, and +to whose appearance the final catastrophe is often +ascribed, were at best the occasion, but by no means +the cause, of the fall of the Roman Empire. Towards +that great and salutary event, every thing had long been +pointing. The scourgers and oppressors of the world, +whom a false and ignorant sympathy has invested with +noble qualities which they never possessed, had now to +look to themselves; and when, after receding on all +sides, they, in the middle of the fifth century, withdrew +their forces from the whole of Britain, they merely +executed a movement, which a train of circumstances, +continued through several generations, had made +inevitable.</p> + +<p>It is at this point that we begin to discern the operation +of those physical and geographical peculiarities +which I have mentioned as influencing the fortunes of +Scotland. The Romans, gradually losing ground, the +proximity of Ireland caused repeated attacks from that +fertile island, whose rich soil and great natural advantages +gave rise to an exuberant, and therefore a restless, +population. An overflow, which, in civilized times, is +an emigration, is, in barbarous times, an invasion. +Hence the Irish, or Scotti as they were termed, established +themselves by force of arms in the west of +Scotland, and came into collision with the Picts, who +occupied the eastern part. A deadly struggle ensued, +which lasted four centuries after the withdrawal of the +Romans, and plunged the country into the greatest +confusion. At length, in the middle of the ninth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +century, Kenneth M'Alpine, king of the Scotti, gained +the upper hand, and reduced the Picts to complete +submission.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The country was now united under one +rule; and the conquerors, slowly absorbing the conquered, +gave their name to the whole, which, in the +tenth century, received the appellation of Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>But the kingdom was to have no rest. For, in the +mean time, circumstances, which it would be tedious to +relate, had raised the inhabitants of Norway to be the +greatest maritime power in Europe. The use which +that nation of pirates made of their strength, forms +another and a very important link in the history of +Scotland, and moreover illustrates the immense weight, +which, in an early period of society, should be assigned +to mere geographical considerations. The nearest land +to the centre of the long coast of Norway is the Shetland +Isles, whence it is an easy sail to the Orkneys. +The northern pirates naturally seized these small, but, +to them, most useful islands, and, as naturally, made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +them intermediate stations, from which they could +conveniently pillage the coasts of Scotland. Being +constantly reinforced from Norway, they, in the ninth +and tenth centuries, advanced from the Orkneys, made +permanent settlements in Scotland itself, and occupied +not only Caithness, but also great part of Sutherland. +Another body of them got possession of the Western +Islands; and as Skye is only separated from the +mainland by a very narrow channel, these pirates easily +crossed over, and fixed themselves in Western Ross.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> +From their new abodes, they waged incessant and +destructive war against every district within their +reach; and, keeping a large part of Scotland in constant +alarm, they, for about three centuries, prevented the +possibility of its social improvement. Indeed, that +unhappy country was never free from the dangers of +Norwegian invasion, until the failure of the last great +attack, in 1263, when Haco left Norway with a prodigious +armament, which he further strengthened by +reinforcements from the Orkneys and Hebrides. Scotland +could offer but little resistance. Haco, with his +allies, sailed along the western coast to the Mull of +Kentire, wasted the country with fire and sword, took +Arran and Bute, entered the Firth of Clyde, suddenly +fell upon Loch Lomond, destroyed all the property on +its shores and on its islands, ravaged the whole county +of Stirling, and threatened to descend with all his force +upon Ayrshire. Fortunately, the inclemency of the +weather broke up this great expedition, and scattered +or destroyed the entire fleet.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> After its dispersal, the +course of affairs in Norway prevented the attempt from +being renewed; and danger from that quarter being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +over, it might have been hoped that Scotland would +now enjoy peace, and would have leisure to develop the +natural resources which she possessed, particularly those +in the southern and more favoured districts.</p> + +<p>This, however, was not to be. For, scarcely were +the attacks from Norway at an end, when those from +England began. Early in the thirteenth century, the +lines of demarcation which separated Normans from +Saxons, were, in our country, becoming so obliterated, +that in many cases it was impossible to distinguish +them.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> By the middle of the same century, the two +races were fused into one powerful nation; and, as that +nation had a comparatively feeble neighbour, it was +certain that the stronger people would try to oppress +the weaker.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> In an ignorant and barbarous age, +military success is preferred to all other kinds of fame; +and the English, greedy for conquest, set their eyes +upon Scotland, which they were sure to invade at the +first opportunity. That Scotland was near, made it +tempting; that it was believed to be defenceless, made +the temptation irresistible. In 1290, Edward I. determined +to avail himself of the confusion into which +Scotland was thrown by disputes respecting the succession +of the crown. The intrigues which followed, +need not be related; it is enough to say, that, in 1296, +the sword was drawn, and Edward invaded a country +which he had long desired to conquer. But he little +recked of the millions of treasure, and the hundreds of +thousands of lives, which were to be squandered, before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +that war was over.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The contest that ensued was of +unexampled length and severity; and in its sad course, +the Scotch, notwithstanding their heroic resistance, and +the victories they occasionally gained, had to endure +every evil which could be inflicted by their proud and +insolent neighbour. The darling object of the English, +was to subjugate the Scotch; and if anything could +increase the disgrace of so base an enterprise, it would +be that, having undertaken it, they ignominiously +failed.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The suffering, however, was incalculable, and +was aggravated by the important fact, that it was +precisely the most fertile part of Scotland which was +most exposed to the English ravages. This, as we +shall presently see, produced some very curious results +on the national character; and for that reason, I will, +without entering into many details, give a slight summary +of the more immediate consequences of this long +and sanguinary struggle.</p> + +<p>In 1296, the English entered Berwick, the richest +town Scotland possessed, and not only destroyed all the +property, but slew nearly all the inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +then marched on to Aberdeen and Elgin; and so +completely desolated the country, that the Scotch, +flying to the mountains, and stripped of their all, had +no resource left but to wage from their native fastnesses +a war similar to that which their savage ancestors, +twelve centuries earlier, had conducted against the +Romans.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> In 1298, the English again broke in, burnt +Perth and St. Andrews, and ravaged the whole territory +south and west.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> In 1310, they invaded Scotland by +the eastern march, and carrying off such provisions as +were left, caused so terrible a dearth, that the people +were forced to feed on horses and other carrion.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> All +over southern Scotland, both east and west, the inhabitants +were now reduced to a horrible condition, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +for the most part houseless and starved. In 1314, made +desperate by their state, they rallied for a moment, and, +in the battle of Bannockburn, gloriously defeated their +oppressors. But their unrelenting enemy was at hand, +and pressed them so hard, that, in 1322, Bruce, in order +to baffle an English invasion, was obliged to lay waste +all the districts south of the Firth of Forth; the people +taking refuge, as before, in the mountains.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> This +time, therefore, when Edward II. reached Edinburgh, +he plundered nothing, because, the country being a +desert, there was nothing to plunder; but, on his +return, he did what he could, and meeting with some +convents, which were the only signs of life that he +encountered, he fell upon them, robbed the monasteries +of Melrose and Holyrood, burnt the abbey of Dryburgh, +and slew those monks who, from age or disease, were +unable to escape.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> In 1336, the next king, Edward +III., equipped a numerous army, devastated the Lowlands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +and great part of the Highlands, and destroyed +every thing he could find, as far as Inverness.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> In +1346, the English overran the districts of Tweeddale, +the Merse, Ettrick, Annandale, and Galloway;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> and in +1355, Edward, in a still more barbarous inroad, burnt +every church, every village, and every town he approached.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +And scarcely were these frightful losses +somewhat repaired, when another storm burst upon the +devoted land. In 1385, Richard II. traversed the +southern counties to Aberdeen, scattering destruction on +every side, and reducing to ashes the cities of Edinburgh, +Dunfermline, Perth, and Dundee.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<p>By these disasters, the practice of agriculture was +every where interrupted, and in many places ceased for +several generations.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The labourers either fled, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +were murdered; and there being no one to till the +ground, some of the fairest parts of Scotland were +turned into a wilderness, overgrown with briers and +thickets. Between the invasions, a few of the inhabitants, +taking courage, issued from the mountains, and +raised wretched huts in the place of their former +abodes. But, even then, they were pursued to their +very doors by wolves, searching for food, and maddened +with hunger. If they escaped from these +famished and ferocious animals, they and their families +were exposed to a danger still more horrible. For, +in those terrible days, when famine stalked abroad, +despair perverted the souls of men, and drove them to +new crime. There were cannibals in the land; and we +have it on contemporary authority, that a man and his +wife, who were at length brought to justice, subsisted +during a considerable period on the bodies of children, +whom they caught alive in traps, devouring their flesh, +and drinking their blood.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>Thus the fourteenth century passed away. In the +fifteenth century, the devastations of the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +became comparatively rare; and although the borders +were the scene of constant hostilities,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> there is no +instance, since the year 1400, of any of our kings invading +Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> An end being put to those +murderous expeditions, which reduced the country to +a desert, Scotland drew breath, and began to recover +her strength.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> But, though the material losses were +gradually repaired; though the fields were again cultivated, +and the towns rebuilt, there were other consequences, +which were less easy to remedy, and from +whose effects the people long smarted. These were +inordinate power of the nobles, and the absence of the +municipal spirit. The strength of the nobles, and the +weakness of the citizens, are the most important peculiarities +of Scotland during the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries; and they, as I am about to show, were +directly encouraged by the ravages committed by the +English troops. We shall, moreover, see that this +combination of events increased the authority of the +clergy, weakened the influence of the intellectual +classes, and made superstition more prevalent than it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +would otherwise have been. It is in this way, that in +Scotland, as in all other countries, every thing is linked +together; nothing is casual or accidental; and the +whole march of affairs is governed by general causes, +which, owing to their largeness and remoteness, often +escape attention, but which, when once recognized, +are found to be marked by a simplicity and uniformity, +which are the invariable characteristics of the highest +truths that the mind of man has reached.</p> + +<p>The first circumstance favourable to the authority of +the nobles, was the structure of the country. Mountains, +fens, lakes, and morasses, which even the resources +of modern art have only recently made accessible +supplied the great Scottish chieftains with retreats, +in which they could with impunity defy the power of +the crown.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The poverty of the soil also, made it +difficult for armies to find means of subsistence; and +from this cause alone, the royal troops were often +unable to pursue the lawless and refractory barons.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +During the fourteenth century, Scotland was constantly +ravaged by the English; and in the intervals of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +their absence, it would have been a hopeless undertaking +for any king to try to repress such powerful +subjects, since he would have had to march through +districts so devastated by the enemy, that they no +longer yielded the common necessaries of life. Besides +this, the war with the English lessened the authority +of the crown, absolutely as well as relatively. Its +patrimony, lying in the south, was incessantly wasted +by the borderers, and before the middle of the fourteenth +century, greatly deteriorated in value.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In +1346, David II. fell into the hands of the English, and +during his captivity of eleven years, the nobles carried +all before them, and affected, says an historian, the +style and title of princes.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The longer the war with +England continued, the more these consequences were +felt; so that before the close of the fourteenth century, +a few of the leading Scotch families had raised themselves +to such preëminence, that it was evident, either +that a deadly struggle must ensue between them and +the crown, or else that the executive government +would have to abdicate its most essential functions, +and leave the country a prey to these headstrong and +ferocious chiefs.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>At this crisis, the natural allies of the throne would +have been the citizens and free burgesses, who in most +European countries were the eager and resolute opponents +of the nobles, whose licentious habits interfered +not only with their trade and manufactures, but also +with their personal liberty. Here again, however, the +long war with England was favourable to the aristocracy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +of Scotland. For, as the invaders ravaged the +southern parts of Scotland, which were also the only +tolerably fertile parts, it was impossible that towns +should flourish in the places which nature had appointed +for them. There being no large cities, there +was no asylum for the citizens, and there could be no +municipal spirit. There being no municipal spirit, +the crown was deprived of that great resource, which +enabled the English kings to curtail the power of the +nobles, and to punish a lawlessness which long +impeded the progress of society.</p> + +<p>During the middle ages, the Scotch towns were so +utterly insignificant, that but few notices have been +preserved of them; contemporary writers concentrating +their attention upon the proceedings of the nobles +and clergy. Respecting the people, who found shelter +in such miserable cities as then existed, our best +accounts are very imperfect; it is, however, certain +that, during the long English wars, the inhabitants +usually fled at the approach of the invaders, and the +wretched hovels in which they lived were burned to the +ground.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Hence the population acquired a fluctuating +and vagabond character, which prevented the formation +of settled habits of industry, and thus took away +one reason which men have for congregating together. +This applied more especially to the southern Lowlands; +for the north, there were other evils equally threatening. +The ferocious Highlanders, who lived entirely +by plunder, were constantly at hand; and to them +were not unfrequently added the freebooters of the +Western Isles. Any thing which bore even the +semblance of wealth, was an irresistible excitement to +their cupidity. They could not know that a man +had property, without longing to steal it; and, next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +to stealing, their greatest pleasure was to destroy.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> +Aberdeen and Inverness were particularly exposed to +their assaults; and twice during the fifteenth century, +Inverness was totally consumed by fire, besides having +to pay at other times a heavy ransom, to save itself +from a similar fate.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<p>Such insecurity<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> both on the north and on the south, +made peaceful industry impossible in any part of Scotland. +No where could a town be built, without being +in danger of immediate destruction. The consequence +was, that, during many centuries, there were no manufactures; +there was hardly any trade; and nearly all +business was conducted by barter.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Some of the commonest +arts were unknown. The Scotch were unable +to make even the arms with which they fought. This, +among such a warlike people, would have been a very +profitable labour; but they were so ignorant of it, that, +early in the fifteenth century, most of the armour +which they wore was manufactured abroad, as also were +their spears, and even their bows and arrows; and the +heads of these weapons were entirely imported from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +Flanders.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Indeed, the Flemish artizans supplied +the Scotch with ordinary farming implements, such as +cart-wheels and wheel-barrows, which, about the year +1475, used to be regularly shipped from the Low Countries.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> +As to the arts which indicate a certain degree +of refinement, they were then, and long afterwards, +quite out of the question.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> Until the seventeenth century, +no glass was manufactured in Scotland,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> neither +was any soap made there.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Even the higher class of +citizens would have deemed windows absurd in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +wretched abodes;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and as they were alike filthy in +their persons as in their houses, the demand for soap +was too small to induce any one to attempt its manufacture.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> +Other branches of industry were equally +backward. In 1620, the art of tanning leather was +for the first time introduced into Scotland;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> and it is +stated, on apparently good authority, that no paper was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +made there until about the middle of the eighteenth +century.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>In the midst of such general stagnation, the most +flourishing towns were, as may be easily supposed, very +thinly peopled. Indeed, men had so little to do, that if +they had collected in large numbers, they must have +starved. Glasgow is one of the oldest cities in Scotland, +and is said to have been founded about the sixth century.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +At all events, in the twelfth century, it was, +according to the measure of that age, a rich and prosperous +place, enjoying the privilege of holding both a +market and a fair.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> It had also a municipal organization, +and was governed by its own provosts and baillies.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Yet, even this famous town had no kind of trade before +the fifteenth century, when the inhabitants began +to cure salmon, and export it.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> That was the only +branch of industry with which Glasgow was acquainted. +We need not, therefore, be surprised at hearing, that so +late as the middle of the fifteenth century, the entire +population did not exceed fifteen hundred persons, whose +wealth consisted of some small cattle, and a few acres of +ill-cultivated land.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>Other cities, though bearing a celebrated name, were +equally backward at a still more recent period. Dunfermline +is associated with many historic reminiscences; +it was a favourite residence of Scotch kings, and many +Scotch parliaments have been held there.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Such events +are supposed to confer distinction; but the illusion vanishes, +when we inquire more minutely into the condition +of the place where they happened. In spite of the +pomp of princes and legislators, Dunfermline, which at +the end of the fourteenth century was still a poor village, +composed of wooden huts,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> had, by the beginning +of the seventeenth century, advanced so slowly that its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +whole population, including that of its wretched suburbs, +did not exceed one thousand persons.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> For a Scotch +town, that was a considerable number. About the same +time, Greenock, we are assured, was a village consisting +of a single row of cottages, tenanted by poor fishermen.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> +Kilmarnock, which is now a great emporium of industry +and of wealth, contained, in 1668, between five and +six hundred inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> And, to come down still +lower, even Paisley itself, in the year 1700, possessed a +population which, according to the highest estimate, +did not amount to three thousand.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>Aberdeen, the metropolis of the north, was looked up +to as one of the most influential of the Scotch towns, +and was not a little envied during the Middle Ages, for +its power and importance. These, however, like all +other words, are relative, and mean different things at +different periods. Certainly, we shall not be much struck +by the magnitude of that city, when we learn, from calculations +made from its tables of mortality, that so late +as 1572, it could only boast of about two thousand nine +hundred inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Such a fact will dispel many a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +dream respecting the old Scotch towns, particularly +if we call to mind that it refers to a date, when the +anarchy of the Middle Ages was passing away, and +Aberdeen had for some time been improving. That city—if +so miserable a collection of persons deserves to be +termed a city—was, nevertheless, one of the most densely +peopled places in Scotland. From the thirteenth century +to the close of the sixteenth, no where else were +so many Scotchmen assembled together, except in +Perth, Edinburgh, and possibly in Saint Andrews.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Respecting +Saint Andrews, I have been unable to meet with +any precise information;<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> but of Perth and Edinburgh, +some particulars are preserved. Perth was long the +capital of Scotland, and after losing that preëminence, it +was still reputed to be the second city in the kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +Its wealth was supposed to be astonishing; and every +good Scotchman was proud of it, as one of the chief +ornaments of his country.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> But, according to an estimate +recently made by a considerable authority in these +matters, its entire population, in the year 1585, was +under nine thousand.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> This will surprise many readers; +though, considering the state of society at that time, +the real wonder is, not that there were so few, but that +there were so many. For, Edinburgh itself, notwithstanding +the officials and numerous hangers-on, which +the presence of a court always brings, did not contain, +late in the fourteenth century, more than sixteen thousand +persons.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Of their general condition, a contemporary +observer has left us some account. Froissart, +who visited Scotland, and records what he saw, as well +as what he heard, gives a lamentable picture of the state +of affairs. The houses in Edinburgh were mere huts, +thatched with boughs; and were so slightly put together, +that when one of them was destroyed, it only took three +days to rebuild it. As to the people who inhabited these +wretched hovels, Froissart, who was by no means given +to exaggeration, assures us, that the French, unless they +had seen them, could not have believed that such destitution +existed, and that now, for the first time, they +understood what poverty really was.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + +<p>After this period, there was, no doubt, considerable +improvement; but it was very slow, and even late +in the sixteenth century, skilled labour was hardly +known, and honest industry was universally despised.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +It is not, therefore, surprising, that the citizens, poor, +miserable, and ignorant, should frequently purchase +the protection of some powerful noble by yielding to +him the little independence that they might have retained.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> +Few of the Scotch towns ventured to elect +their chief magistrate from among their own people; +but the usual course was, to choose a neighbouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +peer as provost or baillie.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Indeed, it often happened +that his office became hereditary, and was looked upon +as the vested right of some aristocratic family.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> To +the head of that family, every thing gave way. His +authority was so incontestable, that an injury done +even to one of his retainers was resented, as if it had +been done to himself.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> The burgesses who were sent +to parliament, were completely dependent on the noble +who ruled the town. Down to quite modern times, +there was in Scotland no real popular representation. +The so-called representatives were obliged to vote as +they were ordered; they were, in fact, delegates of the +aristocracy; and as they possessed no chamber of their +own, they sat and deliberated in the midst of their +powerful masters, by whom they were openly intimidated.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, it would have been idle +for the crown to have expected aid from a body of men +who themselves had no influence, and whose scanty +privileges existed only on sufferance. But there was +another class, which was extremely powerful, and to +which the Scotch kings naturally turned. That class +was the clergy; and the interest which both parties +had in weakening the nobles, caused a coalition between +the church and the throne, against the aristocracy. +During a long period, and indeed until the latter half +of the sixteenth century, the kings almost invariably +favoured the clergy, and increased their privileges in +every way they could. The Reformation dissolved +this alliance, and gave rise to new combinations, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +I shall presently indicate. But while the alliance +lasted, it was of great use to the clergy, by imparting +to their claims a legitimate sanction, and making them +appear the supporters of order and of regular government. +The result, however, clearly proved that the +nobles were more than equal to the confederacy which +opposed them. Indeed, looking at their enormous +power, the only wonder is, that the clergy could have +prolonged the contest as they did; since they were not +actually overthrown until the year 1560. That the +struggle should have been so arduous, and should have +extended over so considerable a period, is what, on a +superficial view, no one could have expected. The +reason of this, I shall now endeavour to explain; and +I shall, I trust, succeed in proving, that in Scotland +there was a long train of general causes, which secured +to the spiritual classes immense influence, and which +enabled them, not only to do battle with the most +powerful aristocracy in Europe, but to rise up, after +what seemed their final defeat, fresh and vigorous +as ever, and eventually to exercise, as Protestant +preachers, an authority nowise inferior to that which +they had wielded as Catholic priests.</p> + +<p>Of all Protestant countries, Scotland is certainly +the one where the course of affairs has for the longest +period been most favourable to the interests of superstition. +How these interests were encouraged during +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, I shall hereafter +relate. At present, I purpose to examine the +causes of their early growth, and to show the way in +which they were not only connected with the Reformation, +but gave to that great event some peculiarities +which are extremely remarkable, and are diametrically +opposed to what happened in England.</p> + +<p>If the reader will bear in mind what I have elsewhere +stated,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> he will remember that the two principal +sources of superstition are ignorance and danger; +ignorance keeping men unacquainted with natural +causes, and danger making them recur to supernatural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +ones. Or, to express the same proposition in other +words, the feeling of veneration, which, under one of +its aspects, takes the form of superstition, is a product +of wonder and of fear;<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and it is obvious that wonder +is connected with ignorance, and that fear is connected +with danger.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Hence it is, that whatever in any +country increases the total amount of amazement, or +whatever in any country increases the total amount +of peril, has a direct tendency to increase the total +amount of superstition, and therefore to strengthen the +hands of the priesthood.</p> + +<p>By applying these principles to Scotland, we shall +be able to explain several facts in the history of that +country. In the first place the features of its scenery +offer a mark contrast to those of England, and are +much more likely, among an ignorant people, to +suggest effective and permanent superstitions. The +storms and the mists, the darkened sky flashed by +frequent lightning, the peals of thunder reverberating +from mountain to mountain, and echoing on every side, +the dangerous hurricanes, the gusts sweeping the innumerable +lakes with which the country is studded, +the rolling and impetuous torrent flooding the path of +the traveller and stopping his progress, are strangely +different to those safer and milder phenomena, among +which the English people have developed their prosperity, +and built up their mighty cities. Even the +belief in witchcraft, one of the blackest superstitions +which has ever defaced the human mind, has been +affected by these peculiarities; and it has been well +observed, that while, according to the old English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +creed, the witch was a miserable and decrepit hag, +the slave rather than the mistress of the demons +which haunted her, she, in Scotland, rose to the +dignity of a potent sorcerer, who mastered the evil +spirit, and, forcing it to do her will, spread among the +people a far deeper and more lasting terror.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> + +<p>Similar results were produced by the incessant and +sanguinary wars to which Scotland was exposed, and +especially by the cruel ravages of the English in the +fourteenth century. Whatever religion may be in the +ascendant, the influence of its ministers is invariably +strengthened by a long and dangerous war, the uncertainties +of which perplex the minds of men, and induce +them, when natural resources are failing, to call on the +supernatural for help. On such occasions, the clergy +rise in importance; the churches are more than usually +filled; and the priest, putting himself forward as the +exponent of the wishes of God, assumes the language +of authority, and either comforts the people under +their losses in a righteous cause, or else explains to +them that those losses are sent as a visitation for their +sins, and as a warning that they have not been sufficiently +attentive to their religious duties; in other +words, that they have neglected rites and ceremonies, +in the performance of which the priest himself has a +personal interest.</p> + +<p>No wonder, therefore, that in the fourteenth century, +when the sufferings of Scotland were at their height, +the clergy flourished more than ever; so that as the +country became poorer, the spiritual classes became +richer in proportion to the rest of the nation. Even in +the fifteenth, and first half of the sixteenth century, +when industry began somewhat to advance, we are +assured that notwithstanding the improvement in the +position of laymen, the whole of their wealth put together, +and including the possessions of all ranks, was +barely equal to the wealth of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> If the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +hierarchy were so rapacious and so successful during a +period of comparative security, it would be difficult to +overrate the enormous harvest they must have reaped +in those earlier days, when danger being much more +imminent, hardly any one died without leaving something +to them; all being anxious to testify their respect +towards those who knew more than their fellows, and +whose prayers could either avert present evil, or secure +future happiness.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> + +<p>Another consequence of these protracted wars was, +that a more than ordinary proportion of the population +embraced the ecclesiastical profession, because in it +alone there was some chance of safety: and the monasteries +in particular were crowded with persons who +hoped, though frequently in vain, to escape from the +burnings and slaughterings to which Scotland was +exposed. When the country, in the fifteenth century, +began to recover from the effects of these ravages, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +absence of manufactures and of commerce, made the +Church the best avenue to wealth;<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> so that it was +entered by peaceful men for the purpose of security, +and by ambitious men as the surest means of achieving +distinction.</p> + +<p>Thus it was, that the want of great cities, and of +that form of industry which belongs to them, made the +spiritual classes more numerous than they would otherwise +have been; and what is very observable is, that +it not only increased their number, but also increased +the disposition of the people to obey them. Agriculturists +are naturally, and by the very circumstances of +their daily life, more superstitious than manufacturers, +because the events with which they deal are more +mysterious, that is to say, more difficult to generalize +and predict.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Hence it is, that, as a body, the inhabitants +of agricultural districts pay greater respect to the +teachings of their clergy than the inhabitants of manufacturing +districts. The growth of cities has, therefore, +been a main cause of the decline of ecclesiastical power; +and the fact that, until the eighteenth century, Scotland +had nothing worthy of being called a city, is one of +many circumstances which explain the prevalence of +Scotch superstition, and the inordinate influence of the +Scotch clergy.</p> + +<p>To this, we must add another consideration of great +moment. Partly from the structure of the country, +partly from the weakness of the Crown, and partly from +the necessity of being constantly in arms to repel +foreign invaders, the predatory habits incidental to an +early state of society were encouraged, and consequently +the reign of ignorance was prolonged. Little was +studied, and nothing was known. Until the fifteenth +century, there was not even an university in Scotland, +the first having been founded at St. Andrews in 1412.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> +The nobles, when they were not making war upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +enemy, occupied themselves in cutting each other's +throats, and stealing each other's cattle.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Such was +their ignorance, that, even late in the fourteenth century, +there is said to be no instance of a Scotch baron +being able to sign his own name.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> And as nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +approaching to a middle class had been yet formed, we +may from this gain some idea of the amount of knowledge +possessed by the people at large.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> Their minds +must have been immersed in a darkness which we can +now barely conceive. No trades, or arts, being practised +which required skill, or dexterity, there was +nothing to exercise their intellects. They consequently +remained so stupid and brutal, that an intelligent +observer, who visited Scotland in the year 1360, likens +them to savages, so much was he struck by their barbarism +and their unsocial manners.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Another writer, +early in the fifteenth century, uses the same expression; +and classing them with the animals which they tended, +he declares that Scotland is fuller of savages than of +cattle.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<p>By this combination of events, and by this union of +ignorance with danger, the clergy had, in the fifteenth +century, obtained more influence in Scotland than in +any other European country, Spain alone excepted. +And as the power of the nobles had increased quite as +rapidly, it was natural that the Crown, completely +overshadowed by the great barons, should turn for aid +to the Church. During the fifteenth century, and part +of the sixteenth, this alliance was strictly preserved;<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> +and the political history of Scotland is the history of +a struggle by the kings and the clergy against the +enormous authority of the nobles. The contest, after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +lasting about a hundred and sixty years, was brought to +a close in 1560, by the triumph of the aristocracy, and +the overthrow of the Church. With such force, however, +had the circumstance just narrated, engrained superstition +into the Scotch character, that the spiritual +classes quickly rallied, and, under their new name of +Protestants, they became as formidable as under their +old name of Catholics. Forty-three years after the establishment +of the Reformation in Scotland, James VI. +ascended the throne of England, and was able to array +the force of the southern country against the refractory +barons of the northern. From that moment the Scotch +aristocracy began to decline; and the equipoise to the +clergy being removed, the Church became so powerful, +that, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, +it was the most effectual obstacle to the progress of +Scotland; and even now it exercises a sway which is +incomprehensible to those who have not carefully studied +the whole chain of its antecedents. To trace with +minuteness the long course of affairs which has led to +this unfortunate result, would be incompatible with +the object of an Introduction, whose only aim it is to +establish broad and general principles. But, to bring +the question clearly before the mind of the reader, it will +be necessary that I should give a slight sketch of the +relation which the nobles bore to the clergy in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and of the way in +which their relative positions, and their implacable +hatred of each other, brought about the Reformation. +By this means, we shall perceive, that the great Protestant +movement, which, in other countries, was +democratic, was in Scotland aristocratic. We shall +also see, that, in Scotland, the Reformation, not being +the work of the people, has never produced the effects +which might have been expected from it, and which it +did produce in England. It is, indeed, but too evident, +that, while in England Protestantism has diminished +superstition, has weakened the clergy, has increased +toleration, and, in a word, has secured the triumph of +secular interests over ecclesiastical ones, its result in +Scotland has been entirely different; and that, in that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +country, the Church, changing its form, without altering +its spirit, not only cherished its ancient pretensions, +but unhappily retained its ancient power; and that, +although that power is now dwindling away, the Scotch +preachers still exhibit, whenever they dare, an insolent +and domineering spirit, which shows how much real +weakness there yet lurks in the nation, where such +extravagant claims are not immediately silenced by the +voice of loud and general ridicule.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> One of their own historians complacently says, ‘but the +Scots were seldom distinguished for loyalty.’ <i>Laing's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 199, edit. 1819. See also p. 366. To the same +effect, Brodie (<i>History of the British Empire</i>, Edinburgh, 1822, vol. +i. p. 388): ‘The little respect paid to royalty is conspicuous in every +page of Scottish history.’ Or, as Wilkes expressed himself in the House +of Commons, ‘Scotland seems, indeed, the natural <i>foyer</i> of rebellion, +as Egypt is of the plague.’ <i>Parliamentary History</i>, vol. xix. p. 810, +London, 1814; and Nimmo (<i>History of Stirlingshire</i>, Edinburgh, 1777, p. +219): ‘Never was any race of monarchs more unfortunate than the +Scottish. Their reigns were generally turbulent and disastrous, and +their own end often tragical.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Indeed, a well-known Scotchman of the seventeenth century, +scornfully says of the English, ‘such is the obsequiousness, and almost +superstitious devotion of that nation towards their prince.’ <i>Baillie's +Letters</i>, vol. i. p. 204, edit. Laing, Edinburgh, 1841. This, however, +was written in 1639, since which we have effectually wiped off that +reproach. On the other hand, an English writer of the seventeenth +century, indignantly, though with evident exaggeration, imputes to the +Scotch that ‘forty of their kings have been barbarously murdered by +them; and half as many more have either made away with themselves, for +fear of their torturing of them, or have died miserably in strait +imprisonment.’ <i>Account of Scotland in</i> 1670, in <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>, +vol. vi. p. 140, edit. Park, 4to, 1810. Compare two curious passages in +<i>Shields' Hind let loose</i>, 1687, pp. 8, 9, 15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> In England, the travelling was bad enough; in Scotland, it +was far worse. Morer, stating what he saw in 1689, says ‘Stage-coaches +they have none; yet there are a few Hackney's at Edinburgh, which they +may hire into the country upon urgent occasions. The truth is, the roads +will hardly allow 'em those conveniences, which is the reason that their +gentry, men and women, chuse rather to use their horses.’ <i>Morer's +Account of Scotland</i>, London, 1702, p. 24.</p> + +<p>As to the northern parts, we have the following account, written in +Inverness, between 1726 and 1730. ‘The Highlands are but little known +even to the inhabitants of the low country of Scotland, for they have +ever dreaded the difficulties and dangers of travelling among the +mountains; and, when some extraordinary occasion has obliged any one of +them to such a progress, he has, generally speaking, made his testament +before he set out, as though he were entering upon a long and dangerous +sea-voyage, wherein it was very doubtful if he should ever return.’ +<i>Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland</i>, edit. London, 1815, +vol. i. p. 4. Between 1720 and 1730, military roads were cut through +parts of the Highlands, but they were ‘laid down by a practical soldier, +and destined for warlike purposes, with scarcely any view towards the +ends for which free and peaceful citizens open up a system of internal +transit,’ <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 255. See also +<i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 36. This is confirmed by the fact, +that even between Inverness and Edinburgh, ‘until 1755, the mail was +conveyed by men on foot.’ Account of Inverness-shire, in <i>M<sup>c</sup>Culloch's +British Empire</i>, London, 1847, vol. i. p. 299; to which I may add, that +in <i>Anderson's Essay on the Highlands</i>, Edinburgh, 1827, pp. 119, 120, +it is stated, that ‘A postchaise was first seen in Inverness itself in +1760, and was, for a considerable time, the only four-wheeled carriage +in the district.’ As to the communications in the country about Perth, +see <i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, pp. 131, 132, Perth, 1836; and as to +those from Aberdeen to Inverness, and from Aberdeen to Edinburgh, see +<i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. ii. pp. 269, 270, London, 4to, +1818.</p> + +<p>The history of the improvement of the roads during the latter half of +the eighteenth century, has never been written; but it is of the +greatest importance for its intellectual results, in causing national +fusion, as well as for its economical results, in helping trade. Some +idea may be formed of the extraordinary energy displayed by Scotland in +this matter, by comparing the following passages: <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 494, 865, 939, vol. iii. pp. 599, 799; <i>Crawfurd's History +of the Shire of Renfrew</i>, part ii. pp. 128, 160; <i>Irving's History of +Dumbartonshire</i>, pp. 245, 246; <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 109, 210, 367, 430, 496; vol. ii. p. 498; vol. +iii. pp. 331, 352, 353; vol. iv. p. 313; vol. v. pp. 128, +234, 235, 315, 364, 365; vol. vi. pp. 107, 154, 180, 458; vol. vii. pp. +135, 251, 275, 299, 417; vol. viii. pp. 81, 243, 344, 345, 541; vol. ix. +pp. 414, 530; vol. x. pp. 221, 237, 238, 466, 618; vol. xi. pp. 127, +380, 418, 432, 522, 541; vol. xii. p. 59; vol. xiii. pp. 42, 141, 488, +542, 663; vol. xiv. pp. 217, 227, 413, 443, 466, 506; vol. xv. pp. 54, +88, 276; vol. xvi. p. 120; vol. xvii. pp. 5, 267, 297, 377, 533; vol. +xviii. p. 309; vol. xx. p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> I use the word Highlands, in the common, though improper, +sense of including all Scotland from the Pentland Firth to the beginning +of the mountains, a few miles north of Glasgow, Stirling, Perth, and +Dundee. All such distinctions are necessarily somewhat vague, because +the boundaries of nature are never clearly marked. Compare <i>Macky's +Scotland</i>, p. 124, London, 1732, with <i>Anderson's Guide to the +Highlands</i>, Edinburgh, 1847, pp. 17, 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Browne (<i>History of the Highlands</i>, vol. i. p. 33) says +that ‘he traversed the whole of North Britain, from the wall of +Antoninus to the very extremity of the island.’ The same thing is stated +in <i>Pennant's Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 90. Neither of these writers quote +their authority for this; but they probably relied on a passage in +<i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. iv. p. 94. ‘Neque tamen +desideratis quinquaginta millibus (ut scribit Dion) prius ab incœpto +destiterunt, quam ad finem insulæ penetrassent.’ I believe, however, +that Scotch antiquaries are now agreed that this is wrong, as Chalmers +was one of the first to perceive. See his <i>Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 187; a +very valuable and learned, but unhappily ill-arranged, book, and written +in a style which is absolutely afflicting. See also <i>Irving's History of +Dumbartonshire</i>, 4to, 1860, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The history of Scotland, in this period, is in great +confusion, and perhaps will never be recovered. For the statements made +in the text, I have chiefly used the following authorities: <i>Fordun's +Scotichronicon</i>, vol. i.; <i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. +v. pp. 121–132, and the beginning of the sixth book. Also various parts +of <i>Bede</i>; <i>Pinkerton's Enquiry into the Early History of Scotland</i>; +<i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>; the first volume of <i>Browne's History of the +Highlands</i>; and, above all, Mr. Skene's acute and learned work on the +Highlanders. In the last-named book, the western boundary of the Picts +is traced with great ingenuity, though perhaps with some uncertainty. +<i>Skene's Highlanders of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 26–33, London, 1837.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Here, again, we are involved in doubt; it being uncertain +when the name Scotia was first applied to Scotland. The date, therefore, +which I have given, is only intended as an approximative truth. In +arriving at it, I have compared the following different, and often +conflicting, passages: <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 339. <i>Browne's +History of the Highlands</i>, vol. i. p. 34. <i>Pinkerton's Enquiry into the +Early History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 253, 254, vol. ii. pp. 151, 228, +237, 240. <i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, edit. +Russell, 1851, vol. i. p. 16, note, where, however, Pinkerton's +authority is appealed to for an assertion which he did not make. +<i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. i. pp. 45, 61, 244. <i>Anderson's Prize Essay +on the Highlands</i>, p. 34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Pinkerton's Enquiry into the Early History of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. pp. 136, 317, vol. ii. pp. 179, 298. <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. +i. pp. 90, 91, 94, 106, 114, 258, 259. <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. i. +pp. 340–347.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 38–54. The +account in <i>Hollinshead's Scottish Chronicle</i>, vol. i. pp. 399–403, +ascribes too much to the prowess of the Scotch, and too little to the +elements which dispersed the fleet. Compare <i>Irving's History of +Dumbartonshire</i>, second edition, 4to, 1860, pp. 48, 49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Buckle's History of Civilization</i>, vol. ii. pp. 116, +117.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 18, ‘the +early part of the reign’ of Alexander III. is indicated as the period in +which ‘the first approaches were made towards the +great plan for the reduction of Scotland, by the English.’ Alexander III. +came to the throne in 1249. Earlier, the feeling was very different. +Thus, late in the twelfth century, ‘the two nations, according to +Fordun, seemed one people; Englishmen travelling at pleasure through all +the corners of Scotland (?); and Scotchmen in like manner through +England.’ <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, p. 76. Compare <i>Dalrymple's Annals +of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 158. At that time, England, being weak, was +peaceably disposed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> An old Scotch writer says, with some exaggeration, ‘The +year 1296, at which tyme, the bloodyest and longest warr that ever was +betwixt two nationes fell out, and continued two hundreth and sextie +years, to the undoeing and ruineing of many noble families, with the +slaughter of a million of men.’ <i>Somerville's Memorie of the +Somervilles</i>, vol. i. p. 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See some just and biting remarks in <i>Hume's History of the +House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> ‘Anno gratiæ <span class="smcap">MCCXCVI</span>. tertio kalendas Aprilis, villa et +castro de Berevvico, per magnificum regem Angliæ Eadvvardum captis, +omnes ibidem inuentos Angli gladio occiderunt, paucis exceptis, qui +ipsam villam postmodum abiurarūt.’ <i>Flores Historiarum per Matthæum +Westmonasteriensem collecti</i>, Lond. 1570, folio, lib. ii. p. 403. ‘Atque +modo prædicto villâ captâ, civibus prostratis, rex Angliæ prædictus +nulli ætati parcens aut sexui, duobus diebus rivulis de cruore occisorum +fluentibus, septem millia et quingentas animas promiscui sexûs jusserat, +in sua tyrannide desæviens, trucidari.’ <i>Fordun's Scotichronicon, curâ +Goodall</i>, Edinb. 1775, folio, vol. ii. pp. 159, 160. ‘Secutus Rex cum +peditum copiis miserabilem omnis generis cædem edit.’ <i>Buchanan's Rerum +Scoticarum Historia</i>, Abredoniæ, 1762, lib. viii. p. 200. ‘They left not +one creature alive of the Scotish blood within all that toune.’ +<i>Hollinshead's Scottish Chronicle</i>, Arbroath, 1805, 4to, vol. i. p. 418. +In 1286, that is, only ten years earlier, ‘No other part of Scotland, in +point of commercial importance, came near to a comparison with Berwick.’ +<i>Macpherson's Annals of Commerce</i>, London, 4to, 1805, vol. i. p. 446. +Such were the brutal crimes of our wretched and ignorant ancestors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> ‘The Scots assembled in troops and companies, and betaking +themselves to the woods, mountains, and morasses, in which their fathers +had defended themselves against the Romans, prepared for a general +insurrection against the English power.’ <i>Scott's History of Scotland</i>, +London, 1830, vol. i. p. 70. Elgin appears to have been the most +northern point of this expedition. See <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. p. 119, and <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 657. The general +results are summed up by Buchanan: ‘Hanc stragem ex agrorum incultu +consecuta est fames, et famem pestis, unde major quàm è bello clades +timebatur.’ <i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. viii. p. 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> ‘The army then advanced into Scotland by moderate marches, +wasting and destroying every thing on their way.’ … ‘A party of +Edward's army, sent northwards, wasted the country, and burnt Perth and +Saint Andrews.’ <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, pp. 146, 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> ‘The king entered Scotland by the eastern march with a +great army.’ … ‘There was this year so terrible a dearth and scarcity +of provisions in Scotland, arising from the havoc of war, that many were +obliged to feed on the flesh of horses and other carrion.’ <i>Ibid.</i> pp. +164, 165. See also <i>Fordun's Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. pp. 242, 243. +‘Quo anno, propter guerrarum discrimina, tanta erat panis inopia et +victualium caristia in Scotia, quòd in plerisque locis, compellente +famis necessitate, multi carnibus equorum et aliorum pecorum immundorum +vescebantur.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Bruce ‘carefully laid the whole borders waste as far as +the Firth of Forth, removing the inhabitants to the mountains, with all +their effects of any value. When the English army entered, they found a +land of desolation, which famine seemed to guard.’ <i>Scott's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 145. See also <i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum +Historia</i>, lib. viii. p. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> ‘Eadwardus, rex Angliæ, intravit Scotiam cum magno +exercitu equitum et peditum, ac navium multitudine copiosa, duodecimo +die mensis Augusti, et usque villam de Edinburgh pervenit.’ … +‘Spoliatis tamen tunc in reditu Anglorum et prædatis monasteriis Sanctæ +Crucis de Edinburgh et de Melros, atque ad magnam desolationem +perductis. In ipso namque monasterio de Melros dominus Willelmus de +Peblis, ejusdem monasterii Prior, unus etiam monachus tunc infirmus, et +duo conversi cæci effecti, in dormitorio eorundem ab eisdem Anglis sunt +interfecti, et plures monachi lethaliter vulnerati. Corpus Dominicum +super magnum altare fuit projectum, ablatâ pixide argenteâ in quâ erat +repositum. Monasterium de Driburgh igne penitùs consumptum est et in +pulverem redactum. Ac <i>alia pia loca quamplurima</i> per prædicti regis +violentiam ignis flamma consumpsit: quod, Deo retribuente, eisdem in +prosperum non cessit.’ <i>Fordun's Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. p. 278. ‘In +redeundo sacra juxta ac prophana spoliata. Monasteria Driburgum et +Mulrossia etiam cæsis monachis infirmioribus, qui vel defectu virium, +vel senectutis fiducia soli remanserant, incensa,’ <i>Buchanan's Rerum +Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. viii. p. 219.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Fordun's Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. pp. 322, 323. +<i>Dalrymple's Annals</i>, vol. ii. pp. 232, 447. <i>Scott's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 187, 188.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 451.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Dalrymple's Annals</i>, vol. ii. p. 288. <i>Fordun's +Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. pp. 352–354.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> ‘Rex Angliæ, Richardus secundus ægrè ferens Scotos et +Francos tam atrociter terram suam deprædare, et municipia sua assilire +et ad terram prosternere, exercitum collegit grandem, et intravit +Scotiam, ætate tunc novemdecim annorum, in multitudine superba +progrediens, omnia circumquaque perdens, et nihil salvans; templa Dei et +sanctuaria religiosorum monasteria viz. Driburgh, Melros et Newbottel, +ac nobilem villam de Edinburgh, cum ecclesia Sancti Ægidii ejusdem, +voraci flammâ incineravit; et, destructione permaximâ factâ per eum in +Laudonia, ad propria sine damno repatriavit’ <i>Fordun's Scotichronicon</i>, +vol. ii. p. 401. ‘En ce séjour que le roi Richard fit en Haindebourch +les Anglois coururent tout le pays d'environ et y firent moult de +desrois; mais nullui n'y trouvèrent; car tout avoient retrait ens ès +forts, et ens ès grands bois, et là chassé tout leur bétail.’ … ‘Et +ardirent les Anglois la ville de Saint-Jean-Ston en Ecosse, où la +rivière du Tay cuert, et y a un bon port pour aller partout le monde; et +puis la ville de Dondie; et n'épargnoient abbayes ni moûtiers; tout +mettoient les Anglois en feu et en flambe; et coururent jusques à +Abredane les coureurs et l'avant-garde.’ <i>Les Chroniques de Froissart</i>, +edit. Buchon, vol. ii. pp. 334, 335, Paris, 1835. See also, on this +ruffianly expedition, <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. pp. 592, 593, and +<i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. ix. p. 253: ‘Nulli loco, +neque sacro, neque profano, nulli homini, qui modò militari esset ætate, +parcebat.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> ‘Agriculture was ruined; and the very necessaries of life +were lost, when the principal lords had scarcely a bed to lye on.’ +<i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 142. See also, in p. 867 of the same +volume of this learned work, some curious extracts from Scotch charters +and other sources, illustrating the horrible condition of the country. +And on the difficulty of obtaining food, compare <i>Fordun's +Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. pp. 242, 324; <i>Dalrymple's Annals</i>, vol. i. p. +307, vol. ii. pp. 238, 330; and <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. +p. 94.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Notices of Scotch cannibals will be found in <i>Lindsay of +Pitscottie's Chronicles of Scotland</i>, edit. 1814, vol. i. p. 163; and in +<i>Hollinshead's Scottish Chronicle</i>, 4to, 1805, vol. ii. pp. 16, 99. In +<i>Fordun's Scotichronicon</i>, vol. ii. p. 331, the following horrible +account is given: it refers to the neighbourhood of Perth in the year +1339: ‘Tota illa patria circumvicina eo tempore in tantum fuit vastata, +quòd non remansit quasi domus inhabitata, sed feræ et cervi de montanis +descendentes circa villam sæpiùs venabantur. Tanta tunc temporis facta +est caristia, et victualium inopia, ut passim plebicula deficeret, et +tanquam oves herbas depascentes, in foveis mortua reperirentur. Prope +illinc in abditis latitabat quidam robustus rusticus, Crysticleik +nomine, cum viragine sua, qui mulierculis et pueris ac juvenibus +insidiabantur, et, tanquam lupi eos strangulantes, de ipsorum carnibus +victitabant.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Even when the two nations were at peace, the borderers +were at war. See <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, pp. 240, 308, 394; and for +other evidence of this chronic anarchy, compare <i>Hollinshead's Scottish +Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. p. 30. <i>Lesley's History of Scotland</i>, pp. 40, 52, +67. <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. pp. 300, 301, 444, 449. <i>State +Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.</i>, 4to, 1836, vol. iv. pp. 366, 370, +569, 570, vol. v. pp. 17, 18, 161. <i>Historie of James the Sext</i>, pp. 21, +91, 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> In 1400, Henry IV. made ‘the last invasion which an +English monarch ever conducted into Scotland.’ <i>Tytler's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 406. It is said, however, that it was not till +the reign of Elizabeth than an English sovereign ‘had the policy to +disavow any claim of sovereignty over Scotland.’ <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 650.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> But very slowly. Pinkerton (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. +pp. 166, 167) says: ‘The frequent wars between Scotland and England, +since the death of Alexander III., had occasioned to the former country +the loss of more than a century in the progress of civilization. While +in England, only the northern provinces were exposed to the Scotish +incursions, Scotland suffered in its most civilized departments. It is +apparent that in the reign of Alexander III., the kingdom was more +abundant in the useful arts and manufactures, than it was in the time of +Robert III.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Owing to this, their castles were, by position, the +strongest in Europe; Germany alone excepted. Respecting their sites, +which were such as to make them in many instances almost unassailable, +see <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. pp. 122, 406, 407, 918, 919, vol. +iii. pp. 268, 269, 356–359, 864; <i>Pennant's Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 175, +177; <i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 169, vol. vii. p. 510, vol xi. +pp. 102, 212, 407, 408, vol. xii. pp. 25, 58, vol. xiii. p. 598, vol. +xv. p. 187, vol. xvi. p. 554, vol. xviii. p. 579, vol. xix. p. 474, vol. +xx. pp. 56, 312; <i>Macky's Scotland</i>, pp. 183, 297; and some good remarks +in <i>Nimmo's History of Stirlingshire</i>, p. 56. Neither England, nor +France, nor Italy, nor Spain, afforded such immense natural advantages +to their aristocracy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> ‘By retiring to his own castle, a mutinous baron could +defy the power of his sovereign, it being almost impracticable to lead +an army through a barren country, to places of difficult access to a +single man.’ <i>History of Scotland</i>, book i. p. 59, in <i>Robertson's +Works</i>, edit. London, 1831. Notwithstanding the immense materials which +have been brought to light since the time of Robertson, his <i>History of +Scotland</i> is still valuable; because he possessed a grasp of mind which +enabled him to embrace general views, that escape ordinary compilers, +however industrious they may be.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> ‘The patrimony of the Crown had been seriously dilapidated +during the period of confusion which succeeded the battle of Durham,’ +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> ‘During the long captivity of David,’ the nobles had been +completely insubordinate, and ‘affected the style and title of princes,’ +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 85. See also, on the state +of the barons under David II., <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. ii. pp. +63–67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> In 1299, ‘a superior baron was in every respect a king in +miniature.’ <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 150. In 1377, +‘the power of the barons had been decidedly increasing since the days of +Robert the First,’ p. 332. And, by 1398, it had risen still higher, p. +392.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> On this burning of Scotch towns, which appears to have +been the invariable practice of our humane forefathers, see <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. pp. 592, 593; <i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. +i. pp. 18, 27, 375, vol. ii. p. 304; <i>Mercer's History of Dunfermline</i>, +pp. 55, 66; <i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 485, vol. x. p. 584, vol. +xix. p. 161; <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, pp. 147, 221, 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> A curious description of them is given in a Scotch +statute, of the year 1597. ‘They hawe lykwayis throche thair barbarus +inhumunitie maid and presentlie makis the saidis hielandis and Iles qlk +are maist cōmodious in thame selwes alsueill be the ferteillitie of +the ground as be riche fischeingis altogidder vnproffitabill baithe to +thame selffis and to all vthuris his hienes liegis within this realme; +Thay nathair intertening onie ciuill or honest societie amangis thame +selffis neyther, zit admittit vtheris his hienesse lieges to trafficque +within thair boundis vithe saiftie of thair liues and gudes; for remeid +quhairof and that the saidis inhabitantis of the saidis hilandeis and +Iles may the better be reduced to ane godlie, honest, and ciuill maner +of living, it is statute and ordanit,’ &c. <i>Acts of the Parliaments of +Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 138, edit. folio, 1816.</p> + +<p>These little peculiarities of the Highlanders remained in full force +until about the middle of the eighteenth century, as will appear in the +course of this history. But without anticipating what will be narrated +in a subsequent chapter, I will merely refer the reader to two +interesting passages in <i>Pennant's Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 154, and in +<i>Heron's Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 218, 219; both of which illustrate the +state of things a little before 1745.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Inverness was burned in 1429. <i>Gregory's History of the +Western Highlands</i>, p. 36; and again in 1455, <i>Buchanan's Rerum +Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xi. p. 322. ‘The greatest part’ of it was +also burned in 1411. See <i>Anderson on the Highlands</i>, Edinb. 1827, p. +82.</p> + +<p>Aberdeen, being richer, was more tempting, but was likewise more able to +defend itself. Still, its burgh records supply curious evidence of the +constant fear in which the citizens lived, and of the precautions which +they took to ward off the attacks, sometimes of the English, and +sometimes of the clans. See the <i>Council Register of Aberdeen</i> +(published by the Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1844–1848, 4to), vol. i. pp. +8, 19, 60, 83, 197, 219, 232, 268, vol. ii. p. 82. The last entry, which +is dated July 31, 1593, mentions ‘the disordourit and lawles helandmen +in Birss, Glentanner, and their about, nocht onlie in the onmerciful +murthering of men and bairnis, bot in the maisterfull and violent +robbing and spulzeing of all the bestiall, guidis, and geir of a gryt +pairt of the inhabitantis of theas boundis, rasing of gryt hairschip +furth of the samen, being committit to ewous and nar this burgh, within +xx mylis theirunto, deuysit and ordanit for preservation of this burgh +and inhabitantis theirof, fra the tyrannous invasion of the saidis +hieland men, quha has na respect to God nor man; that the haill +inhabitantis of this burgh, fensiball persones als weill onfrie as frie, +salbe in reddiness weill armit for the defence of this burgh, thair awin +lyvis, gudis, and geir, and resisting and repressing of the said heland +men, as occasioun salbe offered, at all tymes and houris as thay salbe +requirt and chargit.’</p> + +<p>Even in 1668 we find complaints that Highlanders had forcibly carried +off women from Aberdeen or from its neighbourhood. <i>Records of the Synod +of Aberdeen</i>, p. 290. Other evidence of their attacks in the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries, may be seen in <i>Kennedy's Annals of +Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. 133; <i>Spalding's History of the Troubles</i>, vol. i. +pp. 25, 217; <i>Extracts from the Presbytery Book of Strathbogie</i>, pp. 62, +73.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Even Perth ceased to be the capital of Scotland, because +‘its vicinity to the Highlands’ made it dangerous for the sovereign to +reside there. <i>Lawson's Book of Perth</i>, p. xxxi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> On the prevalence of barter and lack of specie, in +Scotland, see the <i>Spalding Club Miscellany</i>, vol. iv. pp. lvii.–lx., +Aberdeen, 1849, 4to. In 1492, the treasury of Aberdeen was obliged to +borrow 4<i>l.</i> 16<i>s.</i> Scots. <i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. +61. Compare <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. x. p. +542. Fynes Moryson, who was in Scotland late in the sixteenth century, +says, ‘the gentlemen reckon their revenues not by rents of money, but by +chauldrons of victuals.’ <i>Moryson's Itinerary</i>, part iii. p. 155, +London, folio, 1617; a rare and extremely curious book, which ought to +be reprinted. A hundred years after Moryson wrote, it was observed that, +‘in England, the rents are paid in money; in Scotland, they are, +generally speaking, paid in kind, or victual, as they call it.’ <i>De +Foe's History of the Union</i>, p. 130.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> In the reign of James I. (1424–1436), ‘It appears that +armour, nay spears, and bows and arrows, were chiefly imported.’ … ‘In +particular, the heads of arrows and of spears seem to have been entirely +imported from Flanders,’ <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. +163. We learn from Rymer's <i>Fœdera</i>, that, in 1368, two Scotchmen +having occasion to fight a duel, got their armour from London. +<i>Macpherson's Annals of Commerce</i>, vol. i. p. 575.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> From the <i>Bibel of English Policy</i>, supposed to have been +written in the reign of Edward IV., we learn that ‘the Scotish imports +from Flanders were mercery, but more haberdashery, cart-wheels, and +wheel-barrows,’ <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 408. In +<i>Mercer's History of Dunfermline</i>, p. 61, we are told that, in the +fifteenth century, ‘Even in the best parts of Scotland, the inhabitants +could not manufacture the most necessary articles. Flanders was the +great mart in those times, and from Bruges chiefly, the Scots imported +even horse-shoes, harness, saddles, bridles, cart-wheels, and +wheel-barrows, besides all their mercery and haberdashery.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Aberdeen was, for a long period, one of the most wealthy, +and, in some respects, the most advanced, of all the Scotch cities. But +it appears, from the council-registers of Aberdeen, that, ‘in the +beginning of the sixteenth century, there was not a mechanic in the town +capable to execute the ordinary repairs of a clock,’ <i>Kennedy's Annals +of Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. 99. On the Scotch clocks in the middle of the +sixteenth century, compare Mr. Morley's interesting <i>Life of Cardan</i>, +London, 1854, vol. ii. p. 128. Cardan was in Scotland in 1552.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> About 1619, Sir George Hay ‘set up at the village of +Wemyss, in Fife, a small glass-work, being the first known to have +existed amongst us.’ <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. i. p. 506. See also p. +428.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> ‘Before this time, soap was imported into Scotland from +foreign countries, chiefly from Flanders.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 507, +under the year 1619, where mention is made of the manufactory set up at +Leith. ‘The sope-workes of Leith’ are noticed in 1650, in <i>Balfour's +Annales</i>, vol. iv. p. 68.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Ray, who visited Scotland in 1661, says, ‘In the best +Scottish houses, even the king's palaces, the windows are not glazed +throughout, but the upper part only; the lower have two wooden shuts or +folds to open at pleasure and admit the fresh air.’ … ‘The ordinary +country-houses are pitiful cots, built of stone, and covered with +turves, having in them but one room, many of them no chimneys, the +windows very small holes and not glazed.’ <i>Ray's Itineraries</i>, p. 153, +edited by Dr. Lankester, London, 1846. ‘About 1752, the glass window was +beginning to make its appearance in the small farm-houses.’ <i>Brown's +History of Glasgow</i>, vol. ii. p. 265, Edinburgh, 1797.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> In 1650, it was stated of the Scotch, that ‘many of their +women are so sluttish, that they do not wash their linen above once a +month, nor their hands and faces above once a year.’ <i>Whitelock's +Memorials</i>, p. 468, London, 1732, folio. Six or seven years after this, +a traveller in Scotland says, ‘the linen they supplied us with, were it +not to boast of, was little or nothing different from those female +complexions that never washed their faces to retain their christendom.’ +<i>Franck's Northern Memoirs</i>, edit. Edinburgh, 1821, p. 94. A celebrated +Scotchman notices, in 1698, the uncleanly habits of his countrymen, but +gives a comical reason for them; since, according to him, they were in a +great measure caused by the position of the capital. ‘As the happy +situation of London has been the principal cause of the glory and riches +of England, so the bad situation of Edinburgh has been one great +occasion of the poverty and uncleanliness in which the greater part of +the people of Scotland live.’ <i>Second Discourse on the Affairs of +Scotland</i>, in <i>Fletcher of Saltoun's Political Works</i>, p. 119, Glasgow, +1749. Another Scotchman, among his reminiscences of the early part of +the eighteenth century, says, that ‘table and body linen [were] seldom +shifted.’ <i>Memoires by Sir Archibald Grant of Monymusk</i>, in <i>Spalding +Club Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. 100, Aberdeen, 1842, 4to. Finally, we have +positive proof that in some parts of Scotland, even at the end of the +eighteenth century, the people used, instead of soap, a substitute too +disgusting to mention. See the account communicated by the Rev. William +Leslie to Sir John Sinclair, in <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of +Scotland</i>, vol. ix. p. 177, Edinburgh, 1793.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. i. p. 512.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A paper-mill was established near Edinburgh in 1675; but +‘there is reason to conclude this paper-mill was not continued, and that +paper-making was not successfully introduced into Scotland till the +middle of the succeeding century.’ <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. ii. p. 399. +I have met with so many proofs of the great accuracy of this valuable +work, that I should be loath to question any statement made by Mr. +Chambers, when, as in this case, I have only my memory to trust to. But +I think that I have seen evidence of paper being successfully +manufactured in Scotland late in the seventeenth century, though I +cannot recall the passages. However, Arnot, in his <i>History of +Edinburgh</i>, p. 599, edit. 4to, says, ‘About forty years ago, printing or +writing paper began to be manufactured in Scotland. Before that, papers +were imported from Holland, or brought from England,’ As Arnot's work +was printed in 1788, this coincides with Mr. Chambers' statement. I may +add, that, at the end of the eighteenth century, there were ‘two +paper-mills near Perth.’ <i>Heron's Journey through Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. +117, Perth, 1799; and that, in 1751 and 1763, the two first paper-mills +were erected north of the Forth. <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of +Scotland</i>, vol. ix. p. 593, vol. xvi. p. 373. Compare <i>Lettice's Letters +from Scotland in 1792</i>, p. 420.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> ‘This city was founded about the sixth century.’ <i>M'Ure's +History of Glasgow</i>, edit. 1830, p. 120. Compare <i>Denholm's History of +Glasgow</i>, p. 2, Glasgow, 1804.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> In 1172, a market was granted to Glasgow; and in 1190, a +fair. See the charters in the Appendix to <i>Gibson's History of Glasgow</i>, +pp. 299, 302, Glasgow, 1777.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> ‘By the sale of land made by Robert de Mythyngby to Mr. +Reginald de Irewyne, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1268, it is evident that the town was then +governed by provosts, aldermen, or wardens, and baillies, who seem to +have been independent of the bishop, and were possessed of a common +seal, distinct from the one made use of by the bishop and chapter.’ +<i>Gibson's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> ‘A Mr. William Elphinston is made mention of as the first +promoter of trade in Glasgow, so early as the year 1420; the trade which +he promoted was, in all probability, the curing and exporting of +salmon.’ <i>Gibson's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 203. See also <i>M'Ure's +History of Glasgow</i>, p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Gibson (<i>History of Glasgow</i>, p. 74), with every desire to +take a sanguine view of the early state of his own city, says, that, in +1450, the inhabitants ‘might perhaps amount to fifteen hundred;’ and +that ‘their wealth consisted in a few burrow-roods very ill-cultivated, +and in some small cattle, which fed on their commons.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> ‘Dunfermline continued to be a favourite royal residence +as long as the Scottish dynasty existed. Charles I. was born here; as +also his sister Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Bohemia, from whom her +present Majesty is descended; and Charles II. paid a visit to this +ancient seat of royalty in 1650. The Scottish parliament was often held +in it.’ <i>M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary</i>, London, 1849, vol. i. p. +723. Compare <i>Mercer's History of Dunfermline</i>, 1828, pp. 56, 58, and +<i>Chalmers' History of Dunfermline</i>, 1844, p. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> In 1385, it was ‘only a sorry wooden village, belonging to +the monastery.’ <i>Mercer's History of Dunfermline</i>, p. 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> See ‘Ms. Annals,’ in <i>Chalmers' History of Dunfermline</i>, +p. 327. In 1624, we learn from <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, edit. 1825, vol. ii. +p. 99, that ‘the quholl bodey of the towne, which did consist of 120 +tenements, and 287 families was brunt and consumed.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> ‘Greenock, which is now one of the largest shipping towns +in Scotland, was, in the end of the sixteenth century, a mean fishing +village, consisting of a single row of thatched cottages, which was +inhabited by poor fishermen.’ <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 806, +4to, 1824.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> In May 1668, Kilmarnock was burnt; and ‘the event is +chiefly worthy of notice as marking the smallness of Kilmarnock in those +days, when as yet, there was no such thing as manufacturing industry in +the country. A hundred and twenty families speaks to a population of +between five and six hundred.‘ <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, Edinburgh, 1858, vol. +ii. p. 320. In 1658, their houses are described by an eye-witness as +‘little better than huts.‘ <i>Franck's Northern Memoirs</i>, reprinted +Edinburgh, 1821, p. 101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> ‘Betwixt two and three thousand souls,‘ <i>Denholm's History +of Glasgow</i>, p. 542, edit. Glasgow, 1804.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> In 1572, the registers of Aberdeen show that seventy-two +deaths occurred in the year. An annual mortality of 1 in 40 would be a +very favourable estimate; indeed, rather too favourable, considering the +habits of the people at that time. However, supposing it to be 1 in 40, +the population would be 2880; and if, as I make no doubt, the mortality +was more than 1 in 40, the population must of course have been less. +Kennedy, in his valuable, but very uncritical, work, conjectures that +‘one fiftieth part of the inhabitants had died annually;’ though it is +certain that there was no town in Europe any thing like so +healthy as that. On this hypothesis, which is contradicted by every sort +of statistical evidence that has come down to us, the number would be 72 +× 50 = 3600. See <i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. 103, London, +1818, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> ‘St. Andrews, Perth, and Aberdeen, appear to have been the +three most populous cities before the Reformation.’ <i>Lawson's Roman +Catholic Church in Scotland</i>, 1836, p. 26. The same assertion is made in +<i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, 1843, vol. i. p. 2. But neither of +these writers appear to have made many researches on the subject, or +else they would not have supposed that Aberdeen was larger than +Edinburgh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> I have carefully read the two histories of St. Andrews, by +Dr. Grierson and by Mr. Lyon, but have found nothing in them of any +value concerning the early history of that city. Mr. Lyon's work, which +is in two thick volumes, is unusually superficial, even for a local +history; and that is saying much.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> ‘Of the thirteen parliaments held in the reign of King +James I., eleven were held at Perth, one at Stirling, and one at +Edinburgh. The National Councils of the Scottish clergy were held there +uniformly till 1459. Though losing its pre-eminence by the selection of +Edinburgh as a capital, Perth has uniformly and constantly maintained +the second place in the order of burghs, and its right to do so has been +repeatedly and solemnly acknowledged.’ <i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, +Perth, 1836, p. 231. See also p. 305. It appears, however, from +Froissart, that Edinburgh was deemed the capital in the latter half of +the fourteenth century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> I find one instance of its being praised by a man who was +not a Scotchman. Alexander Necham ‘takes notice of Perth in the +following distich, quoted in Camden's Britannia:</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Transis ample Tai, per rura, per oppida, per Perth:</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Regnum sustentant illius urbis opes.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Thus Englished in Bishop Gibson's Translations of Camden's Book:</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Great Tay, through Perth, through towns, through country flies:</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Perth the whole kingdom with her wealth supplies.’</span><br /> +</div></div></div> + +<p><i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. xviii. p. 511.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> 1427 × 6 = 8562, the computed population in 1584 and 1585, +exclusive of the extraordinary mortality caused by the plague. +<i>Chambers' Annals of Scotland</i>, 1858, vol. i. p. 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> ‘The inhabitants of the capital, in the reign of Robert +II., hardly exceeded sixteen thousand.’ <i>Pinkerton's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> When the French arrived in Edinburgh, the Scotch said, +‘“Quel diable les a mandés? Ne savons-nous pas bien faire notre guerre +sans eux aux Anglois? Nous ne ferons jà bonne besogne tant comme ils +soient avec nous. On leur dise que ils s'en revoisent, et que nous +sommes gens assez en Escosse pour parmaintenir notre guerre, et que +point nous ne voulons leur compagnie. Ils ne nous entendent point, ni +nous eux; nous ne savons parler ensemble; ils auront tantôt riflé et +mangé tout ce qui est en ce pays: ils nous feront plus de contraires, de +dépits, et de dommages, si nous les laissons convenir, que les Anglois +ne feroient si ils s'étoient embattus entre nous sans ardoir. Et si les +Anglois ardent nos maisons, que peut il chaloir? Nous les aurons tantôt +refaites à bon marché, nous n'y mettons au refaire que trois jours, mais +que nous ayons quatre ou six estaches et de la ramée pour lier par +dessus.”’</p> + +<p>‘Ainsi disoient les Escots en Escosse à la venue des seigneurs de +France,’ … ‘Et quand les Anglois y chevauchent ou que ils y vont, +ainsi que ils y ont été plusieurs fois, il convient que leurs +pourvéances, si ils veulent vivre, les suivent toujours au dos; car on +ne trouve rien sur le pays: à grand'peine y recuevre-l'en du fer pour +serrer les chevaux, ni du cuir pour faire harnois, selles ni brides. Les +choses toutes faites leur viennent par mer de Flandre, et quand cela +leur défaut, ils n'ont nulle chose. Quand ces barons et ces chevaliers +de France qui avoient appris ces beaux hôtels à trouver, ces salles +parées, ces chasteaux et ces bons mols lits pour reposer, se virent +et trouvèrent en celle povreté, si commencèrent à rire et à dire: “En +quel pays nous a ci amenés l'amiral? Nous ne sçumes oncques que ce fût +de povreté ni de dureté fors maintenant.”’ <i>Les Chroniques de +Froissart</i>, edit. Buchon, Paris, 1835, vol. ii. pp. 314, 315. ‘The +hovels of the common people were slight erections of turf, or twigs, +which, as they were often laid waste by war, were built merely for +temporary accommodation. Their towns consisted chiefly of wooden +cottages,’ … ‘Even as late as 1600, the houses of Edinburgh were +chiefly built of wood.’ <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 802. Another +account, written in 1670, says, ‘The houses of the commonalty are very +mean, mudwall and thatch, the best; but the poorer sort live in such +miserable huts as never eye beheld.’ … ‘In some parts, where turf is +plentiful, they build up little cabbins thereof, with arched roofs of +turf, without a stick of timber in it; when the house is dry enough to +burn, it serves them for fuel, and they remove to another.’ <i>Harleian +Miscellany</i>, vol. vi. p. 139, 4to, 1810.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> ‘Our manufactures were carried on by the meanest of the +people, who had small stocks, and were of no reputation. These were, for +the most part, workmen for home-consumpt, such as masons, +house-carpenters, armourers, blacksmiths, taylors, shoemakers, and the +like. Our weavers were few in number, and in the greatest contempt, as +their employments were more sedentary, and themselves reckoned less fit +for war, in which all were obliged to serve, when the exigencies of the +country demanded their attendance.’ <i>The Interest of Scotland +Considered</i>, Edinburgh, 1733, p. 82. Pinkerton (<i>History of Scotland</i>, +vol. ii. p. 392), referring to the Sloane manuscripts, says, ‘The author +of an interesting memoir concerning the state of Scotland about 1590, +observes, that the husbandmen were a kind of slaves, only holding their +lands from year to year; that the nobility being too numerous for the +extent of the country, there arose too great an inequality of rank and +revenue; and there was no middle station between a proud landholder and +those who, having no property to lose, were ready for any tumult. A rich +yeomanry, numerous merchants and tradesmen of property, and all the +denominations of the middle class, so important in a flourishing +society, were long to be confined to England.’ Thirteen years later, we +are told that the manufactures of Scotland ‘were confined to a few of +the coarsest nature, without which the poorest nations are unable to +subsist.’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 7, under the year +1603.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Thus, for instance, ‘the town of Dunbar naturally grew up +under the shelter of the castle of the same name.’ … ‘Dunbar became +the town, in demesn, of the successive Earls of Dunbar and March, +partaking of their influences, whether unfortunate or happy.’ <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 416. ‘But when the regal government became at +any time feeble, these towns, unequal to their own protection, placed +themselves under the shelter of the most powerful lord in their +neighbourhood. Thus, the town of Elgyn found it necessary, at various +periods between the years 1389 and 1452, to accept of many charters of +protection, and discharges of taxes, from the Earls of Moray, who held +it in some species of vassalage.’ <i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 3. +Compare <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 396; and two +letters, written in 1543 and 1544, by the magistrates of Aberdeen, to +the Earl of Huntly, and printed in the <i>Council Register of Aberdeen</i>, +vol. i. pp. 190, 201, Aberdeen, 1844, 4to. They say to him, ‘Ye haf our +band as protectour to wss.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 225. See also +p. 131; and <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 179. +Sometimes the nobles did not leave to the citizens even the appearance +of a free election, but fought it out among themselves. An instance of +this happened at Perth, in 1544, ‘where a claim for the office of +provost was decided by arms, between Lord Ruthven on the one side, +supported by a numerous train of his vassals, and Lord Gray, with Norman +Leslie, master of Rothes, and Charteris of Kinfauns, on the other.’ +<i>Tytler</i>, vol. iv. p. 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> For illustrations of this custom, see <i>Hollinshead's +Scottish Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. p. 230. <i>Brown's History of Glasgow</i>, vol. +ii. p. 154. <i>Denholm's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 249. <i>Mercer's History of +Dunfermline</i>, p. 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> ‘An injury inflicted on the “man” of a nobleman was +resented as much as if he himself had been the injured party.’ <i>Preface +to the Council Register of Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. xii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See, in <i>Macaulay's History of England</i>, vol. i. p. 93, +1st edit., a spirited description of Scotland in 1639. ‘The parliament +of the northern kingdom was a very different body from that which bore +the same name in England.’ … ‘The three estates sat in one house. The +commissioners of the burghs were considered merely as retainers of the +great nobles,’ &c. To come down much later, Lord Cockburn gives a +terrible account of the state of things in Scotland in 1794, the year in +which Jeffrey was called to the bar. ‘There was then, in this country, +no popular representation, no emancipated burghs, no effective rival of +the established church, no independent press, no free public meetings, +and no better trial by jury, even in political cases (except high +treason), than what was consistent with the circumstances, that the +jurors were not sent into court under any impartial rule, and that, when +in court, those who were to try the case were named by the presiding +judge. The Scotch representatives were only forty-five, of whom thirty +were elected for counties, and fifteen for towns. Both from its price +and its nature (being enveloped in feudal and technical absurdities), +the elective franchise in counties, where alone it existed, was far +above the reach of the whole lower, and of a great majority of the +middle, and of many even of the higher, ranks. There were probably not +above 1500 or 2000 county electors in all Scotland; a body not too large +to be held, hope included, in government's hands. The return, therefore, +of a single opposition member was never to be expected.’ … ‘Of the +fifteen town members, Edinburgh returned one. The other fourteen were +produced by clusters of four or five unconnected burghs electing each +one delegate, and these four or five delegates electing the +representative. Whatever this system may have been originally, it had +grown, in reference to the people, into as complete a mockery as if it +had been invented for their degradation. The people had nothing to do +with it. It was all managed by town-councils, of never more than +thirty-three members; and every town-council was self-elected, and +consequently perpetuated its own interests. The election of either the +town or the county member was a matter of such utter indifference to the +people, that they often only knew of it by the ringing of a bell, or by +seeing it mentioned next day in a newspaper; for the farce was generally +performed in an apartment from which, if convenient, the public could be +excluded, and never in the open air.’ <i>Cockburn's Life of Jeffrey</i>, +Edinburgh, 1852, vol. i. pp. 74–76. On the state of Scotch +representation between this and the Reform Bill, compare <i>Irving's +History of Dumbartonshire</i>, 4to, 1860, pp. 275, 276, with <i>Moore's +Memoirs</i>, edited by Lord John Russell, vol. iv. p. 268, vol. vi. p. 163, +London, 1853–4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> <i>History of Civilization</i>, vol. i. pp. 125–129, 373–380.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> <i>History of Civilization</i>, vol. ii. p. 171.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> We must discriminate between wonder and admiration. Wonder +is the product of ignorance; admiration is the product of knowledge. +Ignorance wonders at the supposed irregularities of nature; science +admires its uniformities. The earlier writers rarely attended to this +distinction, because they were misled by the etymology of the word +‘admiration.’ The Romans were very superficial thinkers upon all matters +except jurisprudence; and their blundering use of ‘admirari’ gave rise +to the error, so common among our old writers, of ‘I admire,’ instead of +‘I wonder.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> ‘Our Scottish witch is a far more frightful being than her +supernatural coadjutor on the south side of the Tweed. She sometimes +seems to rise from the proper sphere of the witch, who is only the +slave, into that of the sorcerer, who is master of the demon.’ … ‘In a +people so far behind their neighbours in domestic organization, poor and +hardy, inhabiting a country of mountains, torrents, and rocks, where +cultivation was scanty, accustomed to gloomy mists and wild storms, +every impression must necessarily assume a corresponding character. +Superstitions, like funguses and vermin, are existences peculiar to the +spot where they appear, and are governed by its physical accidents.’ … +‘And thus it is that the indications of witchcraft in Scotland are as +different from those of the superstition which in England receives the +same name, as the Grampian Mountains from Shooter's Hill or Kennington +Common.’ <i>Burton's Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 240–243. +This is admirably expressed, and exhausts the general view of the +subject. The relation between the superstition of the Scotch and the +physical aspects of their country is also touched upon, though with much +inferior ability, in <i>Brown's History of the Highlands</i>, vol. i. p. 106, +and in <i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 560. Hume, in his +<i>Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 556, has an +interesting passage on the high pretensions of Scotch witchcraft, which +never degenerated, as in other countries, into a mere attempt at +deception, but always remained a sturdy and deep-rooted belief. He says, +‘For among the many trials for witchcraft which fill the record, I have +not observed that there is even one which proceeds upon the notion of a +vain or cheating art, falsely used by an impostor to deceive the weak +and credulous.’ Further information respecting Scotch witchcraft will be +found in <i>Mackenzie's Criminal Laws of Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, folio, +1699, pp. 42–56; <i>Correspondence of Mrs. Grant of Laggan</i>, London, 1844, +vol. iii. pp. 186, 187; <i>Southey's Life of Bell</i>, London, 1844, vol. i. +p. 52; <i>Vernon Correspondence</i>, edited by James, London, 1841, vol. ii. +p. 301; <i>Weld's History of the Royal Society</i>, London, 1848, vol. i. p. +89; <i>Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland</i>, edit. 1815, +vol. i. pp. 220, 221; <i>The Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. 41, +Edinburgh, 1845; <i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, Edinburgh, 1843, vol. +ii. pp. 56, 57. The work of James I., and that of Sir Walter Scott, need +hardly be referred to, as they are well known to every one who is +interested in the history of witchcraft; but Pitcairn's <i>Criminal +Trials</i>, though less read, are, in every respect, more valuable, on +account of the materials they contain for a study of this department of +Scotch superstition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Pinkerton (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 414) says +that, in the reigns of James II. and James III., ‘the wealth of the +Church was at least equivalent to that of all the lay interest.’ See +also <i>Life of Spottiswoode</i>, p. liii., in vol. i. of his <i>History of the +Church of Scotland</i>. ‘The numerous devices employed by ecclesiastics, +both secular and regular, for enriching the several Foundations to which +they were attached, had transferred into their hands more than half of +the territorial property of Scotland, or of its annual produce.’</p> + +<p>In regard to the first half of the sixteenth century, it is stated by a +high authority, that, just before the Reformation, ‘the full half of the +wealth of the nation belonged to the clergy.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, +p. 10. And another writer says, ‘If we take into account the annual +value of all these abbeys and monasteries, in conjunction with the +bishoprics, it will appear at once that the Scottish Catholic hierarchy +was more munificently endowed, considering the extent and resources of +the kingdom, than it was in any other country in Europe.’ <i>Lawson's +Roman Catholic Church in Scotland</i>, p. 22. See also, respecting the +incomes of the Scotch bishops, which, considering the poverty of the +country, were truly enormous, <i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, +Edinburgh, 1843, vol. i. pp. 97, 125.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> ‘They could employ all the motives of fear and of hope, of +terror and of consolation, which operate most powerfully on the human +mind. They haunted the weak and the credulous; they besieged the beds of +the sick and of the dying; they suffered few to go out of the world +without leaving marks of their liberality to the Church, and taught them +to compound with the Almighty for their sins, by bestowing riches upon +those who called themselves his servants.’ <i>History of Scotland</i>, book +ii. p. 89, in <i>Robertson's Works</i>, London, 1831. It is interesting to +observe the eagerness with which the clergy of one persuasion expose the +artifices of those of another. By comparing their different statements, +laymen gain an insight into the entire scheme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Pinkerton observes, under the year 1514, that +‘ecclesiastical dignities presented almost the only path to opulence.’ +<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 123.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> <i>Buckle's History of Civilization</i>, vol. i. pp. 376–380.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Arnot (<i>History of Edinburgh</i>, p. 386) says, that the +University of St. Andrews was founded in 1412; and the same thing is +stated in <i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. ii. p. 83. Grierson, in +his <i>History of St. Andrews</i>, Cupar, 1838, p. 14, says, ‘In 1410, the +city of St. Andrews first saw the establishment of its famous +university, the most ancient institution of the kind that exists in +Scotland;’ but, at p. 144 of the same work, we are told, that the +charter, ‘constituting and declaring it to be a university,’ is ‘dated +at St. Andrews, the 27th of February, 1411.’ See also <i>Lyon's History of +St. Andrews</i>, vol. i. pp. 203–206, vol. ii. p. 223. At all events, ‘at +the commencement of the fifteenth century, no university existed in +Scotland; and the youth who were desirous of a liberal education were +under the necessity of seeking it abroad.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, +vol. i. p. 211. The charter granted by the Pope, confirming the +university, reached Scotland in 1413. <i>Lawson's Roman Catholic Church in +Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Those were times, when, as a Scotch lawyer delicately +expresses himself, ‘thieving was not the peculiar habit of the low and +indigent, but often common to them with persons of rank and landed +estate.’ <i>Hume's Commentaries on the Law of Scotland</i>, 4to, 1797, vol. +i. p. 126. The usual form of robbery being cattle-stealing, a particular +name was invented for it; see p. 148, where we learn that it ‘was +distinguished by the name of Hership or Herdship, being the driving away +of numbers of cattle, or other bestial, by the masterful force of armed +people.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Tytler, who was a great patriot, and disposed to +exaggerate the merit of everything which was Scotch, does nevertheless +allow that, “from the accession of Alexander III. to the death of David +II. (<i>i.e.</i> in 1370), it would be impossible, I believe, to produce a +single instance of a Scottish baron who could sign his own name.” +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 239, 240. Early in the +sixteenth century, I find it casually mentioned, that ‘David Straiton, a +cadet of the house of Laureston,’ … ‘could not read.’ <i>Wodrow's +Collections</i>, vol. i. pp. 5, 6. The famous chief, Walter Scott of +Harden, was married in 1567; and ‘his marriage contract is signed by a +notary, because none of the parties could write their names.’ <i>Chambers' +Annals</i>, vol. i. p. 46. Crawfurd (<i>History of Renfrew</i>, part iii. p. +313) says: ‘The modern practice of subscribing names to writes of moment +was not used in Scotland till about the year 1540;’ but he forgets to +tell us why it was not used. In 1564, Robert Scot of Thirlstane, +‘ancestor of Lord Napier,’ could not sign his name. See <i>Pitcairn's +Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> A Scotchman, of considerable learning, says: ‘Scotland was +no less ignorant and superstitious at the beginning of the fifteenth +century, than it was towards the close of the twelfth.’ <i>Dalrymple's +Annals of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 428.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> ‘Et sont ainsi comme gens sauvages qui ne se savent avoir +ni de nulli accointer.’ <i>Les Chroniques de Froissart</i>, edit. Buchon, +Paris, 1835, vol. ii. p. 315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> ‘Plus pleine de sauvagine que de bestail.’ <i>Hist. de +Charles VI, par Le Laboureur</i>, quoted in <i>Pinkerton's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Occasionally, we find evidence of it earlier, but it was +hardly systematic. Compare <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. +66, with <i>Dalrymple's Annals</i>, vol. i. pp. 72, 110, 111, 194, vol. iii. +p. 296; <i>Nimmo's History of Stirlingshire</i>, p. 88; <i>Chalmers' History of +Dunfermline</i>, pp. 133, 134.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.</div> + +<p>Early in the fifteenth century, the alliance between +the Crown and the Church, and the determination of +that alliance to overthrow the nobles, became manifest. +Indications of this may be traced in the policy of Albany, +who was Regent from 1406 to 1419, and who made it +his principal object to encourage and strengthen the +clergy.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> He also dealt the first great blow upon which +any government had ventured against the aristocracy. +Donald, who was one of the most powerful of the Scottish +chieftains, and who, indeed, by the possession of +the Western Isles, was almost an independent prince, +had seized the earldom of Ross, which, if he could have +retained, would have enabled him to set the Crown at +defiance. Albany, backed by the Church, marched into +his territories, in 1411, forced him to renounce the earldom, +to make personal submission, and to give hostages +for his future conduct.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> So vigorous a proceeding on +the part of the executive, was extremely unusual in +Scotland;<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and it was the first of a series of aggressions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +which ended in the Crown obtaining for itself, not +only Ross, but also the Western Isles.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The policy +inaugurated by Albany, was followed up with still +greater energy by James I. In 1424, this bold and +active prince procured an enactment, obliging many of +the nobles to show their charters, in order that it might +be ascertained what lands they held, which had formerly +belonged to the Crown.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> And, to conciliate the affections +of the clergy, he, in 1425, issued a commission, +authorizing the Bishop of Saint Andrews to restore to +the Church whatever had been alienated from it; while +he at the same time directed that the justiciaries should +assist in enforcing execution of the decree.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> This occurred +in June; and what shows that it was part of a +general scheme is, that in the preceding spring, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +king suddenly arrested, in the parliament assembled at +Perth, upwards of twenty of the principal nobles, put +four of them to death, and confiscated several of their +estates.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Two years afterwards, he, with equal perfidy, +summoned the Highland chiefs to meet him at Inverness, +laid hands on them also, executed three, and +imprisoned more than forty, in different parts of the +kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>By these measures, and by supporting the Church +with the same zeal that he attacked the nobles, the king +thought to reverse the order of affairs hitherto established, +and to secure the supremacy of the throne over +the aristocracy.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> But herein, he overrated his own +power. Like nearly all politicians, he exaggerated the +value of political remedies. The legislator and the +magistrate may, for a moment, palliate an evil; they +can never work a cure. General mischiefs depend upon +general causes, and these are beyond their art. The +symptoms of the disease they can touch, while the +disease itself baffles their efforts, and is too often exasperated +by their treatment. In Scotland, the power of +the nobles was a cruel malady, which preyed on the +vitals of the nation; but it had long been preparing; it +was a chronic disorder; and, having worked into the +general habit, it might be removed by time, it could +never be diminished by violence. On the contrary, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +this, as in all matters, whenever politicians attempt +great good, they invariably inflict great harm. Over-action +on one side produces reaction on the other, and +the balance of the fabric is disturbed. By the shock of +conflicting interests, the scheme of life is made insecure. +New animosities are kindled, old ones are embittered, +and the natural jar and discordance are aggravated, +simply because the rulers of mankind cannot be brought +to understand, that, in dealing with a great country, +they have to do with an organization so subtle, so +extremely complex, and withal so obscure, as to make it +highly probable, that whatever they alter in it, they +will alter wrongly, and that while their efforts to protect +or to strengthen its particular parts are extremely +hazardous, it does undoubtedly possess within itself a +capacity of repairing its injuries, and that to bring +such capacity into play, there is merely required that +time and freedom which the interference of powerful +men too often prevents it from enjoying.</p> + +<p>Thus it was in Scotland, in the fifteenth century. +The attempts of James I. failed, because they were particular +measures directed against general evils. Ideas +and associations, generated by a long course of events, +and deeply seated in the public mind, had given to +the aristocracy immense power; and if every noble in +Scotland had been put to death, if all their castles had +been razed to the ground, and all their estates confiscated, +the time would unquestionably have come, when +their successors would have been more influential than +ever, because the affection of their retainers and dependents +would be increased by the injustice that had +been perpetrated. For, every passion excites its opposite. +Cruelty to-day, produces sympathy to-morrow. +A hatred of injustice contributes more than any other +principle to correct the inequalities of life, and to maintain +the balance of affairs. It is this loathing at tyranny, +which, by stirring to their inmost depth the warmest +feelings of the heart, makes it impossible that tyranny +should ever finally succeed. This, in sooth, is the noble +side of our nature. This is that part of us, which, stamped +with a godlike beauty, reveals its divine origin, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +providing for the most distant contingencies, is our +surest guarantee that violence shall never ultimately +triumph; that, sooner or later, despotism shall always +be overthrown; and that the great and permanent interests +of the human race shall never be injured by the +wicked counsels of unjust men.</p> + +<p>In the case of James I., the reaction came sooner +than might have been expected; and, as it happened in +his lifetime, it was a retribution, as well as a reaction. +For some years, he continued to oppress the nobles with +impunity;<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> but, in 1436, they turned upon him, and +put him to death, in revenge for the treatment to which +he had subjected many of them.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> Their power now +rose as suddenly as it had fallen. In the south of Scotland, +the Douglases were supreme,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> and the earl of that +family possessed revenues about equal to those of the +Crown.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> And, to show that his authority was equal +to his wealth, he, on the marriage of James II., in 1449, +appeared at the nuptials with a train composed of five +thousand followers.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> These were his own retainers, +armed and resolute men, bound to obey any command<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +he might issue to them. Not, indeed, that compulsion +was needed on the part of a Scotch noble to secure the +obedience of his own people. The servitude was a +willing one, and was essential to the national manners. +Then, and long afterwards, it was discreditable, as well +as unsafe, not to belong to a great clan; and those who +were so unfortunate as to be unconnected with any +leading family, were accustomed to take the name of +some chief, and to secure his protection by devoting +themselves to his service.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>What the Earl of Douglas was in the south of Scotland, +that were the Earls of Crawford and of Ross in +the north.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> Singly they were formidable; united they +seemed irresistible. When, therefore, in the middle of +the fifteenth century, they actually leagued together, +and formed a strict compact against all their common +enemies, it was hard to say what limit could be set to +their power, or what resource remained to the government, +except that of sowing disunion among them.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, in the mean time, the disposition of the nobles +to use force against the Crown, had been increased by +fresh violence. Government, instead of being warned +by the fate of James I., imitated his unscrupulous acts, +and pursued the very policy which had caused his destruction. +Because the Douglases were the most powerful +of all the great families, it was determined that their +chiefs should be put to death; and because they could +not be slain by force, they were to be murdered by +treachery. In 1440, the Earl of Douglas, a boy of +fifteen, and his brother, who was still younger than he, +were invited to Edinburgh on a friendly visit to the +king. Scarcely had they arrived, when they were +seized by order of the chancellor, subjected to a mock +trial, declared guilty, dragged to the castle-yard, and +the heads of the poor children cut off.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>Considering the warm feelings of attachment which +the Scotch entertained for their chiefs, it is difficult to +overrate the consequences of this barbarous murder, in +strengthening a class it was hoped to intimidate. But +this horrible crime was committed by the government +only, and it occurred during the king's minority: the +next assassination was the work of the king himself. +In 1452, the Earl of Douglas<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> was, with great show of +civility, requested by James II. to repair to the court +then assembled at Stirling. The Earl hesitated, but +James overcame his reluctance by sending to him a safeconduct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +with the royal signature, and issued under the +great seal.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The honour of the king being pledged, +the fears of Douglas were removed. He hastened to +Stirling, where he was received with every distinction. +The evening of his arrival, the king, after supper was +over, broke out into reproaches against him, and, suddenly +drawing his dagger, stabbed him. Gray then +struck him with a battle-axe, and he fell dead on the +floor, in presence of his sovereign, who had lured him +to court, that he might murder him with impunity.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> + +<p>The ferocity of the Scotch character, which was the +natural result of the ignorance and poverty of the +nation, was, no doubt, one cause, and a very important +one, of the commission of such crimes as these, not +secretly, but in the open light of day, and by the +highest men in the State. It cannot, however, be +denied, that another cause was, the influence of the +clergy, whose interest it was to humble the nobles, and +who were by no means scrupulous as to the means +that they employed.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> As the Crown became more +alienated from the aristocracy, it united itself still +closer with the Church. In 1443, a statute was enacted, +the object of which was, to secure ecclesiastical property +from the attacks made upon it by the nobles.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +And although, in that state of society, it was easier to +pass laws than to execute them, such a measure indicated +the general policy of the government, and the +union between it and the Church. Indeed, as to this, +no one could be mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> For nearly twenty years, +the avowed and confidential adviser of the Crown was +Kennedy, bishop of Saint Andrews, who retained power +until his death, in 1466, during the minority of +James III.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> He was the bitter enemy of the nobles, +against whom he displayed an unrelenting spirit, which +was sharpened by personal injuries; for the Earl of +Crawford had plundered his lands, and the Earl of Douglas +had attempted to seize him, and had threatened to +put him into irons.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> The mildest spirit might well +have been roused by this; and as James II., when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +assassinated Douglas, was more influenced by Kennedy +than by any one else, it is probable that the +bishop was privy to that foul transaction. At all +events, he expressed no disapprobation of it; and +when, in consequence of the murder, the Douglases +and their friends rose in open rebellion, Kennedy gave +to the king a crafty and insidious counsel, highly characteristic +of the cunning of his profession. Taking +up a bundle of arrows, he showed James, that when +they were together, they were not to be broken; +but that, if separated, they were easily destroyed. +Hence he inferred, that the aristocracy should be overthrown +by disuniting the nobles, and ruining them one +by one.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> + +<p>In this he was right, so far as the interests of his own +order were concerned; but, looking at the interest of +the nation, it is evident that the power of the nobles, notwithstanding +their gross abuse of it, was, on the whole, +beneficial, since it was the only barrier against despotism. +The evil they actually engendered, was indeed +immense. But they kept off other evils, which would +have been worse. By causing present anarchy, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +secured future liberty. For, as there was no middle +class, there were only three orders in the commonwealth; +namely, government, clergy, and nobles. The +two first being united against the last, it is certain that +if they had won the day, Scotland would have been oppressed +by the worst of all yokes, to which a country +can be subjected. It would have been ruled by an +absolute king and an absolute Church, who, playing +into each other's hands, would have tyrannized over a +people, who, though coarse and ignorant, still loved a +certain rude and barbarous liberty, which it was good +for them to possess, but which, in the face of such a +combination, they would most assuredly have forfeited.</p> + +<p>Happily, however, the power of the nobles was too +deeply rooted in the popular mind to allow of this +catastrophe. In vain did James III. exert himself +to discourage them,<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and to elevate their rivals, the +clergy.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Nothing could shake their authority; and, +in 1482, they, seeing the determination of the king, +assembled together, and such was their influence over +their followers, that they had no difficulty in seizing +his person, and imprisoning him in the Castle of +Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> After his liberation, fresh quarrels arose;<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +and in 1488, the principal nobles collected troops, met +him in the field, defeated him, and put him to death.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> +He was succeeded by James IV., under whom the +course of affairs was exactly the same; that is to say, +on one side the nobles, and on the other side the Crown +and the Church. Every thing that the king could do +to uphold the clergy, he did cheerfully. In 1493, he +obtained an act to secure the immunities of the sees of +Saint Andrews and of Glasgow, the two most important +in Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> In 1503, he procured a general +revocation of all grants and gifts prejudicial to the +Church, whether they had been made by the Parliament +or by the Council.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> And, in 1508, he, by the +advice of Elphinston, bishop of Aberdeen, ventured on +a measure of still greater boldness. That able and +ambitious prelate induced James to revive against the +nobility several obsolete claims, by virtue of which the +king could, under certain circumstances, take possession +of their estates, and could, in every instance in +which the owner held of the Crown, receive nearly +the whole of the proceeds during the minority of the +proprietor.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> + +<p>To make such claims was easy; to enforce them +was impossible. Indeed, the nobles were at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +rather gaining ground than losing it; and, after the +death of James IV., in 1513, they, during the +minority of James V., became so powerful, that the +regent, Albany, twice threw up the government in +despair, and at length abandoned it altogether.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> He +finally quitted Scotland in 1524, and with him the +authority of the executive seemed to have vanished. +The Douglases soon obtained possession of the person +of the king, and compelled Beaton, archbishop of +Saint Andrews, the most influential man in the Church, +to resign the office of chancellor.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> The whole command +now fell into their hands; they or their adherents +filled every office; secular interests predominated, +and the clergy were thrown completely into the +shade.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> In 1528, however, an event occurred by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +which the spiritual classes not only recovered their +former position, but gained a preëminence, which, as +it turned out, was eventually fatal to themselves. +Archbishop Beaton, impatient at proceedings so unfavourable +to the Church, organized a conspiracy, by +means of which James effected his escape from the +Douglases, and took refuge in the castle of Stirling.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> +This sudden reaction was not the real and controlling +cause, but it was undoubtedly the proximate cause, of +the establishment of Protestantism in Scotland. For, +the reins of government now passed into the hands of +the Church; and the most influential of the nobles +were consequently persecuted, and some of them driven +from the country. But, though their political power +was gone, their social power remained. They were +stripped of their honours and their wealth. They +became outcasts, traitors, and beggars. Still, the real +foundation of their authority was unshaken, because +that authority was the result of a long train of circumstances, +and was based on the affections of the people. +Therefore it was, that the nobles, even those who were +exiled and attainted, were able to conduct an arduous,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +but eventually a successful, struggle against their +enemies. The desire of revenge whetted their exertions, +and gave rise to a deadly contest between the +Scotch aristocracy and the Scotch Church. This most +remarkable conflict was, in some degree, a continuation +of that which began early in the fifteenth century. +But it was far more bitter; it lasted, without interruption, +for thirty-two years; and it was only concluded +by the triumph of the nobles, who, in 1560, completely +overthrew the Church, and destroyed, almost at a blow, +the whole of the Scotch hierarchy.</p> + +<p>The events of this struggle, and the vicissitudes to +which, during its continuance, both parties were exposed, +are related, though somewhat confusedly, in our +common histories: it will be sufficient if I indicate +the salient points, and, avoiding needless detail, endeavour +to throw light on the general movement. +The unity of the entire scheme will thus be brought +before our minds, and we shall see, that the destruction +of the Catholic Church was its natural consummation, +and that the last act of that gorgeous drama, +so far from being a strained and irregular sequence, +was in fit keeping with the whole train of the preceding +plot.</p> + +<p>When James effected his escape in 1528, he was a +boy of sixteen, and his policy, so far as he can be said +to have had any mind of his own, was of course determined +by the clergy, to whom he owed his liberty, +and who were his natural protectors. His principal +adviser was the Archbishop of Saint Andrews; and +the important post of chancellor, which, under the +Douglases, had been held by a layman, was now conferred +on the Archbishop of Glasgow.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> These two +prelates were supreme; while, at the same time, the +Abbot of Holyrood was made treasurer, and the +Bishop of Dunkeld was made privy seal.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> All nobles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +and even all followers, of the house of Douglas, were +forbidden to approach within twelve miles of the court, +under pain of treason.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> An expedition was fitted +out, and sent against the Earl of Caithness, who was +defeated and slain.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> Just before this occurred, the +Earl of Angus was driven out of Scotland, and his +estates confiscated.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> An act of attainder was passed +against the Douglases.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The government, moreover, +seized, and threw into prison, the Earl of Bothwell, +Home, Maxwell, and two Kerrs, and the barons of +Buccleuch, Johnston, and Polwarth.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> + +<p>All this was vigorous enough, and was the consequence +of the Church recovering her power. Other +measures, equally decisive, were preparing. In 1531, +the king deprived the Earl of Crawford of most of his +estates, and threw the Earl of Argyle into prison.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> +Even those nobles who had been inclined to follow him, +he now discouraged. He took every opportunity of +treating them with coldness, while he filled the highest +offices with their rivals, the clergy.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Finally, he, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +1532, aimed a deadly blow at their order, by depriving +them of a large part of the jurisdiction which they +were wont to exercise in their own country, and to the +possession of which they owed much of their power. +At the instigation of the Archbishop of Glasgow, he +established what was called the College of Justice, in +which suits were to be decided, instead of being tried, +as heretofore, by the barons, at home, in their castles. +It was ordered that this new tribunal should consist of +fifteen judges, eight of whom must be ecclesiastics; and +to make the intention still more clear, it was provided +that the president should invariably be a clergyman.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>This gave the finishing touch to the whole, and it, +taken in connexion with previous measures, exasperated +the nobles almost to madness. Their hatred +of the clergy became uncontrollable; and, in their +eagerness for revenge, they not only threw themselves +into the arms of England, and maintained a secret +understanding with Henry VIII., but many of them +went even further, and showed a decided leaning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +towards the principles of the Reformation. As the +enmity between the aristocracy and the Church grew +more bitter, just in the same proportion did the desire +to reform the Church become more marked. The love +of innovation was encouraged by interested motives, +until, in the course of a few years, an immense majority +of the nobles adopted extreme Protestant opinions; +hardly caring what heresy they embraced, so long as +they were able, by its aid, to damage a Church from +which they had recently received the greatest injuries, +and with which they and their progenitors had been +engaged in a contest of nearly a hundred and fifty +years.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p>In the mean time, James V. united himself closer than +ever with the hierarchy. In 1534, he gratified the +Church, by personally assisting at the trial of some +heretics, who were brought before the bishops and +burned.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The next year, he was offered, and he +willingly accepted, the title of Defender of the Faith, +which was transferred to him from Henry VIII.; that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +king being supposed to have forfeited it by his impiety.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> +At all events, James well deserved it. He was +a stanch supporter of the Church, and his privy-council +was chiefly composed of ecclesiastics, as he +deemed it dangerous to admit laymen to too large a +share in the government.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> And, in 1538, he still +further signalized his policy, by taking for his second +wife Mary of Guise; thus establishing an intimate relation +with the most powerful Catholic family in Europe, +whose ambition, too, was equal to their power, and who +made it their avowed object to uphold the Catholic +faith, and to protect it from those rude and unmannerly +invasions which were now directed against it in most +parts of Europe.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> + +<p>This was hailed by the Church as a guarantee for +the intentions of the king. And so indeed it proved +to be. David Beaton, who negotiated the marriage, +became the chief adviser of James during the rest of +his reign. He was made Archbishop of Saint Andrews +in 1539,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> and, by his influence, a persecution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +hotter than any yet known, was directed against the +Protestants. Many of them escaped into England,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> +where they swelled the number of the exiles, who +were waiting till the time was ripe to take a deadly +revenge. They, and their adherents at home, coalesced +with the disaffected nobles, particularly with +the Douglases,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> who were by far the most powerful of +the Scotch aristocracy, and who were connected with +most of the great families, either by old associations, +or by the still closer bond of the interest which they +all had in reducing the power of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> + +<p>At this juncture, the eyes of men were turned towards +the Douglases, whom Henry VIII. harboured at his +court, and who were now maturing their plans.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> +Though they did not yet dare to return to Scotland, +their spies and agents reported to them all that was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +done, and preserved their connexions at home. Feudal +covenants, bonds of manrent, and other arrangements, +which, even if illegal, it would have been held disgraceful +to renounce, were in full force; and enabled +the Douglases to rely with confidence on many of the +most powerful nobles, who were, moreover, disgusted +at the predominance of the clergy, and who welcomed +the prospect of any change which was likely to lessen +the authority of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<p>With such a combination of parties, in a country +where, there being no middle class, the people counted +for nothing, but followed wherever they were led, it is +evident that the success or failure of the Reformation +in Scotland was simply a question of the success or +failure of the nobles. They were bent on revenge. The +only doubt was, as to their being strong enough to +gratify it. Against them, they had the Crown and the +Church. On their side they had the feudal traditions, +the spirit of clanship, the devoted obedience of their innumerable +retainers, and, what was equally important, +that love of names, and of family associations, for which +Scotland is still remarkable, but which, in the sixteenth +century, possessed an influence difficult to exaggerate.</p> + +<p>The moment for action was now at hand. In 1540, +the government, completely under the control of the +clergy, caused fresh laws to be enacted against the Protestants, +whose interests were by this time identical +with those of the nobles. By these statutes, no one, +even suspected of heresy, could for the future hold any +office; and all Catholics were forbidden to harbour, or +to show favour to, persons who professed the new opinions.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> +The clergy, now flushed with conquest, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +greedy for the destruction of their ancient rivals, proceeded +to still farther extremities. So unrelenting was +their malice, that, in that same year, they presented to +James a list containing the names of upwards of three +hundred members of the Scotch aristocracy, whom they +formally accused as heretics, who ought to be put to +death, and whose estates they recommended the king +to confiscate.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> + +<p>These hot and vindictive men little knew of the storm +which they were evoking, and which was about to burst +on their heads, and cover them and their Church with +confusion. Not that we have reason to believe that a +wiser conduct would have ultimately saved the Scotch +hierarchy. On the contrary, the probability is, that +their fate was sealed; for the general causes which +governed the entire movement had been so long at work, +that, at this period, it would have been hardly possible +to have baffled them. But, even if we admit as certain, +that the Scotch clergy were doomed, it is also certain +that their violence made their fall more grievous, by +exasperating the passions of their adversaries. The +train, indeed, was laid; their enemies had supplied the +materials, and all was ready to explode; but it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +themselves who at last applied the match, and sprung +the mine to their own destruction.</p> + +<p>In 1542, the nobles, seeing that the Church and the +Crown were bent on their ruin, took the most decisive +step on which they had yet ventured, and peremptorily +refused to obey James in making war upon the English. +They knew that the war in which they were desired to +participate had been fomented by the clergy, with the +twofold object of stopping all communication with the +exiles, and of checking the introduction of heretical +opinions.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> Both these intentions they resolved to frustrate, +and, being assembled on the field, they declared +with one voice that they would not invade England. +Threats and persuasions were equally useless. James, +stung with vexation, returned home, and ordered the +army to be disbanded. Scarcely had he retired, when +the clergy attempted to rally the troops, and to induce +them to act against the enemy. A few of the peers, +ashamed at what seemed a cowardly desertion of the +king, appeared willing to march. The rest, however, +refused; and, while they were in this state of doubt +and confusion, the English, taking them unawares, suddenly +fell upon their disorderly ranks, utterly routed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +them, and made a large number prisoners. In this disgraceful +action, ten thousand Scotch troops fled before +three hundred English cavalry.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> The news being +brought to James, while he was still smarting from the +disobedience of the nobles, was too much for his proud +and sensitive mind. He reeled under the double shock; +a slow fever wasted his strength; he sunk into a long +stupor; and, refusing all comfort, he died in December +1542, leaving the Crown to his infant daughter, Mary, +during whose reign the great contest between the aristocracy +and the Church was to be finally decided.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p>The influence of the nobles was increased by the +death of James V., and yet more by the bad repute into +which the clergy fell for having instigated a war, of +which the result was so disgraceful.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> Their party was +still further strengthened by the exiles, who, as soon as +they heard the glad tidings, prepared to leave England.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> +Early in 1543, Angus and Douglas returned to Scotland,<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> +and were soon followed by other nobles, most of +whom professed to be Protestants, though, as the result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +clearly proved, their Protestantism was inspired by a +love of plunder and of revenge. The late king had, in +his will, appointed Cardinal Beaton to be guardian of +the queen, and governor of the realm.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> Beaton, +though an unprincipled man, was very able, and was +respected as the head of the national church; he being +Archbishop of St. Andrews, and primate of Scotland. +The nobles, however, at once arrested him,<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> deprived him +of his regency, and put in his place the Earl of Arran, +who, at this time, affected to be a zealous Protestant, +though, on a fitting occasion, he afterwards changed his +opinions.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> Among the supporters of the new creed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +most powerful were the Earl of Angus and the Douglases. +They were now freed from a prescription of +fifteen years; their attainder was reversed, and their +estates and honours were restored to them.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> It was +evident that not only the executive authority, but also +the legislative, had passed from the Church to the +aristocracy. And they, who had the power, were not +sparing in the use of it. Lord Maxwell, one of the +most active of their party, had, like most of them, in +their zeal against the hierarchy, embraced the principles +of the Reformation.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> In the spring of 1543, he obtained +the sanction of the Earl of Arran, the governor of +Scotland, for a proposal which he made to the Lords +of the Articles, whose business it was to digest the +measures to be brought before Parliament. The proposal +was, that the people should be allowed to read the +Bible in a Scotch or English translation. The clergy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +arrayed all their force against what they rightly deemed +a step full of danger to themselves, as conceding a fundamental +principle of Protestantism. But all was in +vain. The tide had set in, and was not to be turned. +The proposition was adopted by the Lords of the +Articles. On their authority, it was introduced into +Parliament. It was passed. It received the assent of +the government; and, amid the lamentations of the +Church, it was proclaimed, with every formality, at +the market-cross of Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p> + +<p>Scarcely had the nobles thus attained the upper hand, +when they began to quarrel among themselves. They +were resolved to plunder the Church; but they could +not agree as to how the spoil should be shared. Neither +could they determine as to the best mode of proceeding; +some being in favour of an open and immediate schism, +while others wished to advance cautiously, and to temporize +with their opponents, that they might weaken +the hierarchy by degrees. The more active and zealous +section of the nobles were known as the English party,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> +owing to their intimate connexion with Henry VIII., +from whom many of them received supplies of money. +But, in 1544, war broke out between the two countries, +and the clergy, headed by Archbishop Beaton, roused, +with such success, the old feelings of national hatred +against the English, that the nobles were compelled for +a moment to bend before the storm, and to advocate an +alliance with France. Indeed, it seemed for a few +months as if the Church and aristocracy had forgotten +their old and inveterate hostility, and were about to +unite their strength in one common cause.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p>This, however, was but a passing delusion. The +antagonism between the two classes was irreconcilable.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> +In the spring of 1545, the leading Protestant nobles +formed a conspiracy to assassinate Archbishop Beaton,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +whom they hated more than any one else, partly because +he was the head of the Church, and partly because he +was the ablest and most unscrupulous of their opponents. +A year, however, elapsed before their purpose could be +effected; and it was not till May 1546, that Lesley, a +young baron, accompanied by the Laird of Grange, and +a few others, burst into Saint Andrews, and murdered +the primate in his own castle.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> + +<p>The horror with which the Church heard of this foul +and barbarous deed,<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> maybe easily imagined. But the +conspirators, nothing daunted, and relying on the support +of a powerful party, justified their act, seized the +castle of Saint Andrews, and prepared to defend it to the +last. And in this resolution they were upheld by a +most remarkable man, who now first appeared to public +view, and who, being admirably suited to the age in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +which he lived, was destined to become the most conspicuous +character of those troublous times.</p> + +<p>That man was John Knox. To say that he was fearless +and incorruptible, that he advocated with unflinching +zeal what he believed to be the truth, and that he +devoted himself with untiring energy to what he deemed +the highest of all objects, is only to render common +justice to the many noble attributes which he undoubtedly +possessed. But, on the other hand, he was stern, +unrelenting, and frequently brutal; he was not only +callous to human suffering, but he could turn it into a +jest, and employ on it the resources of his coarse, though +exuberant, humour;<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> and he loved power so inordinately, +that, unable to brook the slightest opposition, he +trampled on all who crossed his path, or stood even for +a moment in the way of his ulterior designs.</p> + +<p>The influence of Knox in promoting the Reformation, +has indeed been grossly exaggerated by historians, who +are too apt to ascribe vast results to individual exertions; +overlooking those large and general causes, in the +absence of which the individual exertion would be +fruitless. Still, he effected more than any single man;<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> +although the really important period of his life, in regard +to Scotland, was in and after 1559, when the triumph of +Protestantism was already secure, and when he reaped +the benefit of what had been effected during his long +absence from his own country. His first effort was a +complete failure, and, more than any one of his actions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +has injured his reputation. This was the sanction +which he gave to the cruel murder of Archbishop +Beaton, in 1546. He repaired to the Castle of Saint +Andrews; he shut himself up with the assassins; he +prepared to share their fate; and, in a work which he +afterwards wrote, openly justified what they had done.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> +For this, nothing can excuse him; and it is with a certain +sense of satisfied justice that we learn, that, in +1547, the castle being taken by the French, Knox was +treated with great severity, and was made to work at +the galleys, from which he was not liberated till 1549.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p> + +<p>During the next five years, Knox remained in England, +which he quitted in 1554, and arrived at Dieppe.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> +He then travelled abroad; and did not revisit Scotland +till the autumn of 1555, when he was eagerly welcomed +by the principal nobles and their adherents.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> From +some cause, however, which has not been sufficiently +explained, but probably from an unwillingness to play +a subordinate part among those proud chiefs, he, in July +1556, again left Scotland, and repaired to Geneva, where +he had been invited to take charge of a congregation.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> +He stayed abroad till 1559, by which time the real<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +struggle was almost over; so completely had the nobles +succeeded in sapping the foundations of the Church.</p> + +<p>For, the course of events having been long prepared, +was now rapid indeed. In 1554, the queen dowager +had succeeded Arran as regent.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> She was that Mary +of Guise whose marriage with James V. we have noticed +as one of the indications of the policy then prevailing. +If left alone, she would probably have done +little harm;<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> but her powerful and intolerant family +exhorted her to suppress the heretics, and, as a natural +part of the same scheme, to put down the nobles. By +the advice of her brothers, the Duke of Guise and the +Cardinal of Lorraine, she, in 1555, proposed to establish +a standing army, to supply the place of the troops, +which consisted of the feudal barons and their retainers. +Such a force, being paid by the Crown, would have been +entirely under its control; but the nobles saw the ulterior +design, and compelled Mary to abandon it, on the +ground that they and their vassals were able to defend +Scotland, without further aid.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Her next attempt was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +to consolidate the interests of the Catholic party, which +she effected, in 1558, by marrying her daughter to the +dauphin. This increased the influence of the Guises,<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> +whose niece, already queen of Scotland, would now, in +the ordinary course of affairs, become queen of France. +They urged their sister to extreme measures, and promised +to assist her with French troops. On the other +hand, the nobles remained firm, and prepared for the +struggle. In December 1557, several of them had +drawn up a covenant, agreeing to stand by each other, +and to resist the tyranny with which they were threatened.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> +They now took the name of Lords of the +Congregation, and sent forth their agents to secure the +subscriptions of those who wished for a reformation of +the Church.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> They, moreover, wrote to Knox, whose +style of preaching, being very popular, would, they +thought, be useful in stirring up the people to rebellion.<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> +He was then in Geneva, and did not arrive in Scotland +till May 1559,<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> by which time the result of the impending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +contest was hardly doubtful, so successful had the +nobles been in strengthening their party, and so much +reason had they to expect the support of Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>Nine days after Knox entered Scotland, the first blow +was struck. On the 11th of May 1559, he preached in +Perth. After the sermon, a tumult arose, and the people +plundered the churches and pulled down the monasteries.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> +The queen-regent, hastily assembling troops, +marched towards the town. But the nobles were on the +alert. The Earl of Glencairn joined the congregation +with two thousand five hundred men; and a treaty was +concluded, by which both sides agreed to disarm, on +condition that no one should be punished for what had +already happened.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Such, however, was the state of +the public mind, that peace was impossible. In a few +days, war again broke out; and this time the result was +more decisive. The Lords of the Congregation mustered +in great force. Perth, Stirling, and Linlithgow, +fell into their hands. The queen-regent retreated before +them. She evacuated Edinburgh; and, on the 29th of +June, the Protestants entered the capital in triumph.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p> + +<p>All this was done in seven weeks from the breaking +out of the first riot. Both parties were now willing to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +negotiate, with the view of gaining time; the queen-regent +expecting aid from France, the Lords expecting +it from England.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> But the proceedings of Elizabeth +being tardy, the Protestants, after waiting for some +months, determined to strike a decisive blow before the +reinforcements arrived. In October, the principal peers, +headed by the Duke of Chastelherault, the Earl of +Arran, the Earl of Argyle, and the Earl of Glencairn, +assembled at Edinburgh. A great meeting was held, +of which Lord Ruthven was appointed president, and +in which the queen-regent was solemnly suspended from +the government, on the ground that she was opposed to +‘the glory of God, to the liberty of the realm, and to +the welfare of the nobles.’<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p> + +<p>In the winter, an English fleet sailed into the Frith, +and anchored near Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> In January 1560, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +Duke of Norfolk arrived at Berwick, and concluded, on +the part of Elizabeth, a treaty with the Lords of the +Congregation, by virtue of which the English army entered +Scotland on the 2nd of April.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> Against this +combination, the government could effect nothing, and +in July, was glad to sign a peace, by which the French +troops were to evacuate Scotland, and the whole power +of administration was virtually consigned to the Protestant +Lords.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p> + +<p>The complete success of this great revolution, and +the speed with which it was effected, are of themselves +a decisive proof of the energy of those general causes +by which the whole movement was controlled. For +more than a hundred and fifty years, there had been a +deadly struggle between the nobles and the Church: +and the issue of that struggle, was the establishment of +the Reformation, and the triumph of the aristocracy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +They had, at last, carried their point. The hierarchy +was overthrown, and replaced by new and untried men. +All the old notions of apostolic succession, of the imposition +of hands, and of the divine right of ordination, +were suddenly discarded. The offices of the Church +were performed by heretics, the majority of whom had +not even been ordained.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Finally, and to crown the +whole, in the summer of the same year, 1560, the Scotch +parliament passed two laws, which utterly subverted +the ancient scheme. By one of these laws, every +statute which had ever been enacted in favour of the +Church, was at once repealed.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> By the other law, it +was declared that whoever either said mass, or was +present while it was said, should, for the first offence, +lose his goods; for the second offence be exiled; and, for +the third offence, be put to death.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> + +<p>Thus it was, that an institution, which had borne the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +brunt of more than a thousand years, was shivered, and +fell to pieces. And, from its fall, great things were +augured. It was believed, that the people would be enlightened, +that their eyes were opening to their former +follies, and that the reign of superstition was about +to end. But what was forgotten then, and what is too +often forgotten now, is, that in these affairs there is an +order and a natural sequence, which can never be reversed. +This is, that every institution, as it actually +exists, no matter what its name or pretences may be, is +the effect of public opinion far more than the cause; +and that it will avail nothing to attack the institution, +unless you can first change the opinion. In Scotland, +the Church was grossly superstitious; but it did not, +therefore, follow, that to overthrow the establishment, +would lessen the evil. They who think that superstition +can be weakened in this way, do not know the vitality +of that dark and ill-omened principle. Against it, there +is only one weapon, and that weapon is knowledge. +When men are ignorant, they must be superstitious; +and wherever superstition exists, it is sure to organize +itself into some kind of system, which it makes its home. +If you drive it from that home, it will find another. +The spirit transmigrates; it assumes a new form; but +still it lives. How idle, then, is that warfare which +reformers are too apt to wage, in which they slay the +carcass, and spare the life! The husk, forsooth, they +seek out and destroy; but within that husk is a seed +of deadly poison, whose vitality they are unable to +impair, and which, shifted from its place, bears fruit +in another direction, and shoots up with a fresh, and +often a more fatal, exuberance.</p> + +<p>The truth is, that every institution, whether political +or religious, represents, in its actual working, the form +and pressure of the age. It may be very old; it may +bear a venerated name; it may aim at the highest +objects: but whoever carefully studies its history, will +find that, in practice, it is successively modified by +successive generations, and that, instead of controlling +society, it is controlled by it. When the Protestant +Reformation was effected, the Scotch were excessively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +ignorant, and, therefore, in spite of the Reformation, +they remained excessively superstitious. How long that +ignorance continued, and what its results were, we +shall presently see; but before entering into that inquiry, +it will be advisable to trace the immediate consequences +of the Reformation itself, in connexion with the powerful +class by whose authority it was established.</p> + +<p>The nobles, having overthrown the Church, and +stripped it of a large part of its wealth, thought that +they were to reap the benefit of their own labour. They +had slain the enemy, and they wished to divide the +spoil.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> But this did not suit the views of the Protestant +preachers. In their opinion, it was impious to +secularize ecclesiastical property, and turn it aside to +profane purposes. They held, that it was right, indeed, +for the lords to plunder the Church; but they took for +granted that the proceeds of the robbery were to enrich +themselves. They were the godly men; and it was the +business of the ruling classes to endow them with benefices, +from which the old and idolatrous clergy were to +be expelled.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> + +<p>In accordance with these opinions, Knox and his +colleagues, in August 1560, presented a petition to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +Parliament, calling on the nobles to restore the Church +property which they had seized, and to have it properly +applied to the support of the new ministers.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> To this +request, those powerful chiefs did not even vouchsafe +a reply.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> They were content with matters as they +actually stood, and were, therefore, unwilling to disturb +the existing arrangement. They had fought the fight; +they had gained the victory, and shared the spoil. It +was not to be supposed that they would peaceably relinquish +what they had won with infinite difficulty. Nor +was it likely that, after being engaged in an arduous +struggle with the Church for a hundred and fifty years, +and having at length conquered their inveterate enemy, +they should forego the fruits of their triumph for the +sake of a few preachers, whom they had but recently +called to their aid; low-born and obscure men, who +should rather deem it an honour that they were permitted +to associate with their superiors in a common +enterprise, but were not to presume on that circumstance, +nor to suppose that they, who only entered the +field at the eleventh hour, were to share the booty on +anything approaching to terms of equality.<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p> + +<p>But the aristocracy of Scotland little knew the men +with whom they had to deal. Still less, did they understand +the character of their own age. They did not see +that, in the state of society in which they lived, superstition +was inevitable, and that, therefore, the spiritual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +classes, though depressed for a moment, were sure +speedily to rise again. The nobles had overturned the +Church; but the principles on which Church authority +is based, remained intact. All that was done, was to +change the name and the form. A new hierarchy was +quickly organized, which succeeded the old one in the +affections of the people. Indeed, it did more. For, the +Protestant clergy, neglected by the nobles, and unendowed +by the state, had only a miserable pittance +whereupon to live, and they necessarily threw themselves +into the arms of the people, where alone they +could find support and sympathy.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> Hence, a closer +and more intimate union than would otherwise have +been possible. Hence, too, as we shall presently see, +the Presbyterian clergy, smarting under the injustice +with which they were treated, displayed that hatred of +the upper classes, and that peculiar detestation of monarchical +government, which they showed whenever +they dared. In their pulpits, in their presbyteries, and in +their General Assemblies, they encouraged a democratic +and insubordinate tone, which eventually produced the +happiest results, by keeping alive, at a critical moment, +the spirit of liberty; but which, for that very reason, +made the higher ranks rue the day, when, by their ill-timed +and selfish parsimony, they roused the wrath of +so powerful and implacable a class.</p> + +<p>The withdrawal of the French troops, in 1560, had +left the nobles in possession of the government;<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> and +it was for them to decide to what extent the Reformed +clergy should be endowed. The first petition, presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +by Knox and his brethren, was passed over in contemptuous +silence. But the ministers were not so +easily put aside. Their next step was, to present to the +Privy Council what is known as the First Book of +Discipline, in which they again urged their request.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> +To the tenets contained in this book, the council had no +objection; but they refused to ratify it, because, by +doing so, they would have sanctioned the principle that +the new church had a right to the revenues of the old +one.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> A certain share, indeed, they were willing to +concede. What the share should be, was a matter of +serious dispute, and caused the greatest ill-will between +the two parties. At length, the nobles broke silence, +and, in December 1561, they declared that the Reformed +clergy should only receive one-sixth of the property of +the Church; the remaining five-sixths being divided +between the government and the Catholic priesthood.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +The meaning of this was easily understood, since the +Catholics were now entirely dependent on the government, +and the government was, in fact, the nobles +themselves, who were, at that period, the monopolizers +of political power.</p> + +<p>Such being the case, it naturally happened, that, +when the arrangement was made known, the preachers +were greatly moved. They saw how unfavourable it +was to their own interests, and, therefore, they held +that it was unfavourable to the interests of religion. +Hence, in their opinion, it was contrived by the devil, +whose purposes it was calculated to serve.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> For, now, +they who travailed in the vineyard of the Lord, were to +be discouraged, and were to suffer, in order that what +rightly belonged to them might be devoured by idle +bellies.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> The nobles might benefit for a time, but the +vengeance of God was swift, and would most assuredly +overtake them.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> From the beginning to the end, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +was nothing but spoliation. In a really Christian land, +the patrimony of the Church would be left untouched.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> +But, in Scotland, alas! Satan had prevailed,<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +Christian charity had waxen cold.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> In Scotland, +property, which should be regarded as sacred, had +been broken up and divided; and the division was of +the worst kind, since, by it, said Knox, two-thirds are +given to the devil, and the other third is shared between +God and the devil. It was as if Joseph, when governor +of Egypt, had refused food to his brethren, and sent +them back to their families with empty sacks.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> Or, +as another preacher suggested, the Church was now, +like the Maccabees of old, being oppressed, sometimes +by the Assyrians, and sometimes by the Egyptians.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> + +<p>But neither persuasions nor threats<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> produced any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +effect on the obdurate minds of the Scotch nobles. +Indeed, their hearts, instead of being softened, became +harder. Even the small stipends, which were allotted +to the Protestant clergy, were not regularly paid, but +were mostly employed for other purposes.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> When the +ministers complained, they were laughed at, and insulted, +by the nobles, who, having gained their own ends, +thought that they could dispense with their former +allies.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> The Earl of Morton, whose ability, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +connexions, made him the most powerful man in Scotland, +was especially virulent against them; and two of +the preachers, who offended him, he put to death, under +circumstances of great cruelty.<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> The nobles, regarding +him as their chief, elected him Regent in 1572;<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> and, +being now possessed of supreme power, he employed it +against the Church. He seized upon all the benefices +which became vacant, and retained their profits in his +own hands.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> His hatred of the preachers passed all +bounds. He publicly declared, that there would be +neither peace nor order in the country, until some of +them were hung.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> He refused to sanction the General +Assemblies by his presence; he wished to do away with +their privileges, and even with their name; and with +such determination did he pursue his measures, that, +in the opinion of the historian of the Scotch Kirk,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +nothing but the special interference of the Deity could +have maintained its existing polity.<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p> + +<p>The rupture between Church and State was now complete. +It remained to be seen, which was the stronger +side. Every year, the clergy became more democratic; +and, after the death of Knox, in 1572, they ventured +upon a course which even he would hardly have recommended, +and which, during the earlier period of the +Reformation, would have been impracticable.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> But, +by this time, they had secured the support of the +people; and the treatment they were receiving from the +government, and from the nobles, embittered their +minds, and drove them into desperate counsels. While +their plans were yet immature, and while the future was +looming darkly before them, a new man arose, who was +well qualified to be their chief, and who at once stepped +into the place which the death of Knox left vacant. +This was Andrew Melville, who, by his great ability, +his boldness of character, and his fertility of resource, +was admirably suited to be the leader of the Scottish +Church in that arduous struggle in which it was about +to embark.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1574, Melville, having completed his education +abroad, arrived in Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> He quickly rallied round +him the choicest spirits in the Church; and, under his +auspices, a struggle began with the civil power, which +continued, with many fluctuations, until it culminated, +sixty years later, in open rebellion against Charles I. +To narrate all the details of the contest, would be inconsistent +with the plan of this Introduction; and, notwithstanding +the extreme interest of the events which +now ensued, the greater part of them must be omitted; +but I will endeavour to indicate the general march, and +to put the reader in possession of such facts as are most +characteristic of the age in which they occurred.</p> + +<p>Melville had not been in Scotland many months, before +he began his opposition, at first by secret intrigues, +afterwards with open and avowed hostility.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> In the +time of Knox, episcopacy had been recognized as part +of the Protestant Church, and had received the sanction +of the leading Reformers.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> But that institution did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +not harmonize with the democratic spirit which was +now growing up. The difference of ranks between +the bishops and the inferior clergy was unpleasant, and +the ministers determined to put an end to it.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> In +1575, one of them, named John Dury, was instigated, +by Melville, to bring the subject before the General +Assembly at Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> After he had spoken, Melville +also expressed himself against episcopacy; but, +not being yet sure of the temper of the audience, his +first proceedings were somewhat cautious. Such hesitation +was, however, hardly necessary; for, owing to +the schism between the Church and the upper classes, +the ministers were becoming the eager enemies of those +maxims of obedience, and of subordination, which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +would have upheld, had the higher ranks been on their +side. As it was, the clergy were only favoured by the +people; they, therefore, sought to organize a system +of equality, and were ripe for the bold measures proposed +by Melville and his followers. This was clearly +shown, by the rapidity of the subsequent movement. +In 1575, the first attack was made in the General Assembly +at Edinburgh. In April 1578, another General +Assembly resolved, that, for the future, bishops should +be called by their own names, and not by their titles.<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> +The same body also declared, that no see should be filled +up, until the next Assembly.<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> Two months afterwards, +it was announced that this arrangement was to be perpetual, +and that no new bishop should ever be made.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> +And, in 1580, the Assembly of the Church at Dundee, +pulling the whole fabric to the ground, unanimously +resolved that the office of bishop was a mere human +invention; that it was unlawful; that it must be immediately +done away with; and that every bishop should +at once resign his office, or be excommunicated if he +refuse to do so.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> + +<p>The minister and the people had now done their +work, and, so far as they were concerned, had done it +well.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> But the same circumstances which made them +desire equality, made the upper classes desire inequality.<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> +A collision, therefore, was inevitable, and +was hastened by this bold proceeding of the Church. +Indeed, the preachers, supported by the people, rather +courted a contest, than avoided it. They used the most +inflammatory language against episcopacy; and, shortly +before abolishing it, they completed, and presented to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +Parliament, the Second Book of Discipline, in which +they flatly contradicted what they had asserted in their +First Book of Discipline.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> For this, they are often +taunted with inconsistency.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> But the charge is unjust. +They were perfectly consistent; and they merely +changed their maxims, that they might preserve their +principles. Like every corporation, which has ever +existed, whether spiritual or temporal, their supreme +and paramount principle was to maintain their own +power. Whether or not this is a good principle, is +another matter; but all history proves that it is an +universal one. And when the leaders of the Scotch +Church found that it was at stake, and that the question +at issue was, who should possess authority, they, with +perfect consistency, abandoned opinions that they had +formerly held, because they now perceived that those +opinions were unfavourable to their existence as an +independent body.</p> + +<p>When the First Book of Discipline appeared, in 1560, +the government was in the hands of the nobles, who +had just fought on the side of the Protestant preachers, +and were ready to fight again on their side. When +the Second Book of Discipline appeared, in 1578, the +government was still held by the nobles; but those +ambitious men had now thrown off the mask, and, +having effected their purpose in destroying the old +hierarchy, had actually turned round, and attacked +the new one. The circumstances having changed, the +Church changed with them; but in the change there +was nothing inconsistent. On the contrary, it would +have been the height of inconsistency for the ministers +to have retained their former notions of obedience and +of subordination; and it was perfectly natural that, at +this crisis, they should advocate the democratic idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +equality, just as before they had advanced the aristocratic +idea of inequality.</p> + +<p>Hence it was, that, in their First Book of Discipline, +they established a regularly ascending hierarchy, according +to which the general clergy owed obedience to their +ecclesiastical superiors, to whom the name of superintendents +was given.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> But, in the Second Book of Discipline, +every vestige of this was swept away; and it was +laid down in the broadest terms, that all the preachers +being fellow-labourers, all were equal in power; that +none had authority over others; and that, to claim such +authority, or to assert preëminence, was a contrivance +of man, not to be permitted in a divinely constituted +Church.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> + +<p>The government, as may be supposed, took a very +different view. Such doctrines were deemed, by the +upper classes, to be anti-social, and to be subversive of +all order.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> So far from sanctioning them, they resolved, +if possible, to overthrow them; and, the year +after the General Assembly had abolished episcopacy, +it was determined that, upon that very point, a trial of +strength should be made between the two parties.</p> + +<p>In 1581, Robert Montgomery was appointed archbishop +of Glasgow. The ministers who composed the +chapter of Glasgow refused to elect him; whereupon +the Privy Council declared that the King, by virtue of +his prerogative, had the right of nomination.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> All +was now confusion and uproar. The General Assembly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +forbad the archbishop to enter Glasgow.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> He refused to +obey their order, and threw himself upon the support of +the Duke of Lennox, who had obtained the appointment +for him, and to whom he, in return, had surrendered +nearly all the revenues of the see, reserving for himself +only a small stipend.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> This was a custom which had +grown up within the last few years, and was one of +many contrivances by which the nobles plundered the +Church of her property.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p> + +<p>This, however, was not the question now at issue.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> +The point to be decided was one, not of revenue, but of +power. For the clergy knew full well, that if they established +their power, the revenue would quickly follow. +They, therefore, adopted the most energetic proceedings. +In April 1582, the General Assembly met at St. Andrews, +and appointed Melville as Moderator.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> The government, +fearing the worst, ordered the members, on pain +of rebellion, to take no steps respecting the archbishopric.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> +But the representatives of the Church were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +undaunted. They summoned Montgomery before them; +they ratified the sentence by which he had been suspended +from the ministry; and they declared that he +had incurred the penalties of despotism and of excommunication.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p> + +<p>A sentence of excommunication was, in those days, +so ruinous, that Montgomery was struck with terror at +the prospect before him. To avoid the consequences, +he appeared before the Assembly, and solemnly promised +that he would make no further attempt to possess himself +of the archbishopric.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> By doing this, he probably +saved his life; for the people, siding with their clergy, +were ripe for mischief, and were determined, at all +hazards, to maintain what they considered to be the +rights of the Church, in opposition to the encroachments +of the State.</p> + +<p>The government, on the other hand, was equally +resolute.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> The Privy Council called several of the +ministers before them; and Dury, one of the most active, +they banished from Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> Measures still +more violent were about to be taken, when they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +interrupted by one of those singular events which not +unfrequently occurred in Scotland, and which strikingly +evince the inherent weakness of the Crown, notwithstanding +the inordinate pretensions it commonly +assumed.</p> + +<p>This was the Raid of Ruthven, which happened in +1582, and in consequence of which the person of James +VI. was held in durance for ten months.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> The +clergy, true to the policy which now governed them, +loudly approved of the captivity of the king, and pronounced +it to be a godly act.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> Dury, who had been +driven from his pulpit, was brought back to the capital +in triumph;<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> and the General Assembly, meeting at +Edinburgh, ordered that the imprisonment of James +should be justified by every minister to his own congregation.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1583, the king recovered his liberty, and the +struggle became more deadly than ever; the passions of +both parties being exasperated by the injuries each had +inflicted on the other. The Ruthven conspiracy, having +been declared treason, as it undoubtedly was, Dury +preached in its favour, and openly defended it; and +although, under the influence of momentary fear, he +afterwards withdrew what he had said,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> it was evident, +from other circumstances, that his feelings were +shared by his brethren.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> A number of them being +summoned before the king for their seditious language, +bad him take heed what he was about, and reminded +him that no occupant of the throne had ever prospered +after the ministers had begun to threaten him.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> +Melville, who exercised immense influence over both +clergy and people, bearded the king to his face, refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +to account for what he had delivered in the pulpit, and +told James that he perverted the laws both of God and +of man.<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> Simpson likened him to Cain, and warned +him to beware of the wrath of God.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Indeed, the +spirit now displayed by the Church was so implacable, +that it seemed to delight in venting itself in the most +repulsive manner. In 1585, a clergyman, named Gibson, +in a sermon which he preached in Edinburgh, denounced +against the king the curse of Jeroboam, that he should +die childless, and that his race should end with him.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> +The year after this happened, James, finding that +Elizabeth was evidently determined to take his mother's +life, bethought him of what was valued in that age as +an unfailing resource, and desired the clergy to offer up +prayers on behalf of Mary. This, they almost unanimously +refused.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> And not only did they abstain from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +supplication themselves, but they resolved that no one +else should do what they had declined. The archbishop +of Saint Andrews being about to officiate before the +king, they induced a certain John Cowper to station +himself in the pulpit beforehand, so as to exclude the +prelate. Nor was it until the captain of the guard +threatened to pull Cowper from the place he had +usurped, that the service could go on, and the king be +allowed to hear his own mother prayed for, in this sad +crisis of her fate, when it was still uncertain whether +she would be publicly executed, or whether, as was more +generally believed, she would be secretly poisoned.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1594, John Ross stated in the pulpit, that the +advisers of the king were all traitors, and that the king +himself was likewise a traitor. He was also a rebel and +a reprobate. That such should be the case, was not +surprising, considering the parentage of James. For, +his mother was a Guise, and a persecutor of the saints. +He avoided open persecution, and spoke them fair; but +his deeds did not correspond to his words; and, so great +was his dissimulation, that he was the most arrant +hypocrite then living in Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p> + +<p>In 1596, David Black, one of the most influential of +the Protestant ministers, delivered a sermon, which +made much noise. He said, in his discourse, that all +kings were children of the devil; but that in Scotland +the head of the court was Satan himself. The members +of the council, he added, were cormorants, and the +lords of the session miscreants. The nobility had +degenerated: they were godless; they were dissemblers; +they were the enemies of the Church. As +to the queen of England, she was nothing but an +atheist. And as to the queen of Scotland, all he would +say was, that they might pray for her if they list, and +because it was the fashion to do so; but that there was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +no reason for it, inasmuch as no good would ever come +from her to them.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p> + +<p>For preaching this sermon, Black was summoned by +the privy-council. He refused to attend, because it +was for a spiritual tribunal, and not for a temporal one, +to take notice of what was uttered in the pulpit. The +Church, to be sure, he would obey; but, having received +his message from God, he was bound to deliver it, and +it would be a dereliction of duty, if he were to allow +the civil power to judge such matters.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> The king,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +greatly enraged, ordered Black to be cast into prison; +and it is difficult to see what other course was open to +him; though it was certain that neither this, nor any +measure he could adopt, would tame the indomitable +spirit of the Scotch Church.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p> + +<p>In December the same year, the Church proclaimed a +fast; and Welsh preached in Edinburgh a sermon, with +the view of rousing the people against their rulers. The +king, he told his audience, had formerly been possessed +by a devil, and that devil being put out, seven worse ones +had come in its place. It was, therefore, evident that +James was demented, and it became lawful to take the +sword of justice from his hands; just as it would be +lawful for servants or children to seize the head of their +family, if it had pleased heaven to afflict him with madness. +In such case, the preacher observed, it would be +right to lay hold of the madman, and to tie him hand +and foot, that he might do no further harm.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p> + +<p>The hatred felt by the clergy was at this period so +bitter, and the democratic spirit in them so strong,<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +that they seemed unable to restrain themselves; and +Andrew Melville, in an audience with the king, in 1596, +proceeded to personal insults, and, seizing him by the +sleeve, called him God's silly vassal.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> The large +amount of truth contained in this bitter taunt, increased +its pungency. But the ministers did not always confine +themselves to words.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Their participation in the +Ruthven conspiracy is unquestionable; and it is probable +that they were privy to the last great peril to which +James was exposed, before he escaped from that turbulent +land, which he was believed to govern. Certain it +is, that the Earl of Gowrie, who, in 1600, entrapped the +king into his castle in order to murder him, was the +hope and the mainstay of the Presbyterian clergy, and +was intimately associated with their ambitious schemes.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> +Such, indeed, was their infatuation on behalf of the +assassin, that, when his conspiracy was defeated, and +he himself slain, several of the ministers propagated a +report that Gowrie had fallen a victim to the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +perfidy, and that, in point of fact, the only plot which +ever existed was one concocted by the king, with fatal +art, against his mild and innocent host.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p> + +<p>An absurdity of this sort<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> was easily believed in an +ignorant, and, therefore, a credulous, age. That the +clergy should have propagated it, and that in this, as in +many other cases, they should have laboured with malignant +industry to defame the character of their prince,<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> +will astonish no one who knows how quickly the wrath +of the Church can be roused, and how ready the spiritual +classes always are to cover, even with the foulest +calumny, those who stand in their way. The evidence +which has been collected, proves that the Presbyterian +ministers carried their violence against the constituted +authorities of the state, to an indecent, if not to a +criminal, length; and we cannot absolve them from the +charge of being a restless and unscrupulous body, greedy +after power, and grossly intolerant of whatever opposed +their own views. Still, the real cause of their conduct +was, the spirit of their age, and the peculiarities of their +position. None of us can be sure that, if we were +placed exactly as they were placed, we should have acted +differently. Now, indeed, we cannot read of their proceedings, +as they are recorded in their own Assemblies, +and by the historians of their own Church, without an +uneasy feeling of dislike, I had almost said of disgust, at +finding ourselves in presence of so much of superstition, +of chicanery, of low, sordid arts, and yet, withal, of +arrogant and unbridled insolence. The truth, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +is, that in Scotland, the age was evil, and the evil rose +to the surface. The times were out of joint, and it was +hard to set them right. The long prevalence of anarchy, +of ignorance, of poverty, of force, of fraud, of domestic +tumult, and of foreign invasion, had reduced Scotland +to a state which is scarcely possible for us to realize. +Hereafter, I shall give some evidence of the effect which +this produced on the national character, and of the +serious mischief which it wrought. In the mean time, +we should, in fairness to the Scotch clergy, admit that +the condition of their country affords the best explanation +of their conduct. Everything around them was +low and coarse; the habits of men, in their daily life, +were violent, brutal, and utterly regardless of common +decency; and, as a natural consequence, the standard +of human actions was so depressed, that upright and +well-meaning persons did not shrink from doing what +to us, in our advanced state of society, seems incredible. +Let us, then, not be too rash in this matter. Let us not +be too forward in censuring the leading actors in that +great crisis through which Scotland passed, during the +latter half of the sixteenth century. Much they did, +which excites our strongest aversion. But one thing +they achieved, which should make us honour their memory, +and repute them benefactors of their species. At +a most hazardous moment, they kept alive the spirit of +national liberty.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> What the nobles and the crown had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +put in peril, that did the clergy save. By their care, +the dying spark was kindled into a blaze. When the +light grew dim, and flickered on the altar, their hands +trimmed the lamp, and fed the sacred flame. This is +their real glory, and on this they may well repose. They +were the guardians of Scotch freedom, and they stood +to their post. Where danger was, they were foremost. +By their sermons, by their conduct, both public and +private, by the proceedings of their Assemblies, by their +bold and frequent attacks upon persons, without regard +to their rank, nay, even by the very insolence with +which they treated their superiors, they stirred up the +minds of men, woke them from their lethargy, formed +them to habits of discussion, and excited that inquisitive +and democratic spirit, which is the only effectual guarantee +the people can ever possess against the tyranny +of those who are set over them. This was the work of +the Scotch clergy; and all hail to them who did it. It +was they who taught their countrymen to scrutinize, +with a fearless eye, the policy of their rulers. It was +they who pointed the finger of scorn at kings and nobles, +and laid bare the hollowness of their pretensions. They +ridiculed their claims, and jeered at their mysteries. +They tore the veil, and exposed the tricks of the scene +which lay behind. The great ones of the earth, they +covered with contempt; and those who were above them, +they cast down. Herein, they did a deed which should +compensate for all their offences, even were their offences +ten times as great. By discountenancing that pernicious +and degrading respect which men are too apt to pay to +those whom accident, and not merit, has raised above +them, they facilitated the growth of a proud and sturdy +independence, which was sure to do good service at a +time of need. And that time came quicker than any one +had expected. Within a very few years, James became +master of the resources of England, and attempted, by +their aid, to subvert the liberties of Scotland. The +shameful enterprise, which he began, was continued by +his cruel and superstitious son. How their attempts +failed; how Charles I., in the effort, shipwrecked his +fortune, and provoked a rebellion, which brought to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +scaffold that great criminal, who dared to conspire +against the people, and who, as the common enemy and +oppressor of all, was at length visited with the just +punishment of his sins, is known to every reader of our +history. It is also well known, that, in conducting the +struggle, the English were greatly indebted to the +Scotch, who had, moreover, the merit of being the first +to lift their hand against the tyrant. What, however, +is less known, but is undoubtedly true, is, that both +nations owe a debt they can never repay to those bold +men who, during the latter part of the sixteenth century, +disseminated, from their pulpits and Assemblies, +sentiments which the people cherished in their hearts, +and which, at a fitting moment, they reproduced, to the +dismay, and eventually to the destruction, of those who +threatened their liberties.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> ‘The Church was eminently favoured by Albany.’ <i>Pinkerton's +History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 86. But Pinkerton misunderstands his +policy in regard to the nobles.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. ii. pp. 72–74; <i>Browne's +History of the Highlands</i>, vol. i. p. 162, vol. iv. pp. 435, 436.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Chalmers (<i>Caledonia</i>, vol. i. pp. 826, 827), referring to +the state of things before Albany, says, ‘There is not a trace of any +attempt by Robert II. to limit the power of the nobles, whatever he may +have added, by his improvident grants, to their independence. He appears +not to have attempted to raise the royal prerogative from the debasement +in which the imprudence and misfortunes of David II. had left it.’ And, +of his successor, Robert III., ‘So mild a prince, and so weak a man, was +not very likely to make any attempt upon the power of others, when he +could scarcely support his own.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> In 1476, ‘the Earldom of Ross was inalienably annexed to +the Crown; and a great blow was thus struck at the power and grandeur of +a family which had so repeatedly disturbed the tranquillity of Scotland.’ <i>Gregory's History of the Western +Highlands</i>, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 50. In 1493, ‘John, fourth and last Lord +of the Isles, was forfeited, and deprived of his title and estates.’ +<i>Ibid.</i> p. 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> As those who held crown lands were legally, though not in +reality, the king's tenants, the act declared, that ‘gif it like the +king, he may ger sūmonde all and sindry his tenand at lauchfull day +and place to schawe thar chartis.’ <i>The Acts of the Parliament of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 4, § 9, edit. folio, 1814.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> ‘On the 8th June, 1425, James issued a commission to Henry, +bishop of St. Andrews, authorising him to resume all alienations from +the Church, with power of anathema, and orders to all justiciaries to +assist.’ This curious paper is preserved in Harl. Ms. 4637, vol. iii. f. +189. <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 116. Archbishop +Spottiswoode, delighted with his policy, calls him a ‘good king,’ and +says that he built for the Carthusians ‘a beautiful monastery at Perth, +bestowing large revenues upon the same.’ <i>Spottiswoode's History of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 113. And Keith assures us that, on one +occasion, James I. went so far as to give to one of the bishops ‘a +silver cross, in which was contained a bit of the wooden cross on which +the apostle St. Andrew had been crucified.’ <i>Keith's Catalogue of Scotch +Bishops</i>, Edinburgh, 1755, 4to, p. 67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Compare <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. pp. 153–156, with +<i>Pinkerton's History</i>, vol. i. pp. 113–115. Between these two +authorities there is a slight, but unimportant, discrepancy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 95–98; +<i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. ii. p. 75; and an imperfect narrative in +<i>Gregory's History of the Western Highlands</i>, p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 126), under the +year 1433, says: ‘In the midst of his labours for the pacification of +his northern dominions, and his anxiety for the suppression of heresy, +the king never forgot his great plan for the diminution of the +exorbitant power of the nobles.’ See also p. 84. ‘It was a principle of +this enterprising monarch, in his schemes for the recovery and +consolidation of his own power, to cultivate the friendship of the +clergy, whom he regarded as a counterpoise to the nobles.’ Lord +Somerville (<i>Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, vol. i. p. 173) says, that the +superior nobility were ‘never or seldome called to counsell dureing this +king's reign.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Compare <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 263, with +<i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. x. p. 286.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 157, 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Lindsay of Pitscottie (<i>Chronicles</i>, vol. i. p. 2) says, +that directly after the death of James I., ‘Alexander, Earle of Douglas, +being uerie potent in kine and friendis, contemned all the kingis +officeris, in respect of his great puissance.’ The best account I have +seen of the rise of the Douglases is in Chalmers' learned, but +ill-digested, work, <i>Caledonia</i>, vol. i. pp. 579–583.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> In 1440, ‘the chief of that family had revenues perhaps +equivalent to those of the Scottish monarch.’ <i>Pinkerton's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 192.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> ‘It may give us some idea of the immense power possessed +at this period by the Earl of Douglas, when we mention, that on this +chivalrous occasion, the military suite by which he was surrounded, and +at the head of which he conducted the Scottish champions to the lists, +consisted of a force amounting to five thousand men.’ <i>Tytler's History +of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 215. The old historian of his family says: +‘He is not easy to be dealt with; they must have mufles that would catch +such a cat. Indeed, he behaved himself as one that thought he would not +be in danger of them; he entertained a great family; he rode ever well +accompanied when he came in publick; 1000 or 2000 horse were his +ordinary train.’ <i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. pp. +273, 274, reprinted Edinburgh, 1743.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> In the seventeenth century, ‘To be without a chief, +involved a kind of disrepute; and those who had no distinct personal +position of their own, would find it necessary to become a Gordon or a +Crichton, as prudence or inclination might point out.’ <i>Burton's +Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 207. Compare <i>Pitcairn's +Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 250, on ‘the protective +surname of Douglas;’ and <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. ii. p. 252, on the +extreme importance attached to the name of Macgregor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> ‘Men of the greatest puissance and force next the +Douglases that were in Scotland in their times.’ <i>Hume's History of the +House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. p. 344. The great power of the Earls of Ross +in the north, dates from the thirteenth century. See <i>Skene's +Highlanders</i>, vol. i. pp. 133, 134, vol. ii. p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> In 1445, the Earl of Douglas concluded ‘ane offensiue and +defensiue league and combinatione aganist all, none excepted, (not the +king himselue), with the Earle of Crawfurd, and Donald, Lord of the +Isles; wich was mutually sealled and subscriued by them three, the 7 day +of Marche.’ <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. p. 173. This comprised the +alliance of other noble families. ‘He maid bandis with the Erle of +Craufurd, and with Donald lorde of the Ylis, and Erle of Ross, to take +part every ane with other, and with dyvers uther noble men also.’ +<i>Lesley's History of Scotland</i>, from 1436 to 1561, p. 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> An interesting account of this dastardly crime is given in +<i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. pp. 274–288, where +great, but natural, indignation is expressed. On the other hand, Lesley, +bishop of Ross, narrates it with a cold-blooded indifference, +characteristic of the ill-will which existed between the nobles and the +clergy, and which prevented him from regarding the murder of two +children as an offence. ‘And eftir he was set doun to the burd with the +governour, chancellour, and otheris noble men present, the meit was +sudantlie removed, and ane bullis heid presented, quhilk in thay daies +was ane signe of executione; and incontinent the said erle, David his +broder, and Malcolme Fleming of Cummernald, wer heidit before the +castell yett of Edenburgh.’ <i>Lesley's History</i>, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> The cousin of the boys who were murdered in 1440. See +<i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. pp. 297, 816.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> ‘With assurance under the broad seal.’ <i>Hume's House of +Douglas</i>, vol. i. p. 351. See also <i>Nimmo's History of Stirlingshire</i>, +Edinb. 1777, pp. 246, 322, 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Hume's House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. pp. 351–353. The king +‘stabbed him in the breast with a dagger. At the same instant Patrick +Gray struck him on the head with a pole-ax. The rest that were attending +at the door, hearing the noise, entred, and fell also upon him; and, to +show their affection to the king, gave him every man his blow after he +was dead.’ <i>Compare Lindsay of Pitscottie's Chronicles of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. p. 103. ‘He strak him throw the bodie thairwith; and thairefter +the guard, hearing the tumult within the chamber, rusched in and slew +the earle out of hand.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> In <i>Nimmo's History of Stirlingshire</i>, pp. 99, 100, the +alienation of the nobles from the Church is dated ‘from the middle of +the fifteenth century;’ and this is perhaps correct in regard to general +dislike, though the movement may be clearly traced fifty years earlier.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> See <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 33, +edit. folio, 1814; respecting the ‘statute of haly kirk quhilk is +oppressit and hurt.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> In 1449, James II., ‘with that affectionate respect for +the clergy, which could not fail to be experienced by a prince who had +successfully employed their support and advice to escape from the +tyranny of his nobles, granted to them some important privileges.’ +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 226. See also p. 309. Among +many similar measures, he conceded to the monks of Paisley some +important powers of jurisdiction that belonged to the Crown. Charter, +13th January, 1451–2, in <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 823.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 188, 209, +247, 254. <i>Keith's Catalogue of Scotch Bishops</i>, p. 19. <i>Ridpath's +Border History</i>, p. 298. <i>Hollinshead's Scottish Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. p. +101. In <i>Somerville's Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, vol. i. p. 213, it is +stated, under the year 1452, that fear of the great nobles ‘had once +possest his majestie with some thoughts of going out of the countrey; +but that he was perswaded to the contrary by Bishop Kennedie, then +Archbishop of Saint Andrewes, whose counsell at that tyme and +eftirward, in most things he followed, which at length proved to his +majesties great advantage.’ See also <i>Lesley's History</i>, p. 23. ‘The +king wes put to sic a sharp point, that he wes determinit to haif left +the realme, and to haif passit in Fraunce by sey, were not that bischop +James Kennedy of St. Androis causit him to tarrye.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> ‘His lands were plundered by the Earl of Crawford and +Alexander Ogilvie of Inveraritie, at the instigation of the Earl of +Douglas, who had farther instructed them to seize, if possible, the +person of the bishop, and to put him in irons.’ Memoir of Kennedy, in +<i>Chambers' Lives of Scotchmen</i>, vol. iii. p. 307, Glasgow, 1834. ‘Sed +Kennedus et ætate, et consilio, ac proinde auctoritate cæteros +anteibat. In eum potissimum ira est versa. Crafordiæ comes et +Alexander Ogilvius conflato satis magno exercitu, agros ejus in Fifa +latè populati, dum prædam magis, quam causam sequuntur, omni genere +cladis in vicina etiam prædia grassati, nemine congredi auso pleni +prædarum in Angusiam revertuntar. Kennedus ad sua arma conversus comitem +Crafordiæ disceptationem juris fugientem diris ecclesiasticis est +prosecutus.’ <i>Buchanan</i>, <i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xi. p. 306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> ‘This holie bischop schew ane similitud to the king, +quhilk might bring him to experience how he might invaid againes the +Douglass, and the rest of the conspiratouris. This bischop tuik furth +ane great scheife of arrowes knitt togidder werrie fast, and desired him +to put thame to his knie, and break thame. The king said it was not +possible, becaus they war so many, and so weill fastened togidder. The +bischop answeired, it was werrie true, bot yitt he wold latt the king +sea how to break thame: and pulled out on be on, and tua be tua, quhill +he had brokin thame all; then said to the king, “Yea most doe with the +conspiratouris in this manner, and thair complices that are risen +againes yow, quho are so many in number, and so hard knit togidder in +conspiracie againes yow, that yea cannot gett thame brokin togidder. +Butt be sick pratick as I have schowin yow be the similitud of thir +arrowes, that is to say, yea must conqueis and break lord by +lord be thamselffis, for yea may not deall with thame all at once.”’ +<i>Lindsay of Pitscottie's Chronicles of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 172, 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> ‘He wald nocht suffer the noblemen to come to his +presence, and to governe the realme be thair counsell.’ <i>Lesley's +History of Scotland</i>, p. 48. ‘Wald nocht use the counsall of his +nobilis.’ p. 55. ‘Excluding the nobility.’ <i>Hume's History of the House +of Douglas</i>, vol. ii. p. 33. ‘The nobility seeing his resolution to ruin +them.’ p. 46. ‘Hes conteming his nobility.’ <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. +p. 206.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Also to aggrandize them. See, for instance, what ‘has +obtained the name of the golden charter, from the ample privileges it +contains, confirmed to Archbishop Shevez by James III. on 9th July +1480.’ <i>Grierson's History of Saint Andrews</i>, p. 58, Cupar, 1838.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> ‘Such was the influence of the aristocracy over their +warlike followers, that the king was conveyed to the castle of +Edinburgh, without commotion or murmur.’ <i>Pinkerton's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 308.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> ‘The king and his ministers multiplied the insults which +they offered to the nobility.’ … ‘A proclamation was issued, forbidding +any person to appear in arms within the precincts of the court; which, +at a time when no man of rank left his own house without a numerous +retinue of armed followers, was, in effect, debarring the nobles from +all access to the king.’ … ‘His neglect of the nobles irritated, but +did not weaken them.’ <i>History of Scotland</i>, book i. p. 68, in +<i>Robertson's Works</i>, edit. London, 1831.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. pp. 213, 214; Buchanan, +<i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xii. p. 358. Lindsay of Pitscottie +(<i>Chronicles</i>, vol. i. p. 222) says: ‘This may be ane example to all +kingis that cumes heirefter, not to fall from God.’ … ‘or, if he had +vsed the counsall of his wyse lordis and barrones, he had not cum to +sick disparatioun.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, folio, 1814, vol. +ii. p. 232. ‘That the said abbaceis confirmit be thame sall neid na +prouisioun of the court of Rome.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 240; +and the summary of the statute (p. 21), ‘Revocation of donations, +statutis, and all uthir thingis hurtand the croune or hali kirk.’ In the +next year (1504), the king ‘greatly augmented’ the revenues of the +bishoprick of Galloway. <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 417.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Pinkerton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 63; +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. viii. p. 135, edit. +Wodrow Society, Edinburgh, 1849. The latter authority states, that ‘The +bishop devysed wayes to King James the Fourth, how he might attaine to +great gaine and profit. He advised him to call his barons and all those +that held any lands within the realme, to show their evidents by way of +recognition; and, if they had not sufficient writings for their warrant, +to dispone upon their lands at his pleasure; for the which advice he was +greatlie hated. But the king, perceaving the countrie to grudge, agreed +easilie with the possessors.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> The Regency of Albany, little understood by the earlier +historians, has been carefully examined by Mr. Tytler, in whose +valuable, though too prolix, work, the best account of it will be found. +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 98–160, Edinburgh, 1845. On +the hostility between Albany and the nobles, see <i>Irving's History of +Dumbartonshire</i>, p. 99; and, on the revival of their power in the north, +after the death of James IV., see <i>Gregory's History of the Western +Highlands</i>, pp. 114, 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 180–182: +‘Within a few months, there was not an office of trust or emolument in +the kingdom, which was not filled by a Douglas, or by a creature of that +house.’ See also pp. 187, 194; and <i>Keith's Catalogue of Scotch +Bishops</i>, pp. 22, 23. Beaton, who was so rudely dispossessed of the +chancellorship, that, according to Keith, he was, in 1525, obliged ‘to +lurk among his friends for fear of his life,’ is mentioned, in the +preceding year, as having been the main supporter of Albany's +government; ‘that most hath favoured the Duke of Albany.’ <i>State Papers +of the Reign of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. iv. p. 97, 4to, 1836.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> The complete power of the Douglases lasted from the +cessation of Albany's regency to the escape of the king, in 1528. +<i>Keith's History of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland</i>, edit. +Edinburgh, 1835, vol. i. pp. 33–35. Compare <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. +p. 257. ‘The Earle of Angus violentley takes one him the gouerniment, +and retanes the king in effecte a prisoner with him; during wich tyme +he, the Earle of Lennox, and George Douglas, his auen brother, frely +disposses vpone all affaires both of churche and staite.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 195, 196. The +curious work, entitled <i>A Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, p. 10, says, ‘In the +zeir of God 1500, tuantie aucht zeiris, the kingis grace by slicht wan +away fra the Douglassis.’ From Stirling, he repaired to Edinburgh, on +6th July 1528, and went to ‘the busshop of Sainct Andros loegeing.’ See +a letter written on the 18th of July 1528, by Lord Dacre to Wolsey, in +<i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. iv. p. 501, 4to, 1836. Compare a +proclamation on 10th September 1528, in <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in +Scotland</i>, vol. i. part i. pp. 138*, 139*, Edinburgh, +4to, 1833. I particularly indicate these documents, because Lindsay of +Pitscottie (in his <i>Chronicles of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 335) +erroneously places the flight of James in 1527; and he is generally one +of the most accurate of the old writers, if indeed he be the author of +the work which bears his name.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. iv. p. 501.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> ‘Archibald was depryvit of the thesaurarie, and placit +thairin Robert Cairncorse, abbot of Halyrudhous. And als was tane fra +the said Archibald the privie seill, and was givin to the bischope of +Dunkell.’ <i>A Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 196) says: ‘His +first act was to summon a council, and issue a proclamation, that no +lord or follower of the house of Douglas should dare to approach within +<i>six</i> miles of the court, under pain of treason.’ For this, no authority +is cited; and the historian of the Douglas family distinctly states, +‘within <i>twelve</i> miles of the king, under pain of death.’ <i>Hume's House +of Douglas</i>, vol. ii. p. 99. See also <i>Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, p. 10: +‘that nane of thame nor thair familiaris cum neir the king be tuelf +myllis.’ The reason was, that ‘the said kingis grace haid greit +suspicioun of the temporall lordis, becaus thaj favourit sum pairt the +Douglassis.’ <i>Diurnal</i>, p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> ‘The Erle of Caithnes and fyve hundreth of his men wes +slayne and drownit in the see.’ <i>Lesley's History of Scotland</i>, p. 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 203, 204.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 324, +edit. folio, 1814.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 207.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Tytler</i>, vol. iv. p. 212.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> ‘His preference of the clergy to the temporal lords +disgusted these proud chiefs.’ <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. +p. 230. See also p. 236. His reasons are stated by himself, in a curious +letter, which he wrote so late as 1541, to Henry VIII. ‘We persaif,’ +writes James, ‘be zoure saidis writingis yat Ze ar informyt yat yair +suld be sum thingis laitlie attemptat be oure kirkmen to oure hurte and +skaith, and contrar oure mynde and plesure. We can nocht understand, +quhat suld move Zou to beleif the samyn, assuring Zou <i>We have nevir +fund bot faithfull and trew obedience of yame at all tymes</i>, nor yai +seik nor attemptis nouthir jurisdictioun nor previlegijs, forthir nor +yai have usit sen the first institutioun of the Kirk of Scotland, quhilk +We may nocht apoun oure conscience alter nor change in the respect We +have to the honour and faith of God and Halikirk, and douttis na +inconvenient be yame to come to Ws and oure realme yerthrou; for sen the +Kirk wes first institute in our realme, the stait yairof hes nevir +failzeit, bot <i>hes remanyt evir obedient to oure progenitouris, and in +our tyme mair thankefull to Ws, nor evir yai wer of before</i>.’ This +letter, which, in several points of view, is worth reading, will be +found in <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. pp. 188–190, 4to, 1836.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 212, 213, and +<i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, 4to, 1788, p. 468: ‘fifteen ordinary +judges, seven churchmen, seven laymen, and a president, whom it behoved +to be a churchman.’ The statute, as printed in the folio edition of 1814 +(<i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 335) says ‘xiiij +psouñs half spūale half temporall wt ane president.’ Mr. Lawson +(<i>Roman Catholic Church in Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 81) supposes +that it was the Archbishop of St. Andrews who advised the erection of +this tribunal.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Keith, who evidently does not admire this part of the +history of his country, says, under the year 1546, ‘Several of our +nobility found it their temporal interest, as much as their spiritual, +to sway with the new opinions as to religious matters.’ <i>Keith's Affairs +of Church and State</i>, vol. i. pp. 112, 113. Later, and with still more +bluntness: ‘The noblemen wanted to finger the patrimony of the kirkmen.’ +vol. iii. p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> ‘In the month of August (1534), the bishops having gotten +fitt opportunitie, renewed their battell aganest Jesus Christ. David +Stratilon, a gentelman of the House of Lawrestoune, and Mr. Norman +Gowrlay, was brought to judgement in the Abby of Halyrudhouse. The king +himself, all cloathed with reid, being present, grait pains war taken +upon David Stratoun to move him to recant and burn his bill; bot he, +ever standing to his defence, was in end adjudged to the fire. He asked +grace at the king. The bishops answred proudlie, that “the king's hands +war bound, and that he had no grace to give to such as were by law +condemned.” So was he, with Mr. Norman, after dinner, upon the 27th day +of Agust, led to a place beside the Rude of Greenside, between Leth and +Edinbrug, to the intent that the inhabitants of Fife, seeing the fire, +might be striken with terrour and feare.’ <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in +Scotland</i>, vol. i. part i. p. 210*. Also +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 106, 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> ‘It appears, by a letter in the State-paper Office, that +Henry remonstrated against this title being given to James.’ <i>Tytler's +History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 223. See also p. 258.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> In 1535, ‘his privy council were mostly ecclesiastics.’ +<i>Ibid.</i> vol. iv. p. 222. And Sir Ralph Sadler, during his embassy to +Scotland in 1539–40, writes: ‘So that the king, as far as I can +perceive, is of force driven to use the bishops and his clergy as his +only ministers for the direction of his realm. They be the men of wit +and policy that I see here; they be never out of the king's ear. And if +they smell any thing that in the least point may touch them, or that the +king seem to be content with any such thing, straight they inculk to +him, how catholic a prince his father was, and feed him both with fair +words and many, in such wise as by those policies they lead him (having +also the whole governance of his affairs) as they will.’ <i>State Papers +and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler</i>, Edinb., 1809, 4to, vol. i. p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. 128. <i>A Diurnal +of Occurrents</i>, p. 22. The Reverend Mr. Kirkton pronounces that the new +queen was ‘ane egge of the bloody nest of Guise.’ <i>Kirkton's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, edited by Sharpe, Edinburgh, 1817, 4to, p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> ‘At his return home, he was made coadjutor, and declared +future successor to his uncle in the primacy of St. Andrews, in which +see he came to be fully invested upon the death of his uncle the next +year, 1539.’ <i>Keith's Catalogue of Scotch Bishops</i>, pp. 23, 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, p. 20. <i>Spottiswoode's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 139. <i>Lawson's Roman Catholic Church +in Scotland</i>, p. 178. <i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of the +Reformers</i>, vol. i. p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 241) says, that +the cruelties of 1539 forced ‘many of the persecuted families to embrace +the interests of the Douglases.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> It is asserted of the Douglases, that, early in the +sixteenth century, their ‘alliances and power were equal to one-half of +the nobility of Scotland.’ <i>Brown's History of Glasgow</i>, vol. i. p. 8. +See also, on their connexions, <i>Hume's House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. pp. +xix. 252, 298, vol. ii. p. 293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Henry VIII., ‘in the year 1532, sought it directly, among +the conditions of peace, that the Douglas, according to his promise, +should be restored. For King Henry's own part, he entertained them with +all kind of beneficence and honour, and made both the Earl and Sir +George of his Privy Council.’ <i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 105, 106. James was very jealous of any communication +taking place between the Douglases and his other subjects; but it was +impossible for him to prevent it. See a letter which he wrote to Sir +Thomas Erskine (in <i>Miscellany of the Spalding Club</i>, vol. ii. p. 193, +Aberdeen, 1842, 4to), beginning, ‘I commend me rycht hartly to yow, and +weit ye that it is murmuryt hyr that ye sould a spolkyn with Gorge and +Archebald Dougles in Ingland, quhylk wase again my command and your +promys quhan we departyt.’ See also the cases of Lady Trakware, John +Mathesone, John Hume, and others, in <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in +Scotland</i>, vol. i. part i. pp. 161*, 177*, 202*, 243*, 247*.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> ‘The Douglases were still maintained with high favour and +generous allowances in England; their power, although nominally extinct, +was still far from being destroyed; their spies penetrated into every +quarter, followed the king to France, and gave information of his most +private motions; their feudal covenants and bands of manrent still +existed, and bound many of the most potent nobility to their interest; +whilst the vigour of the king's government, and his preference of the +clergy to the temporal lords, disgusted these proud chiefs, and disposed +them to hope for a recovery of their influence from any change which +might take place.’ <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 229, +230. These bonds of manrent, noticed by Tytler, were among the most +effective means by which the Scotch nobles secured their power. Without +them, it would have been difficult for the aristocracy to have resisted +the united force of the Crown and the Church. On this account, they +deserve special attention. Chalmers (<i>Caledonia</i>, vol. i. p. 824) could +find no bond of manrent earlier than 1354; but in Lord Somerville's +<i>Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, edit. Edinburgh, 1815, vol. i. p. 74, one +is mentioned in 1281. This is the earliest instance I have met with; and +they did not become very common till the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries. Compare <i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. ii. p. +19. <i>Somerville's Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, vol. i. p. 234. +<i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 83. <i>Irving's +History of Dumbartonshire</i>, pp. 142, 143. <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. +ii. p. 186. <i>Gregory's History of the Western Highlands</i>, p. 126. +<i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. i. p. 55. <i>Miscellany of the +Spalding Club</i>, vol. ii. pp. cvi. 93, 251, vol. iv. pp. xlviii. 179. As +these covenants were extremely useful in maintaining the balance of +power, and preventing the Scotch monarchy from becoming despotic, acts +of parliament were of course passed against them. See one in 1457, and +another in 1555, respecting ‘lige’ and ‘bandis of manrent and +mantenance,’ in <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, folio, 1814, vol. +ii. pp. 50, 495. Such enactments being opposed to the spirit of the age, +and adverse to the exigencies of society, produced no effect upon the +general practice, though they caused the punishment of several +individuals. Manrent was still frequent until about 1620 or 1630, when +the great social revolution was completed, by which the power of the +aristocracy was subordinated to that of the Church. Then, the change of +affairs effected, without difficulty, and indeed spontaneously, what the +legislature had vainly attempted to achieve. The nobles, gradually +sinking into insignificance, lost their spirit, and ceased to resort to +those contrivances by which they had long upheld their order. Bonds of +manrent became every year less common, and it is doubtful if there is +any instance of them after 1661. See <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. +pp. 32, 33. It is, however, so dangerous to assert a negative, that I do +not wish to rely on this date, and some few cases may exist later; but +if so, they are very few, and it is certain that, speaking generally, +the middle of the seventeenth century is the epoch of their extinction.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 370, +371. ‘That na mañ quhatsūeuir stait or conditiouñ he be luge ressauve cherish nor +favor ony heretike.’ … ‘And alswa that na persouñ that hes bene +suspectit of heresie howbeit thai be ressauit to pēnance and grace +sall in this realme exers haif nor brouk ony honest estait degre office +nor judicato<sup>r</sup> spūall nor tēporale in burgh nor w<sup>t</sup>out nor na +salbe admittit to be of ouŕ counsale.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Lindsay of Pitscottie (<i>Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. p. 383) +says, that they ‘devysed to put ane discord and variance betwixt the +lordis and gentlmen with thair prince; for they delaited, and gave vp to +the king in writt, to the number of thrittie scoir of earles, lordis, +and barrones, gentlmen and craftismen, that is, as thei alledgit, wer +all heretickis, and leived not after the Pope's lawis, and ordinance of +the hollie kirk; quhilk his grace sould esteme as ane capitall cryme, to +ony man that did the same’ … ‘all thair landis, rentes, guidis, and +geir apperteanis propperlie to your grace, for thair contempt of our +hollie father the Pope, and his lawis, and high contempt of your grace's +authoritie.’ This document was found among the king's papers after his +death, when it appeared that, of the six hundred names on the list, more +than three hundred belonged to the principal nobility: ‘Eum timorem +auxerunt codicilli post regis interitum reperti, e quibus supra +trecentorum è prima nobilitate nomina continebantur.’ <i>Buchanan</i>, <i>Rerum +Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xv. p. 424. Compare <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, +1809, vol. i. p. 94; and <i>Watson's Historicall Collections of +Ecclesiastick Affairs in Scotland</i>, 1657, p. 22. According to Watson, it +‘was called the bloudy scroll.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> In the autumn of 1542, James ‘was encouraged by the clergy +to engage in a war against King Henry, who both assured him of victory, +since he fought against an heretical prince, and advanced an annuity of +50,000 crowns for prosecuting the war.’ <i>Crawfurd's History of the Shire +of Renfrew</i>, 1782, 4to, part i. p. 48. Compare, in <i>State Papers of +Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. 154, a letter written, in 1539, by Norfolk to +Cromwell: ‘By diverse other waies I am advertised that the clergie of +Scotlande be in such feare that their king shold do theire, as the +kinges highnes hath done in this realme, that they do their best to +bring their master to the warr; and by many waies I am advertised that a +great parte of the temporaltie there wold their king shold followe our +insample, wich I pray God yeve hym grace to come unto.’ Even after the +battle of Solway, the policy of the clergy was notoriously the same. +‘And undoubtedlie, the kyrkemen labor, by all the meanes they can, to +empeche the unitie and establishment of thiese two realmes; uppon what +groundes ye can easelie conjecture.’ Letter from Sadler to Parr, dated +Edinburgh, 27th March 1543, in <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. +271, 4to, 1836.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> ‘Ten thousand Scottish troops fled at the sight of three +hundred English cavalry, with scarce a momentary resistance.’ <i>Tytler's +History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> The best account of these events will be found in +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 260–267. I have also +consulted <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, pp. 372, 373. <i>Hollinshead's +Scottish Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. pp. 207–209. <i>Lesley's History</i>, pp. +163–166. <i>Lindsay of Pitscottie's Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. pp. 399–406. +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 145–152. +<i>Buchanan</i>, <i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xiv. pp. 420, 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> ‘This defeat being so very dishonourable, especially to +the clergy, who stirred up the king to that attempt, and promised him +great success from it; and there being such a visible evidence of the +anger of God, fighting by his providence against them, all men were +struck with fear and astonishment; the bishops were ashamed to show +their faces for a time.’ <i>Stevenson's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1840, p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> We may readily believe the assertion of an old chronicler, +that ‘the nobilitie did not greatlie take his death grievouslie, because +he had fined manie, imprisoned more, and caused no small few (for +avoiding his displeasure) to flie into England, and rather to commit +themselves to the enemie than to his anger.’ <i>Hollinshead's Scottish +Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. p. 210.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. ii. p. +111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> It has been often said, that this will was forged; but for +such an assertion I cannot find the slightest evidence, except the +declaration of Arran (<i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, Edinburgh, 1809, vol. i. +p. 138), and the testimony, if testimony it can be called, of Scotch +historians, who do not profess to have examined the handwriting, and +who, being themselves Protestants, seem to suppose that the fact of a +man being a cardinal, qualifies him for every crime. There is no doubt +that Beaton was thoroughly unprincipled, and therefore was capable of +the forgery. Still, we have no proof; and the will is such as we might +have expected from the king. In regard to Arran, his affirmation is not +worth the paper it is written on: for he hated Beaton; he was himself +very unscrupulous; and he succeeded to the post which Beaton had to +vacate on the ground that the will was forged. If such circumstances do +not disqualify a witness, some of the best-established principles of +evidence are false. The reader who cares to look further into this +subject, may compare, in favour of the will being forged, <i>Buchanan</i>, +<i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xv. p. 422, Abredoniæ, 1762; <i>Knox's +History of the Reformation</i>, edit. Laing, Edinburgh, 1846, vol. i. pp. +91, 92; <i>Irving's History of Dumbartonshire</i>, second edition, 4to, 1860, +p. 102; and, in favour of its being genuine, <i>Lyon's History of St. +Andrews</i>, Edinburgh, 1843, vol. i. pp. 304, 305. Some other writers on +the subject leave it doubtful: <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, 1845, +vol. iv. p. 274; <i>Lawson's Roman Church in Scotland</i>, 1836, p. 99; and a +note in <i>Keith's Church and State in Scotland</i>, 1844, vol. i. p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> On the 26th of January 1542–3, ‘the said cardinall was put +in pressoune in Dalkeith.’ <i>A Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, p. 26. See also, +respecting his imprisonment, a letter written, on the 16th of March, by +Angus and Douglas, in <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. 263. He +was then in ‘firmance.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> His appointment was confirmed by Parliament on the 12th of +March. <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 411: ‘tuto<sup>r</sup> +lau<sup>t</sup>full to the quenis grace and gounour of this realme.’ He +excluded the clergy from power. On 20th March, in the same year, Sir +Ralph Sadler writes to Henry VIII., that Sir George Douglas ‘brought me +into the council-chamber, where I found a great number of noblemen and +others at a long board, and divers standing, but <i>not one bishop nor +priest among them</i>. At the upper end of the board sat the governour.’ +<i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 415, +419, 424, 423*; and <i>Tytler's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 285.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> ‘Had become a convert to its doctrines.’ <i>Tytler's Hist. +of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 286. But he, as well as the other nobles, +neither knew nor cared much about doctrines; and he was, moreover, very +venal. In April 1543, Sir Ralph Sadler writes to Henry VIII.: ‘And the +lord Maxwell told me apart, “That, indeed, he lacked silver, and had no +way of relief but to your majesty;” which he prayed me to signify unto +the same. I asked him what would relieve him? and he said, 300<i>l.</i>; “for +the which,” he said, “as your majesty seemed, when he was with your +grace, to have him in more trust and credit than the rest of your +majesty's prisoners, so he trusted to do you as good service as any of +them; and amongst them they will do you such service, as, if the war +succeed, ye shall make an easy conquest of this realm; as <i>for his part +he shall deliver into your hands, at the entry of your army, the keys of +the same on the west marches, being all the strongholds there in his +custody</i>.” I offered him presently to write to my lord of Suffolk for +100<i>l.</i> for him if he would; but he said, “he would stay till he heard +again from your majesty in that behalf.”’ <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. +i. p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 415, +425. <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. p. 83. Knox, in his <i>History of +the Reformation</i> (edit. Laing, vol. i p. 100), archly says, ‘The cleargy +hearto long repugned; butt in the end, convicted by reassonis, <i>and by +multitud of votes in thare contrare</i>, thei also condiscended; and so, by +Act of Parliament, it was maid free to all man and woman to reid the +Scriptures in thair awin toung, or in the Engliss toung; and so war all +Actes maid in the contrair abolished.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Or, as Keith calls them, ‘English Lords.’ <i>History of the +Affairs of Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> In May 1544 the English attacked Scotland, <i>Tytler's +History</i>, vol. iv. p. 316; and in that same month, the ‘Anglo-Scottish +party’ consisted only of the Earls of Lennox and of Glencairn, since +even ‘Angus, George Douglas, and their numerous and powerful adherents, +joined the cardinal.’ p. 319. As to the part taken by the Scotch clergy, +see, in <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. p. 173, a letter to Henry +VIII., written on the 1st of May 1543: ‘And as to the kirk-men, I assure +your majesty they seek the war by all the means they can, and do daily +entertain the noblemen with money and rewards to sustain the wars, +rather than there should be any agreement with your majesty; thinking, +verily, that if peace and unity succeed, that they shall be reformed, +and lose their glory, which they had rather die, and put all this realm +in hazard, than they would forego.’ See also p. 184, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Buchanan records a very curious conversation between the +regent and Douglas, which, as I do not remember to have met with +elsewhere, I shall transcribe. The exact date of it is not mentioned, +but, from the context, it evidently took place in 1544 or 1545. ‘Ibi cum +Prorex suam deploraret solitudinem, et se a nobilitate derelictum +quereretur, Duglassius ostendit “id ipsius culpa fieri, non nobilium, +qui et fortunas omnes et vitam ad publicam salutem tuendam conferrent, +quorum consilio contempto ad sacrificulorum nutum circumageretur, qui +foris imbelles, domi seditiosi, omniumque periculorum expertes alieni +laboris fructu ad suas voluptates abuterentur. Ex hoc fonte inter te et +proceres facta est suspitio, quæ (quòd neutri alteris fidatis) rebus +gerendis maxime est impedimento.”’ <i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, lib. xv. +p. 435. Buchanan was, at this time, about thirty-eight years old; and +that some such conversation as that which he narrates actually took +place, is, I think, highly probable, though the historian may have +thrown in some touches of his own. At all events, he was too great a +rhetorician to invent what his contemporaries would deem unlikely to +happen; so that, from either point of view, the passage is valuable as +an evidence of the deep-rooted hostility which the nobles bore towards +the Church.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 337. ‘The plot +is entirely unknown either to our Scottish or English historians; and +now, after the lapse of nearly three centuries, has been discovered in +the secret correspondence of the State-paper Office.’ The first +suggestion of the murder was in April 1544. See <i>State Papers of Henry +VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. 377, and the end of the Preface to vol. iv. But Mr. +Tytler and the editor of the <i>State Papers</i> appear to have overlooked a +still earlier indication of the coming crime, in <i>Sadler's Papers</i>. See, +in that collection, vol. i. p. 77, a conversation, held in March 1543, +between Sir Ralph Sadler and the Earl of Arran; Sadler being conducted +by the Earl of Glencairn. On that occasion, the Earl of Arran used an +expression concerning Beaton, the meaning of which Sir Ralph evidently +understood. ‘“By God,” quoth he, “he shall never come out of prison +whilst I may have mine own will, <i>except it be to his farther +mischief</i>.” I allowed the same well’ (replied Sadler), ‘and said, “It +were pity, but he should receive such reward as his merits did +require.”’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>State Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. v. p. 560. <i>A Diurnal +of Occurrents</i>, p. 42. <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. pp. 221–223. Lindsay of Pitscottie (<i>Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. p. +484) relates a circumstance respecting the murder, which is too horrible +to mention, and of which it is enough to say, that it consisted of an +obscene outrage committed on the corpse of the victim. Though such facts +cannot now be published, they are so characteristic of the age, that +they ought not to be passed over in complete silence.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Respecting which, two Scotch Protestant historians have +expressed themselves in the following terms: ‘God admonished men, by +this judgement, that he will in end be avenged upon tyranns for their +crueltie, howsoever they strenthen themselves.’ <i>Calderwood's History of +the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 224. And, whoever considers all the +circumstances, ‘must acknowledge it was a stupendous act of the judgment +of the Lord, and that the whole was overruled and guided by Divine +Providence.’ <i>Stevenson's History of the Church and State of Scotland</i>, +p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Even the editor of <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, Edinburgh, +1841, p. xxxv., notices ‘the ill-timed merriment he displays in relating +the foul deed’ of Beaton's murder.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Shortly before his death, he said, with honest and +justifiable pride, ‘What I have bene to my countrie, albeit, this +vnthankfull aige will not knowe, yet the aiges to come wilbe compelled +to bear witnes to the treuth.’ <i>Bannatyne's Journal</i>, Edinburgh, 1806. p. +119. Bannatyne was Knox's secretary. It is to be regretted that no good +life of Knox should have yet been published. That by M'Crie is an +undistinguishing and injudicious panegyric, which, by provoking a +reaction of opinion, has damaged the reputation of the great reformer. +On the other hand, the sect of Episcopalians in Scotland are utterly +blind to the real grandeur of the man, and unable to discern his intense +love of truth, and the noble fearlessness of his nature.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 374, 375. +<i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, pp. 27, 28. <i>Lawson's Roman Catholic Church in +Scotland</i>, p. 154. <i>Presbytery Displayed</i>, 1663, 4to, p. 28. <i>Shields' +Hind let loose</i>, 1687, pp. 14, 39, 638. In his <i>History of the +Reformation</i>, edit. Laing, vol. i. pp. 177, 180, he calls it a ‘godly +fact,’ and says, ‘These ar the workis of our God;’ which, in plain +language, is terming the Deity an assassin. But, bad as this is, I agree +with M'Crie, that there is no trustworthy evidence for deeming him privy +to the murder. Compare, however, <i>A Diurnal of Occurrents</i> p. 42, with +<i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, vol. ii. p. 364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, pp. 38, 43, 350. <i>Argyll's +Presbytery Examined</i>, 1848, p. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, pp. 44, 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 99. As to the nobles, who received him, and +heard him preach, see p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> ‘Influenced by motives which have never been fully +comprehended, he departed to Geneva, where, for a time, he became pastor +of a Protestant congregation.’ <i>Russell's History of the Church in +Scotland</i>, 1834, vol. i. p. 193. M'Crie, who sees no difficulty, simply +says, ‘In the month of July 1556, he left Scotland, and, having arrived +at Dieppe, he proceeded with his family to Geneva.’ <i>Life of Knox</i>, p. +107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Knox, in his savoury diction, likens her appointment to +putting a saddle on the back of a cow. ‘She maid Regent in the year of +God 1554; and a croune putt upone hir head, als seimlye a sight (yf men +had eis), as to putt a sadill upone the back of ane unrewly kow.’ I copy +this passage from Mr. Laing's excellent edition of <i>Knox's History of +the Reformation</i>, vol. i. p. 242; but in <i>Watson's Historicall +Collections of Ecclesiastick Affairs in Scotland</i>, 1657, p. 73, there is +a slightly different version. ‘“As seemly a sight,” saith John Knox, in +the new gospel language, “as to put the saddle upon the back of an +unruly <i>sow</i>.”’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> The Duke of Argyll, in his <i>Presbytery Examined</i>, p. 9, +calls her ‘ambitious and intriguing.’ Not only, however, is she praised +by Lesley (<i>History</i>, pp. 289, 290), which might have been expected, but +even Buchanan does justice to her, in a passage unusually gracious for +so Protestant and democratic a writer. ‘Mors ejus varie mentes hominum +affecit. Nam et apud quosdam eorum, quibuscum armis contendit, non +mediocre sui desiderium reliquit. Erat enim singulari ingenio prædita, +et animo ad æquitatem admodum propenso.’ <i>Buchanan</i>, <i>Rerum Scoticarum +Historia</i>, lib. xvi. p. 487.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>History of Scotland</i>, book ii. p. 91, in Robertson's +Works, 1831. <i>Tytler's History</i>, vol. v. pp. 22, 23. It appears, from +Lesley (<i>History</i>, pp. 254, 255), that some of the nobles were in favour +of this scheme, hoping thereby to gain favour. ‘Albeit sum of the lordis +of the nobilitie for pleasour of the quene seamed to aggre thairto for +the tyme, yit the barronis and gentill men was nathing content +thairwith’ … ‘affirming that thair foirfatheris and predicessouris had +defendit the samyn’ (<i>i.e.</i> the realm) ‘mony hundreth yeris, +vailyeantlie with thair awin handis.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> ‘It completed the almost despotic power of the house of +Guise.’ <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> This covenant, which marks an important epoch in the +history of Scotland, is dated 3rd of December 1557. It is printed in +<i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 47; in <i>Calderwood's +History of the Kirk</i>, vol. i. pp. 326, 327; and in <i>Knox's History of +the Reformation</i>, vol. i. pp. 273, 274.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> In 1558, ‘the lords of the congregation had sent agents +through the kingdom to solicit the subscriptions of those who were +friendly to a reformation.’ <i>Stephen's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, London, 1848, vol. i. p. 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Keith (<i>Affairs of Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. +iii. p. 82) calls him ‘a trumpeter of rebellion,’ which he undoubtedly +was, and very much to his credit too, though the courtly bishop imputes +it to him as a fault. The Scotch, if it had not been for their +rebellious spirit, would long since have lost their liberties.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> ‘He sailed from Dieppe on the 22nd of April 1559, and +landed safely at Leith in the beginning of May.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of +Knox</i>, p. 139. Knox himself says, ‘the secound of Maij.’ <i>History of +the Reformation</i>, edit. Laing, vol. i. p. 318. ‘He was called home by +the noblemen that enterprised the Reformation.’ <i>Spottiswoode's History +of the Church of Scotland</i>, edit. Russell, vol. ii. p. 180.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, p. 310. <i>Knox's History of +the Reformation</i>, vol. i. pp. 321–323. <i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, +vol. i. p. 329; and a spirited narrative in <i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum +Historia</i>, lib. xvi. pp. 471, 472. Some interesting circumstances are +also preserved in <i>Lesley's History</i>, pp. 271, 272; but, though Lesley +was a contemporary, he erroneously places the riot in 1558. He, +moreover, ascribes to Knox language more inflammatory than that which he +really used.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. pp. 59, 62, 63. Of +the Earl of Glencairn, Chalmers (<i>Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 485) says, +that he was a ‘religious ruffian, who enjoyed pensions from Henry VIII., +for injuring the country of his birth, and benefits.’ This, besides +being ungrammatical, is foolish. Glencairn, like the other +aristocratic leaders of the Reformation, was, no doubt, influenced by +sordid motives; but, so far from injuring his country, he rendered it +great service.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. pp. 64–73.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> It is stated of the queen-regent, that, in July 1559, +‘shee had sent alreadie to France for more men of warr.’ See the curious +pamphlet entitled ‘A Historie of the Estate of Scotland, from July 1558 +to April 1560,’ in <i>Miscellany of the Wodrow Society</i>, p. 63, Edinburgh, +1844. All sorts of rumours were circulated; and a letter, dated 12th +October 1559, says, ‘Summe thinke the regent will departe secretlie. +Summe that she will to Ynchkeith, for that three shippes are a +preparing. Summe saye that she is verie sicke. Summe saye the devill +cannot kill her.’ <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. p. 499.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 104. This was +on the 22nd of October 1559. Compare <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, vol. i. p. +512. ‘This Mondaye, the 22 of October, was the douagier deprived from +her authoritie by commen consent of all lords and barons here present.’ +On this occasion, ‘Johne Willocke,’ the preacher, delivered himself of a +discourse in favour of her deposition. Among other arguments, he said, +‘that in deposing of princes, and these that have beene in authoritie, +God did not alwayes use his immediat power, but sometimes he used other +meanes, which his wisdome thought good, and justice approved. As by Asa, +He removed Maacha, his owne mother, from honour and authoritie, which +before she had used; by Jehu He destroyed Joram, and the whole +posteritie of Achab.’ <i>Therefore</i> ‘he (the orator) could see no reasoun +why they, the borne counsellers, the nobilitie and barons of the realme, +might not justlie deprive her from all regiment.’ <i>Calderwood's History +of the Kirk</i>, vol. i. pp. 540, 541; and <i>Knox's History of the +Reformation</i>, vol. i. pp. 442, 443.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> The <i>Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, pp. 55, 272, says, that the +fleet arrived on 24th of January, 1559–60; ‘aucht greit schippis of +Ingland in the raid of Leith.’ And a letter (in <i>Sadler's State Papers</i>, +vol. i. p. 697) dated the 23rd of January, says, ‘the shippes arrived +yesterdaye in the Frythe to the nomber of ix. or x., as yet, and the +remanent followith.’ The date, therefore, of the 10th of January, given +in a note to <i>Keith's Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 255, is +evidently erroneous. Important as the event was, its exact date is not +mentioned either by Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. pp. 114, +115), or by Chalmers (<i>Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 631).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. ii. p. 632. <i>Knox's History +of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. p. 57. The Berwick treaty, in February, is +printed in <i>Keith's Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 258–262. +So great was the influence of the nobles, that the English troops were +well received by the people, in spite of the old and bitter animosity +between the two nations. ‘Especially in Fyfe they were thankfully +receaved, and well entreated, with such quietnes and gentle +entertainement betwixt our nation and them, as no man would have thought +that ever there had beine any variance.’ <i>A Historie of the Estate of +Scotland</i>, from 1558 to 1560, in <i>Miscellany of the Wodrow Society</i>, p. +78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> ‘Vpoun the vi. day of Julij, it wes concludit and +finallie endit betuix the saids ambassatouris, tuitching all debaittis, +contraversies and materis concernyng the asseiging of Leith, depairting +of the Frenchemen thairfra, and randering of the same; and the said peax +daitit this said day.’ <i>A Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, pp. 277, 278. See also +p. 60; and <i>Keith's Affairs of Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. +295.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> ‘That Knox himself was in priest's orders, is a fact +which his biographer, the late Dr. M'Crie, has placed beyond dispute; +and some of the other leaders were also priests; but the greater number +of the preachers, and all those who subsequently became ministers, were +totally without any orders whatever, not even such as the +superintendents could have given them; for their own supposed call, the +election of the people, and the <i>civil</i> ceremony of induction to the +living, was all that was then “judged necessary.”’ <i>Stephen's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, 1848, vol. i. pp. 145, 146. ‘A new-fashioned +sort of ministry, unknown in the Christian Church for all preceding +generations.’ <i>Keith's Church and State in Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 204. +Compare <i>Argyll's Presbytery Examined</i>, pp. 34–36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> ‘The thre estaitis of parliament hes ānullit and +declarit all sik actes maid in tymes bipast not aggreing w<sup>t</sup> goddis word +and now contrair to the confessiouñ of oure fay<sup>t</sup> according to the said +word publist in this parliament. Tobe of nane avale force nor effect. +And decornis the said actis and every ane of thame tu haue na effect nor +strenth in tyme to cum.’ <i>Acts of the Parliament of Scotland</i>, 1814, +folio, vol. ii. p. 535. This was on 24th August 1560.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> ‘That na maner of person nor personis say mess nor zit +heir mess nor be pñt thairat vnder the pane of confiscatiouñ of +all thair gud movable and vnmovable and pvneissing of thair bodeis at +the discretiouñ of the magistrat within quhais jurisdictiouñ sik +personis happ[=y]nis to be apprehendit ffor the first falt: Banissing of +the Realme for the secund falt, and justifying to the deid for the thrid +falt.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, 24th August 1560, vol. ii. p. 525.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> As Robertson says, in his measured, and somewhat feeble, +style, ‘Among the Scottish nobility, some hated the persons, and others +coveted the wealth, of the dignified clergy; and by abolishing that +order of men, the former indulged their resentment, and the latter hoped +to gratify their avarice.’ <i>History of Scotland</i>, book iii. p. 116, in +<i>Robertson's Works</i>, edit. 1831. The contemporary narrative, in <i>A +Diurnal of Occurrents</i>, p. 269, sounds much more vigorous to my ear. ‘In +all this tyme’ (1559), ‘all kirkmennis goodis and geir wer spoulzeit and +reft fra thame, in euerie place quhair the samyne culd be apprehendit; +for euerie man for the maist pairt that culd get any thing pertenyng to +any kirkmen, thocht the same as wele won geir.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> ‘Knox never dreamed that the revenues of the Church were +to be secularized; but that he and his colleagues were simply to remove +the old incumbents, and then take possession of their benefices.’ +<i>Stephen's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 106. ‘The +ecclesiastical revenues, which they never contemplated for a moment were +to be seized by the Protestant nobility.’ <i>Lawson's Roman Catholic +Church in Scotland</i>, p. 233.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Compare <i>Knox's History of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. pp. +89–92, with <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, p. 179. Of this document, M'Crie +says, ‘There can be no doubt that it received the sanction, if it was +not the composition, of the Reformer.’ … ‘It called upon them’ (the +nobles) ‘to restore the patrimony of the Church, of which they had +unjustly possessed themselves.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> ‘Making no answer to the last point.’ <i>Spottiswoode's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 327. ‘Without taking any +notice.’ <i>Keith's Affairs of Church and State</i>, vol. i. p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> ‘They viewed the Protestant preachers as low-born +individuals, not far raised above the condition of mechanics or +tradesmen, without influence, authority, or importance.’ +<i>Lawson's Roman Catholic Church in Scotland</i>, p. 251. +‘None were more unmercifull to the poore ministers than they that had +the greatest share of the kirk rents.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk +of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> In 1561, ‘Notwithstanding the full establishment of the +Reformation, the Protestant ministers were in a state of extreme +poverty, and dependent upon the precarious assistance of their flocks.’ +<i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 207. Compare a letter, +written by Knox, in 1566, ‘on the extreame povertie wherein our ministers +are brought.’ <i>Knox's History of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> ‘The limited authority which the Crown had hitherto +possessed, was almost entirely annihilated, and the aristocratical +power, which always predominated in the Scottish Government (?), became +supreme and incontrollable.’ <i>Russell's History of the Church in +Scotland</i>, 1834, vol. i. p. 223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> See the <i>First Book of Discipline</i>, reprinted in <i>A +Compendium of the Laws of the Church of Scotland</i>, part i., second +edition, Edinburgh, 1837. They summed up their requests in one +comprehensive passage (p. 119), that ‘the haill rentis of the Kirk +abusit in Papistrie sal be referrit againe to the Kirk.’ In another part +(p. 106), they frankly admit that, ‘we doubt not but some of our +petitions shall appeare strange unto you at the first sight.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> ‘The form of polity recommended in the First Book of +Discipline never obtained the proper sanction of the State, chiefly in +consequence of the avarice of the nobility and gentry, who were desirous +of securing to themselves the revenues of the Church.’ <i>Miscellany of +the Wodrow Society</i>, p. 324. See also <i>Argyll's Presbytery Examined</i>, p. +26. Many of the nobles, however, did sign it (<i>Knox's History of the +Reformation</i>, vol. ii. p. 129); but, says Spottiswoode (<i>History of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 373), ‘Most of those that subscribed, +getting into their hands the possessions of the Church, could never be +induced to part therewith, and turned greater enemies in that point of +church patrimony than were the papists, or any other whatsoever.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Knox</i>, p. 204. <i>Knox's History of the +Reformation</i>, vol ii. pp. 298–301, 307–309. <i>Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum +Historia</i>, lib. xvii. p. 500. The nominal arrangement, which was +contrived with considerable art, was, that one-third of the church +revenues should be divided into two parts; one part for the government, +and another part for the preachers. The remaining two-thirds were +gravely assigned to the Catholic priesthood, who, at that very moment, +were liable, by Act of Parliament, to the penalty of death, if they +performed the rites of their religion. Men, whose lives were in the +hands of the government, were not likely to quarrel with the government +about money matters; and the result was, that nearly every thing fell +into the possession of the nobles.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> ‘The Ministeris, evin in the begynnyng, in publict +Sermonis opponed thame selves to suche corruptioun, for thei foir saw +the purpose of the Devill.’ <i>Knox's History of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. +p. 310.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> ‘For it seemeth altogether unreasonable that idle belleis +sail devoure and consume the patrimonie of the Kirk, whill the faithfull +travellers in the Lord's vineyarde suffer extreme povertie, and the +needie members of Christ's bodie are altogether neglected.’ +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. ii. pp. 484, 485. This was in +1569; and, in 1571, the celebrated Ferguson, in one of his sermons, +declared that the holders of church property, most of whom were the +nobility, were ‘ruffians.’ See an extract from his sermon, in <i>Chalmers' +History of Dunfermline</i>, p. 309, Edinburgh, 1844. ‘For this day Christ +is spuilzeit amang us, quhil y<sup>t</sup> quhilk aucht to mantene the Ministerie +of the Kirk and the pure, is geuin to prophane men, flattereris in +court, ruffianes, and hyrelingis.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> In September 1571, John Row ‘preiched, wha in plane +pulpet pronounced to the lordis, for thair covetusnes, and becaus they +wold not grant the just petitiones of the Kirk, Godis heastie vengeance +to fall upon them; and said, moreover, “I cair not, my lordis, your +displeasour; for I speik my conscience befoir God, wha will not +suffer sic wickitnes and contempt vnpunished.”’ <i>Bannatyne's Journal</i>, +edit. Edinburgh, 1806, p. 257.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> In 1576, the General Assembly declared, that their right +to ‘the patrimonie of the Kirk’ was ‘ex jure divino.’ <i>Acts of the +General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 360, Edinburgh, +1839, 4to. More than a hundred years later, a Scotch divine evinces how +deeply the members of his profession felt this spoliation of the Church, +by going out of his way to mention it. See <i>Jacob's Vow, by Dr. John +Cockburn</i>, Edinburgh, 1696, pp. 422, 423, 425. But this is nothing in +comparison to a recent writer, the Reverend Mr. Lyon, who deliberately +asserts that, because these and similar acts occurred in the reign of +Mary, therefore the queen came to a violent end; such being the just +punishment of sacrilege. ‘The practice’ (of saying masses for the dead) +‘ceased, of course, at the Reformation; and the money was transferred by +Queen Mary to the civil authorities of the town. This was, undoubtedly, +an act of sacrilege; for, though sacrificial masses for the dead was an +error, yet the guardians of the money so bequeathed, were under an +obligation to apply it to a sacred purpose. This, and other sacrilegious +acts on the part of Mary, of a still more decided and extensive +character, have been justly considered as the cause of all the +calamities which subsequently befell her.’ <i>History of St. Andrews, by +the Rev. C. J. Lyon, M.A., Presbyter of the Episcopal Church, St. +Andrews</i>, Edinburgh, 1843, vol. i. p. 54. Elsewhere (vol. ii. p. 400) +the same divine mentions, that the usual punishment for sacrilege is a +failure of male issue. ‘The following examples, selected from the +diocese of St. Andrews, according to its boundaries before the +Reformation, will corroborate the general doctrine contended for +throughout this work, that sacrilege has ever been punished in the +present life, and <i>chiefly</i> by the failure of male issue.’ The italics +are in the text. See also vol. i. p. 118. For the sake of the future +historian of public opinion, it may be well to observe, that the work +containing these sentiments is not a reprint of an older book, but was +published for the first time in 1843, having apparently been just +written.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> ‘The General Assemblie of the Kirk of Scotland, convenit +at Edinburgh the 25 of December 1566, to the Nobilitie of this Realme +that professes the Lord Jesus with them, and hes renouncit that Roman +Antichryst, desyre constancie in faith, and the spirit of righteous +judgement. Seeing that Sathan, be all our negligence, Right Honourable, +hes so farre prevailit within this Realme within these late dayes, that +we doe stand in extream danger, not only <i>to lose our temporall +possessions</i>, but also to be depryvit of the glorious Evangell,’ &c. +<i>Keith's Church and State</i>, vol. iii. pp. 154, 155.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> In 1566, in their piteous communication to the English +bishops and clergy, they said ‘The days are ill; iniquitie abounds; +Christian charity, alas, is waxen cold.’ <i>Acts and Proceedings of the +General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 87, Edinburgh, +1839, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> ‘I see twa partis freely gevin to the Devill, and the +thrid maun be devided betwix God and the Devill: Weill, bear witnes to +me, that this day I say it, or it be long the Devill shall have three +partis of the thrid; and judge you then what Goddis portioun +shallbe.’ … ‘Who wold have thought, that when Joseph reulled Egypt, +that his brethren should have travailled for vittallis, and have +returned with empty seckis unto thair families? Men wold rather have +thought that Pharao's pose, treasure, and garnallis should have bene +diminished, or that the houshold of Jacob should stand in danger to +sterve for hungar.’ <i>Knox's History of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. pp. +310, 311.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> In May 1571, ‘This Sonday, Mr. Craig teiched the 130 +Psalme; and, in his sermond, he compared the steat of the Kirk of God in +this tovne vnto the steat of the Maccabeis; wha were oppressed sumtymes +by the Assyrianis and sumtymes by the Egiptianis.’ <i>Bannatyne's +Journal</i>, p. 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> The first instance I have observed of any thing like +menace, is in 1567, when ‘the Assembly of the Church being convened at +Edinburgh,’ admonished all persons ‘as well noblemen as barons, and +those of the other Estates, to meet and give their personal appearance +at Edinburgh on the 20th of July, for giving their advice, counsel, and +concurrence in matters then to be proponed; especially for purging the +realm of popery, the establishing of the policy of the Church, and +<i>restoring the patrimony thereof to the just possessors</i>. Assuring those +that should happen to absent themselves at the time, due and lawful +advertisement being made, that they should be reputed hinderers of the +good work intended, and as <i>dissimulate professors be esteemed unworthy +of the fellowship of Christ's flock.’ Spottiswoode's History of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 64. This evidently alludes to the +possibility of excommunicating those who would not surrender to the +Protestant preachers, the property stolen from the Catholic Church; and, +in 1570, we find another step taken in the same direction. Under that +year, the following passage occurs in <i>Acts and Proceedings of the +General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 181. ‘Q. If +those that withold the duty of the Kirk, <i>wherethrough Ministers want +their stipends</i>, may be excommunicate? A. All things beand done that the +civill ordour requyres of them that withhaldis the duetie of the Kirk, +quherby Ministers wants their stipends; <i>the Kirk may proceed to +excommunication, for their contempt</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> In 1526, ‘the poore ministers, exhorters, and readers, +compleaned at church assembleis, that neither were they able to live +upon the stipends allowed, nor gett payment of that small portioun which +was allowed.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. ii. p. 172. +Compare <i>Acts of the General Assemblies</i>, 1839, 4to, vol. i. p. 53; ‘To +requyre payment to ministers of there stipends for the tyme by past, +according to the promise made.’ This was in December 1564. In December +1565, the General Assembly said (p. 71), ‘that wher oft and divers tymes +promise hes bein made to us, that our saids brethren, travelers and +preachers in the Kirk of God, sould not be defraudit of their appointit +stipends, neither zet in any wayes sould be molestit in their functioun; +zet nottheless universallie they want ther stipends appointit +for diverse tymes by past.’ On the state of things in 1566, see ‘The +Supplication of the Ministers to the Queen,’ in <i>Knox's History of the +Reformation</i>, vol. ii. p. 529. See also, in the <i>Miscellany of the +Spalding Club</i>, vol. iv. pp. 92–101, Aberdeen, 1849, 4to, a letter +written by John Erskine in December 1571, especially p. 97; ‘the gretest +of the nobilitie haifing gretest rentis in possessione, and plaicet of +God in maist hie honouris, ceasis nocht, maist wiolentlie blindit with +awarice, to spoilye and draw to thame selfis the possessiones of the +Kirk.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> ‘The ministers were called proud knaves, and receaved +manie injurious words from the lords, speciallie from Morton, who ruled +all. He said, he sould lay their pride, and putt order to them.’ +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. pp. 137, 138. This was in +1571.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>Chambers' Annals of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 79, 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> ‘The nobilitie wnderwrittin convenit in Edinburgh, and +chesit and electit James erle of Mortoun regent.’ <i>A Diurnal of +Occurrents</i>, p. 320.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> In 1573, ‘when any benefeces of Kirk vaikit, he keapit +the proffet of thair rents sa lang in his awin hand, till he was urgit +be the Kirk to mak donatioun tharof, and that was not gevin but proffeit +for all that.’ <i>The Historie and Life of King James the Sext</i>, edit. +Edinburgh, 1825, 4to, p. 147. Even in 1570, when Lennox was regent, ‘the +Earle of Mortoun was the chiefe manager of every thing under him;’ and +was ‘master of the church rents,’ and made ‘gifts of them to the +nobility.’ <i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of the Reformers of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. part i. pp. 27, 126, Glasgow, 1834, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> ‘During all these Assembleis and earnest endeavoures of +the brethrein, the regent was often required to give his presence to the +Assemblie, and further the caus of God. He not onlie refused, but +threatned some of the most zealous with hanging, alledging, that +otherwise there could be no peace nor order in the countrie.’ +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. pp. 393, 394. ‘Uses grait +thretning against the maist zelus breithring, schoring to hang of thame, +utherwayes ther could be na peace nor ordour in the countrey.’ <i>The +Autobiography and Diary of James Melvill</i>, edited by R. Pitcairn, +Edinburgh, 1842, pp. 59, 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> ‘He mislyked the Generall Assembleis, +and would have had the name changed, that he might take away the force +and priviledge thereof; and no questioun he had stayed the work of +policie that was presentlie in hands, if God had not stirred up a +factioun against him.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, +vol. iii. p. 396. See also <i>The Autobiography of James Melvill</i>, p. 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> ‘During the two years following the death of Knox, each +day was ripening the more determined opposition of the Church. The +breach between the clergy with the great body of the people, and the +government or higher nobility, was widening rapidly.’ <i>Argyll's +Presbytery Examined</i>, p. 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> ‘Next to her Reformer, who, under God, emancipated her +from the degrading shackles of papal superstition and tyranny, I know no +individual from whom Scotland has received such important services, or +to whom she continues to owe so deep a debt of national respect and +gratitude, as Andrew Melville.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Andrew Melville</i>, vol. +ii. p. 473, Edinburgh, 1819. His nephew, himself a considerable person, +says, ‘Scotland receavit never a graitter benefit at the hands of God +nor this man.’ <i>The Autobiography of James Melvill</i>, p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> He left Scotland in 1564, at the age of nineteen, and +returned ‘in the beginning of July 1574, after an absence of ten years +from his native country.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Andrew Melville</i>, vol. i. +pp. 17, 57. See also <i>Scot's Apologetical Narration of the State of the +Kirk of Scotland</i>, edit. Wodrow Society, p. 34; and <i>Howie's Biographia +Scoticana</i>, p. 111, Glasgow, 1781.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> He appears to have first set to work in November 1574. +See <i>Stephen's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 261, +London, 1848.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> ‘The compilers of the Book of Discipline’ (<i>i.e.</i> the +First Book, in 1560) ‘were distinguished by prelatical principles to the +end of their days.’ … ‘That Knox himself was no enemy to prelacy, +considered as an ancient and apostolical institution, is rendered clear +by his “Exhortation to England for the speedy embracing of Christ's +Gospel.”’ <i>Russell's History of the Church in Scotland</i>, 1834, vol. i. +p. 240. ‘The associates of Knox, it is obvious, were not Presbyterians, +and had no intention of setting up a system of parity among the +ministers of their new establishment.’ p. 243. See also p. 332. Even in +1572, the year of Knox's death, I find it stated that ‘the whole Diocie +of Sanct Andrews is decerned be the Assembly to pertain to the Bishop of +the same.’ <i>Acts and Proceedings of the General Assemblies of the Kirk +of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 264, 4to. 1839. The Scotch Presbyterians have +dealt very unfairly with this part of the history of their Church.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Some little time after this, David Fergusson, who died in +1598, and was minister at Dunfermline, said very frankly to James VI., +‘Yes, Sir, ye may have Bishops here, but <i>ye must remember to make us +all equall</i>; make us all Bishops, els will ye never content us.’ <i>Row's +History of the Kirk of Scotland from 1558 to 1637</i>, edit. Wodrow +Society, p. 418. Compare <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iv. p. +214: in 1584 ‘these monstruous titles of superioritie.’ In 1586, ‘that +tyrannicall supremacie of bishops and archbishops over ministers.’ p. +604.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> ‘He stirred up John Dury, one of the ministers of +Edinburgh, in an Assembly which was then convened, to propound a +question touching the lawfulness of the episcopal function, and the +authority of chapters in their election. He himself, as though he had +not been acquainted with the motion, after he had commended the +speaker's zeal, and seconded the purpose with a long discourse of the +flourishing estate of the church of Geneva, and the opinions of Calvin +and Theodore Beza concerning church government, came to affirm, “That +none ought to be esteemed office-bearers in the Church whose titles were +not found in the book of God. And, for the title of bishops, albeit the +same was found in Scripture, yet was it not to be taken in the sense +that the common sort did conceive, there being no superiority allowed by +Christ amongst ministers,”’ &c. <i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 200. See also <i>Acts of the General Assemblies</i>, +vol. i. p. 331, where it appears that six bishops were present on this +memorable occasion. The question raised was, ‘Whither if the Bischops, +as they are now in the Kirk of Scotland, hes thair function of the word +of God or not, or if the Chapiter appointit for creating of them aucht +to be tollerated in this reformed Kirk.’ p. 340.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> ‘It was ordained, That Bischops and all vthers bearand +Ecclesiasticall functioun, be callit bethair awin names, or Brethren, in +tyme comeing.’ <i>Acts of the General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, +vol. ii. p. 404.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> ‘Therfor the Kirk hes concludit, That no Bischops salbe +electit or made heirafter, befor the nixt Generall Assemblie.’ <i>Ibid.</i> +vol. ii. p. 408.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> ‘Anent the Act made in the last Assemblie, the 28 of +Aprile 1578, concerning the electioun of Bischops, suspendit quhill this +present Assemblie, and the farther ordour reservit thereto: The General +Assemblie, all in ane voyce, hes concludit, That the said act salbe +extendit for all tymes to come, ay and quhill the corruptioun of the +Estate of Bischops be alluterlie tane away.’ <i>Ibid.</i> vol. ii. p. 413.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> ‘Forsameikle as the office of a Bischop, as it is now +vsit, and commounly takin within this realme, hes no sure warrand, +auctoritie, nor good ground out of the (Book and) Scriptures of God; but +is brocht in by the folie and corruptions of (men's) invention, to the +great overthrow of the Kirk of God: The haill Assemblie of the Kirk, in +ane voyce, after libertie givin to all men to reason in the matter, +<i>none opponing themselves in defending the said pretendit office</i>, Finds +and declares the samein pretendit office, vseit and termeit, as is above +said, vnlaufull in the selfe, as haveand neither fundament, ground nor +warrant within the word of God: and ordaines, that all sick +persons as bruiks, or sall bruik heirafter the said office, salbe +chargeit simpliciter to demitt, quyt and leave of the samein, as ane +office quhervnto they are not callit be God; and siclyke to desist and +cease from all preaching, ministration of the sacraments, or vsing any +way the office of pastors, quhill they receive <i>de novo</i> admission from +the Generall Assemblie, vnder the paine of excommunicatioun to be +denuncit agains them; quherin if they be found dissobedient, or +contraveine this act in any point, the sentence of excommunicatioun, +after dew admonitions, to be execute agains them.’ <i>Acts of the General +Assemblies</i>, vol. ii. p. 453.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> As Calderwood triumphantly says, ‘the office of bishops +was damned.’ <i>History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. p. 469. ‘Their whole +estat, both the spirituall and civill part, was damned.’ p. 526. James +Melville (<i>Autobiography</i>, p. 52) says that, in consequence of this +achievement, his uncle Andrew ‘gatt the nam of επισκομαστιξ, +<i>Episcoporum exactor</i>, the flinger out of Bischopes.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. p. 302) observes +that, while ‘the great body of the burghers, and middle and lower +classes of the people,’ were Presbyterians, ‘a large proportion of the +nobility supported episcopacy.’ Instead of ‘a large proportion,’ he +would not have been far wrong, if he had said ‘all.’ Indeed, ‘Melville +himself says the whole peerage was against him.’ <i>Stephen's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 269. Forbes ascribes the +aristocratic movement against presbytery to ‘godles atheists,’ who +insisted ‘that there could be nothing so contrair to the nature of a +monarchie,’ &c., ‘than that paritie of authoritie in pastours.’ +<i>Forbes</i>, <i>Certaine Records touching the Estate of the Kirk</i>, p. 349, +edit. Wodrow Society. See also p. 355. ‘That Democratie (as they called +it) whilk allwayes behoved to be full of sedition and troubble to ane +Aristocratie, and so in end to a Monarchie.’ The reader will observe +this important change in the attitude of classes in Scotland. Formerly, +the clergy had been the allies of the crown against the nobles. Now, the +nobles allied themselves with the crown against the clergy. The clergy, +in self-defence, had to ally themselves with the people.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> On the difference between the two productions, there are +some remarks worth looking at, in <i>Argyll's Presbytery Examined</i>, 1848, +pp. 38–43. But this writer, though much freer from prejudice than most +Presbyterian authors, is unwilling to admit how completely the Second +Book of Discipline contradicts the First.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> By the Scotch episcopalians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> See the <i>First Book of Discipline</i>, reprinted in the +first volume of <i>A Compendium of the Laws of the Church of Scotland</i>, 2d +edit., Edinburgh, 1837. The superintendents were ‘to set, order, and +appoint ministers,’ p. 61; and it would seem (p. 88) that no minister +could be deposed without the consent of his superintendent; but this +could hardly be intended to interfere with the supreme authority of the +General Assembly. See also the summary, p. 114, where it is said of the +superintendents, that ‘in thair visitatioun thei sal not onlie preiche, +but als examine the doctrine, life, diligence, and behavior of the +ministeris, reideris, elderis, and deaconis.’ According to Spottiswoode +(<i>History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 167), ‘the +superintendents held their office during life, and their power was +episcopal; for they did elect and ordain ministers, they presided in +synods, and directed all church censures, neither was any +excommunication pronounced without their warrant.’ See further, on their +authority, <i>Knox's History of the Reformation</i>, vol. ii. p. 161. ‘That +punyschment suld be appointed for suche as dissobeyid or contemned the +superintendentes in thair functioun.’ This was in 1561; and, in 1562, +‘It was ordained, that if ministers be disobedient to superintendents in +anything belonging to edification, they must be subject to correction.’ +<i>Acts of the General Assemblies of the Kirk</i>, vol. i. p. 14. Compare p. +131: ‘sick things as superintendents may and aught decyde in their +synodall conventiouns.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> ‘For albeit the Kirk of God be rewlit and governit be +Jesus Christ, who is the onlie King, hie Priest, and Heid thereof, yit +he useis the ministry of men, as the most necessar middis for this +purpose.’ … ‘And to take away all occasion of tyrannie, he willis that +they sould rewl with mutuall consent of brether and <i>equality of power</i>, +every one according to thair functiones.’ <i>Second Book of Discipline</i>, +in <i>A Compendium of the Laws of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. +126, 127. ‘As to Bischops, if the name επισκοπος be properly +taken, <i>they ar all ane with the ministers</i>, as befoir was declairit. +For it is <i>not a name of superioritie and lordschip</i>, bot of office and +watching.’ p. 142. To understand the full meaning of this, it should be +mentioned, that the superintendents, established by the Kirk in 1560, +not unfrequently assumed the title of ‘Lordship,’ as an ornament to the +extensive powers conferred upon them. See, for instance, the notes to +<i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of the Reformers of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. part ii. p. 461. But, in the Second Book of +Discipline, in 1578, the superintendents are, if I rightly remember, not +even once named.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Just as in England, we find that the upper classes are +mostly Episcopalians; their minds being influenced, often unconsciously, +by the, to them, pleasing spectacle of an inequality of rank, which is +conventional, and does not depend upon ability. On the other hand, the +strength of the Dissenters lies among the middle and lower classes, +where energy and intellect are held in higher respect, and where a +contempt naturally arises for a system, which, at the mere will of the +sovereign or minister of the day, concedes titles and wealth to persons +whom nature did not intend for greatness, but who, to the surprise of +their contemporaries, have greatness thrust upon them. On this +difference of opinion in Scotland, corresponding to the difference of +social position, see the remarks on the seventeenth century, in <i>Hume's +Commentaries on the Law of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 544, Edinburgh, 1797, +4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Record of Privy Council, in <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, +vol. i. p. 267. ‘The brethrein of Glasgow were charged, under paine of +horning, to admitt Mr. Robert Montgomrie.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the +Kirk</i>, vol. iii. p. 596.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> ‘Charges the said Mr. Robert to continue in the ministrie +of the Kirk of Striveling,’ &c. <i>Acts of the General Assemblies</i>, vol. +ii. p. 547. This was in October 1581; the Record of the Privy Council +was in April 1582. Moysie, who was a contemporary, says that, in March +1581, 2, not only the dean and chapter, but all the clergy (the ‘haill +ministrie’) declared from the pulpit that Montgomery's appointment ‘had +the warrand of the deuill and not of the word of God, bot wes damnit +thairby.’ <i>Moysie's Memoirs</i>, Edinburgh, 1830, 4to, p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> ‘The title whereof the said duke had procured to him, +that he, having the name of bishop, and eight hundred merks money for +his living and sustentatioun, the whole rents, and other duteis of the +said benefice, might come to the duke's utilitie and behove.’ +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iv. p. 111. See also p. 401.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>Scot's Apologetical Narration of the State of the Kirk</i>, +pp. 24, 25. <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. p. 302. +<i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of the Reformers</i>, vol. i. part i. +p. 206. <i>Lyon's History of St. Andrews</i>, vol. i. p. 379. <i>Gibson's +History of Glasgow</i>, p. 59. <i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 216, 217. <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 624.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> ‘But the Church passing this point’ (<i>i.e.</i> the simony) +‘made quarrel to him for accepting the bishopric.’ <i>Spottiswoode's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 282.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>Acts of the General Assemblies of the Kirk</i>, vol. ii. p. +548.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> ‘A messenger-at-arms entered the house, and charged the +moderator and members of the assembly, on the pain of rebellion, to +desist from the process.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. i. p. 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> ‘The Assemblie and brether present, after voteing in the +said matter, depryvit the said Mr. Robert from all functioun of the +Ministrie in the Kirk of God, dureing the will of the Kirk of God; and +farther, descernit the fearefull sentence of excommunicatioun to be +pronuncit against him in the face of the haill Assemblie, be the voyce +and mouth of the Moderatour present; to the effect, that, <i>his proud +flesh being cast into the hands of Satan</i>, he may be win againe, if it +be possible, to God; and the said sentence (to) be intimat be every +particular minister, at his awin particular kirk, solemnelie in the +first sermoun to be made be them, after thair returning.’ <i>Acts of the +General Assemblies of the Kirk</i>, vol. ii. p. 562.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii. p. 565. Calderwood (<i>History of the +Kirk</i>, vol. iii. p. 604) says, ‘After long reluctatioun, at lenth he +condescended.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> M'Crie (<i>Life of Melville</i>, vol. i. p. 274) says, ‘In all +these contendings, the ministers had no countenance or support from any +of the nobility.’ It would have been strange if they had, seeing that +the whole movement was essentially democratic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Melville's <i>Autobiography</i>, p. 129. <i>Calderwood's History +of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. p. 620. <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. i. p. +270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> He was seized in August 1582, and was let loose again in +June 1583. <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. pp. 321, 360. It is +a pity that this valuable, and really able, work should be so +superficial in regard to the ecclesiastical affairs of Scotland. Mr. +Tytler appears not to have studied at all the proceedings of the +presbyteries, or even of the General Assemblies; neither does he display +any acquaintance with the theological literature of his country. And +yet, from the year 1560 to about 1700, these sources disclose more of +the genuine history of the Scotch people than all other sources put +together.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> ‘The pulpit resounded with applauses of the godly deed.’ +<i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> ‘As he is comming from Leith to Edinburgh, upon Tuisday +the 4th of September, there mett him at the Gallow Greene two hundreth +men of the inhabitants of Edinburgh. Their number still increased, till +he came within the Neather Bow. There they beganne to sing the 124 +Psalme, “Now may Israel say,” &c, and sang in foure parts, knowne to the +most part of the people. They came up the street till they came to the +Great Kirk, singing thus all the way, to the number of two thowsand. +They were muche moved themselves, and so were all the beholders. The +duke was astonished, and more affrayed at that sight than at anie thing +that ever he had seene before in Scotland, and rave his beard for +anger.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. pp. 646, 647.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> <i>Acts of the General Assemblies</i>, vol. ii. pp. 595, 596. +This was ordered by the General Assembly which met at Edinburgh on the +9th of October 1582, p. 585. See also <i>Watson's Historicall Collections +of Ecclesiastick Affairs in Scotland</i>, p. 192, ‘requiring the ministers +in all their churches to commend it unto the people.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> <i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. +ii. p. 308.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> James, after his escape, ‘convocat all his peaceabill +Prelatis and Nobles, and thair he notefeit unto thayme the greif that he +consavit of his unlaughfull detentioun the yeir bygayne, and tharefore +desyrit thame to acknawlege the same; and thay be thair generall voittis +decernit the rayd of Ruthven to be manifest treasoun. The Ministers on +the uther part, perswadit the people that it was a godly fact, and that +whasoever wald not allow thareof in his hart, was not worthie to be +estemit a Christien.’ <i>The Historie of King James the Sext</i>, p. 202, +published by the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1825, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> ‘Disregard not our threatening; for there was never one +yet in this realm, in the place where your grace is, who prospered after +the ministers began to threaten him.’ <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, +vol. vi. p. 364. See also, in <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. +v. pp. 540, 541, a letter from one of the clergy in Fife, addressed to +the king, in 1597. ‘And now, Sir, lett me be free with you in writting +other men's reports, and that of the wisest politicians. They say, our +bygane historeis report, and experience teacheth, that <i>raro et fere +nunquam</i> has a king and a prince continued long together in this realme; +for <i>Filius ante diem patrios inquirit in annos</i>. And they say, Sir, +farther, that whatsoever they were of your Majestie's predecessors in +governement that oppouned themselves directlie or indirectlie to God's +ordinance in his Kirk, it has beene their wracke and subversioun in the +end. I might herein be more particular; but I leave it to your +Majestie's owne grave and modest consideratioun, for it concerneth you +most neere.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> ‘Saying, “He perverted the laws both of God and man.”’ +<i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 309. +Also <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. p. 371.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> ‘Mr. Patrick Simson, preaching before the king upon Gen. +iv. 9, “The Lord said to Cain, Where is Abel, thy brother?” said to the +king, before the congregation, “Sir, I assure you, in God's name, the +Lord will ask at you where is the Earl of Moray, your brother?” The king +replyed, before all the congregation, “Mr. Patrik, my chalmer doore wes +never steeked upon you: ye might have told me anything ye thought in +secret.” He replyed, “Sir, the scandall is publict.”’ <i>Row's History of +the Kirk</i>, p. 144. ‘Having occasion, <i>anno</i> 1593, to preach before the +king, he publicly exhorted him to beware that he drew not the wrath of +God upon himself in patronizing a manifest breach of divine laws.’ +<i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> ‘Saying, “That Captain James, with his lady Jesabel, and +William Stewart (meaning the colonel), were taken to be the persecutors +of the Church; but that now it was seen to be the king himself, against +whom he denounced the curse that fell on Jeroboam—that he would die +childless, and be the last of his race.”’ <i>Spottiswoode's History of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 335.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> ‘The king, perceiving by all these letters, that the +death of his mother was determined, called back his ambassadors, and at +home gave order to the ministers to remember her in their public +prayers, which they denied to do.’ … ‘Upon their denial, charges were +directed to command all bishops, ministers, and other office-bearers in +the Church to make mention of her distress in their public prayers, and +commend her to God in the form appointed. But of all the number only Mr. +David Lindsay at Leith and the king's own ministers gave obedience.’ +<i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church</i>, vol. ii. pp. 355, 356. ‘They, +with only one exception, refused to comply.’ <i>Russell's History of the +Church in Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 23. Compare <i>Watson's Historicall +Collections of Ecclesiastick Affairs in Scotland</i>, p. 208; and <i>Historie +of James the Sext</i>, p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> ‘They stirred up Mr. John Cowper, a young man not entered +as yet in the function, to take the pulpit before the time, and exclude +the bishop. The king coming at the hour appointed, and seeing him in the +place, called to him from his seat, and said, “Mr. John, that place is +destined for another; yet since you are there, if you will obey the +charge that is given, and remember my mother in your prayers, you shall +go on.” He replying, “that he would do as the Spirit of God should +direct him,” was commanded to leave the place: and making as though he +would stay, the captain of the guard went to pull him out; whereupon he +burst forth in these speeches: “This day shall be a witness against the +king in the great day of the Lord:” and then denouncing a wo to the +inhabitants of Edinburgh, he went down, and the bishop of St. Andrews +entering the pulpit did perform the duty required.’ <i>Spottiswoode's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 356. ‘The Kingis +Majestie, to testifie his earnest and naturall affection to his mother, +causit pray for hir oppinly efter him selff; quhairvpone arrose a great +dissensioun betuix sum of the ministrie and his Majestie, namely the +ministrie of Edinburgh. Quhairvpone the king appoynted Patrik, +archbischop of St. Androis to teache, bot he wes preuented be Mr. John +Covpar minister, quho come befoir and filled the pulpit. And as the said +Mr. John wes beginnand the prayer, the Kingis Majestie commandit him to +stay: so as Mr. John raschit michtely vpone the pulpit, saying, “This +day sail bear witnes aganis yow in the day of the lord: woe be to ye +Edinburgh, for the last of xi plaiges salbe the worst.”’ <i>Moysie's +Memoirs</i>, p. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> See <i>The Historie of King James the Sext</i>, pp. 316–318, +from ‘a just copie of his sermon’ supplied by Ross himself. ‘His text +was upon the 6 chapter of the Prophet Jeremias, verse 28. “Brethren, we +have manie, and almaist innumerable enormiteis in this cuntrie to be +lamentit, as the misgovernement of our king be sinistrous counsall of +sum particular men. They ar all rebellious traitors, evin the king the +maist singular person, and particularlie everie estait of the land.” … +“Our king in sindrie poyntis hes bene rebellious aganis the Majestie of +God.” … “To this howre, we gat never gude of the Guysien blude, for +Queyne Marie his mother was an oppin persecutor of the sanctis of God, +and althoght the king be not an oppin persecutor, we have had many of +his fayre wordis, wharein he is myghtie aneugh, bot for his gude +deiddis, I commend me to thayme.” … “Admit, that our king be a +Christien king, yit but amen dement, he is a reprobat king. Of all the +men in this nation, the king himself is the maist fynest, and maist +dissembling hypocreit.”’ A very short notice of this sermon is given by +Calderwood (<i>History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. p. 299), who probably had not +seen the original notes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> The accusation, which was fully proved, was, that ‘he had +publictlie sayd in pulpit, that the papist erles wes come home be the +kingis knavledge and consent, quhairin his Hienes treacherie wes +detectit; that all kingis war deuilis and come of deuilis; that the +deuill wes the head of the court and in the court; that he pray it for +the Queine of Scotland for the faschione, because he saw na appearance +of guid in hir tyme,’ <i>Moysie's Memoirs</i>, p. 128. ‘Having been heard to +affirm, that the popish lords had returned into the country by the +king's permission, and that thereby the king had discovered the +“treacherous hypocrisy of his heart” that “all kings were the devil's +bairns, and that the devil was in the court, and the guiders of it.” He +was proved to have used in his prayer these indecent words, when +speaking of the queen, “We must pray for her for fashion's sake; but we +might as well not, for she will never do us any good,” He called the +queen of England an atheist, and the Lords of Session <i>bribers</i>; and +said that the nobility at large “were degenerate, godless, dissemblers, +and enemies to the church.”’ <i>Grierson's History of Saint Andrews</i>, p. +30, Cupar, 1838. Among the charges against him were, ‘Fourthly, that he +had called the queen of England an atheist. Fifthly, that he had +discussed a suspension granted by the lords of session in pulpit, and +called them miscreants and bribers. Sixthly, that, +speaking of the nobility, he said they were “degenerated, godless, +dissemblers, and enemies to the church.” Likewise, speaking of the +council, that he had called them “holiglasses, cormorants, and men of no +religion.”’ <i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church</i>, vol. iii. p. 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> See the original papers on ‘The Declinatour of the King +and Counsel's Judicatour in Maters Spirituall, namelie in Preaching of +the Word,’ in <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. pp. 457–459, +475–480. Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 326–332) has given +extracts from them, and made some remarks on their obvious tendency. See +also on the Declinature of Jurisdiction claimed by the Scotch Church, +<i>Hallam's Constitutional History</i>, 4th edit. 1842, vol. ii. p. 461; and +<i>Mackenzie's Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters Criminal</i>, +Edinburgh, 1699, folio, pp. 181, 182.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> M'Crie, in his <i>Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. pp. 70 seq., +has given an account of the punishment of Black, but, as usual, conceals +the provocation; or, at least, softens it down until it hardly becomes a +provocation. According to him, ‘David Black had been served with a +summons to answer before the privy council for certain expressions used +by him in his sermons.’ Certain expressions, indeed! But why name the +penalty, and suppress the offence? This learned writer knew perfectly +well what Black had done, and yet all the information bestowed on the +reader is a note at p. 72, containing a mutilated extract from +Spottiswoode.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> ‘Saying, “He was possessed with a devil; that one devil +being put out, seven worse were entered in place; and that the subjects +might lawfully rise, and take the sword out of his hand:” which he +confirmed by the example of a father that falling into a frenzy, might +be taken by the children and servants of the family, and tied hand and +foot from doing violence.’ <i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 34. See also <i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, pp. +46, 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> This did not escape the attention of the English +government; and Elizabeth, who was remarkably well informed respecting +Scotch affairs, wrote to James, in 1590, a warning, which was hardly +necessary, but which must have added to his fears. ‘And lest fayre +semblance, that easely may begile, do not brede your ignorance of suche +persons as ether pretend religion or dissemble deuotion, let me warne +you that ther is risen, bothe in your realme and myne, a secte of +perilous consequence, suche as wold have no kings but a presbitrye, and +take our place while the inioy our privilege, with a shade of Godes +word, wiche none is juged to folow right without by ther censure the be +so demed. Yea, looke we wel unto them.’ <i>Letters of Elizabeth and James +VI.</i>, edited by John Bruce, Camden Society, 1849, 4to, p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> The Reverend James Melville, who was present at the +scene, describes it with exuberant delight. ‘To the quhilk, I beginning +to reply, in my maner, Mr. Andro doucht nocht abyd it, bot brak af upon +the king in sa zealus, powerfull, and unresistable a maner, that +whowbeit the king used his authoritie in maist crabbit and colerik +maner, yit Mr. Andro bure him down, and outtered the Commission as from +the mightie God, calling the king bot “God's sillie vassall:” and taking +him be the sleive,’ &c. <i>Autobiography and Diary of James Melvill</i>, p. +370. See also <i>Shields' Hind let loose</i>, 1687, p. 52; and <i>M'Crie's Life +of Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> In 1593, 4, some of them formed a plot to seize him. See +the evidence from the State-paper Office, in <i>Tytler's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. vii. p. 249, edit. Edinburgh, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> ‘He was the darling hope of the Presbyterian party.’ +<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vii. p. 410.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> ‘Gowry's conspiracy was by them charged on the king, as a +contrivance of his to get rid of that earl.’ <i>Burnet's History of his +own Time</i>, edit. Oxford, 1823, vol. i. p. 31. See also <i>Tytler's History +of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 439, 440; and on the diffusion of ‘this +absurd hallucination,’ see The <i>Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. +320, Edinburgh, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> See a good note in <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 179, Edinburgh, 1833, 4to. Compare <i>Lawson's Book +of Perth</i>, Edinburgh, 1847, p. xxxix.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Their language, and their general bearing, so enraged +James, as to extort from him a passionate declaration, in 1592, that ‘it +would not be weill till noblemen and gentlemen gott licence to breake +ministers' heads.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. p. 148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> ‘At the period of which we speak’ (about the year 1584) +‘the pulpit was, in fact, the only organ by which public opinion was, or +could be, expressed; and the ecclesiastical courts were the only +assemblies in the nation which possessed anything that was entitled to +the name of liberty or independence. Parliament had its business +prepared to its hand, and laid before it in the shape of acts which +required only its assent. Discussion and freedom of speech were unknown +in its meetings. The courts of justice were dependent on the will of the +sovereign, and frequently had their proceedings regulated, and their +decisions dictated, by letters or messages from the throne. It was the +preachers who first taught the people to express an opinion on the +conduct of their rulers; and the assemblies of the Church set the +earliest example of a regular and firm opposition to the arbitrary and +unconstitutional measures of the court.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, +vol. i. p. 302.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot">CONDITION OF SCOTLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES.</div> + +<p>Scarcely had James mounted the throne of England, +when he began seriously, and on a large scale, to attempt +to subjugate the Scotch Church, which, as he clearly +saw, was the principal obstacle that stood between him +and despotic power. While he was merely King of +Scotland, he made several efforts, which were constantly +baffled; but now that he wielded the vast resources of +England, the victory seemed easy.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> As early as 1584, +he had gained a temporary triumph, by forcing many of +the clergy to recognize episcopacy.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> But that institution +was so repugnant to their levelling and democratic +principles, that nothing could overcome their abhorrence +of it;<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> and, completely overawing the king, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +compelled him to give way, and to retrace his steps. The +result was, that, in 1592, an Act of Parliament was +passed, which subverted the authority of the bishops, +and established Presbyterianism; a scheme based on +the idea of equality, and, therefore, suited to the wants +of the Scotch Church.<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p> + +<p>To this statute, James had assented with the greatest +reluctance.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Indeed, his feeling respecting it was so +strong, that he determined, on the first opportunity, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +procure its repeal, even if he used force to effect his +purpose. The course he adopted, was characteristic +both of the man and of the age. In December 1596, +one of those popular tumults arose in Edinburgh, which +are natural in barbarous times, and which, under ordinary +circumstances, would have been quelled, and +nothing more thought of it.<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> But James availed himself +of this, to strike what he deemed a decisive blow. +His plan was nothing less than to turn into the capital +of his own monarchy, large bodies of armed and licensed +banditti, who, by threatening to plunder the city, should +oblige the clergy and their flocks to agree to whatever +terms he chose to dictate. This magnanimous scheme +was well worthy of the mind of James, and it was strictly +executed. From the north, he summoned the Highland +nobles, and from the south, the border barons, who were +to be accompanied by their fierce retainers,—men who +lived by pillage, and whose delight it was to imbrue +their hands in blood. At the express command of +James, these ferocious brigands, on the 1st of January +1597, appeared in the streets of Edinburgh, gloating +over the prospect before them, and ready, when their +sovereign gave the word, to sack the capital, and raze +it to the ground.<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> Resistance was hopeless. Whatever +the king demanded, was conceded; and James supposed +that the time was now come, in which he could +firmly establish the authority of the bishops, and, by +their aid, control the clergy, and break their refractory +spirit.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this undertaking, three years were consumed. To +insure its success, the king, supported by the nobles, +relied, not only on force, but also on an artifice, which +now seems to have been employed for the first time. +This was, to pack the General Assemblies, by inundating +them with clergymen drawn from the north of Scotland, +where, the old clannish and aristocratic spirit being +supreme, the democratic spirit, found in the south, was +unknown. Hitherto, these northern ministers had rarely +attended at the great meetings of the Church; but +James, in 1597, sent Sir Patrick Murray on a special +mission to them, urging them to be present, in order +that they might vote on his side.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> They, being a very +ignorant body, knowing little or nothing of the questions +really at issue, and being, moreover, accustomed +to a state of society in which men, notwithstanding +their lawlessness, paid the most servile obedience to +their immediate superiors, were easily worked upon, and +induced to do what they were bid. By their help, the +crown and the nobles so strengthened their party in the +General Assembly, as to obtain in many instances a +majority; and innovations were gradually introduced, +calculated to destroy the democratic character of the +Scotch Church.<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p> + +<p>In 1597, the movement began. From then, until +1600, successive Assemblies sanctioned different changes, +all of which were marked by that aristocratic tendency +which seemed about to carry everything before it. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +1600, the General Assembly met at Montrose; and +government determined on making a final effort to +compel the Church to establish an episcopal polity. +Andrew Melville, by far the most influential man in +the Church, and the leader of the democratic party, had +been elected, as usual, a member of the Assembly; but +the king, arbitrarily interposing, refused to allow him +to take his seat.<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> Still, neither by threats, nor by force, +nor by promises, could the court carry their point. All +that they obtained was, that certain ecclesiastics should +be allowed to sit in parliament; but it was ordered that +such persons should every year lay their commissions +at the feet of the General Assembly, and render an +account of their conduct. The Assembly was to have +the power of deposing them; and, to keep them in +greater subjection, they were forbidden to call themselves +bishops, but were to be content with the inferior +title of Commissioners of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> + +<p>After sustaining this repulse, James seems to have +been disheartened; as he made no further effort, though +he still laboured underhand at the restoration of episcopacy.<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> +If he had persevered, it might have cost him +his crown. For, his resources were few; he was extremely +poor;<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> and recent events had shown that the +clergy were stronger than he had supposed. When he +thought himself most sure of success, they had subjected +him to a mortifying defeat; and this was the +more remarkable, as it was entirely their own work;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +they being by this time so completely separated from +the nobles, that they could not rely upon even a single +member of that powerful body.</p> + +<p>While affairs were in this state, and while the liberties +of Scotland, of which the Church was the guardian, +were trembling in the balance, Elizabeth died, and the +King of Scotland became also King of England. James +at once determined to employ the resources of his new +kingdom to curb his old one. In 1604, that is, only +the year after his accession to the English throne, he +aimed a deadly blow at the Scotch Church, by attacking +the independence of their Assemblies; and, by his own +authority, he prorogued the General Assembly of Aberdeen.<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> +In 1605, he again prorogued it; and, to make his +intentions clear, he, this time, refused to fix a day for +its future meeting.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> Hereupon, some of the ministers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +deputed by presbyteries, took upon themselves to convene +it, which they had an undoubted right to do, as +the act of the king was manifestly illegal. On the day +appointed, they met in the session-house of Aberdeen. +They were ordered to disperse. Having, as they conceived, +by the mere fact of assembling, sufficiently +asserted their privileges, they obeyed. But James, now +backed by the power of England, resolved that they +should feel the change of his position, and, therefore, of +theirs. In consequence of orders which he sent from +London, fourteen of the clergy were committed to +prison.<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> Six of them, who denied the authority of the +privy-council, were indicted for high treason. They +were at once put upon their trial. They were convicted. +And sentence of death was only deferred, that +the pleasure of the king might first be taken, as to +whether he would not be satisfied with some punishment +that fell short of sacrificing the lives of these +unhappy men.<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a></p> + +<p>Their lives, indeed, were spared; but they were subjected +to a close imprisonment, and then condemned to +perpetual exile.<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> In other parts of the country, similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +measures were adopted. Nearly all over Scotland, numbers +of the clergy were either imprisoned or forced to +fly.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> Terror and proscription were universal. Such +was the panic, that it was generally believed that +nothing could prevent the permanent establishment of +despotism, unless there were some immediate and providential +interference on behalf of the Church and the +people.<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p> + +<p>Nor can it be denied that there were plausible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +grounds for these apprehensions. The people had no +friends except among the clergy, and the ablest of the +clergy were either in prison or in exile.<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> To deprive +the Church entirely of her leaders, James, in 1606, summoned +to London, Melville and seven of his colleagues, +under pretence of needing their advice.<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> Having got +possession of their persons, he detained them in England.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> +They were forbidden to return to Scotland; and +Melville, who was most feared, was committed to custody. +He was then imprisoned in the Tower, where +he remained four years, and from which he was only +liberated on condition of living abroad, and abandoning +altogether his native country.<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> The seven ministers +who had accompanied him to London were also imprisoned; +but, being considered less dangerous than their +leader, they, after a time, were allowed to return home. +The nephew of Melville was, however, ordered not to +travel more than two miles from Newcastle; and his +six companions were confined in different parts of +Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p> + +<p>Everything now seemed ripe for the destruction of +those ideas of equality of which, in Scotland, the Church +was the sole representative. In 1610, a General Assembly +was held at Glasgow; and, as the members of it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +were nominated by the crown,<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> whatever the government +wished was conceded. By their vote, episcopacy +was established, and the authority of the bishops over +the ministers was fully recognized.<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> A little earlier, but +in the same year, two courts of High Commission were +erected, one at Saint Andrews, and one at Glasgow. To +them, all ecclesiastical courts were subordinate. They +were armed with such immense power, that they could +cite any one they pleased before them, could examine +him respecting his religious opinions, could have him +excommunicated, and could fine or imprison him, just +as they thought proper.<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> Finally, and to complete the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +humiliation of Scotland, the establishment of episcopacy +was not considered complete, until an act was performed, +which nothing but its being very ignominious, +could have saved from being ridiculed as an idle and +childish farce. The archbishop of Glasgow, the bishop +of Brechin, and the bishop of Galloway, had to travel +all the way to London, in order that they might be +touched by some English bishops. Incredible as it may +appear, it was actually supposed that there was no +power in Scotland sufficiently spiritual to turn a Scotchman +into a prelate. Therefore it was, that the archbishop +of Glasgow and his companions performed what +was then an arduous journey to a strange and distant +capital, for the sake of receiving some hidden virtue, +which, on their return home, they might communicate +to their brethren. To the grief and astonishment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +their country, these unworthy priests, abandoning the +traditions of their native land, and forgetting the proud +spirit which animated their fathers, consented to abjure +their own independence, to humble themselves before +the English Church, and to submit to mummeries, +which, in their hearts, they must have despised, but +which were now inflicted upon them by their ancient +and inveterate foes.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></p> + +<p>We may easily imagine what would be the future +conduct of men, who, merely for their own aggrandizement, +and to please their prince, could thus renounce +the cherished independence of the Scotch Church. They +who crouch to those who are above them always trample +on those who are below them. Directly they returned to +Scotland, they communicated the consecration they had +received in England to their fellow-bishops,<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> who were +of the like mould to themselves, in so far as all of them +aided James in his attempt to subjugate the liberties of +their native country. Being now properly ordained, +their spiritual life was complete; it remained for them to +secure the happiness of their temporal life. This they did, +by gradually monopolizing all authority, and treating +with unsparing severity those who opposed them. The +fall triumph of the bishops was reserved for the reign +of Charles I., when a number of them obtained seats in +the privy-council, where they behaved with such overbearing +insolence, that even Clarendon, notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +his notorious partiality for their order, censures their +conduct.<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> In the time, however, of James I., they carried +nearly everything before them.<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> They deprived +the towns of their privileges, and forced them to receive +magistrates of their own choosing.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> They accumulated +wealth, and made an ostentatious display of it; which +was the more disgraceful, as the country was miserably +poor, and their fellow-subjects were starving around +them.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> The Lords of the Articles, without whose sanction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +no measure could be presented to parliament, had +been hitherto elected by laymen; but the bishops now +effected a change, by virtue of which the right of nomination +devolved on themselves.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> Having thus gained +possession of the legislature, they obtained the enactment +of fresh penalties against their countrymen. Great +numbers of the clergy they suspended; others they +deprived of their benefices; others they imprisoned. +The city of Edinburgh, being opposed to the rites and +ceremonies lately introduced, and being, like the rest +of the country, hostile to episcopacy, the bishops fell on +it also, displaced several of its magistrates, seized some +of the principal citizens, and threatened to deprive it of +the courts of justice, and of the honour of being the seat +of government.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a></p> + +<p>In the midst of all this, and while things seemed to +be at their worst, a great reaction was preparing. And +the explanation of the reaction is to be found in that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +vast and pregnant principle, on which I have often insisted, +but which our common historians are unable to +understand; namely, that a bad government, bad laws, +or laws badly administered, are, indeed, extremely injurious +at the time, but can produce no permanent mischief; +in other words, they may harm a country, but +can never ruin it. As long as the people are sound, +there is life, and while there is life, there will be reaction. +In such case, tyranny provokes rebellion, and +despotism causes freedom. But if the people are unsound, +all hope is gone, and the nation perishes. In +both instances, government is, in the long run, inoperative, +and is nowise responsible for the ultimate result. +The ruling classes have, for the moment, immense +power, which they invariably abuse, except when they +are restrained, either by fear, or by shame. The people +may inspire them with fear; public opinion may inspire +them with shame. But whether or not that shall happen, +depends on the spirit of the people, and on the state of +opinion. These two circumstances are themselves governed +by a long chain of antecedents, stretching back +to a period, always very distant, and sometimes so +remote as to baffle observation. When the evidence is +sufficiently abundant, those antecedents may be generalized; +and their generalization conducts us to certain +large and powerful causes, on which the whole +movement depends. In short periods, the operation of +these causes is imperceptible, but in long periods, it is +conspicuous and supreme; it colours the national character; +it controls the great sweep and average of affairs. +In Scotland, as I have already shown, general causes +made the people love their clergy, and made the clergy +love liberty. As long as these two facts coëxisted, the +destiny of the nation was safe. It might be injured, +insulted, and trampled upon. It might be harmed in +various ways; but the greater the harm, the surer the +remedy, because the higher the spirit of the country +would be roused. All that was needed was, a little more +time, and a little more provocation. We, who, standing +at a distance, can contemplate these matters from an +elevation, and see how events pressed on and thickened,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +cannot mistake the regularity of their sequence. Notwithstanding +the apparent confusion, all was orderly +and methodical. To us, the scheme is revealed. There +is the fabric, and it is of one hue, and one make. The +pattern is plainly marked, and fortunately it was worked +into a texture, whose mighty web was not to be broken, +either by the arts, or the violence, of designing men.</p> + +<p>It was, therefore, of no avail that tyranny did her +utmost. It was of no avail that the throne was occupied +by a despotic and unscrupulous king, who was +succeeded by another, more despotic and more unscrupulous +than himself. It was of no avail that a +handful of meddling and intrusive bishops, deriving +their consecration from London, and supported by the +authority of the English church, took counsel together, +and conspired against the liberties of their native land. +They played the part of spies and of traitors, but they +played it in vain. Yet, everything that government +could give them, it gave. They had the law on their +side, and they had the right of administering the law. +They were legislators, councillors, and judges. They +had wealth; they had high-sounding titles; they had +all the pomp and attributes for which they bartered +their independence, and with which they hoped to +dazzle the eyes of the vulgar. Still, they could not +turn back the stream; they could not even stop it; +they could not prevent it from coming on, and swallowing +them up in its course. Before that generation +passed away, these little men, big though they were in +their own conceit, succumbed, and fell. The hand of +the age was upon them, and they were unable to resist. +They were struck down, and humbled; they were +stripped of their offices, their honours, and their +splendour: they lost all which minds like theirs hold +most dear. Their fate is an instructive lesson. It is a +lesson, both to the rulers of nations, and to those who +write the history of nations. To rulers, in so far as it +is one of many proofs how little they can do, and how +insignificant is the part which they play in the great +drama of the world. To historians, the result should +be especially instructive, as convincing them that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +events on which they concentrate their attention, and +which they believe to be of supreme importance, are in +reality of trifling value, and, so far from holding the +first rank, ought to be made subservient to those large +and comprehensive studies, by whose aid alone, we can +ascertain the conditions which determine the tread and +destiny of nations.</p> + +<p>The events that now happened in Scotland, may be +quickly told. The patience of the country was well-nigh +exhausted, and the day of reckoning was at hand.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> +In 1637, the people began to rise. In the summer of +that year, the first great riot broke out in Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> +The flame quickly spread, and nothing could stop it. +By October, the whole nation was up, and an accusation +was preferred against the bishops, which was signed by +nearly every corporation, and by men of all ranks.<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> In +November, the Scotch, in defiance of the Crown, +organized a system of representation of their own, in +which every class had a share.<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> Early in 1638, the +National Covenant was framed; and the eagerness with +which it was sworn to, showed that the people were +determined, at all hazards, to vindicate their rights.<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +It was now evident that all was over. During the +summer of 1638, preparations were made, and, in the +autumn, the storm broke. In November, the first General +Assembly seen in Scotland for twenty years, met at +Glasgow.<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> The Marquis of Hamilton, the king's commissioner, +ordered the members to separate.<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> They +refused.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Nor would they disband, until they had +done the work expected from them.<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> By their vote, +the democratic institution of presbyteries was restored +to its old power; the forms of consecration were done +away with; the bishops were degraded from their +functions, and episcopacy was abolished.<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a></p> + +<p>Thus, the bishops fell, even more rapidly than they +had risen.<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> As, however, their fall was merely a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +of the democratic movement, matters could not stop +there.<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> Scarcely had the Scotch expelled their +bishops, when they made war upon their king. In 1639, +they took up arms against Charles. In 1640, they +invaded England. In 1641, the king, with the hope of +appeasing them, visited Scotland, and agreed to most +of their demands. It was too late. The people were +hot, and a cry for blood had gone forth. War again +broke out. The Scotch united with the English, and +Charles was every where defeated. As a last chance, +he threw himself upon the mercy of his northern +subjects,<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> But his offences were of that rank and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +luxuriant growth, that it was impossible to forgive +them. Indeed, the Scotch, instead of pardoning him, +turned him to profit. He had not only trampled on +their liberties, he had also put them to an enormous +expense. For the injury, he could offer no adequate +atonement; but the expense they had incurred, might +be defrayed. And as it is an old and recognized maxim, +that he who cannot pay with his purse, shall pay with +his body, the Scotch saw no reason why they should +not derive some advantage from the person of their +sovereign, particularly as, hitherto, he had caused them +nothing but loss and annoyance. They, therefore, +gave him up to the English, and, in return, received a +large sum of money, which they claimed as arrears due +to them for the cost of making war on him.<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> By this +arrangement, both of the contracting parties benefited. +The Scotch, being very poor, obtained what they most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +lacked. The English, a wealthy people, had indeed to +pay the money, but they were recompensed by getting +hold of their oppressor, against whom they thirsted for +revenge; and they took good care never to let him +loose, until they had exacted the last penalty of his +great and manifold crimes.<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p> + +<p>After the execution of Charles I., the Scotch recognized +his son as his successor. But before they would +crown the new king, they subjected him to a treatment +which hereditary sovereigns are not much accustomed +to receive. They made him sign a public declaration, +expressing his regret for what had happened, and +acknowledging that his father, moved by evil counsels, +had unjustly shed the blood of his subjects. He was +also obliged to declare, that by these things he felt +humbled in spirit. He had, moreover, to apologize for +his own errors, which he ascribed partly to his inexperience, +and partly to the badness of his education.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +To evince the sincerity of this confession, and in order +that the confession might be generally known, he was +commanded to keep a day of fasting and humiliation, +in which the whole nation would weep and pray for +him, in the hope that he might escape the consequences +of the sins committed by his family.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a></p> + +<p>The spirit, of which acts like these are but symptoms, +continued to animate the Scotch during the rest of the +seventeenth century. And fortunately for them it did +so. For, the reigns of Charles II. and James II. were +but repetitions of the reigns of James I. and Charles I. +From 1660 to 1688, Scotland was again subjected to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +tyranny, so cruel, and so exhausting, that it would have +broken the energy of almost any other nation.<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> The +nobles, whose power had been slowly but constantly +declining,<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> were unable to resist the English, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +whom, indeed, they rather seemed willing to combine, +in order that they might have a share in plundering +and oppressing their own country.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> In this, the most +unhappy period through which Scotland had passed +since the fourteenth century, the government was extremely +powerful; the upper classes, crouching before +it, thought only of securing their own safety; the judges +were so corrupt, that justice, instead of being badly +administered, was not administered at all;<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> and the +parliament, completely overawed, consented to what +was termed the recissory act, by which, at a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +stroke, all laws were repealed which had been enacted +since 1633; it being considered that those twenty-eight +years formed an epoch of which the memory should, if +possible, be effaced.<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a></p> + +<p>But, though the higher ranks ignominiously deserted +their post, and destroyed the laws which upheld the +liberties of Scotland, the result proved that the liberties +themselves were indestructible. This was because the +spirit remained, by which the liberties had been won. +The nation was sound at the core; and while that was +the case, legislators could, indeed, abolish the external +manifestations of freedom, but could by no means touch +the causes on which the freedom depended. Liberty was +prostrate, but yet it lived. And the time would surely +come, when a people, who loved it so dearly, would +vindicate their rights. The time would come, when, in +the words of the great poet of English liberty, the nation +would rouse herself like a strong man after sleep, and, +shaking her invincible locks, would be as an eagle muing +her mighty youth, kindling her undazzled eyes at the +midday beam, and purging and unscaling her sight at +the heavenly fountain; while the timorous birds of her +evil destiny, loving the twilight, should flutter about, +amazed at what she meant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + +<p>Still, the crisis was sad and dangerous. The people, +deserted by every one except their clergy, were ruthlessly +plundered, murdered, and hunted, like wild-beasts, +from place to place. From the tyranny of the bishops, +they had so recently smarted, that they abhorred episcopacy +more than ever; and yet that institution was +not only forced upon them, but government put at its +head Sharp, a cruel and rapacious man, who, in 1661, +was raised to the archbishopric of St. Andrews.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> He +set up a court of ecclesiastical commission, which filled +the prisons to overflowing; and when they would hold +no more, the victims were transported to Barbadoes, +and other unhealthy settlements.<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> The people, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +determined not to submit to the dictation of government +respecting their religious worship, met together in private<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +houses; and, when that was declared illegal, they +fled from their houses to the fields. But there, too, the +bishops were upon them.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> Lauderdale, who, for many +years, was at the head of affairs, was greatly influenced +by the new prelates, and aided them with the authority +of the executive.<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> Under their united auspices, a new +contrivance was hit upon; and a body of soldiers, commanded +by Turner, a drunken and ferocious soldier, +was let loose upon the people.<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> The sufferers, galled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +to madness, rose in arms. This was made the pretence, +in 1667, for fresh military executions, by which some of +the fairest parts of western Scotland were devastated, +houses burned, men tortured, women ravished.<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> In +1670, an act of parliament was passed, declaring that +whoever preached in the fields without permission should +be put to death.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> Some lawyers were found bold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +enough to defend innocent men, when they were tried +for their lives; it was therefore determined to silence +them also, and, in 1674, a great part of the Faculty of +Advocates was expelled from Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> In 1678, +by the express command of government, the Highlanders +were brought down from their mountains, and, during +three months, were encouraged to slay, plunder, and +burn at their pleasure, the inhabitants of the most +populous and industrious parts of Scotland. For centuries, +the bitterest animosity had existed between the +Highlanders and Lowlanders; and now these savage +mountaineers were called from their homes, that they +might take full revenge. And well they glutted their +ire. During three months, they enjoyed every license. +Eight thousand<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> armed Highlanders, invited by the +English government, and receiving beforehand an indemnity +for every excess,<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> were left to work their will +upon the towns and villages of Western Scotland. They +spared neither age nor sex. They deprived the people +of their property; they even stripped them of their +clothes, and sent them out naked to die in the fields. +Upon many, they inflicted the most horrible tortures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +Children, torn from their mothers, were foully abused; +while both mothers and daughters were subjected to a +fate, compared to which death would have been a joyful +alternative.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a></p> + +<p>It was in this way, that the English government +sought to break the spirit, and to change the opinions, +of the Scotch people. The nobles looked on in silence, +and, so far from resisting, had not even the courage to +remonstrate. The parliament was equally servile, and +sanctioned whatever the government demanded. Still, +the people were firm. Their clergy, drawn from the +middle classes, clung to them; they clung to their clergy, +and both were unchanged. The bishops were hated as +allies of the government, and were with reason regarded +as public enemies. They were known to have favoured, +and often to have suggested, the atrocities which had +been committed;<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> and they were so pleased with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +punishment inflicted upon their opponents, that no one +was surprised, when, a few years later, they, in an +address to James II., the most cruel of all the Stuarts, +declared that he was the darling of heaven, and hoped +that God might give him the hearts of his subjects, and +the necks of his enemies.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a></p> + +<p>The character of the prince, whom the bishops thus +delighted to honour, is now well understood. Horrible +as were the crimes which had been perpetrated, they +were surpassed by what occurred, when he, in 1680, +assumed the direction of affairs.<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> He had worked +himself to that pitch of iniquity, as to derive actual +enjoyment from witnessing the agonies of his fellow-creatures. +This is an abyss of wickedness, into which +even the most corrupt natures rarely fall. There have +been, and always will be, many men who care nothing +for human suffering, and who will inflict any amount of +pain, in order to gain certain ends. But to take delight +in the spectacle, is a peculiar and hideous abomination. +James, however, was so dead to shame, that he did not +care even to conceal his horrible tastes. Whenever +torture was inflicted, he was sure to be present, feasting +his eyes, and revelling with a fiendish joy.<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> It makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +our flesh creep to think that such a man should have +been the ruler of millions. But what shall we say to +the Scotch bishops, who applauded him, of whose conduct +they were daily witnesses? Where can we find +language strong enough to stigmatize those recreant +priests, who, having passed years in attempting to subjugate +the liberties of their country, did, towards the +close of their career, and just before their final fall, +band together, and employ their united authority, as +ministers of a holy and peaceful religion, to stamp with +public approval, a prince, whose malignant cruelty made +him loathed by his contemporaries, and whose revolting +predilections, unless we ascribe them to a diseased brain, +are not only a slur upon the age which tolerated them, +but a disgrace to the higher instincts of our common +nature?</p> + +<p>So utterly corrupt, however, were the ruling classes +in Scotland, that such crimes seem hardly to have excited +indignation. The sufferers were refractory subjects, +and against them every thing was lawful. The +usual torture, which was called the torture of the boots, +was to place the leg in a frame, into which wedges were +driven, until the bones were broken.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> But when James<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +visited Scotland, an opinion began to grow up, that this +was too lenient, and that other means must be devised. +The spirit which he communicated to his subordinates, +animated his immediate successors, and, in 1684, during +his absence, a new instrument was introduced, termed +the thumbikins. This was composed of small steel +screws, arranged with such diabolical art, that not +only the thumb, but also the whole hand, could be compressed +by them, producing pain more exquisite than +any hitherto known, and having, moreover, the advantage +of not endangering life; so that the torture could +be frequently repeated on the same person.<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a></p> + +<p>After this, little more need be said.<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> From the mere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +mention of such things, the mind recoils with disgust. +The reader of the history of that time sickens and faints +at the contrivances by which these abject creatures +sought to stifle public opinion, and to ruin, for ever, a +gallant and high-spirited people. But now, as before, +they laboured in vain. More yet was, however, to be +borne. The short reign of James II. was ushered in by +an act of singular barbarity. A few weeks after this +bad man came to the throne, all the children in Annandale +and Nithsdale, between the ages of six and ten, +were seized by the soldiers, separated from their parents, +and threatened with immediate death.<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> The next step +was, to banish, by wholesale, large numbers of adults, +who were shipped off to unhealthy settlements; many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +of the men first losing their ears, and the women being +branded, some on the hand, some on the cheek.<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> Those, +however, who remained behind, were equal to the +emergency, and were ready to do what remained to be +done. In 1688, as in 1642, the Scotch people and the +English people united against their common oppressor, +who saved himself by sudden and ignominious flight. +He was a coward as well as a despot, and from him there +was no further danger. The bishops, indeed, loved +him; but they were an insignificant body, and had +enough to do to look to themselves. His only powerful +friends were the Highlanders. That barbarous race +thought, with regret, of those bygone days when the +government had not only allowed them, but had ordered +them, to plunder and oppress their southern neighbours. +For this purpose, Charles II. had availed himself of their +services; and it could hardly be doubted, that if the +Stuart dynasty were restored, they would be again employed, +and would again enrich themselves by pillaging +the Lowlanders.<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> War was their chief amusement; it +was also their livelihood; and it was the only thing that +they understood.<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> Besides this, the mere fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +James no longer possessed authority, wonderfully increased +their loyalty towards him. The Highlanders +flourished by rapine, and traded in anarchy.<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> They, +therefore, hated any government which was strong +enough to punish crime; and the Stuarts being now far +away, this nation of thieves loved them with an ardour +which nothing but their absence could have caused. +From William III., they feared restraint; but the exiled +prince could do them no hurt, and would look on +their excesses as the natural result of their zeal. Not +that they cared about the principle of monarchical succession, +or speculated on the doctrine of divine right.<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> +The only succession that interested them, was that of +their chiefs. Their only notion of right, was to do what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +those chiefs commanded. Being miserably poor,<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> they, +in raising a rebellion, risked nothing except their lives, +of which, in that state of society, men are always reckless. +If they failed, they encountered a speedy, and, as +they deemed it, an honourable death. If they succeeded, +they gained fame and wealth. In either case, they were +sure of many enjoyments. They were sure of being +able, for a time at least, to indulge in pillage and murder, +and to practise, without restraint, those excesses +which they regarded as the choicest guerdon of a +soldier's career.</p> + +<p>So far, therefore, from wondering at the rebellions +of 1715 and 1745,<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> the only wonder is, that they did +not break out sooner, and that they were not better +supported. In 1745, when the sudden appearance of +the rebels struck England with terror, and when they +penetrated even to the heart of the kingdom, their +numbers, even at their height, including Lowland and +English recruits, never reached six thousand men. The +ordinary amount was five thousand;<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> and they cared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +so little about the cause for which they professed to +fight, that, in 1715, when they numbered much stronger +than in 1745, they refused to enter England, and make +head against the government, until they were bribed +by the promise of additional pay.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> So, too, in 1745, +after they had won the battle of Preston-pans, the only +result of that great victory was, that the Highlanders, +instead of striking a fresh blow, deserted in large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +bodies, that they might secure the booty they had +obtained, and which alone they valued. They heeded +not whether Stuart or Hanoverian gained the day; and +at this critical moment, they were unable, says the +historian, to resist their desire to return to their glens, +and decorate their huts with the spoil.<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a></p> + +<p>There are, indeed, few things more absurd than that +lying spirit of romance, which represents the rising of +the Highlanders as the outburst of a devoted loyalty. +Nothing was further from their minds than this. The +Highlanders have crimes enough to account for, without +being burdened by needless reproach. They were +thieves and murderers; but that was in their way of +life, and they felt not the stigma. Though they were +ignorant and ferocious, they were not so foolish as to +be personally attached to that degraded family, which, +before the accession of William III., occupied the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +throne of Scotland. To love such men as Charles II. +and James II., may, perhaps, be excused as one of those +peculiarities of taste of which one sometimes hears. +But to love all their descendants; to feel an affection so +comprehensive as to take in the whole dynasty, and, for +the sake of gratifying that eccentric passion, not only +to undergo great hardships, but to inflict enormous +evil upon two kingdoms, would have been a folly as well +as a wickedness, and would convict the Highlanders of +a species of insanity alien to their nature. They burst +into insurrection, because insurrection suited their +habits, and because they hated all government and all +order.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> But, so far from caring for a monarch, the +very institution of monarchy was repulsive to them. +It was contrary to that spirit of clanship to which they +were devoted; and, from their earliest childhood, they +were accustomed to respect none but their chiefs, to +whom they paid a willing obedience, and whom they +considered far superior to all the potentates of the +earth.<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> No one, indeed, who is really acquainted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +their history, will think them capable of having spilt +their blood on behalf of any sovereign, be he whom he +might; still less can we believe that they would quit +their native land, and undertake long and hazardous +marches, with the object of restoring that corrupt and +tyrannical dynasty, whose offences smelt to heaven, and +whose cruelties had, at length, kindled the anger even +of humble and meek-minded men.</p> + +<p>The simple fact is, that the outbreaks of 1715 and +1745 were, in our country, the last struggle of barbarism +against civilization. On the one side, war +and confusion. On the other side, peace and prosperity. +These were the interests for which men +really fought; and neither party cared for Stuarts or +for Hanoverians. The result of such a contest in the +eighteenth century, could hardly be doubtful. At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +time, the rebellions caused great alarm, both from their +suddenness, and from the strange and ferocious appearance +of the Highland invaders.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> But the knowledge +we now possess, enables us to see, that, from the +beginning, success was impossible. Though the government +was extremely remiss, and, notwithstanding the +information it received, allowed itself on both occasions +to be taken by surprise, there was no real danger.<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +The English, not being particularly enamoured either +with the Highlanders or with the Stuarts, refused to +rise;<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> and it cannot be seriously supposed, that a few +thousand half-naked banditti had it in their power to +prescribe to the people of England what sovereign they +should obey, and under what sort of government they +should live.</p> + +<p>After 1745, there was no further interruption. The +interests of civilization, that is, the interests of knowledge, +of liberty, and of wealth, gradually assumed the +upper hand, and reduced men like the Highlanders to +utter insignificance. Roads were cut through their +country; and, for the first time, travellers from the +south began to mingle with them in their hitherto +inaccessible wilds.<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> In those parts, the movement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +was, indeed, very slow; but, in the Lowlands, it was +much more rapid. For, the traders and inhabitants +of towns were now becoming prominent, and their +authority helped to neutralize the old warlike and +anarchical habits. Towards the end of the seventeenth +century, a taste for commercial speculation sprung up, +and a large amount of the energy of Scotland was +turned into this new channel.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> Early in the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +century, the same tendency was displayed in literature; +and works on mercantile and economical subjects +became common.<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> A change in manners was also +perceptible. About this period, the Scotch began to +lose something of that rugged ferocity which had +distinguished them of old. This improvement was +evinced in several ways; one of the most remarkable +being an alteration, which was first observed in 1710, +when it was noticed that men were leaving off armour, +which had hitherto been worn by every one who could +afford it, as a useful precaution in a barbarous, and +therefore a warlike society.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p> + +<p>To trace the general progress in its various parts, or +even to indicate the immediate consequences, would require +a separate volume. One of the results is, however, +too conspicuous to be passed over in silence, though it +does not deserve all the importance that has been attached +to it. This is, the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions, +which, after all, was but a symptom of the great movement, +and not a cause of it; being itself due, partly to +the growth of the industrial spirit, and partly to that +diminution of the power of the aristocracy, which had +been visible as early as the beginning of the seventeenth +century. During many ages, certain persons of noble +birth had enjoyed the privilege of trying offences, and +even of inflicting capital punishment, simply because +their ancestors had done so before them; the judicial +power being, in fact, part of their patrimony, and descending +to them like the rest of their property.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +institution of this sort, which made a man a judge, not +because he was apt for the office, but because he was +born under particular circumstances, was a folly which +the revolutionary temper of the eighteenth century was +not likely to spare. The innovating spirit for which +that age was remarkable, could hardly fail to attack so +preposterous a custom; and its extinction was facilitated, +both by the decline of the nobles who possessed the +privilege, and by the rise of their natural opponents, the +trading and commercial classes. The decay of the +Scotch nobility, in the eighteenth century, may be +traced to two special causes, in addition to those general +causes, which were weakening the aristocracy nearly +all over Europe. With the general causes, which +were common to England and to most parts of the +Continent, we are not now concerned. It is enough +to say, that they were entirely dependent on that advance +of knowledge, which, by increasing the authority +of the intellectual class, undermines, and must eventually +overthrow, mere hereditary and accidental distinctions. +But those causes which were confined to +Scotland, had a more political character, and though +they were purely local, they harmonized with the +whole train of events, and ought to be noticed, as links +of a vast chain, which connects the present state of +that singular country with its past history.</p> + +<p>The first cause was the union of Scotland with England, +in 1707, which struck a heavy blow at the Scotch +aristocracy. By it, the legislature of the smaller country +was absorbed in that of the larger, and the hereditary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +legislators suddenly sunk into insignificance. In the +Scotch parliament, there were a hundred and forty-five +peers, all of whom, except sixteen, were, by the Act of +Union, deprived of the power of making laws.<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> These +sixteen were sent off to London, and took their seats in +the House of Lords, of which they formed a small and +miserable fraction. On every subject, however important +to their own country, they were easily outvoted; +their manners, their gesticulations, and particularly +their comical mode of pronouncing English, were openly +ridiculed;<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> and the chiefs of this old and powerful +aristocracy found themselves, to their utter amazement, +looked on as men of no account, and they were often +obliged to fawn and cringe at the levee of the minister, +in order to procure a place for some needy dependent. +Their friends and relations applied to them for offices, +and generally applied in vain. Indeed, the Scotch +nobles, being very poor, wanted for themselves more +than the English government was inclined to give, and, +in the eagerness of their clamour, they lost both dignity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +and reputation.<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> They were exposed to mortifying +rebuffs, and their true position being soon known, +weakened their influence at home, among a people +already prepared to throw off their authority. To this,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +however, they were comparatively indifferent, as they +looked for future fortune, not to Scotland, but to England. +London became the centre of their intrigues and +their hopes.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> Those who had no seat in the House of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +Lords, longed to have one, and it was notorious, that +the darling object of nearly every Scotch noble was to +be made an English peer.<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> The scene of their ambition +being shifted, they were gradually weaned from +their old associations. Directly this was apparent, the +foundation of their power was gone. From that moment, +their real nationality vanished. It became evident +that their patriotism was but a selfish passion. They +ceased to love a country which could give them nothing, +and, as a natural consequence, their country ceased to +love them.</p> + +<p>Thus it was that this great tie was severed. In this, +as in all similar movements, there were, of course, exceptions. +Some of the nobles were disinterested, and +some of their dependents were faithful. But, looking +at the Lowlands as a whole, there can be no doubt that, +before the middle of the eighteenth century, that bond +of affection was gone, which, in former times, made +tens of thousands of Scotchmen ready to follow their +superiors in any cause, and to sacrifice their lives at a +nod. That spirit, which was once deemed ardent and +generous, but which a deeper analysis shows to be mean +and servile, was now almost extinct, except among the +barbarous Highlanders, whose ignorance of affairs long +prevented them from being influenced by the stream of +events. That the proximate cause of this change was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +the Union, will probably be denied by no one who has +minutely studied the history of the period. And that +the change was beneficial, can only be questioned by +those sentimental dreamers, with whom life is a matter +rather of feeling than of judgment, and who, despising +real and tangible interests, reproach their own age with +its material prosperity, and with its love of luxury, as +if they were the result of low and sordid desires unknown +to the loftier temper of bygone days. To +visionaries of this sort, it may well appear that the +barbarous and ignorant noble, surrounded by a host of +devoted retainers, and living with rude simplicity in his +own dull and wretched castle, forms a beautiful picture +of those unmercenary and uncalculating times, when +men, instead of seeking for knowledge, or for wealth, +or for comfort, were content with the frugal innocence +of their fathers, and when, protection being accorded +by one class, and gratitude felt by the other, the subordination +of society was maintained, and its different +parts were knit together by sympathy, and by the force +of common emotions, instead of, as now, by the coarse +maxims of a vulgar and selfish utility.</p> + +<p>Those, however, whose knowledge gives them some +acquaintance with the real course of human affairs, will +see that in Scotland, as in all civilized countries, the +decline of aristocratic power forms an essential part of +the general progress. It must, therefore, be esteemed +a fortunate circumstance, that, among the Scotch, where +that power had long been enormous, it was weakened +in the eighteenth century, not only by general causes, +which were operating elsewhere, but also by two smaller +and more special causes. The first of these minor +causes was, as we have just seen, the Union with England. +The other cause was, comparatively speaking, +insignificant, but still it produced decided effect, particularly +in the northern districts. It consisted in the +fact, that some of the oldest Highland nobles were +concerned in the rebellion of 1745, and that, when that +rebellion was put down, those who escaped from the +sword were glad to save their lives by flying abroad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +leaving their dependents to shift for themselves.<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> +They became attached to the court of the Pretender, or, +at all events, intrigued for him. That, indeed, was their +only chance, their estates at home being forfeited. For +nearly forty years, several great families were in exile, +and although, about 1784, they began to return,<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> other +associations had been formed during their absence, and +new ideas had arisen, both in their own minds, and in +the minds of their retainers. A fresh generation had +grown up, and fresh influences had been brought to +bear. Strangers, with whom the people had no sympathy, +had intruded upon the estates of the nobles, +and though they might receive obedience, it was an +obedience unaccompanied by deference. The real reverence +was gone; the homage of the heart was no +more. And as this state of things lasted for about +forty years, it interrupted the whole train of thought; +and the former habits were so completely broken, that, +even when the chiefs were restored to their forfeited +honours, they found that there was another part of their +inheritance which they were unable to recover, and that +they had lost for ever that unreserved submission, +which, in times of yore, had been willingly paid to their +fathers.<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> + +<p>Owing to these circumstances, the course of affairs in +Scotland, during the eighteenth century, and especially +during the first half of it, was marked by a more rapid +decline of the influence of the higher ranks than was +seen in any other country. It was, therefore, an easy +task for the English government to procure a law, +which, by abolishing hereditary jurisdictions, deprived +the Scotch aristocracy, in 1748, of the last great ensign +of their power.<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> The law, being suited to the spirit +of the times, worked well; and in the Highlands, in +particular, it was one immediate cause of the establishment +of something like the order of a settled state.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> +But in this instance, as in every other, the real and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +overruling cause is to be found in the condition of the +surrounding society. A few generations earlier, hardly +any one would have thought of abolishing these mischievous +jurisdictions, which were then deemed beneficial, +and were respected, as belonging to the great +families by natural and inalienable right. Such an +opinion was the inevitable result of the state of things +then existing. This being the case, it is certain that, if +the legislature had, at that time, been so rash as to lay +its hand on what the nation respected, popular sympathy +would have been aroused, and the nobles would +have been strengthened by what was intended to weaken +them.<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> In 1748, however, matters were very different. +Public opinion had changed; and this change of opinion +was not only the cause of the new law, but was the +reason of the new law being effective. And so it +always is. They, indeed, whose knowledge is almost +confined to what they see passing around them, and +who, on account of their ignorance, are termed practical +men, may talk as they will about the reforms which +government has introduced, and the improvement to be +expected from legislation. But whoever will take a +wider and more commanding view of affairs, will soon +discover that such hopes are chimerical. They will +learn that lawgivers are nearly always the obstructors +of society, instead of its helpers; and that, in the extremely +few cases in which their measures have turned +out well, their success has been owing to the fact, that, +contrary to their usual custom, they have implicitly +obeyed the spirit of their time, and have been, as they +always should be, the mere servants of the people, to +whose wishes they are bound to give a public and legal +sanction.</p> + +<p>Another striking peculiarity of Scotland, during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +remarkable period we are now considering, was the +sudden rise of trading and manufacturing interests. +This preceded, by a whole generation, the celebrated +statute of 1748, and was one of the causes of it, in so +far as it weakened the great families, against whom +that statute was directed. The movement may be traced +back, as I have already noticed, to the end of the +seventeenth century, and it was in active operation +before the first twenty years of the eighteenth century +had passed away. A mercantile and money-making +spirit was diffused to an extent formerly unknown, and +men becoming valued for their wealth as well as for +their birth, a new standard of excellence was introduced, +and new actors appeared on the scene. Heretofore, +persons were respected solely for their parentage; now +they were also respected for their riches. The old +aristocracy, made uneasy by the change, did every +thing they could to thwart and discourage these young +and dangerous rivals.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> Nor can we wonder at their +feeling somewhat sore. The tendency which was exhibited, +was, indeed, fatal to their pretensions. Instead +of asking who was a man's father, the question became, +how much he had got. And certainly, if either question +is to be put, the latter is the more rational. Wealth is +a real and substantial thing, which ministers to our +pleasures, increases our comfort, multiplies our resources, +and not unfrequently alleviates our pains. But birth +is a dream and a shadow, which, so far from benefiting +either body or mind, only puffs up its possessor with an +imaginary excellence, and teaches him to despise those +whom nature has made his superiors, and who, whether +engaged in adding to our knowledge or to our wealth, +are, in either case, ameliorating the condition of society, +and rendering to it true and valuable service.</p> + +<p>This antagonism between the aristocratic and trading +spirit, lies in the nature of things, and is essential, +however it may be disguised at particular periods.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +Therefore it is, that the history of trade has a philosophic +importance in reference to the progress of society, quite +independent of practical considerations. On this account +I have called the attention of the reader to what +otherwise would be foreign to the objects of the present +Introduction; and I will now trace, as briefly as possible, +the beginning of that great industrial movement, +to the extension of which the overthrow of the Scotch +aristocracy is to be partly ascribed.</p> + +<p>The Union with England, which was completed in +1707, produced immediate and striking effects on trade. +Its first effect was, to throw open to the Scotch a new +and extensive commerce with the English colonies in +America. Before the Union, no goods of any kind could +be landed in Scotland from the American plantations, +unless they had first been landed in England, and paid +duty there; nor even, in that case, might they be conveyed +by any Scotch vessel.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> This was one of many +foolish regulations by which our legislators interfered +with the natural course of affairs, and injured the interests +of their own country, as well as those of their +neighbours. Formerly, however, such laws were considered +to be extremely sagacious, and politicians were +constantly contriving protective schemes of this sort, +which, with the best intentions, inflicted incalculable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +harm. But if, as seems probable, one of their objects, in +this instance, was to retard the improvement of Scotland, +they were more than usually successful in effecting the +purpose at which they aimed. For, the whole of the +western coast, being cut off from direct intercourse with +the American colonies, was debarred from the only +foreign trade it could advantageously follow; since the +European ports lay to the east, and could not be reached +by the inhabitants of Western Scotland without a long +circumnavigation, which prevented them from competing, +on equal terms, with their countrymen, who, +sailing from the other side, were already near the chief +seats of commerce. The consequence was, that Glasgow +and the other western ports remained almost stationary; +having comparatively few means of gratifying that enterprising +spirit, which rose among them late in the +seventeenth century, and not daring to trade with those +prosperous colonies which were just before them across +the Atlantic, but from which they were entirely excluded +by the jealous precautions of the English parliament.<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p> + +<p>When, however, by the Act of Union, the two countries +became one, these precautions were discontinued, +and Scotland was allowed to hold direct intercourse +with America and the West India Islands. The result +which this produced on the national industry, was almost +instantaneous, because it gave vent to a spirit which +had begun to appear among the people late in the +seventeenth century, and because it was aided by those +still more general causes, which, in most parts of +Europe, predisposed that age to increased industry. +The west of Scotland, being nearest to America, was the +first to feel the movement. In 1707, the inhabitants of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +Greenock, without the interference of government, imposed +on themselves a voluntary assessment, with the +object of constructing a harbour. In this undertaking, +they displayed so much zeal, that, by the year 1710, +the whole of the works were completed; a pier and +capacious harbour were erected, and Greenock was +suddenly raised from insignificance to take an important +part in the trade of the Atlantic.<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> For a while, the +merchants were content to carry on their traffic with +ships hired from the English. Soon, however, they +became bolder; they began to build on their own +account; and, in 1719, the first vessel belonging to +Greenock sailed for America.<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> From that moment, their +commerce increased so rapidly, that, by the year 1740, the +tax which the citizens had laid on themselves sufficed, +not only to wipe off the debt which had been incurred, +but also to leave a considerable surplus available +for municipal purposes.<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> At the same time, and by +the action of the same causes, Glasgow emerged from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +obscurity. In 1718, its enterprising inhabitants launched +in the Clyde the first Scotch vessel which ever crossed +the Atlantic; thus anticipating the people of Greenock +by one year.<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> Glasgow and Greenock became the two +great commercial outlets of Scotland, and the chief +centres of activity.<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> Comforts, and, indeed, luxuries, +hitherto only attainable at enormous cost, began to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +diffused through the country. The productions of the +tropics could now be procured direct from the New +World, which, in return, offered a rich and abundant +market for manufactured goods. This was a further +stimulus to Scotch industry, and its effects were immediately +apparent. The inhabitants of Glasgow, finding +a great demand among the Americans for linen, introduced +its manufacture into their city in 1725, whence it +extended to other places, and, in a short time, gave +employment to thousands of workmen.<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> It is also +from the year 1725, that Paisley dates its rise. So late +as the beginning of the eighteenth century, this rich +and prosperous city was still a straggling village, containing +only a single street.<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> But, after the Union, +its poor, and hitherto idle, inhabitants began to be +moved by the activity which they saw on every side. +Gradually, their views expanded; and the introduction +among them, in 1725, of the manufacture of thread, +was the first step in that great career in which they +never stopped, until they had raised Paisley to be a vast +emporium of industry, and a successful promoter of +every art by which industry is nurtured.<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> + +<p>Nor was it merely in the west, that this movement +was displayed. In Scotland generally, the spirit of +trade became so rife, that it began to encroach on the +old theological spirit, which had long been supreme. +Hitherto, the Scotch had cared for little except religious +polemics. In every society, these had been the +chief subjects of conversation; and on them, men had +wasted their energies, without the least benefit either +to themselves or to others. But, about this time it was +observed, that the improvement of manufactures became +a common topic of discourse.<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> Such a statement, +made by a well-informed writer, who witnessed what +he relates, is a curious proof of the change which was +beginning, though very faintly, to steal over the Scotch +mind. It shows that there was, at all events, a tendency +to turn aside from subjects which are inaccessible +to our understanding, and the discussion of which has +no effect except to exasperate those who dispute, and to +make them more intolerant than ever of theological +opinions different from their own. Unhappily, there +were, as I shall presently point out, other causes at +work, which prevented this tendency from producing +all the good that might have been expected. Still, so +far as it went, it was a clear gain. It was a blow to +superstition, inasmuch as it was an attempt to occupy +the human mind with mere secular considerations. In +a country like Scotland, this alone was extremely +important. We must also add, that, though it was +the effect of increased industry, it, as often happens,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +reacted upon, and strengthened, its cause. For, by diminishing, +however little, the inordinate respect formerly +paid to theological pursuits, it was, in the same proportion, +an inducement to ambitious and enterprising +men to abstain from those pursuits, and to engage in +temporal matters, where ability, being less fettered by +prejudice, has more scope, and enjoys more freedom of +action. Of those men, some rose to the first rank in +literature; while others, taking a different but equally +useful turn, became as eminent in trade. Hence, Scotland, +during the eighteenth century, possessed, for the +first time, two powerful and active classes, whose aim +was essentially secular—the intellectual class, and the +industrial class. Before the eighteenth century, neither +of these classes exercised an independent sway, or could, +indeed, be said to have a separate existence. The intellect +of the country was absorbed by the church; the +industry of the country was controlled by the nobles. +The effect which this change produced on the literature +of Scotland will be traced in the last chapter of the +present volume. Its effect on industry was equally +remarkable, and, for the well-being of the nation, was +equally valuable. But it does not possess that general +scientific interest which belongs to the intellectual +movement; and I shall, therefore, in addition to the +evidence already given, confine myself to a few more +facts illustrative of the history of Scotch industry down +to the middle of the eighteenth century, by which time +there was no longer any doubt that the flood of material +prosperity had fairly set in.</p> + +<p>During the seventeenth century, the only Scotch +manufacture of any importance was that of linen, which, +however, like every other branch of industry, was +very backward, and was exposed to all sorts of discouragement.<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> +But, after the Union, it received a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +sudden impetus, from two causes. One of these causes, +as I have already noticed, was the demand from America, +consequent upon the trade of the Atlantic being +thrown open. The other cause was, the removal of the +duty which England had imposed upon the importation +of Scotch linen. These two circumstances, occurring +nearly at the same time, produced such effect on +the national industry, that De Foe, who had a wider +knowledge of the details of trade than any man of +that age, said that it seemed as if, for the future, the +Scotch poor could never lack employment.<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> Unfortunately, +this was not the case, and never will be, until +society is radically changed. But the movement which +provoked so bold a remark from so cautious an observer +as De Foe, must have been very striking; and we know, +from other sources, that, between 1728 and 1738, the +manufacture of linen for exportation alone was more +than doubled.<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> After that period, this and other +departments of Scotch industry advanced with a constantly +accelerating speed. It is mentioned, by a contemporary +who was likely to be well informed, that, +between 1715 and 1745, the trade and manufactures +of Scotland increased more than they had done for +ages before.<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> Such a statement, though valuable as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +corroborating other evidence, is too vague to be entirely +relied on; and historians, who usually occupy themselves +with insignificant details about courts and princes +and statesmen, desert us in matters which are really +important, so that it is now hardly possible to reconstruct +the history of the Scotch people during this, +the first epoch of their material prosperity. I have, +however, gathered a few facts, which appear to rest on +good authority, and which supply us with something +like precise information as to dates. In 1739, the manufacture +of linen was introduced into Kilbarchan,<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> and, +in 1740, into Arbroath.<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> From the year 1742, the manufactures +of Kilmarnock date their rise.<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> In 1748, +the first linen was manufactured in Cullen;<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> and in the +same year in Inverary.<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> In 1749, this great branch of +industry and source of wealth was established, on a large +scale, in Aberdeen;<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> while, about 1750, it began to diffuse +itself in Wemyss, in the county of Fife.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> These +things happening, within eleven years, in parts of the +country so distant from each other, and so totally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +unconnected, indicate the existence of general causes, +which governed the whole movement; though in this, +as in all instances, every thing is popularly ascribed to +the influence of a few powerful individuals. We have, +however, other proofs that the progress was essentially +national. Even in Edinburgh, where hitherto no +claims had been respected except those of the nobles or +clergy, the voice of this new trading interest began to +be heard. In that poor and warlike capital, a society +was now first established for the encouragement of manufactures; +and we are assured that this was but a +single manifestation of the enthusiasm which was generally +felt on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> Coinciding with this movement, +and indeed forming part of it, we can discern the +earliest symptoms of a monied class, properly so called. +In 1749, there was established, at Aberdeen, the first +county bank ever seen in Scotland; and, in the very +same year, a similar establishment was formed at Glasgow.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> +These represented the east and the west, and, +by the advances which they were able to make, each +assisted the trade of its own district. Between eastern +and western Scotland, the intercourse, as yet, was +difficult and costly. But this likewise was about to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +be remedied by an enterprise, the mere conception of +which would formerly have excited ridicule. After the +Union, the idea arose of uniting the east with the west +by a canal, which should join the Forth to the Clyde. +The plan was deemed chimerical, and was abandoned. +As soon, however, as the manufacturing and commercial +classes had gained sufficient influence they adopted it, +with that energy which is characteristic of their order, +and which is more common among them than among +any other rank of society. The result was, that, in +1768, the great work was fairly begun;<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> and the first +step was taken towards what, in a material point of +view, was an enterprise of vast importance, but, in a +social and intellectual point of view, was of still superior +value, inasmuch as, by supplying a cheap and easy +transit through the heart of the most populous part of +Scotland, it had a direct tendency to make different districts +and different places feel that each had need of +others, and thus encouraging the notion that all belonged +to one common scheme, it assisted in diminishing +local prejudice and assuaging local jealousy; while, +in the same proportion, by enticing men to move out of +the narrow circle in which they had habitually lived, it +prepared them for a certain enlargement of mind, which +is the natural consequence of seeing affairs under various +aspects, and which is never found in any country in +which the means of travelling are either very hazardous +or very expensive.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of Scotland towards the middle +of the eighteenth century; and surely a fairer prospect +was never opened to any country. The land was at +peace. It had nothing to fear, either from foreign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +invasion, or from domestic tyranny. The arts, which +increase the comfort of man, and minister to his happiness, +were sedulously cultivated; wealth was being +created with unexampled speed, and the blessings which +follow in the train of wealth were being widely diffused; +while the insolence of the nobility was so effectually +curbed, that industrious citizens could, for the first time, +feel their own independence, could know that what they +earned, that likewise they should enjoy, and could hold +themselves erect, and with a manly brow, in the presence +of a class before whom they had long crouched in abject +submission.</p> + +<p>Besides this, a great literature now arose, a literature +of rare and surpassing beauty. To narrate the intellectual +achievements of the Scotch during the eighteenth +century, in a manner at all commensurate with their +importance, would require a separate treatise, and I +cannot now stop even to mention what all educated +persons are at least partly acquainted with; each student +recognizing the value of what was done in his own pursuit. +In the last chapter of this volume, I shall, however, +attempt to give some idea of the general results +considered as a whole; at present, it is enough to say, +that in every branch of knowledge this once poor +and ignorant people produced original and successful +thinkers. What makes this the more remarkable, is its +complete contrast to their former state. Down even to +the beginning of the eighteenth century, Scotland could +only boast of two authors whose works have benefited +mankind. They were Buchanan and Napier. Buchanan +was the first political writer who held accurate views +respecting government, and who clearly defined the true +relation between the people and their rulers. He placed +popular rights on a solid basis, and vindicated, by anticipation, +all subsequent revolutions. Napier, equally +bold in another department, succeeded, by a mighty +effort of genius, in detecting, and pushing to its extreme +consequence, a law of the progression of numbers, which +is so simple and yet so potent, that it unravels the most +tedious and intricate calculations, and, thus economizing +the labours of the brain, has saved an enormous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +incalculable waste. These two men were, indeed, great +benefactors of their species; but they stand alone, and +if all the other authors Scotland produced down to the +close of the seventeenth century had never been born, or +if, being born, they had never written, society would +have lost nothing, but would be in exactly the same +position as it now is.</p> + +<p>Early, however, in the eighteenth century, a movement +was felt all over Europe, and in that movement +Scotland participated. A spirit of inquiry was abroad, +so general and so searching, that no country could +entirely escape from its action. Sanguine men were +excited, and even grave men were stirred. It seemed +as if a long night were about to close. Light broke +forth where before there was nothing but darkness. +Opinions which had stood the test of ages were suddenly +questioned; and in every direction doubts sprung up, +and proofs were demanded. The human mind, waxing +bold, would not be satisfied with the old evidence. +Things were examined at their foundation, and the +basis of every belief was jealously scrutinized. For a +time, this was confined to the higher intellects; but +soon the movement spread, and, in the most advanced +countries, worked upon nearly all classes. In England +and in France, the result was extremely beneficial. It +might have been hoped, that in Scotland likewise, the +popular mind would gradually have become enlightened. +But not so. Time rolled on; one generation succeeded +another; the eighteenth century passed away; the nineteenth +century came; and still the people made no sign. +The gloom of the middle ages was yet upon them. +While all around was light, the Scotch, enveloped in +mist, crept on, groping their way, dismally and with +fear. While other nations were shaking off their old +superstitions, this singular people clung to theirs with +undiminished tenacity. Now, indeed, their grasp is +gradually slackening, but with extreme slowness, and +threatening reactions frequently appear. This, as it +always has been, and still is, the curse of Scotland, so +also is it the chief difficulty with which the historian of +Scotland has to contend. Everywhere else, when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +rise of the intellectual classes, and that of the trading and +manufacturing classes, have accompanied each other, +the invariable result has been, a diminution of the power +of the clergy, and, consequently, a diminution of the influence +of superstition. The peculiarity of Scotland is, +that, during the eighteenth century, and even down to +the middle of the nineteenth century, the industrial and +intellectual progress has continued without materially +shaking the authority of the priesthood.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> Strange +and unequal combination! The country of bold and +enterprising merchants, of shrewd manufacturers, of +far-seeing men of business, and of cunning artificers; +the country, too, of such fearless thinkers as George +Buchanan, David Hume, and Adam Smith, is awed by +a few noisy and ignorant preachers, to whom it allows +a license, and yields a submission, disgraceful to the age, +and incompatible with the commonest notions of liberty. +A people, in many respects very advanced, and holding +upon political subjects enlightened views, do, upon all +religious subjects, display a littleness of mind, an illiberality +of sentiment, a heat of temper, and a love of +persecuting others, which shows that the Protestantism +of which they boast has done them no good; that, in the +most important matters, it has left them as narrow as it +found them; and that it has been unable to free them +from prejudices which make them the laughing-stock +of Europe, and which have turned the very name of +the Scotch Kirk into a by-word and a reproach among +educated men.</p> + +<p>I shall now endeavour to explain how all this arose, +and how such apparent inconsistencies are to be reconciled. +That they may be reconciled, and that the inconsistencies +are merely apparent and not real, will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +at once admitted by whoever is capable of a scientific +conception of history. For, in the moral world, as in +the physical world, nothing is anomalous; nothing is +unnatural; nothing is strange. All is order, symmetry, +and law. There are opposites, but there are no contradictions. +In the character of a nation, inconsistency is +impossible. Such, however, is still the backward condition +of the human mind, and with so evil and jaundiced +an eye do we approach the greatest problems, that not +only common writers, but even men from whom better +things might be hoped, are on this point involved in +constant confusion, perplexing themselves and their +readers by speaking of inconsistency, as if it were a +quality belonging to the subject which they investigate, +instead of being, as it really is, a measure of their own +ignorance. It is the business of the historian to remove +this ignorance, by showing that the movements of nations +are perfectly regular, and that, like all other movements, +they are solely determined by their antecedents. If he +cannot do this, he is no historian. He may be an annalist, +or a biographer, or a chronicler, but higher than +that he cannot rise, unless he is imbued with that spirit +of science which teaches, as an article of faith, the doctrine +of uniform sequence; in other words, the doctrine +that certain events having already happened, certain +other events corresponding to them will also happen. +To seize this idea with firmness, and to apply it on all +occasions, without listening to any exceptions, is extremely +difficult, but it must be done by whoever wishes +to elevate the study of history from its present crude +and informal state, and do what he may towards placing +it in its proper rank, as the head and chief of all the +sciences. Even then, he cannot perform his task unless +his materials are ample, and derived from sources of +unquestioned credibility. But if his facts are sufficiently +numerous; if they are very diversified; if they have +been collected from such various quarters that they can +check and confront each other, so as to do away with +all suspicion of their testimony being garbled; and if he +who uses them possesses that faculty of generalization, +without which nothing great can be achieved, he will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +hardly fail in bringing some part of his labours to a +prosperous issue, provided he devotes all his strength to +that one enterprise, postponing to it every other object +of ambition, and sacrificing to it many interests which +men hold dear. Some of the most pleasurable incentives +to action, he must disregard. Not for him, are those +rewards which, in other pursuits, the same energy would +have earned; not for him, the sweets of popular applause; +not for him, the luxury of power; not for him, +a share in the councils of his country; not for him, a +conspicuous and honoured place before the public eye. +Albeit conscious of what he could do, he may not compete +in the great contest; he cannot hope to win the +prize; he cannot even enjoy the excitement of the struggle. +To him, the arena is closed. His recompense lies +within himself, and he must learn to care little for the +sympathy of his fellow-creatures, or for such honours as +they are able to bestow. So far from looking for these +things, he should rather be prepared for that obloquy +which always awaits those, who, by opening up new veins +of thought, disturb the prejudices of their contemporaries. +While ignorance, and worse than ignorance, is +imputed to him, while his motives are misrepresented, +and his integrity impeached, while he is accused of +denying the value of moral principles, and of attacking +the foundation of all religion, as if he were some public +enemy, who made it his business to corrupt society, and +whose delight it was to see what evil he could do; while +these charges are brought forward, and repeated from +mouth to mouth, he must be capable of pursuing in +silence the even tenor of his way, without swerving, +without pausing, and without stepping from his path to +notice the angry outcries which he cannot but hear, and +which he is more than human if he does not long to +rebuke. These are the qualities, and these the high resolves, +indispensable to him, who, on the most important +of all subjects, believing that the old road is worn out +and useless, seeks to strike out a new one for himself, +and, in the effort, not only perhaps exhausts his strength, +but is sure to incur the enmity of those who are bent +on maintaining the ancient scheme unimpaired. To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +solve the great problem of affairs; to detect those hidden +circumstances which determine the march and destiny +of nations; and to find, in the events of the past, a key +to the proceedings of the future, is nothing less than to +unite into a single science all the laws of the moral and +physical world. Whoever does this, will build up afresh +the fabric of our knowledge, re-arrange its various parts, +and harmonize its apparent discrepancies. Perchance, +the human mind is hardly ready for so vast an enterprise. +At all events, he who undertakes it will meet +with little sympathy, and will find few to help him. +And let him toil as he may, the sun and noontide of his +life shall pass by, the evening of his days shall overtake +him, and he himself have to quit the scene, leaving that +unfinished which he had vainly hoped to complete. He +may lay the foundation; it will be for his successors to +raise the edifice. Their hands will give the last touch; +they will reap the glory; their names will be remembered +when he is forgotten. It is, indeed, too true, that +such a work requires, not only several minds, but also +the successive experience of several generations. Once, +I own, I thought otherwise. Once, when I first caught +sight of the whole field of knowledge, and seemed, +however dimly, to discern its various parts and the +relation they bore to each other, I was so entranced with +its surpassing beauty, that the judgment was beguiled, +and I deemed myself able, not only to cover the surface, +but also to master the details. Little did I know how +the horizon enlarges as well as recedes, and how vainly +we grasp at the fleeting forms, which melt away and +elude us in the distance. Of all that I had hoped to do, +I now find but too surely how small a part I shall accomplish. +In those early aspirations, there was much that +was fanciful; perhaps there was much that was foolish. +Perhaps, too, they contained a moral defect, and savoured +of an arrogance which belongs to a strength that refuses +to recognize its own weakness. Still, even now +that they are defeated and brought to nought, I cannot +repent having indulged in them, but, on the contrary, I +would willingly recall them, if I could. For, such hopes +belong to that joyous and sanguine period of life, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +alone we are really happy; when the emotions are more +active than the judgment; when experience has not yet +hardened our nature; when the affections are not yet +blighted and nipped to the core; and when the bitterness +of disappointment not having yet been felt, difficulties +are unheeded, obstacles are unseen, ambition is a pleasure +instead of a pang, and the blood coursing swiftly through +the veins, the pulse beats high, while the heart throbs +at the prospect of the future. Those are glorious days; +but they go from us, and nothing can compensate their +absence. To me, they now seem more like the visions +of a disordered fancy, than the sober realities of things +that were, and are not. It is painful to make this confession; +but I owe it to the reader, because I would not +have him to suppose that either in this, or in the future +volumes of my History, I shall be able to redeem my +pledge, and to perform all that I promised. Something, +I hope to achieve, which will interest the thinkers of +this age; and something, perhaps, on which posterity +may build. It will, however, only be a fragment of my +original design. In the two last chapters I have attempted, +and in the two next chapters I shall still further +attempt, to solve a curious problem in the history of +Scotland, which is intimately connected with other problems +of a yet graver import: but though the solution +will, I believe, be complete, the evidence of the solution +will, most assuredly, be imperfect. I regret to add, that +such imperfection is henceforth an essential part of my +plan. It is essential, because I despair of supplying +those deficiencies in my knowledge, of which I grow +more sensible in proportion as my views become more +extensive. It is also essential, because, after a fair estimate +of my own strength, of the probable duration of +my life, and of the limits to which industry can safely +be pushed, I have been driven to the conclusion, that +this Introduction, which I had projected as a solid foundation +on which the history of England might subsequently +be raised, must either be greatly curtailed, and +consequently shorn of its force, or that, if not curtailed, +there will hardly be a chance of my being able to narrate, +with the amplitude and fulness of detail which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +richly deserve, the deeds of that great and splendid +nation with which I am best acquainted, and of which +it is my pride to count myself a member. It is with +the free, the noble, and the high-minded English people, +that my sympathies are most closely connected; on them +my affections naturally centre; from their literature, +and from their example, my best lessons have been +learnt; and it is now the most cherished and the most +sacred desire of my heart, that I may succeed in writing +their history, and in unfolding the successive phases of +their mighty career, while I am yet somewhat equal to the +task, and before my faculties have begun to dwindle, or +the power of continuous attention has begun to decay.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Lord Dartmouth says (Note in <i>Burnet's History of his own +Time</i>, vol. i. p. 15): ‘The Earl of Seafield told me that King James +frequently declared that he never looked upon himself to be more than +King of Scotland in name, till he came to be King of England; but now, +he said, one kingdom would help him to govern the other, or he had +studied kingcraft to very little purpose from his cradle to that time.’ +Compare <i>Burnet's Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton</i>, Oxford, 1852, p. +36. ‘No sooner was he happily settled on the throne of England, but he +went more roundly to work.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> Compare <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. p. 430, +with <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 303, § 20; also +the Act (p. 293, § 4), likewise in 1584, limiting the power of the +General Assemblies. James, who flattered himself that he had now settled +everything, signalized his triumph by personally abusing the clergy; +‘calling them lownes, smaicks, seditious knaves, and so furth.’ See a +letter, dated 2nd of January 1585–6, in <i>Miscellany of the Wodrow +Society</i>, p. 438, Edinburgh, 1844.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> ‘Bishops were alwayes looked at with a frown.’ <i>Kirkton's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> See this remarkable statute, in <i>Acts of the Parliaments of +Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 541, 2. As some of the historians of the Scotch +Church have greatly misrepresented it, I will quote that part which +expressly repeals the Act of 1584, in favour of the bishops. ‘Item oure +said souerane lord and estaittis of Parliament foirsaid, abrogatis cass +and anullis the xx act of the same pliamēt haldin at Edinburgh the +said zeir 1584 zeiris granting cōmissioun to bishoppis and vtheris +iuges constitute in ecclesiastical causs To ressaue his hienes +presentatioun to benefices, To gif collatioun thairvpoun and to put +ordo<sup>r</sup> in all causs ecclesiasticall qlk his Maiestie and estaittis +foirsaid declairis to be expyrit in the self and to be null in tyme +cuming and of nane availl force nor effect.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> ‘The King repented after that he had agreed unto it.’ +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. p. 162. But this gives a +faint idea of his real feelings. It is perhaps hardly necessary to +adduce evidence of the opinions entertained on this point, by a prince, +one of whose favourite sayings was, ‘No Bishop, no King.’ The reader +will, however, find, in the <i>Clarendon State Papers</i> (vol. ii. p. 260 +Oxford, 1773, folio), a letter from Charles I., which is worth looking +at, because it frankly avows that James, in loving episcopacy and hating +presbyterianism, was actuated rather by political motives than by +religious ones. Charles writes: ‘The prudentiall part of any +consideration will never be found opposit to the conscientious, nay +heere, they go hand in hand; for (according to lawyers lodgique) show me +any president where ever Presbiteriall government and Regall was +together, without perpetuall rebellions. <i>Which was the cause that +necessitated the King, my Father, to change that governement in +Scotland.</i>’ Compare what is said by a Scotch Presbyterian of the +seventeenth century, in <i>Biographies edited for the Wodrow Society</i> by +the Rev. W. K. Tweedie, Edinburgh, 1845, vol. i. p. 13. ‘The reason why +King James was so violent for bishops was neither their divine +institution (which he denied they had), nor yet the profit the Church +should reap by them (for he knew well both the men and their +communications), but merely because he believed they were useful +instruments to turn a limited monarchy into absolute dominion, and +subjects into slaves, the design in the world he minded most.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> ‘Had it not been laid hold of by designing politicians as a +handle for accomplishing their measures, it would not now have been +known that such an event had ever occurred.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of +Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 85. ‘Harmless as this uproar was, it afforded the +court a pretext for carrying into execution its designs against the +liberties and government of the Church.’ p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 342–345. +<i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. pp. 514, 515, 530, 531.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> ‘Intimidated by these menaces, and distressed at the loss +of the courts of justice, they came to the resolution of making +surrender of their political and religious liberties to the king.’ +<i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 92. This is said of the +magistrates of Edinburgh. Among other threats, one was, the ‘razing and +ploughing of Edinburgh, and sowing it with salt.’ <i>Wodrow's Life of +Bruce</i>, p. 48, prefixed to <i>Bruce's Sermons</i>, edited by the Rev. William +Cunningham, Edinburgh, 1843. On this occasion, Elizabeth wrote a letter +to James, which is printed in <i>Letters of Queen Elizabeth and James +VI.</i>, 1849, 4to, pp. 120, 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 100. Scot +(<i>Apologetical Narration of the State of the Kirk</i>, p. 88) says, ‘Sir +Patrick Murray, the diligent apostle of the North, made their +acquaintance with the King.’ Also, <i>The Autobiography and Diary of James +Melville</i>, p. 403.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 350, 359. +But by far the best account of the influence of these northern clergy +will be found in <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i> (vol. ii. pp. 100–105, 109, +131, 152), drawn, in several instances, from manuscript authorities. +Compare <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. v. p. 625.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> This is related by his nephew, James Melville. ‘Mr. Andro +Melvill come to the Assembly, by Commissoune of his Presbytrie, but wes +commandit to keip his ludgeing; quho, being callit to the King in +private, and demandit, Quhy he wes so trublesume as to come to the +Assembly being dischairgit? He answerit, He had a calling in the Kirk of +God, and of Jesus Chryst, the King of kings, quhilk he behovit to +dischairge at all occasiounes, being orderlie callit thairto, as he wes +at this tyme; and that for feir of a grytter punischment then could any +earthly King inflict.’ <i>The Autobiography and Diary of James Melvill</i>, +p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> As, owing to the passions of the rival classes, every step +of this part of Scotch history is the subject of angry controversy, and +as even Mr. Tytler (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. p. 360) asserts +that ‘the final establishment of Episcopacy’ took place at the Assembly +of Montrose, in 1600. I subjoin a few extracts from the enactments +of that Assembly, in order that the reader may judge for himself, and +may test the accuracy of what I have stated in the text. ‘Concerning the +maner of choosing of him that sall have vote in Parliament in name of +the Kirk: It is condiscendit vpon, that <i>he sall first be recommendit be +the Kirk to his Majestie</i>; and that the Kirk sall nominat sixe for every +place that sall have neid to be filled, of quhom his Majestie sall +choose ane, of quhom he best lykes; and his Majestie promises, obleises, +and binds himselfe to choose no vther but ane of that number: And in +cace his Majestie refuses the haill vpon ane just reason of ane +insufficiency, and of greater sufficiencie of vthers that are not +recommendit, the Kirk sall make ane new recommendatioun of men according +to the first number, of the quhilk, ane salbe chosin be his Majestie +without any farther refuisall or new nominatioun; and he that salbe +chosin be his Majestie, salbe admittit be the Synods.’ <i>Acts of the +General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 954. ‘As to +the cautions to keip him, that sall have vote in Parliament, from +corruptiouns: They be these following: 1. <i>That he presume +not, at any tyme, to propone at Parliament, Counsell or Conventioun, in +name of the Kirk, any thing without expresse warrand and directioun from +the Kirk</i>, and sick things as he sall answer (for) to be for the weill +of the Kirk, vnder the paine of depositioun from his office.’ … 2. ‘He sall +be bound at every Generall Assemblie, to give +ane accompt anent the discharge of his commissioun sen the Assemblie +gangand befor; <i>and sall submitt himselfe to thair censure, and stand at +thair determinatioun quhatsumever, without appellatioun; and sall seik +and obtain ratificatioun of his doings at the said Assemblie, vnder the +paine of infamie and excommunicatioun</i>.’ … 6. ‘In the +administration of discipline, collatioun of benefices, visitatioun, and +all vther points of ecclesiasticall government, he sall neither vsurpe +nor acclaime to himselfe <i>any power or jurisdictioun farther than any +vther of the rest of his breither</i>, unlesse he be imployit be his +breither, vnder the paine of deprivatioun.’ p. 955. ‘Anent his name that +for the Kirk sall (have) vote in Parliament: It is advyseit, be vniforme +consent of the haill brether, that he salbe callit Commissioner of such +a place.’ p. 956. ‘Therfor the Generall Assemblie having reasonit at +length the said questioun, tuiching the continuance of him that sall +have vote in Parliament, after votting of the same, finds and decernes, +that <i>he sall annuatim give count of his commission obtainit from the +Assemblie, and lay downe the samein at thair feitt</i>, to be continuit or +alterit therfra be his Maiestie and the Assemblie, as the Assemblie, +with consent of his Maiestie, sall think most expedient for the weill of +the Kirk.’ p. 959.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> ‘While James remained in Scotland, the scheme of +introducing episcopacy, though never lost sight of, was cautiously +prosecuted.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 178.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> James, during the whole of his reign, was chiefly +dependent on the money which Elizabeth gave him, and which she dealt out +rather niggardly. Such were his necessities, that he was forced to pawn +his plate, and, even then, he was often unable to defray his ordinary +household expenses. See <i>Tytler's History of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. pp. +265, 266, 272, vol. vii. pp. 158, 378–380. <i>Miscellany of the Spalding +Club</i>, vol. ii. pp. xlv. 114. <i>Gregory's History of the Western +Highlands</i>, pp. 241, 277. See also a clamorous begging-letter from James +to Elizabeth, written in 1591, in <i>Letters of Queen Elizabeth and James +VI.</i>, 1849, 4to, pp. 68, 69. In 1593, she apologizes for sending him +only a small sum: ‘The small token you shall receave from me I desire yt +may serve to make you remember the tyme and my many weighty affaires, +wich makes it les than else I would, and I dowt nothing but when you +heare all, yow will beare with this.’ p. 84. A letter from James Hudson, +written about the year 1591, states that ‘both the king's table and +queen's had like to have been unserved by want; and that the king had +nothing he accounted certain to come into his purse, but what he had +from the Queen of England.’ <i>Ridpath's Border History</i>, p. 465, Berwick, +1848, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, edit. 1819, vol. iii. p. +28. <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vi. pp. 264, 323. <i>Bower's +History of the University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. i. p. 175, Edinburgh, +1817. <i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 88.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> ‘Adde thereunto, that the letter of the commissioner and +last moderator, conteaned no certane tyme nor day whereto the said +Assemblie sould be prorogued; so that it imported a casting loose and +deserting, yea, and tyning of the possessioun of our Assemblie; than the +which what could be more dangerous to the libertie and freedom of the +Kirk of Jesus Christ, at suche a tyme, namelie of the treatie of the +Unioun, when all the estates of the realme, and everie particular are +zealous and carefull of their rights and possessiouns?’ <i>Calderwood's +History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vi. pp. 309, 310.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> See a list of them in <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, +vol. vi. p. 347, where the fourteen names are preserved with pious +care.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. +494–502. <i>Forbes' Certaine Records touching the Estate of the Kirk</i>, +edit. Wodrow Society, Edinburgh, 1846, pp. 463–496. ‘Delayed the giving +forth of the sentence of condemnation till the King's mind were further +knowne.’ See also <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vi. pp. 434, +449. When they were found guilty, ‘the peiple said, “Certainely this wes +a worke of darknes, to mak Chrystis faithfull Ministeres tratouris to +the King! God grant he be niver in greater dangeris nor off sic +traitouris.”’ <i>Melvill's Autobiography and Diary</i>, p. 626.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. pp. 207, 208. +<i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials</i>, vol. ii. p. 504. In connexion with these +transactions, a letter is preserved in the Winwood Papers, which is much +too curious to be passed over in silence. It is addressed by the Earl of +Salisbury to Sir Charles Cornwallis, and is dated 12th September 1605. +Salisbury, who was then at the head of affairs, writes, ‘True it is that +his Majestie seeking to <i>adorne that kingdome of Scotland with Prelates +as they are in England</i>, some of the Ministers have spurned against it; +and althouge his Majestie had ever warranted their calling of General +Assemblies upon no other condition, then that they should make him +acquainted, receive his warrant, and a commissioner for his Majestie +resident in their councells, yet have they (followed with some poor +plebecall numbers) presumed to hold their General Assemblies in some +parte of the Realme contrarie to his commandement. Whereupon his +Majestie hath shewed himself displeased, and cyted divers of them before +his councell,’ &c. <i>Memorials of Affairs of State, from the Papers of +Sir Ralph Winwood</i>, London, 1725, folio, vol. ii. p. 132. And yet the +man who could write such nonsense as this, and who could only see, in +the great democratic movement of the Scotch mind, a disinclination to +the <i>adornment</i> of episcopacy, was deemed one of the most eminent +statesmen of his time, and his reputation has survived him. If great +statesmen discern so little of what is before them and around them, we +are tempted to inquire, how much confidence ought to be placed in the +opinions of those average statesmen by whom countries are ruled. For my +own part, I can only say, that I have had occasion to read many thousand +letters written by diplomatists and politicians, and I have hardly ever +found an instance of one of them who understood the spirit and tendency +of the age in which he lived.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> ‘Ministers in all parts of the country were thrown into +prison, or declared rebels, and forced to abscond.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of +Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 250. Liberty of speech was so completely +suppressed, that, in 1605, when the most zealous and intelligent clergy +were banished, ‘a strait command’ (was) ‘gevin to magistrats, and uther +officiers of burrowis, that in cace any preacher sould speik opinlie +aganis that baneisment, or for defence or mentenence of that assemblie, +or pray publiklie for ther saiftie, that they sould be noted and +manifested to the secret counsell, and corrected for their fault.’ <i>The +Historie of King James the Sext</i>, p. 380.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> See an eloquent and touching passage, in <i>Calderwood's +History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vi. pp. 696, 697.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> ‘The godliest, wisest, learnedest, and most zealous men of +the ministrie in Scotland, were either banished, warded, or detained in +Ingland, of purpose that they might not be a lett to the grand designe +in hand.’ <i>Row's History of the Kirk</i>, p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> <i>Scot's Apologetical Narration of the State of the Kirk</i>, +pp. 164, 165. Compare <i>The Autobiography and Diary of James Melvill</i>, +pp. 642–645.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> ‘Quhen we wer gone out of the Palice a lytle way towards +Kingstoune, Mr. Alexander Hay sendis back for us, and withall, in the +Uttir Court, reidis to us a chairge from the King not to returne to +Scotland, nor to com neire the King, Quein, nor Prince their Courtis, +without a speciall calling for and licence.’ <i>Melvill's Autobiography</i>, +p. 661.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. pp. 246, 252, 260, +337–339, 403, 407–411, 414. This truly great and fearless man died in +exile, in 1622. p. 458.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>Melvill's Autobiography and Diary</i>, p. 709. <i>Scot's +Apologetical Narration</i>, p. 194. <i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. +pp. 252, 253, 267, 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> ‘Royal missives were sent to the presbyteries, nominating +the individuals whom they should chuse as their representatives to it.’ +<i>M'Crie's Life of Melville</i>, vol. ii. pp. 387, 388. On the character of +its members, compare <i>Wodrow's History of the Sufferings of the Church +of Scotland</i>, edit. Glasgow, 1838, vol. i. p. 256. <i>Stevenson's History +of the Church of Scotland</i>, pp. 320, 321. <i>Crookshank's Church of +Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, 1812, vol. i. p. 28; and <i>Calderwood's History of +the Kirk</i>, vol. vii. pp. 97, 98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> <i>Acts of the General Assemblies of the Kirk</i>, vol. iii. +pp. 1096, 1097. The Assembly even forbad the democratic notion of +equality to be advocated. See p. 1101. ‘Because it is vncivill that laws +and constitutiouns, either Civill or Ecclesiasticall, being anes +establischit and in force, by publick and opin consent, sould be +controllit and callit in questioun by any person: therfor, it is statute +by vniforme consent of this haill Assemblie, that none of the Ministrie +either in pulpitt in his preaching, or in the publick exercise, speake +and reason against the acts of this present Assemblie, nor dissobey the +same, vnder the paine of deprivatioun, being tryit and convict thereof; +and <i>speciallie, that the questioun of equalitie and inequalitie in the +Kirk, be not treattit in pulpitt vnder the said paine</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Mr. Russell (<i>History of the Church in Scotland</i>, vol. ii. +p. 88), misled, probably, by a passage in <i>Spottiswoode's History of the +Church</i>, vol. iii. p. 210, says, ‘A Court of High Commission was +instituted.’ But it is certain that there were two such courts; one for +the diocese of Saint Andrews, and one for that of Glasgow. See the +‘commissioun givin under the great seale to the two archbishops,’ dated +15th of February 1610, in <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vii. +pp. 57–62. See also p. 210. They were not united till December 1615. See +<i>Scot's Apologetical Narration of the State of the Kirk</i>, pp. 218, 239; +and <i>Crookshank's History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. p. 28. By the royal commission, these despotic tribunals were +authorized (<i>Calderwood</i>, vol. vii. p. 59) ‘to call before them at suche +tymes and places as they salle thinke meete, anie person or persons +dwelling and remaining within their provinces respective above writtin +of St. Andrews or Glasgow, or within anie dioceis of the same, being +offenders ather in life or religioun, whom they hold anie way to be +scandalous, and that they take tryell of the same; and if they find them +guiltie and impenitent, refusing to acknowledge their offence, they sall +give command to the preacher of that parish where they dwell, to proceed +with sentence of excommunication against them; which, if it be +protracted, and their command by that minister be not presentlie obeyed, +they sall conveene anie suche minister before them, and proceed in +censuring of him for his disobedience, ather by suspensioun, +deprivatioun, or wairding, according as in their discretioun they sall +hold his obstinacie and refuse of their directioun to have deserved. And +further, to fyne at their discretiouns, imprisoun, or warde anie suche +persoun, who being convicted before them, they sall find upon tryell to +have deserved anie suche punishment.’ Hereupon, Calderwood justly +remarks, p. 62: ‘This commissioun and executioun thereof, as it exalted +the aspyring bishops farre above any prelat that ever was in Scotland, +so it putt the king in possessioun of that which he had long tyme hunted +for; to witt, of the royall prerogative, and absolute power to use the +bodeis and goods of the subjects at pleasure, without forme or processe +of the commoun law, even then when the Lower Hous in England was +compleaning in their parliament upon the injurie therof. So our bishops +were fitt instruments to overthrow the liberteis both of the Kirk and +countrie.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> See <i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. +93, and <i>Kirkton's History</i>, p. 15. Kirkton indignantly says, that James +‘perswaded a few unworthy men to perjure themselves, and after their +episcopall consecration by the English bishops in England, to exercise +that odious office in Scotland against their own oath and the +consciences of their brethren.’ Compare the contemptuous notice, in +<i>Row's History of the Kirk</i>, p. 283, on the ‘anoynting of oyle and other +ceremonies,’ and on ‘the foolish guyses in it.’ Indeed, on this subject, +every Scotch writer who cared for the liberty of his country, expressed +himself either with contempt or indignation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Calderwood, with ill-suppressed bitterness, says, ‘efter +the same maner that they were consecrated themselfs, <i>als +neere as they could imitate</i>.’ <i>History of the Kirk</i>, vol. +vii. p. 152. Compare <i>Wodrow's Collections</i>, vol. i. part i. p. 293. +‘The Bishops ordeaned in England keeped as near the manner taken with +themselves there as they could.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> ‘Some of them, by want of temper, or want of breeding, did +not behave themselves with that decency in their debates, towards the +greatest men of the kingdom, as in discretion they ought to have done, +and as the others reasonably expected from them.’ <i>Clarendon's History +of the Rebellion</i>, edit. Oxford, 1843, p. 35. In 1633, ‘nine of them +were privy councillors;’ and ‘their pride was cried out upon as +unsupportable.’ <i>Burnet's Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton</i>, p. 38. Sir +John Scot imputes to them ‘insolence, pride, and avarice.’ <i>Scot's +Staggering State of the Scots Statesmen</i>, Edinburgh, 1754, p. 41. See +also <i>Spalding's History of the Troubles</i>, vol. i. pp. 46, 47, +Edinburgh, 1828, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> So early as 1613, a letter from James Inglish (preserved +in <i>Wodrow's Collections</i>, vol. ii. part i. p. 110, Glasgow, 1845, 4to) +complains that ‘the libertys of the Lord's Kirk are greatly abridged by +the pride of Bishops, and their power daily increases over her.’ Civil +rights were equally set at nought by the bishops; and, among other +enactments which they obtained, one was, ‘that no man should be +permitted to practise or profess any physic, unless he had first +satisfied the bishop of the diocese touching his religion.’ +<i>Spottiswoode's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 236. +This at once gave them the control of the whole medical profession.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> ‘Not satisfied with ruling the church-courts, they claimed +an extensive civil authority within their dioceses. The burghs were +deprived of their privileges, and forced to receive such magistrates as +their episcopal superiors, in concert with the court, were pleased to +nominate.’ … ‘Archbishop Gladstanes, in a letter to the King, June the +9th 1611, says: “It was your pleasure and direction, that I sould be +possessed with the like privileges in the electione of the magistrats +there (in St. Andrews), as my lord of Glasgow is endued with in that his +city. Sir, whereas they are troublesome, I will be answerable to your +Majesty and Counsell for them, after that I be possessed of my right.” +Ms. in Bibl. Jurid. Edin. M. 6, 9. n<sup>o</sup>. 72.’ <i>M'Crie's Life of +Melville</i>, vol. ii. p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> And their prodigality was equal to their rapacity. When +Archbishop Gladstanes died, in 1615, it was ascertained that, +‘notwithstanding of the great rent of his bishoprick, he died in the +debt of twentie thowsand pounds.’ <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, +vol. vii. p. 197. See also p. 303. Also the case of the Bishop of +Galloway, who died in 1619, and of whom Calderwood says (<i>History of the +Kirk</i>, vol. vii. p. 350), ‘It is thought, that if just calculation were +made of the commoditie extorted by him through his diocie, by advice of +his two covetous counsellours, Andro Couper, his brother, and Johne +Grilmour, wrytter in Edinburgh, for his use and theirs, by racting of +rents, getting of grassoumes, setting of tacks, of teithes, and other +like meanes, wold surmount the soume of an hundreth thousand merks, or, +in the opinion of others, almost the double; so that manie within that +diocie, and the annexed prelacies, sall hardlie recover their estates in +their time.’ Compare <i>Stevenson's History of the Church</i>, pp. 212, 392.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> On this change, which was completed in 1621, see <i>Laing's +History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 88; <i>Calderwood's History of the +Kirk</i>, vol. vii. p. 490; and <i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, vol. i. +p. 486, edit. Laing, Edinburgh, 1841.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk</i>, vol. vii. pp. 472–474, +507, 509, 511, 517–520, 530–543, 549–553, 566, 567, 614, 621. <i>Laing's +History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 90, 91. Laing, very unjustly, +accuses the bishops of being so merciful as to disapprove of some of +these transactions. But whoever has read much of the Scotch literature +of the seventeenth century, will cheerfully exonerate the bishops from a +charge, which they would themselves have repelled, and to which they are +nowise amenable.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> In October 1637, Baillie, who was carefully watching the +course of affairs, writes, ‘No man may speak any thing in publick for +the king's part, except he would have himself marked for a sacrifice to +be killed one day. I think our people possessed with a bloody devill, +farr above any thing that ever I could have imagined, though the masse +in Latine had been presented.’ And, in a postscript, dated 3rd October, +he adds: ‘My fears in my former went no farther then to ane ecclesiastik +separation, but now I am more affrayit for a bloudie civill warr.’ +<i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, edit. Laing, Edinburgh, 1841, vol. i. +pp. 23, 25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 131. +<i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. ii. pp. 101–104. <i>Spalding's History of the +Troubles in Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 47, 48.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> ‘The accusation, among themselves a bond of union, and to +their enemies a signal of hostility, was subscribed by the nobility, the +gentry, the clergy, and afterwards by all ranks, and almost by every +corporation in the kingdom.’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. +137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. iii. p. 138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> ‘It was signed by a large majority of the people, in a +paroxysm of enthusiasm beyond all example in our history.’ <i>Chambers' +Annals</i>, vol. ii. p. 105. Kirkton, who was a contemporary, says, ‘And +though only eleven private men (and some of them very inconsiderable) +had the boldness first to begin this work, without ever asking leave of +king or council, yet was it very quickly taken by all the people of +Scotland, with hands lifted up in most solemn manner.’ <i>Kirkton's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 33. Lord Somerville, taking a +somewhat different view of affairs, remarks, that ‘the generalitie of +the natione entered into a hellish covenant, wherein they mutually +obleidged themselves to extirpate episcopacy, and to defend each other +against all persones whatsoever, noe not excepting the persone of his +sacred majestie; but upon conditiones of ther oune frameing.’ +<i>Somerville's Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, vol. ii. p. 187.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> There had been no General Assembly since 1618. <i>Argyll's +Presbytery Examined</i>, p. 102; and the <i>Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. i. +p. 88. But ‘the provincial synods, presbyteries, and sessions still +remained, and in these, good men mutually comforted one another.’ +<i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 162.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> ‘The assembly went on at such a rate, that the marquis +judged it no longer fit to bear with their courses.’ <i>Burnet's Memoirs +of the Dukes of Hamilton</i>, p. 128. ‘In end, seeing nothing said in +reason did prevail, he, in his majesty's name, dissolved the assembly, +and discharged their further proceeding under pain of treason.’ p. 135.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> <i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 310.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> ‘Notwithstanding the Proclamation, the Assembly presently +thereafter met, and sat daily for divers weeks, until they had done +their affairs, and were themselves pleas'd to dissolve.’ <i>Guthry's +Memoirs</i>, p. 41, edit. London, 1702.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> <i>Acts of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland</i>, +from 1638 to 1842, Edinburgh, 1843, pp. 9–18. <i>Stevenson's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, pp. 332, 338.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> See, on their fall, some highly characteristic remarks in +<i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, vol. i. p. 168. In 1639, Howell writes +from Edinburgh, ‘The Bishops are all gone to wrack, and they have had +but a sorry funeral; the very name is grown so contemptible, that a +black dog, if he hath any white marks about him, is called <i>Bishop</i>. Our +Lord of Canterbury is grown here so odious, that they call him commonly +in the pulpit, the Priest of Baal, and the Son of Belial.’ <i>Howell's +Letters</i>, edit. London, 1754, p. 276.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> ‘That people, after they had once begun, pursued the +business vigorously, and with all imaginable contempt of the +government.’ <i>Clarendon's History of the Rebellion</i>, p. 45. Now, for the +first time, the English government began to tremble. On 13th December +1639, Secretary Windebank writes, ‘His Majesty near these six weeks last +past hath been in continual consultations with a select Committee of +some of his Council (of which I have had the honour to be one), how to +redress his affairs in Scotland, the fire continuing there, and growing +to that danger, that <i>it threatens not only the Monarchical Government +there, but even that of this kingdom</i>.’ <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, vol. +ii. p. 81, Oxford, 1773, folio. This is the earliest intimation I have +met with of Charles and his advisers being aware of their real peril. +But though the king was capable of fear, he was incapable of +compunction. There is no evidence on record, to show that he even felt +remorse for having planned and executed those arbitrary and unprincipled +measures, by which he inflicted immense misery upon Scotland and +England, but more especially upon Scotland.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> ‘The kinge was now so waik, haueing nether toune, fort, +nor armie, and Oxford being a waik and onfortified toune, from whence he +looked daylie to be taken perforce, he therefor resolues to cast himself +into the arms of the Scots; who, being his natine people, and of late so +ongratfullie dealt with by the Inglish, he hoped their particular +credit, and the credit of the wholl natione depending thereupon, they +would not baslie rander him to the Inglish.’ <i>Gordon's Britane's +Distemper</i>, p. 193, published by the Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1844, +4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> That it may not be supposed, that, as an Englishman, I +misrepresent this transaction by looking at it from an English point of +view, I will merely quote what Scotch writers have said respecting it. +‘Giveing up the king to the will and pleasure of the English parliament, +that soe they might come by ther money.’ <i>Somerville's Memorie of the +Somervilles</i>, vol. ii. p. 366. ‘The Scots sold their unfortunate king, +who had fled to them for protection, to the commissioners of the English +Parliament, for 200,000<i>l.</i> sterling.’ <i>Lyon's History of +St. Andrews</i>, vol. ii. p. 38. ‘The incident itself was evidence of a +bargain with a <i>quid pro quo</i>.’ <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. +p. 493. ‘The sale of the king to the parliament.’ <i>Napier's Life of +Montrose</i>, Edinburgh, 1840, p. 448. ‘The king was delivered up, or +rather sold, to the parliament's commissioners.’ <i>Brown's History of +Glasgow</i>, vol. i. p. 91. ‘Their arrears were undoubtedly due; the amount +was ascertained before the dispute concerning the disposal of his +person, and the payment was undertaken by the English parliament, five +months previous to the delivery, or surrender of the king. But the +coincidence, however unavoidable, between that event and the actual +discharge and departure of their army, still affords a presumptive proof +of the disgraceful imputation of having sold their king; “as the +English, unless previously assured of receiving his person, would never +have relinquished a sum so considerable as to weaken themselves, while +it strengthened a people with whom such a material question remained to +be discussed.”’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 369, 370.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> A letter from Sir Edw. Hyde to Lord Hatton, dated April +12, 1649 (in the <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, vol. ii. p. 479, Oxf. 1773, +fol.), says of Charles II., that the Scotch ‘sold his father to those +who murdered him.’ But this is not true. Charles I., though certainly +bought by the English, was not murdered by them. He was tried in the +face of day; he was found guilty; he was executed. And most assuredly +never did a year pass, without men far less criminal than he, suffering +the same fate. Possibly, they are right who deem all capital punishment +needless. That, however, has never been proved; and if this last and +most terrible penalty is ever to be exacted, I cannot tell where we +should find a more fitting subject to undergo it, than a despot who +seeks to subjugate the liberties of the people over whom he is called to +rule, inflicts cruel and illegal punishment on those who oppose him, +and, sooner than renounce his designs, engages in a civil war, setting +fathers against their children, disorganizing society, and causing the +land to run with blood. Such men are outlaws; they are the enemies of +the human race; who shall wonder if they fall, or, having fallen, who +shall pity them?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> The declaration was signed by Charles on the 16th August +1650. An abridgment of it is given in <i>Balfour's Annales of Scotland</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 92–94; but the entire document is preserved by Sir Edward +Walker. See <i>Journal of Affairs in Scotland</i>, in <i>Walker's Historical +Discourses</i>, London, folio, 1705, pp. 170–176. In it Charles is made to +state that, ‘though his Majesty as a dutiful son be obliged to honour +the memory of his Royal Father, and have in estimation the person of his +Mother; yet doth he desire to be deeply humbled and afflicted in spirit +before God, because of his Father's hearkening unto and following evil +councils, and his opposition to the work of reformation, and to the +solemn league and covenant by which so much of the blood of the Lord's +people hath been shed in these kingdoms.’ He went on to say, that though +he might palliate his own misconduct by pleading ‘his education and +age,’ he thinks it better to ‘ingeniously acknowledge all his own sins +and the sins of his father's house.’ Burnet (<i>History of his own Time</i>, +vol. i. p. 97) says of this declaration: ‘In it there were many hard +things. The king owned the sin of his father in marrying into an +idolatrous family: he acknowledged the bloodshed in the late wars lay at +his father's door: he expressed a deep sense of his own ill education,’ +&c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> In reference to this event the following entry occurs in +Lamont's Journal: ‘1650, Dec. 22.—The fast appointed by the commission +of the kirke to be keiped througe the kingdome before the coronatione, +was keiped att Largo the forsaide day by Mr. Ja. Magill; his lecture, +Reu. 3. from v. 14 to the end of the chapt.; his text Reu. 2. 4, 5. Vpon +the Thursday following, the 26 of this instant, the fast was keiped in +likemaner; his lecture 2. Chro. 29 to v. 12; his text 2. Chron. 12, 12. +The causes of the first day (not read) was, the great contempt of the +gospell, holden forth in its branches; of the second day (which were +read), the sinns of the king, and of his father's house, where sundry +offences of K. James the 6 were aknowledged, and of K. Charles the 1, +and of K. Ch. the 2, nowe king.’ <i>The Diary of Mr. John Lamont of +Newton</i>, p. 25, Edinburgh, 1830, 4to. See also <i>Baillie's Letters and +Journals</i>, vol. iii. p. 107; <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, Edinburgh, 4to, 1836, p. +38; <i>Row's Continuation of Blair's Autobiography</i>, edit. Wodrow Society, +p. 255; <i>Bower's History of the University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. i. p. +253; <i>Presbytery Book of Strathbogie</i>, edit. Spalding Club, p. 169; and, +above all, the <i>Registers of the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, published by the +Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh, 1839, 4to, pp. 88, 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> Wodrow, who had before him the records of the Privy +Council, besides other evidence now lost, says, that the period from +1660 to 1688 was ‘a very horrid scene of oppression, hardships, and +cruelty, which, were it not incontestably true, and well vouched and +supported, could not be credited in after ages.’ <i>Wodrow's History of +the Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution</i>, vol. i. +p. 57. And the Reverend Alexander Shields, quaintly, but truly, +observes, ‘that the said Government was the most untender, unpeaceable, +tyrannical, arbitrary and wicked, that ever was in Scotland in any age +or period.’ <i>Shields' Scots Inquisition</i>, Edinburgh, 1745, p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> When James I. ascended the throne of England, ‘the +principal native nobility’ accompanied him; and ‘the very peace which +ensued upon the union of the crowns, may be considered as the +commencement of an era in which many of our national strongholds were +either transformed into simple residences or utterly deserted.’ +<i>Irving's History of Dumbartonshire</i>, 4to, 1860, pp. 137, 166. The +nobles ‘had no further occasion to make a figure in war, their power in +vassalage was of little use, and their influence of course decayed. They +knew little of the arts of peace, and had no disposition to cultivate +them.’ <i>The Interest of Scotland Considered</i>, Edinburgh, 1733, p. 85. +Under Charles I., the movement continued; ‘which fell out, partly +through the giddiness of the times, but more by the way his Majesty had +taken at the beginning of his reign; at which time he did recover from +divers of them their hereditary offices, and also pressed them to quit +their tithes (which formerly had kept the gentry in a dependance upon +them), whereby they were so weaken'd that now when he stood most in need +of them (except the chief of the clans) they could command none but +their vassals.’ <i>Guthry's Memoirs</i>, edit. 1702, pp. 127, 128. Then came +the civil wars, and the rule of Cromwell, during which they suffered +both in person and in property. Compare <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. ii. p. +225, with <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 515, 516. In +1654, Baillie writes (<i>Letters and Journals</i>, vol. iii. p. 249): ‘Our +nobilitie, weell near all, are wracked.’ In 1656, ‘Our nobles lying up +in prisons, and under forfaultries, or debts, private or publict, are +for the most part either broken or breaking.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 317. And, in +1658, the same observer writes (vol. iii. p. 387): ‘Our noble families +are almost gone: Lennox hes little in Scotland unsold; Hamilton's +estate, except Arran and the Baronrie of Hamilton, is sold; Argyle can +pay little annuelrent for seven or eight hundred thousand merks; and he +is no more drowned in debt than publict hatred, almost of all, both +Scottish and English; the Gordons are gone; the Douglasses little +better; Eglintoun and Glencairn on the brink of breaking; many of our +chief families estates are cracking; nor is there any appearance of any +human relief for the tyme.’</p> + +<p>The result of all this is thus described by Wodrow, under the year 1661: +‘Our nobility and gentry were remarkably changed to the worst: it was +but few of such, who had been active in the former years, were now +alive, and those few were marked out for ruin. A young generation had +sprung up under the English government, educated under penury and +oppression; their estates were under burden, and many of them had little +other prospect of mending their fortunes, but by the king's favour, and +so were ready to act that part he was best pleased with.’ <i>Wodrow's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> ‘At the Restoration, Charles II. regained full possession +of the royal prerogative in Scotland; and the nobles, whose estates were +wasted, or their spirit broken, by the calamities to which they have +been exposed, were less able and less willing than ever to resist the +power of the crown. During his reign, and that of James VII., the +dictates of the monarch were received in Scotland with most abject +submission. The poverty to which many of the nobles were reduced, +rendered them meaner slaves and more intolerable tyrants than ever. The +people, always neglected, were now odious, and loaded with every injury, +on account of their attachment to religious and political principles, +extremely repugnant to those adopted by their princes.’ <i>Robertson's +History of Scotland</i>, book viii. pp. 257, 258.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> A writer of great authority, speaking of the time of +William III., says: ‘It is scarcely possible to conceive how utterly +polluted the fountain of justice had become during the two preceding +reigns. The Scottish bench had been profligate and subservient to the +utmost conceivable extent of profligacy and subserviency.’ <i>Burton's +History of Scotland</i>, from 1689 to 1748, London, 1853, vol. i p. 72. See +also vol. ii. p. 37; and <i>Brown's History of Glasgow</i>, vol. i. p. 194, +Glasgow, 1795.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 10. <i>Baillie's +Letters and Journals</i>, vol. iii. p. 458. As few persons take the trouble +to read Scotch Acts of Parliament, I will extract from this one, its +most argumentative passage. ‘And forasmuch as now it hath pleased +Almighty God, by the power of his oune right hand, so miracoulously to +restore the Kings Maiestie to the Government of his Kingdomes, and to +the exercise of his Royall power and Soveranity over the same: The +estates of Parlia<sup>t</sup> doe conceave themselffs obleidged in dischairge of +ther duetie and conscience to God and the Kings Maiestie, to imploy all +their power and interest for vindicateing his Maiesties Authority from +all these violent invasions that have been made upon it; And so far as +is possible to <i>remove out of the way every thing that may retaine any +remembrance of these things</i> which have been so enjurious to his +Màtie and his Authority, so prejudiciall and dishonourable to +the kingdome, and distructive to all just and true interests within the +same.’ … ‘Not to retaine any remembrance thairof, but that the same +shall be held in <i>everlasting oblivion</i>.’ <i>Acts of the Parliaments of +Scotland</i>, vol. vii. p. 87, edit. folio, 1820. The date of this Act is +28th March 1661.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> He was made ‘primate’ in 1661, but did not arrive in +Scotland till April 1662. <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. pp. 236, 247; and <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, pp. 363, 364. ‘That he was +decent, if not regular, in his deportment, endued with the most +industrious diligence, and not illiterate, was never disputed; that he +was vain, vindictive, perfidious, at once haughty and servile, rapacious +and cruel, his friends have never attempted to disown.’ <i>Laing's History +of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 98, 99. The formal establishment of +episcopacy was in the autumn of 1661, as we learn from an entry in +Lamont's Diary. ‘1661. Sept. 5 being Thursday, (the chancelour, +Glencairne, and the E. of Rothes, haueing come downe from court some +dayes before,) the cownsell of state satt att Edb., and the nixt day, +being Fryday, they caused emitte and be proclaimed ouer the Crosse, a +proclamation in his Maj. name, for establishing Episcopacie againe in +the church of Scotlande; which was done with great solemnitie, and was +afterwarde printed. <i>All persons, wither men or weomen, were discharged +to speake against that office, under the paine of treason.</i>’ <i>The Diary +of Mr. John Lamont</i>, p. 140. This, as we learn from another +contemporary, was on account of ‘the Kinges Majestie having stedfastlie +resolvit to promove the estait, power, and dignitie of Bischops, and to +<i>remove all impedimentes contrary thairto</i>.’ <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, 4to, p. +353; on 21st November 1661. This curious diary, written by John Nicoll, +and extending from 1650 to 1667, was printed at Edinburgh, in 1836, by +the Bannatyne Club, and is now not often met with.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. +383, 390–395. <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 38: ‘A court of +ecclesiastical commission was procured by Sharp.’ See also p. 41: ‘Under +the influence of Sharp and the prelates, which Lauderdale's friends were +unable to resist, the government seemed to be actuated by a blind +resentment against its own subjects.’ Compare <i>Burnet's History of his +own Time</i>, vol. i. p. 365. ‘The truth is, the whole face of the +government looked liker the proceedings of an inquisition than of legal +courts; and yet Sharp was never satisfied.’ Another contemporary, +Kirkton, says of these Commissioners: ‘For ought I could hear, never one +appeared before them that escapt without punishment. Their custom was +without premonition or lybell, to ask a man a question, and judge him +presently, either upon his silence or his answer.’ … ‘They many times +doubled the legal punishment; and not being satisfied with the fyne +appointed by law, they used to add religation to some remote places, or +deportation to Barbadoes, or selling into slavery.’ <i>Kirkton's History +of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 206. See also <i>Naphtali, or the +Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland</i>, 1667, pp. 126–130. But as +particular cases bring such matters more clearly before the mind, I will +transcribe, from <i>Crookshank's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. +i. p. 154, the sentences pronounced on a single occasion by this +episcopal court. ‘The treatment of some of the parishioners of Ancrum is +not to be omitted. When their excellent minister, Mr. Livingstone, was +taken from them, one Mr. James Scot, who was under the sentence of +excommunication, was presented to that charge. On the day fixed for his +settlement, several people did meet together to oppose it; and +particularly a country woman, desiring to speak with him in order to +dissuade him from intruding himself upon a reclaiming people, pulled him +by the cloak, intreating him to hear her a little; whereupon he turned +and beat her with his staff. This provoked two or three boys to throw a +few stones, which neither touched him nor any of his company. However, +it was presently looked upon as a treasonable tumult, and therefore the +sheriff and justices of the peace in that bounds fined and imprisoned +some of these people, which, one would think, might atone for a crime of +this nature. But the high-commission, not thinking that sufficient, +ordered those criminals to be brought before them. Accordingly, the four +boys and this woman, with two brothers of hers of the name of Turnbull, +were brought prisoners to Edinburgh. The four boys confessed, that, upon +Scot's beating the woman, they had thrown each his stone. The +commissioner told them that hanging was too good for them. However, the +sentence of this merciless court only was, that they should be scourged +through the city of Edinburgh, burnt in the face with a hot iron, and +then sold as slaves to Barbadoes. The boys endured their punishment like +men and Christians, to the admiration of multitudes. The two brothers +were banished to Virginia; and the woman was ordered to be whipped +through the town of Jedburgh. Burnet, bishop of Glasgow, when applied to +that she might be spared lest she should be with child, mildly answered, +That he would make them claw the itch out of her shoulders.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> They were invested with such immense power, that ‘the old +set of bishops made by the parliament, 1612, were but pigmies to the +present high and mighty lords.’ <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 262. See also, at p. 286, the remarks of Douglas: +‘It is no wonder then the complaint against their bishops be, that their +little finger is thicker than the loins of the former.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> In 1663, Middleton was dismissed; and was succeeded by +Lauderdale, who ‘was dependent upon the prelates, and was compelled to +yield to their most furious demands.’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, +vol. iv. p. 33. ‘The influence, or rather the tyranny, which was thus at +the discretion of the prelates, was unlimited; and they exercised it +with an unsparing hand.’ <i>Bower's History of the University of +Edinburgh</i>, vol. i. p. 284.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> ‘Sir James Turner, that commanded them, was naturally +fierce, but was mad when he was drunk; and that was very often.’ +<i>Burnet's History of his own Time</i>, vol. i. p. 364. Kirkton (<i>History of +the Church</i>, p. 221) says: ‘Sir James Turner hade made ane expedition to +the west countrey <i>to subdue it to the bishops</i>, in the year 1664; +another in the year 1665; and a third in the year 1666; and this was the +worst.’ Full particulars will be found in <i>Wodrow's History of the +Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 373–375, 411, vol. ii. pp. 8, 17, vol. +iii. pp. 264, 265. ‘This method of dragooning people to the church, as +it is contrary to the spirit of Christianity, so it was a stranger in +Scotland, till Bishop Sharpe and the prelates brought it in.’ vol. i. p. +401.</p> + +<p>Sir James Turner, whose Memoirs, written by himself, were not published +till thirty years ago, relates an anecdote of his own drunkenness in a +strain of maudlin piety well worthy of his career. <i>Turner's Memoirs of +his own Life</i>, Edinburgh, 1829, 4to, pp. 42, 43. At p. 206, this +impudent man writes: ‘And yet I confesse, my humour never was, nor is +not yet, one of the calmest; when it will be, God onlie knoues; yet by +many sad passages of my life, I know that <i>it hath beene good for me to +be afflicted</i>.’ Perhaps, however, he may take the benefit of his +assertion (p. 144), ‘that I was so farre from exceeding or transgressing +my commission and instructions, that I never came the full length of +them.’ Considering the cruelties he committed, what sort of instructions +could his superiors have given to him?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> ‘Sir James Turner lately had forced Galloway to rise in +arms, by his cruelty the last and former years; but he was an easy +master, compared with General Dalziel, his ruffians, and Sir William +Bannatyne, this year.’ <i>Wodrow's Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 62. +Dalziel ‘cruelly tortured whom he would.’ p. 63. One woman ‘is brought +prisoner to Kilmarnock, where she was sentenced to be let down to a deep +pit, under the house of the dean, full of toads and other vile +creatures. Her shrieks thence were heard at a great distance.’ p. 64. +Two countrymen were ‘bound together with cords, and hanged up by their +thumbs to a tree, there to hang all night.’ <i>Ibid.</i> Sir William +Bannatyne's soldiers seized a woman, ‘and bound her, and put lighted +matches betwixt her fingers for several hours; the torture and pain made +her almost distracted; she lost one of her hands, and in a few days she +died.’ <i>Ibid.</i> ‘Oppressions, murders, robberies, rapes.’ p. 65. ‘He made +great fires, and laid down men to roast before them, when they would +not, or could not, give him the money he required, or the information he +was seeking.’ p. 104. See also <i>Crookshank's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 204–207. The History is based upon Wodrow's great +work, but contains many facts with which Wodrow was unacquainted. See +<i>Crookshank</i>, vol. i. p. 11. Respecting the outrages in 1667, there are +some horrible details in a book published in that very year, under the +title of <i>Naphtali, or the Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland</i>. See, +especially, the summary at p. 174: ‘wounding, beating, stripping and +imprisoning mens persons, violent breaking of their houses both by day +and night, and beating and wounding of wives and children, ravishing and +deflowring of women, forcing wives and other persons by fired matches +and other tortures to discover their husbands and nearest relations, +although it be not within the compass of their knowledge, and driving +and spoiling all their goods that can be carried away, without respect +to guilt or innocency.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> ‘That whosoever without licence or authoritie forsaid +shall preach, expound Scripture, or pray at any of these meetings in the +ffeild, or in any house wher ther be moe persons nor the house +contains, so as some of them be without doors (which is hereby declared +to be a feild conventicle), or who shall convocat any number of people +to these meetings, shall be punished with death and confiscation of ther +goods.’ <i>Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland</i>, vol. viii. p. 9, edit. +1820, folio. This was on the 13th August 1670.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> The immediate pretence being, to do away with appeals. See +<i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 72–74.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> ‘Savage hosts of Highlanders were sent down to depopulate +the western shires, to the number of ten or eleven thousand, who acted +most outrageous barbarities, even almost to the laying some counties +desolate.’ <i>A Cloud of Witnesses for the Royal Prerogatives of Jesus +Christ</i>, edit. Glasgow, 1779, p. 18. But most authorities state the +number to have been eight thousand. See <i>Kirkton's History</i>, p. 386; +<i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, p. 154; <i>Burnet's History of his own +Time</i>, vol. ii. p. 134; <i>Denholm's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 67; and <i>Life +and Sufferings of John Nisbet</i>, in <i>Select Biographies</i>, published by +the Wodrow Society, vol. ii. p. 381. Chalmers, however, in his +<i>Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 592, says 10,000.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> ‘They were indemnified against all pursuits, civil and +criminal, on account of killing, wounding, apprehending, or imprisoning, +such as should oppose them.’ <i>Crookshank's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. i. pp. 337, 338.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Short and imperfect notices of this ‘Highland Host,’ as it +was called at the time, may be found in <i>Kirkton's History</i>, pp. +385–390, and in <i>Crookshank's History</i>, vol. i. pp. 354, 355. But the +fullest account of the enormities committed by these barbarians, is in +Wodrow's great work, collected from authentic and official documents. +See his <i>History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 375–413, +421–432, vol. iii. pp. 76, 79, 486. They were provided beforehand with +implements of torture. ‘They had good store of iron shackles, as if they +were to lead back vast numbers of slaves, and thumb-locks, as they call +them’ (<i>i.e.</i> thumb-screws), ‘to make their examinations and trials +with.’ vol. ii. p. 389. ‘In some places they tortured people, by +scorching their bodies at vast fires, and other wise,’ vol. ii. p. 422. +Compare <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 88. ‘Neither age nor +sex was exempt from outrage, and torture was freely employed to extort a +confession of hidden wealth.’ And, at p. 91, ‘The Highlanders, after +exacting free quarters, and wasting the country for three months, were +dismissed to their hills with impunity and wealth.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> ‘Indeed, the whole of the severity, hardships, and +bloodshed from this year’ (1661), ‘until the revolution, was either +actually brought on by the bishops, procured by them, or done for their +support.’ <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 223. +‘It was our prelates who pushed the council to most of their +severities.’ p. 247. ‘The bishops, indeed, violently pushed +prosecutions.’ <i>Crookshank's History of the Church</i>, vol. i. p. 298. In +1666, ‘As to the prelates, they resolved to use all severities, and to +take all imaginable cruel and rigorous ways and courses, first against +the rest of the prisoners, and then against the whole west of Scotland.’ +<i>Row's Continuation of Blair's Autobiography</i>, pp. 505, 506, edit. +Edinburgh, 1848. This interesting work is edited by Dr. M'Crie, and +published by the Wodrow Society.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> In 1688, ‘the bishops concurred in a pious and convivial +address to James, as the darling of heaven, that God might give him the +hearts of his subjects and the necks of his enemies.’ <i>Laing's History +of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 193.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> ‘After the Duke of York came down in October’(1680), ‘the +persecution turned yet more severe.’ <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. iii. p. 225. ‘Persecution and tyranny, mainly promoted +by the Duke of York's instigation.’ <i>Shields' Hind let loose</i>, p. 147. +‘Immediately upon his mounting the throne, the executions and acts +prosecuting the persecution of the poor wanderers, were more cruel than +ever.’ p. 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> This was well known in Scotland; and is evidently alluded +to by a writer of that time, the Rev. Alexander Shields, who calls +James, not a man, but a monster. See <i>Shields' Hind let loose</i>, 1687, p. +365. ‘This man, or monster rather, that is now mounted the throne.’ And +a monster surely he was. Compare <i>Crookshank's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 66, where it is mentioned that, when Spreul was +tortured, ‘the Duke of York was pleased to gratify his eyes with this +delightful scene.’ Also, <i>Wodrow's History</i>, vol. iii. p. 253, and +<i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 116. ‘According to Burnet, the +duke's pleasure at witnessing human agony was a cold, and, as it were, a +speculative pleasure, as if he were present for the purpose of +contemplating some curious experiment. But James was so excitable a man, +that this is hardly likely. At all events, the remarks of Burnet have a +painful interest for those who study these dark, and, as we may rejoice +to think, these very rare, forms of human malignity.’ ‘When any are to +be struck in the boots, it is done in the presence of the council; and +upon that occasion, almost all offer to run away. The sight is so +dreadful, that without an order restraining such a number to stay, the +board would be forsaken. But the duke, while he had been in Scotland, +was so far from withdrawing, that he looked on all the while with an +unmoved indifference, and <i>with an attention, as if he had been to look +on some curious experiment</i>. This gave a terrible idea of him to all +that observed it, as of a man that had no bowels nor humanity in him.’ +<i>Burnet's History of his own Time</i>, vol. ii. pp. 416, 417.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Shields (<i>A Hind let loose</i>, p. 186) describes the boots, +as ‘a cruel engine of iron, whereby, with wedges, the leg is tortured, +until the marrow come out of the bone.’ Compare <i>Naphtali, or the +Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland</i>, 1667, p. 268: ‘the extraordinary +compression both of flesh, sinews, and bones, by the force of timber +wedges and hammer.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> In 1684, Carstairs was subjected to this torture. See his +own account, in a letter printed in <i>Wodrow's History of the Church of +Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 96–100. He writes (p. 99): ‘After this +communing, the king's smith was called in, to bring in a new instrument +to torture by the thumbkins, that had never been used before. For +whereas the former was only to screw on two pieces of iron above and +below with finger and thumb, these were made to turn about the screw +with the whole hand. And under this torture, I continued near an hour +and a half.’ See also the case of Spence, in the same year, in <i>Burnet's +History of his own Time</i>, vol. ii. p. 418. ‘Little screws of steel were +made use of, that screwed the thumbs with so exquisite a torment, that +he sunk under this; for Lord Perth told him, they would screw every +joint of his whole body, one after another, till he took the oath.’ +Laing (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 143) says, ‘the thumbikins; +small screws of steel that compressed the thumb and the whole hand with +an exquisite torture;’ an invention brought by Drummond and Dalziel from +Russia. For other notices, see <i>Fountainhall's Notes of Scottish +Affairs</i> from 1680 till 1701, Edinburgh, 4to, 1822, pp. 41, 97, 101; +<i>Bower's History of the University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. ii. p. 30; +<i>Crookshank's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 192; <i>A +Cloud of Witnesses for the Royal Prerogatives of Jesus Christ</i>, edit. +Glasgow, 1779, p. 371; and <i>Life of Walter Smith</i>, p. 85, in the second +volume of <i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>, Edinburgh, 1827.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> ‘In 1684, the Scottish nation was in the most distressing +and pitiable situation that can be imagined.’ … ‘The state of society +had now become such, that, in Edinburgh, attention to ordinary business +was neglected, and every one was jealous of his neighbour.’ <i>Bower's +History of the University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. i. p. 307.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> ‘Upon the 10th of March, all freeholders, heritors, and +gentlemen in Nithsdale and Annandale, and, I suppose, in most other +shires of the kingdom, but I name those as being the scene of the +severities now used, were summoned to attend the king's standard; and +the militia in the several shires were raised. Wherever Claverhouse +came, he resolved upon narrow and universal work. He used to set his +horse upon the hills and eminences, and that in different parties, that +none might escape; and there his foot went through the lower, marshy, +and mossy places, where the horse could not do so well. The shire he +parcelled out in so many divisions, and six or eight miles square would +be taken in at once. In every division, the whole inhabitants, men and +women, young and old, without distinction, were all driven into one +convenient place.’ … ‘All the children in the division were gathered +together by themselves, under ten years, and above six years of age, and +a party of soldiers were drawn out before them. Then they were bid pray, +for they were going to be shot. Some of them would answer, Sir, we +cannot pray.’ … ‘At other times, they treated them most inhumanly, +threatening them with death, and at some little distance would fire +pistols without ball in their face. Some of the poor children were +frighted almost out of their wits, and others of them stood all out with +a courage perfectly above their age. These accounts are so far out of +the ordinary way of mankind, that I would not have insert them, had I +not before me several informations agreeing in all these circumstances, +written at this time by people who knew the truth of them.’ <i>Wodrow's +History of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. pp. 255, 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> ‘Numbers were transported to Jamaica, Barbadoes, and the +North American settlements; but the women were not unfrequently burnt in +the cheek, and the ears of the men were lopt off, to prevent, or to +detect, their return,’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 162. +‘Great multitudes banished,’ <i>Wodrow's History of the Church</i>, vol. iv. +p. 211. In July 1685, ‘the men are ordered to have their ears cropt, and +the women to be marked in their hand.’ p. 217. ‘To have the following +stigma and mark, that they may be known as banished persons if they +shall return to this kingdom, <i>viz.</i> that the men have one of their ears +cut off by the hand of the hangman, and that the women be burnt by the +same hand on the cheek with a burned iron.’ p. 218. These are extracts +from the proceedings of the privy-council.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> ‘James II. favoured the Highland clans,’ Note in +<i>Fountainhall's Scottish Affairs</i> from 1680 till 1701, p. 100. He could +hardly do otherwise. The alliance was natural, and ready-made for him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> Except robbing, which, however, in one form or other, is +always a part of war. In this, they were very apt. Burnet (<i>History of +his own Time</i>, vol. i. p. 67) pithily describes them as ‘good at +robbing;’ and Burton (<i>Lives of Lovat and Forbes</i>, p. 47) says, ‘To +steal even vestments was considerably more creditable than to make +them.’ Otherwise, they were completely absorbed by their passion for +war. See <i>Thomson's Memoirs of the Jacobites</i>, vol. ii. pp. 175, 176, +London, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> ‘Revenge was accounted a duty, the destruction of a +neighbour a meritorious exploit, and rapine an honourable employment.’ +<i>Browne's History of the Highlands</i>, vol. iv. p. 395. ‘The spirit of +rivalry between the clans kept up a taste for hostility, and converted +rapine into a service of honour.’ <i>Thomson's Memoirs of the Jacobites</i>, +vol. ii. p. 229.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Hence, looking, as they did, merely at the physical +qualities of individuals, the appearance of the Pretender in 1715 +disgusted them, notwithstanding his splendid lineage. See some excellent +remarks in <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, from 1689 to 1748, London, +1853, vol. ii. pp. 198, 199. At p. 383, Mr. Burton justly observes, that +‘those who really knew the Highlanders were aware that the followers +were no more innate supporters of King James's claim to the throne of +Britain, than of Maria Theresa's to the throne of Hungary. They went +with the policy of the head of the clan, whatever that might be; and +though upwards of half a century's advocacy of the exiled house’ (this +refers to the last rebellion in 1745) ‘had made Jacobitism appear a +political creed in some clans, it was among the followers, high and low, +little better than a nomenclature, which might be changed with +circumstances.’ Since Robertson, Mr. Burton and Mr. Chambers are, I will +venture to say, the two writers who have taken the most accurate and +comprehensive views of the history of Scotland. Robertson's History +stops short where the most important period begins; and his materials +were scanty. But what he effected with those materials was wonderful. To +my mind, his History of Scotland is much the greatest of his +works.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> A curious description of their appearance, given by the +<i>Derby Mercury</i> in 1746 (in <i>Thomson's Memoirs of the Jacobites</i>, vol. +iii. p. 115), may be compared with the more general statement in +<i>Anderson's Prize Essay on the Highlands</i>, Edinburgh, 1827, p. 128. +‘Cattle were the main resources of the tribe—the acquisition of these +the great object of their hostile forrays. The precarious crops gave +them wherewithal to bake their oaten cakes, or distil their ale or +whisky. When these failed, the crowded population suffered every extreme +of misery and want. At one time in particular, in Sutherland, they were +compelled to subsist on broth made of nettles, thickened with a little +oatmeal. At another, those who had cattle, to have recourse to the +expedient of bleeding them, and mixing the blood with oatmeal, which +they afterwards cut into slices and fried.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> Several writers erroneously term them ‘unnatural.’ See, +for instance, <i>Rae's History of the Rebellion</i>, London, 1746, pp. 158, +169: and <i>Home's History of the Rebellion</i>, London, 1802, 4to, p. 347.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> ‘When the rebels began their march to the southward, they +were not 6000 men complete,’ <i>Home's History of the Rebellion in the +Year 1745</i>, 4to, p. 137. At Stirling, the army, ‘after the junction was +made, amounted to somewhat more than 9000 men, the greatest number that +Charles ever had under his command,’ p. 164. But the actual invaders of +England were much fewer. ‘The number of the rebels when they began their +march into England was a few above 5000 foot, with about 500 on +horseback.’ <i>Home</i>, p. 331. Browne (<i>History of the Highlands</i>, vol. +iii. p. 140) says: ‘When mustered at Carlisle, the prince's army +amounted only to about 4500 men;’ and Lord George Murray states that, at +Derby, ‘we were not above five thousand fighting men, if so many.’ +<i>Jacobite Memoirs of the Rebellion of 1745</i>, edited by Robert Chambers, +Edinburgh, 1834, p. 54. Another writer, relying mainly on traditional +evidence, says, ‘Charles, at the head of 4000 Highlanders, marched as +far as Derby.’ <i>Brown's History of Glasgow</i>, vol. ii. p. 41, Edinburgh, +1797. Compare <i>Johnstone's Memoirs of the Rebellion</i>, 3rd edit., London, +1822, pp. xxxvii. xxxviii. 30–32, 52. Johnstone says, p. 60, ‘M. +Patullo, our muster-master, reviewed our army at Carlisle, when it did +not exceed four thousand five hundred men.’ Afterwards, returning to +Scotland, ‘our army was suddenly increased to eight thousand men, the +double of what it was when we were in England.’ p. 111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> ‘Orders were given to proceed in the direction of +Carlisle, and recall the detachment sent forward to Dumfries. The +Highlanders, still true to their stagnant principles, refused +obedience.’ … ‘Pecuniary negotiations were now commenced, and they were +offered sixpence a day of regular pay—reasonable remuneration at that +period to ordinary troops, but to the wild children of the mountain a +glittering bribe, which the most steady obstinacy would alone resist. It +was partly effective.’ <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 168. +‘And from this day, the Highlanders had sixpence a head per day payed +them to keep them in good order and under command.’ <i>Patten's History of +the late Rebellion</i>, London, 1717, p. 73. See also, on the unwillingness +of the Highlanders to enter England, <i>Rae's History of the Rebellion</i>, +London, 1746, 2d edit. pp. 270, 271. Browne says (<i>History of the +Highlands</i>, vol. ii. pp. 300, 304): ‘The aversion of the Highlanders, +from different considerations, to a campaign in England, was almost +insuperable;’ but ‘by the aid of great promises and money, the greater +part of the Highlanders were prevailed upon to follow the fortunes of +their commander.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> ‘Few victories have been more entire. It is said that +scarcely two hundred of the infantry escaped.’ … ‘The Highlanders +obtained a glorious booty in arms and clothes, besides self-moving +watches, and other products of civilisation, which surprised and puzzled +them. Excited by such acquisitions, a considerable number could not +resist the old practice of their people to return to their glens, and +decorate their huts with their spoil.’ <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, +vol. ii. p. 465. Compare <i>Home's History of the Rebellion</i>, p. 123. This +was an old practice of theirs, as Montrose found out, a century earlier, +‘when many of the Highlanders, being loaded with spoil, deserted +privately, and soon after returned to their own country.’ <i>Wishart's +Memoirs of the Marquis of Montrose</i>, Edinburgh, 1819, p. 189. So, too, +Burnet (<i>Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton</i>, p. 272): ‘Besides, any +companies could be brought down from the Highlands might do well enough +for a while, but no order could be expected from them, for as soon as +they were loaded with plunder and spoil, they would run away home to +their lurking holes, and desert those who had trusted them.’ See also p. +354. A more recent writer, drawing a veil over this little infirmity, +remarks, with much delicacy, that ‘the Highlanders, brave as they were, +had a custom of returning home after a battle.’ <i>Thomson's Memoirs of +the Jacobites</i>, London, 1845, vol. i. p. 122. Not unfrequently they +first robbed their fellow-soldiers. In 1746, Bisset writes: ‘The +Highlanders, who went off after the battel, carried off horses and +baggage from their own men, the Lowlanders.’ <i>Diary of the Reverend John +Bisset</i>, in <i>Miscellany of the Spalding Club</i>, vol. i. p. 377, Aberdeen, +1841, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> ‘Whoever desired, with the sword, to disturb or overturn a +fixed government, was sure of the aid of the chiefs, because a settled +government was ruinous to their power, and almost inimical to their +existence. The more it cultivated the arts of peace, and throve on +industrially created well-being, the more did it drive into an +antagonist position a people who did not change their nature, who made +no industrial progress, and who lived by the swords which acquired for +them the fruits of other men's industry. With their interests, a +peaceful, strong government was as inconsistent as a well-guarded +sheepfold with the interest of wolves.’ <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, +vol. i. pp. 105, 106. ‘The Highlanders, in all reigns, have been +remarkable for disturbing the established government of Scotland by +taking up arms on every invasion for the invaders.’ <i>Marchant's History +of the present Rebellion</i>, London, 1746, p. 18. See also <i>Macky's +Journey through Scotland</i>, London, 1732, p. 129; and a short, but very +curious, account of the Highlanders, in 1744, in <i>The Miscellany of the +Spalding Club</i>, vol. ii. pp. 87–89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> An observer, who had excellent opportunities of studying +their character between the rebellion of 1715 and that of 1745, writes, +‘The ordinary Highlanders esteem it the most sublime degree of virtue to +love their chief, and pay him a blind obedience, although it be in +opposition to the government, the laws of the kingdom, or even to the +law of God. He is their idol; and as <i>they profess to know no king but +him</i> (I was going farther), so will they say, they ought to do whatever +he commands, without inquiry.’ <i>Letters from a Gentleman in the North of +Scotland</i>, edit. London, 1815, vol. ii. pp. 83, 84. ‘The Highlanders in +Scotland are, of all men in the world, the soonest wrought upon to +follow their leaders or chiefs into the field, having a wonderful +veneration for their Lords and Chieftains, as they are called there: +<i>Nor do these people ever consider the validity of the engaging cause</i>, +but blindly follow their chiefs into what mischief they please, and that +with the greatest precipitation imaginable.’ <i>Patten's History of the +Rebellion</i>, London, 1717, p. 151. ‘The power of the chiefs over their +clans was the true source of the two rebellions. The clansmen cared no +more about the legitimate race of the Stuarts, than they did about the +war of the Spanish succession.’ … ‘The Jacobite Highland chiefs ranged +their followers on the Jacobite side—the Hanoverians ranged theirs on +the side of government. Lovat's conduct was a sort of <i>experimentum +crucis</i>; he made his clan Hanoverian in one rebellion, and Jacobite in +another.’ <i>Burton's Lives of Lovat and Forbes</i>, p. 150. Compare the +change of side of the Mackintoshes, in <i>Browne's History of the +Highlands</i>, vol. ii. p. 285. Even so late as the American war, the +sovereign was deemed subordinate to the chief. ‘One Captain Frazer from +the northern district, brought down a hundred of his clan, all of the +name of Frazer. Few of them could understand a word of English; and the +only distinct idea they had of all the mustering of forces which they +saw around them, was that they were going to fight for King Frazer and +George ta Three.’ <i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, pp. 49, 50, Perth, +1836.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Which gave rise to a report that they were cannibals. ‘The +late Mr. Halkston of Rathillet, who had been in this expedition’ (the +Rebellion of 1745), ‘told Mr. Young that the belief was general among +the people of England, that the Highlanders ate children.’ <i>Johnstone's +Memoirs of the Rebellion</i>, 3rd edit. London, 1822, p. 101. Such a +rumour, notwithstanding its absurdity, was made somewhat plausible by +the revolting conduct of the Highlanders in the first rebellion of 1715, +when they committed, in the Lowlands, horrible outrages on corpses which +they dug up. See the contemporary evidence, in <i>Correspondence of the +Rev. Robert Wodrow</i>, published by the Wodrow Society, vol. ii. pp. 86, +87, 93. ‘They have even raised up some of my Lord Rothes's children and +mangled their dead bodies’ … ‘till the stench put them away.’ In 1745, +they signalized their entrance into England in the following manner. +‘The rebels, during their stay in Carlisle, committed the most shocking +detestable villanies; for, not contented with robbing families of their +most valuable effects, they scrupled not to act their brutal insolence +on the persons of some young ladies, even in the presence of their +parents. A gentleman, in a letter to his friend in London, writes thus: +“That, after being in a manner stripped of every thing, he had the +misery to see three of his daughters treated in such a manner that he +could not relate it.”’ <i>Marchant's History of the present Rebellion</i>, +London, 1746, pp. 181, 182.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> Even when they had penetrated to Derby, the best informed +of their own party despaired of success. See the Jacobitical account in +<i>The Lockhart Papers</i>, London, 4to, 1817, vol. ii. p. 458: +‘The next thing to be considered of, was what was now to be done; +they were now at Derby, with an army not half the number of what they +were reported to be, surrounded in a manner with regular troops on all +sides, and more than double their number. To go forward, there was no +encouragement, for their friends (if they had any) had kept little or no +correspondence with them from the time they entered England.’ The +Chevalier de Johnstone, who took an active part in the Rebellion, +frankly says, ‘If we had continued to advance to London, and had +encountered all the troops of England, with the Hessians and Swiss in +its pay, there was every appearance of our being immediately +exterminated, without the chance of a single man escaping.’ <i>Johnstone's +Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 and 1746</i>, p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> Lord George Murray, the commander-in-chief in 1745, was +unwilling to advance far south of Carlisle, ‘without more encouragement +from the country than we had hitherto got.’ See his own account, in <i>The +Jacobite Memoirs of the Rebellion of 1745</i>, edited by R. Chambers, +Edinburgh, 1834, p. 48. But his prudent advice was overruled. The +Highlanders pressed on; and that happened, which any one, tolerably +acquainted with England, might have foreseen. Johnstone (<i>Memoirs of the +Rebellion</i>, p. 70) says, ‘In case of a defeat in England, no one in our +army could by any possibility escape destruction, as the <i>English +peasants were hostile towards us in the highest degree</i>; and, besides, +the army of Marshal Wade was in our rear, to cut us off from all +communication with Scotland.’ And at p. 81, ‘In every place we passed +through, we found the English very ill disposed towards us, except at +Manchester, where there appeared some remains of attachment to the house +of Stuart.’ The champion of arbitrary power would find a different +reception now, in that magnificent specimen of English prosperity, and +of true, open-mouthed, English fearlessness. But a century ago, the men +of Manchester were poor and ignorant; and the statement of Johnstone +respecting them is confirmed by Home, who says, ‘At Manchester, several +gentlemen, and about 200 or 300 of the common people, joined the rebel +army; <i>these were the only Englishmen (a few individuals excepted) who +joined Charles in his march through the country of England</i>.’ <i>Home's +History of the Rebellion in 1745</i>, London, 1802, 4to, p. 145. +In 1715, the English equally held back, except at Manchester. See +<i>Patten's History of the late Rebellion</i>, London, 1717, pp. 89, 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> The establishment of roads caused great displeasure. +Pennant, who visited Scotland in 1769, says, ‘These publick works were +at first very disagreeable to the old chieftains, and lessened their +influence greatly: for by admitting strangers among them, their clans +were taught that the Lairds were not the first of men.’ <i>Pennant's Tour +in Scotland</i>, 4th edit. Dublin, 1775, vol. i. p. 204. Towards the end of +the eighteenth century, this feeling began to die away. ‘Till of late, +the people of Kintail, as well as other Highlands, had a strong aversion +to roads. The more inaccessible, the more secure, was their maxim.’ +<i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. p. 244, +Edinburgh, 1793.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> ‘Soon after the establishment of the revolution +settlement, the ardent feelings of the Scottish people were turned out +of their old channels of religious controversy and war in the direction +of commercial enterprise.’ <i>Burton's Criminal Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. +i. p. 104. Compare <i>Burnet's History of his own Time</i>, vol. iv. pp. 286, +287, 418; and the note (at p. 419): ‘The lords and commons of Scotland +were then desirous of getting into trade.’ This is under the year 1699. +In 1698, Fletcher of Saltoun writes: ‘by no contrivance of any man, but +by an unforeseen and unexpected change of the genius of this nation, all +their thoughts and inclinations, as if united and directed by a higher +power, seemed to be turned upon trade, and to conspire together for its +advancement.’ <i>First Discourse on the Affairs of Scotland</i>, in <i>Fletcher +of Saltoun's Political Works</i>, Glasgow, 1749, p. 57. At this, the clergy +were uneasy. In 1709, the Reverend Robert Wodrow expresses an opinion, +in one of his letters, that ‘the sin of our too great fondness for +trade, to the neglecting of our more valuable interests, I humbly think +will be written upon our judgment.’ <i>Wodrow's Correspondence</i>, +Edinburgh, 1842, 8vo, vol. i. p. 67. In the same year, some ships being +taken by the French, part of the loss fell upon Glasgow. Thereupon, +Wodrow writes: ‘It's said that in all there is about eighty thousand +pound sterling lost there, whereof Glasgow has lost ten thousand pound. +I wish trading persons may see the language of such a Providence. I am +sure the Lord is remarkably frouning upon our trade, in more respects +than one, since it was put in the room of religion, in the late +alteration of our constitution.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 218, +4to, published by the Maitland Club.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> Laing (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 296), under the +year 1703, says: ‘Ever since the projected settlement at Darien, the +genius of the nation had acquired a new direction; and as the press is +the true criterion of the spirit of the times, the numerous productions +on political and commercial subjects, with which it daily teemed, had +supplanted the religious disputes of the former age.’ Unfortunately for +Scotland, they were by no means supplanted. Still, the movement was +great, and not to be mistaken.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> ‘It was only in 1710, that they began to throw off their +armour, and allow the soldier to merge into the quiet and industrious +craftsman.’ <i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, p. 335, Perth, 1836. This +particularly applies to the citizens of Perth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> On these ‘hereditary or proprietary jurisdictions,’ which +conferred the right, or, I would rather say, the power, of putting +people to death, see <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 425, +vol. ii. p. 402. The technical term for so monstrous a privilege, was +the right ‘of pit and gallows.’ <i>Pitcairn's Criminal Trials in +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 94; and <i>Mackenzie's Laws and Customs of Scotland +in Matters Criminal</i>, pp. 70, 100, 187, 210. This meant, that men were +to be hung, and women to be drowned. See also <i>Arnot's History of +Edinburgh</i>, p. 224; <i>Fountainhall's Notes of Scottish Affairs</i>, p. 139; +<i>Hume's History of the House of Douglas</i>, vol. i. p. 346; <i>Lettice's +Scotland</i>, p. 271; <i>Sinclair's Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 417, vol. iv. p. +478, vol. vi. pp. 195, 258, vol. viii. pp. 129, 348, vol. xiii. p. 563, +vol. xiv. p. 34, vol. xvii. pp. 442, 600, vol. xviii. p. 473.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> Laing (<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 345) says, that +in 1706, ‘the commons in the Scottish parliament were 160; the peers +145.’ Of these peers, the Treaty of Union declared that ‘sixteen shall +be the number to sit and vote in the House of Lords.’ <i>De Foe's History +of the Union between England and Scotland</i>, London, 1786, 4to, pp. 205, +538. The English House of Lords consisted of 179 members. See <i>The +Lockhart Papers</i>, London, 1817, 4to, vol. i. pp. 343, 547. It was +impossible to mistake the result of this sweeping measure, by which, as +was said at the time, ‘Scotland was to retrench her nobility.’ <i>De Foe's +History of the Union</i>, p. 495. Compare p. 471: ‘The nobility being +thereby, as it were, degraded of their characters.’ In 1710, a Scotchman +writes in his journal: ‘It was one of the melancholyest sights to any +that have any sense of our antient Nobility, to see them going throu for +votes, and making partys, and giving their votes to others who once had +their oun vote; and I suspect many of them reu the bargain they made, in +giving their oun pouer away.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 308.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> The Scotch, consequently, became so eager to do away with +this source of mirth, that even as late as the year 1761, when the +notorious lecturer, Sheridan, visited Edinburgh, ‘such was the rage for +speaking with an English accent, that more than three hundred gentlemen, +among whom were the most eminent in the country for rank and learning, +attended him.’ <i>Ritchie's Life of Hume</i>, London, 1807, p. 94. It was, +however, during about twenty years immediately after the Union, that the +Scotch members of Parliament, both Lords and Commons, were most jeered +at in London, and were treated with marked disrespect, socially and +politically. Not only were they mocked and lampooned, but they were also +made tools of. In September 1711, Wodrow writes (<i>Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. +348, 4to, 1842): ‘In the beginning of this (month), I hear a generall +dissatisfaction our Nobility, that wer at last Parliament, have at their +treatment at London. They complean they are only made use of as tools +among the English, and cast by when their party designes are over.’ The +next year (1712), the Scotch members of the House of Commons met +together, and expressed their ‘high resentment of the uncivil, haughty +treatment they mett with from the English.’ <i>The Lockhart Papers</i>, +London, 1817, 4to, vol. i. p. 417. See, further, <i>Burton's History of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 27. ‘Without descending to rudeness, the polished +contemporaries of Wharton and St. John could madden the sensitive and +haughty Scots by light shafts of raillery, about their pronunciation or +knowledge of parliamentary etiquette.’ Some curious observations upon +the way in which the Scotch pronounced English, late in the seventeenth +century, will be found in <i>Morer's Short Account of Scotland</i>, London, +1702, pp. 13, 14. The author of this book was chaplain to a Scotch +regiment.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Among many illustrations with which contemporary memoirs +abound, the following is by no means the worst. Burnet, as a Scotchman, +thinks proper to say that those of his countrymen who were sent to +parliament, ‘were persons of such distinction, that they very well +deserved’ the respect and esteem with which they were treated. To which, +Lord Dartmouth adds: ‘and were very importunate to have their deserts +rewarded. A Scotch earl pressed Lord Godolphin extremely for a place. He +said there was none vacant. The other said, his lordship could soon make +one so, if he pleased. Lord Godolphin asked him, if he expected to have +any body killed to make room? He said, No; but Lord Dartmouth commonly +voted against the court, and every body wondered that he had not been +turned out before now. Lord Godolphin told him, he hoped his lordship +did not expect that he should be the person to propose it; and advised +him never to mention it any more, for fear the queen should come to hear +of it; for if she did, his lordship would run great risk never to have a +place as long as she lived. But he could not forbear telling every +where, how ill the lord treasurer had used him.’ <i>Burnet's History of +his own Time</i>, vol. v. p. 349, Oxford, 1823. Compare the account, in +1710, in <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 293. ‘Argyle is both picked +(<i>i.e.</i> piqued) at Marlburrou, and his brother Yla, for refusing him a +regiment; and Godolphin should have said to the queen that my Lord Yla +was not to be trusted with a regiment! The Earl of Marr was one of the +greatest cronnies Godolphine had, till the matter of his pension, after +the Secretary office was taken from him, came about. Godolphine caused +draw it during pleasure; Marr expected it during life, which the +Treasurer would not yield to, and therefore they brake.’ The history of +the time is full of these wretched squabbles, which show what the Scotch +nobles were made of. Indeed, their rapacity was so shameless, that, in +1711, several of them refused to perform their legislative duties in +London, unless they received some offices which they expected. ‘About +the midle of this moneth, I hear ther was a meeting of severall of our +Scots Peers, at the Viscount of Kilsyth's, where they concerted not to +goe up to this parliament till peremptorly writ for; and (also) some +assurance be given of the places they were made to hope for last session +and have missed.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 365. In 1712, the same +Scotchman writes (<i>Analecta</i>, vol. ii. p. 8): ‘Our Scots Peers' secession +from the House of Peers makes much noise; but they doe not hold by it. +They sometimes come and sometimes goe, and <i>they render themselves base +in the eyes of the English</i>.’ See also a letter ‘concerning the Scots +Peerage,’ in <i>Somers' Tracts</i>, vol. xii. p. 607, edit. Scott, London, +1814, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> A Scotch writer, twenty years after the Union, says: +‘Most of our gentlemen and people of quality, who have the best estates +in our country, live for the most part at London.’ <i>Reasons for +improving the Fisheries and Linen Manufacture of Scotland</i>, London, +1727, p. 22. I do not know who wrote this curious little treatise; but +the author was evidently a native of Scotland. See p. 25. I have, +however, still earlier evidence to adduce. A letter from Wodrow, dated +9th of August 1725, complains of ‘the general sending our youth of +quality to England:’ and a letter to him, in 1716, describes the +Anglicizing process going on among the Scotch aristocracy, only nine +years after the Union. ‘Most of our Lords and others here do so much +depend on the English for their posts, and <i>seeking somewhat or other</i>, +that their mouths are almost quite stopped; and really <i>most of them go +into the English way in all things</i>.’ <i>Wodrow's Correspondence</i>, vol. +ii. p. 196, vol. iii. p. 224. The Earl of Mar lost popularity in +Scotland, on account of the court he paid to Lord Godolphin; for, he +‘appears to have passed much more time in intrigues in London than among +the gardens of Alloa.’ <i>Thomson's Memoirs of the Jacobites</i>, vol. i. p. +36. Even Earl Ilay, in his anxiety to advance himself at the English +court, ‘used to regret his being a Scots peer, and to wish earnestly he +was a commoner.’ <i>Letters of Lord Grange</i>, in <i>The Miscellany of the +Spalding Club</i>, vol. iii. p. 39, Aberdeen, 4to, 1846.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> Indeed, their expectation ran so high, as to induce a +hope, not only that those Commissioners of the Union who were Scotch +peers should be made English ones, but that ‘the whole nobility of +Scotland might in time be admitted.’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. +iv. p. 346. Compare <i>The Lockhart Papers</i>, vol. i. pp. 298, 343: ‘the +Scots Peerage, many of whom had been bubled with the hopes of being +themselves created British Peers.’ Also <i>The Gordon Letters</i>, in <i>The +Miscellany of the Spalding Club</i>, vol. iii. pp. 227, 228.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> The Chevalier de Johnstone, in his plaintive remarks on +the battle of Culloden, says: ‘The ruin of many of the most illustrious +families in Scotland immediately followed our defeat.’ <i>Johnstone's +Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745</i>, p. 211. He, of course, could not +perceive that, sad as such ruin was to the individual sufferers, it was +an immense benefit to the nation. Mr. Skene, referring to the year 1748, +says of the Highlanders: ‘their long-cherished ideas of clanship +gradually gave way under the absence and ruin of so many of their +chiefs.’ <i>Skene's Highlanders</i>, vol. i. p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> ‘About 1784, the exiled families began to return.’ +<i>Penny's Traditions of Perth</i>, p. 41. See also <i>Macpherson's Annals of +Commerce</i>, vol. iv. p. 53. In 1784, ‘a bill passed the Commons without +opposition,’ to restore the ‘Forfeited Estates’ in the north of +Scotland. See <i>Parliamentary History</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 1316–1322. On that +occasion, Fox said (p. 1321) the proprietors ‘had been sufficiently +punished by forty years' deprivation of their fortunes for the faults of +their ancestors.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> Dean Ramsay, in his <i>Reminiscences</i> (5th edit. Edinburgh, +1859, p. 57), notices that, owing to ‘transfers of property and +extinction of old families in the Highlands, as well as from more +general causes,’ the old clannish affection ‘is passing away.’ But this +intelligent observer has not indicated the connexion between so +important a fact and the Rebellion of 1745. In 1792, Heron writes: ‘The +prejudices of clanship have almost died away.’ … ‘The dependents of +the family of Kenmure are still attached to its representative with much +of that affection and respect with which the tribes of the Highlands +have <i>till lately</i> been accustomed to adhere to their lord.’ <i>Heron's +Journey through the Western Counties of Scotland</i>, 2nd edit. Perth, +1799, vol. i. p. 248, vol. ii. p. 154. See also the remarks made, in the +same year, in <i>Lettice's Letters on a Tour through various parts of +Scotland</i>, London, 1794, p. 340. To trace the movement back still +further, Pennant writes, in 1769: ‘But in many parts of the Highlands, +their character begins to be more faintly marked; they mix more with the +world; and <i>become daily less attached to their chiefs</i>.’ … +‘During the feudal reign, their love for their +chieftain induced them to bear many things, at <i>present intolerable</i>.’ +These two important passages are in the 4th edition of <i>Pennant's Tour +in Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 194, vol. ii. p. 307, Dublin, 1775. They prove +that, twenty-four years after the Rebellion of 1745, the decay of +affection was so manifest, as to strike a candid and careful, but by no +means philosophic, observer. For Pennant to have discerned these +changes, they must already have risen to the surface. Other and +corroborative evidence will be found in <i>Sinclair's Account of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 545, Edinburgh, 1792; and vol. iii. pp. 377, 437, +vol. xiii. p. 310, vol. xv. p. 592, vol. xx. p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> <i>Burton's History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 535–537. +<i>Struthers' History of Scotland</i>, Glasgow, 1828, vol. ii. pp. 519–525.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> Macpherson (<i>Annals of Commerce</i>, vol. iii. p. 259) says, +‘This excellent statute may not unfitly be termed a new magna charta to +the free people of Scotland.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> I cannot, therefore, agree with Macpherson, who asserts, +in his valuable work, that the abolition of these jurisdictions ‘should +undoubtedly have been made an essential preliminary of the consolidating +union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, concluded forty years +before.’ <i>Macpherson's Annals of Commerce</i>, vol. iii. p. 257. Compare +<i>De Foe's History of the Union between England and Scotland</i>, pp. 458, +459, London, 1786, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> In 1740, ‘the rising manufacturing and trading interests +of the country’ were ‘looked down upon and discouraged by the feudal +aristocracy.’ <i>Burton's Lives of Lovat and Forbes</i>, p. 361.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> ‘Whereas Scotland had, before this, prohibited all the +English woollen manufactures, under severe penalties, and England, on +the other hand, had excluded the Scots from trading with Scots ships to +their colonies in America, directly from Scotland, and had confiscated +even their own English ships trading to the said colonies from England, +if navigated or manned with above one-third Scots seamen,’ &c. <i>De Foe's +History of the Union</i>, p. 603. In 1696, the wise men in our English +Parliament passed a law, ‘that on no pretence whatever any kind of goods +from the English American plantations should hereafter be put on shore, +either in the kingdoms of Ireland or Scotland, without being first +landed in England, and having also paid the duties there, under +forfeiture of ship and cargo.’ <i>Macpherson's Annals of Commerce</i>, vol. +ii. p. 684. Certainly, the more a man knows of the history of +legislation, the more he will wonder that nations should have been able +to advance in the face of the formidable impediments which legislators +have thrown in their way.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> ‘A spirit for commerce appears to have been raised among +the inhabitants of Glasgow between the periods of 1660 and 1707, when +the union with England took place.’ … But, ‘whatever their trade was, +at this time, it could not be considerable; the ports to which they were +obliged to trade, lay all to the eastward; the circumnavigation of the +island would, therefore, prove an almost insurmountable bar to the +commerce of Glasgow; the people upon the east coast, from their +situation, would be in possession of almost the whole commerce of +Scotland.’ <i>Gibson's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 205, Glasgow, 1777.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> ‘The importance of the measure induced the inhabitants of +Greenock to make a contract with the superior, by which they agreed to +an assessment of 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> sterling on every sack of malt, brewed into +ale, within the limits of the town; the money so levied to be applied in +liquidating the expence of forming a proper harbour at Greenock. The +work was begun at the epoch of the Union, in 1707; and a capacious +harbour, containing upwards of ten Scottish acres, was formed by +building an extensive circular pier, with a straight pier, or tongue, in +the middle, by which the harbour was divided into two parts. This +formidable work, the greatest of the kind, at that time, in Scotland, +incurred an expence of more than 100,000 marks Scots.’ <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 807, London, 1824, 4to. <i>In M'Culloch's +Geographical and Statistical Dictionary</i>, London, 1849, vol. i. p. 930, +it is stated, that ‘the inhabitants took the matter (1707) into their +own hands, and agreed with their superior to assess themselves at a +certain rate, to build a proper pier and harbour. The work was finished +in 1710, at an expence of 5,555<i>l.</i>’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> ‘The trade of Greenock has kept pace with the +improvements made on its harbour. The union of the kingdoms (1707) +opened the colonies to the enterprising inhabitants of this town, and +generally of the west of Scotland; but it was not till 1719 that the +first vessel belonging to Greenock crossed the Atlantic.’ <i>M'Culloch's +Geographical and Statistical Dictionary</i>, vol. i. p. 930.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> ‘Such was the effect of the new harbour in increasing the +trade, and the population, of the town, that the assessment, and port +dues, cleared off the whole debt before 1740, and left, in that year, a +clear surplus of 27,000 marks Scots, or 1,500<i>l.</i> sterling.’ <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 807. ‘After the Union, however, the trade of +the port increased so rapidly, that, in the year 1740, the whole debt +was extinguished, and there remained a surplus, the foundation of the +present town's funds, of 27,000 marks.’ <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account +of Scotland</i>, vol. v. p. 576, Edinburgh, 1793.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> ‘By the Union, however, new views were opened up to the +merchants of the city; they thereby obtained the liberty of a free +commerce to America and the West Indies, from which they had been before +shut out; they chartered English vessels for these voyages, having none +at first fit for the purpose; sent out cargoes of goods for the use of +the colonies, and returned home laden with tobacco. The business doing +well, vessels were built belonging to the city, and in the year 1718, +the first ship, the property of Glasgow, crossed the Atlantic.’ +<i>Denholm's History of Glasgow</i>, p. 405, 3rd edit. Glasgow, 1804. Brown +(<i>History of Glasgow</i>, vol. ii. p. 330, Edinburgh, 1797) says, that the +Glasgow merchants ‘chartered Whitehaven ships for many years:’ but that, +‘in 1716, a vessel of sixty tons burden was launched at Crawford's dike, +being the first Clyde ship that went to the British Settlements in +America with goods and a supercargo.’ But this date is probably two +years too early. Mr. M'Culloch, in his excellent <i>Geographical and +Statistical Dictionary</i>, London, 1849, vol. ii. p. 659, says: ‘But for a +while, the merchants of Glasgow, who first embarked in the trade to +America, carried it on by means of vessels belonging to English ports; +and it was not till 1718 that a ship built in Scotland (in the Clyde), +the property of Scotch owners, sailed for the American colonies.’ +Gibson, also (<i>History of Glasgow</i>, 1777, p. 206), says: ‘In 1718, the +first vessel of the property of Glasgow crossed the Atlantic.’ And, to +the same effect, <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. v. +p. 498, Edinburgh, 1793.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> The progress was so rapid, that, in a work printed in +1732, it is stated, that ‘this city of Glasgow is a place of the +greatest trade in the kingdom, especially to the Plantations; from +whence they have twenty or thirty sail of ships every year, laden with +tobacco and sugar; an advantage this kingdom never enjoyed till the +Union. They are purchasing a harbour on the Frith, near Alloway, to +which they have but twelve miles by land; and then they can re-ship +their sugars and tobacco, for Holland, Germany, and the Baltick Sea, +without being at the trouble of sailing round England or Scotland.’ +<i>Macky's Journey through Scotland</i>, pp. 294, 295, 2nd edit. London, +1732. The first edition of this book was also printed in 1732. See +<i>Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica</i>, vol. i. p. 631 m., Edinburgh, 1824, +4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> Gibson, who was a Glasgow merchant, says, in his <i>History +of Glasgow</i>, p. 236, ‘that the commerce to America first suggested the +idea of introducing manufactures into Glasgow, is to me very evident; +and that they were only attempted to be introduced about the year 1725 +is apparent.’ Denholm (<i>History of Glasgow</i>, p. 412) says: ‘The linen +manufacture, which began here in the year 1725, was, for a long time, +the staple, not only of this city, but of the west of Scotland.’ Compare +<i>Heron's Journey through the Western Counties of Scotland</i>, Perth, 1799, +vol. ii. p. 412.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> ‘Consisting only of one principal street about half a +mile in length.’ <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. +p. 62. But the local historian mentions, with evident pride, that this +one street contained ‘handsome houses.’ <i>Crawfurd's History of the Shire +of Renfrew</i>, part iii. p. 305, edit. Paisley, 1782, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> <i>Denholm's History of Glasgow</i>, pp. 546, 547; and +<i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 62–64. See +also, on the rise of Paisley, <i>Heron's Journey through the Western +Counties of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 399, 400; <i>Pennant's Tour in +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. p. 144; and <i>Crawfurd's History of the Shire of Renfrew</i>, part iii. p. 321. At an +earlier period, Paisley was famous in a different way. In the middle +ages it swarmed with monks. Keith (<i>Catalogue of Scotch Bishops</i>, p. +252, Edinburgh, 1755, 4to) tells us that, ‘it formerly was a Priory, and +afterwards changed into an Abbey of Black Monks.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> The author of <i>The Interest of Scotland Considered</i>, +Edinburgh, 1733, says (p. xvi.) that since 1727, ‘we have happily turned +our eyes upon the improvement of our manufactures, which is now a common +subject in discourse, and this contributes not a little to its +success.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> Morer, who was in Scotland in 1688 and 1689, says: ‘But +that which employs great part of their land is hemp, of which they have +mighty burdens, and on which they bestow much care and pains to dress +and prepare it for making their linen, the most noted and beneficial +manufacture of the kingdom.’ <i>Morer's Short Account of Scotland</i>, +London, 1702, pp. 3, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> ‘The duties upon linen from Scotland being taken off in +England, made so great a demand for Scots linen more than usual, that it +seemed the poor could want no employment.’ <i>De Foe's History of the +Union between England and Scotland</i>, p. 604. Compare <i>Macpherson's +Annals of Commerce</i>, vol. ii. p. 736: ‘a prodigious vent, not only in +England, but for the American plantations.’ This concerns a later +period.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> ‘The surplus of linen made above the consumption, was, in +1728, 2,183,978 yards; in 1738, 4,666,011.’ <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. +i. p. 873. On the increase between 1728 and 1732, see the Table in <i>The +Interest of Scotland Considered</i>, Edinburgh, 1733, p. 97. In a work +published in 1732, it is stated that ‘they make a great deal of linnen +all over the kingdom, not only for their own use, but export it to +England, and to the Plantations. In short, the women are all kept +employ'd, from the highest to the lowest of them.’ <i>Macky's Journey +through Scotland</i>, London, 1732, p. 271. This refers merely to the women +of Scotland, whom Macky represents as much more industrious than the +men.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> In 1745, Craik writes to Lord Nithisdale, ‘The present +family have now reigned over us these thirty years, and though during so +long a time they may have fallen into errors, or may have committed +faults, (as what Government is without?) yett I will defy the most +sanguine zealot to find in history a period equal to this in which +Scotland possessed so uninterrupted a felicity, in which liberty, civil +and religious, was so universally enjoyed by all people of whatever +denomination—nay, by the open and avowed ennemys of the family and +constitution, or a period in which all ranks of men have been so +effectually secured in their property. Have not trade, manufactures, +agriculture, and the spirit of industry in our country extended +themselves further during this period and under this family than for +ages before?’ <i>Thomson's Memoirs of the Jacobites</i>, London, 1845, vol. +ii. pp. 60, 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> <i>Crawfurd's History of the Shire of Renfrew</i>, part ii. p. +114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. vii. +p. 341, compared with vol. xii. pp. 176, 177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 483.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. xii. +p. 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. v. p. 297.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> <i>Kennedy's Annals of Aberdeen</i>, vol. ii. pp. 199, 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. xvi. +p. 520: ‘About the year 1750.’ I need hardly say, that some of these +dates, depending upon tradition, are given by the authors +approximatively.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> ‘Betwixt the year 1750 and 1760, a great degree of +patriotic enthusiasm arose in Scotland to encourage arts and +manufactures; and the <i>Edinburgh Society</i> was established in 1755 for +the express purpose of improving these.’ <i>Bower's History of the +University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. iii. pp. 126, 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> ‘The first county-bank that anywhere appeared, was the +Aberdeen Bank, which was settled in 1749: it was immediately followed by +a similar establishment in Glasgow during the same year.’ <i>Chalmers' +Caledonia</i>, vol. iii. p. 9, 4to, 1824. Kennedy (<i>Annals of Aberdeen</i>, +4to, 1818, vol. ii. p. 195) says: ‘Banking was originally projected in +Aberdeen about the year 1752, by a few of the principal citizens who +were engaged in commerce and manufactures. They commenced business, upon +a limited scale, in an office on the north side of the Castle Street, +issued notes of hand, of five pounds and of twenty shillings sterling, +and discounted bills and promissory notes, for the accommodation of the +public.’ It is uncertain if Chalmers knew of this passage; but he was a +more accurate writer than Kennedy, and I, therefore, prefer his +authority. Besides, Kennedy vaguely says, ‘about the year 1752.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> ‘After having been frequently proposed, since the Union, +this canal was at length begun in 1768, and finished in 1790. The trade +upon it is already great, and is rapidly increasing.’ <i>Sinclair's +Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 279, 280, Edinburgh, +1792. See also vol. xii. p. 125; <i>Irving's History of Dumbartonshire</i>, +1860, 4to, p. 247; and an interesting contemporary notice in <i>Nimmo's +History of Stirlingshire</i>, Edinburgh, 1777, pp. 468–481. In 1767, Watt +was employed as a surveyor. See <i>Muirhead's Life of Watt</i>, 2nd edit. +London, 1859, p. 167.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> I will quote, in a single passage, the opinions of an +eminent German and of an eminent Scotchman. ‘Dr. Spurzheim, when he last +visited Scotland, remarked that the Scotch appeared to him to be the +most priest-ridden nation in Europe; Spain and Portugal not excepted. +<i>After having seen other countries, I can understand the force of this +observation.</i>’ <i>Notes on the United States of North America by George +Combe</i>, vol. iii. p. 32, Edinburgh, 1841.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot">AN EXAMINATION OF THE SCOTCH INTELLECT DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</div> + +<p>The remaining part of this volume, I purpose to devote +to an attempt to unravel still further that two-fold +paradox, which forms the prominent peculiarity of the +history of Scotland. The paradox consists, as we have +seen, in the fact, first, that the same people have long +been liberal in politics, and illiberal in religion; and, +secondly, that the brilliant, inquisitive, and sceptical +literature which they produced in the eighteenth century, +was unable to weaken their superstition, or to instil +into them wiser and larger maxims on religious matters. +From an early period, there were, as I have endeavoured +to show, many circumstances which predisposed the +Scotch to superstition, and, so far, had a general connexion +with the subject before us. But the remarkable +phenomenon with which we are immediately concerned, +may, I think, be traced to two distinct causes. The first +cause was, that, for a hundred and twenty years after +the establishment of Protestantism, the rulers of Scotland +either neglected the Church or persecuted it, +thereby driving the clergy into the arms of the people, +from whom alone they could obtain sympathy and +support. Hence an alliance between the two parties, +more intimate than would otherwise have been possible; +and hence, too, the rise of that democratic spirit which +was the necessary consequence of such an union, and +which the clergy encouraged, because they were opposed +and thwarted by the upper classes. So far, the result +was extremely beneficial, as it produced a love of independence +and a hatred of tyranny, which, twice +during the seventeenth century, saved the country from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +the yoke of a cruel despotism. But these very circumstances, +which guarded the people against political +despotism, exposed them all the more to ecclesiastical +despotism. For, having no one to trust except their +preachers, they trusted them entirely and upon all +subjects. The clergy gradually became supreme, not +only in spiritual matters, but also in temporal ones. +Late in the sixteenth century, they had been glad to +take refuge among the people; before the middle of the +seventeenth century, they ruled the people. How +shamefully they abused their power, and how, by encouraging +the worst kind of superstition, they prolonged +the reign of ignorance, and stopped the march of +society, will be related in the course of this chapter; +but, in fairness to them, we ought to acknowledge, that +the religious servitude into which the Scotch fell during +the seventeenth century, was, on the whole, a willing +one, and that, mischievous as it was, it had at least a +noble origin, inasmuch as the influence of the Protestant +clergy is mainly to be ascribed to the fearlessness +with which they came forward as leaders of the +people, at a period when that post was full of danger, +and when the upper classes were ready to unite with +the crown in destroying the last vestiges of national +liberty.</p> + +<p>To trace the operation of this cause of Scotch superstition, +will be the business of the present chapter; +while, in the next and concluding chapter, I shall +examine the other cause, which I have as yet hardly +mentioned. This latter inquiry will involve some considerations +respecting the philosophy of method, still +imperfectly appreciated among us, and on which the +history of the Scotch mind will throw considerable +light. For, it will appear, that, during the eighteenth +century, the ablest Scotchmen, with hardly an exception, +adopted a method of investigating truth, which +cut them off from the sympathies of their countrymen, +and prevented their works from producing the effect +which they might otherwise have done. The result +was, that though a very sceptical literature was produced, +scepticism made no progress, and therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +superstition was undiminished. The highly-educated +minds, indeed, were affected; but they formed a class +apart, and there were no means of communication +between them and the people. That this was owing to +the method which literary men employed, I hope to +prove in the next chapter; and if I succeed in doing so, +it will be evident, that I have been guilty of no exaggeration +in terming this the second great cause of the +prolongation of Scotch superstition, since it was sufficiently +powerful to prevent the intellectual classes from +exercising their natural functions as the disturbers of +old opinions.</p> + +<p>We have already seen, that almost immediately after +the Reformation, ill-feeling arose between the upper +classes and the spiritual leaders of the Protestant church, +and that this ill-feeling increased until, in 1580, it vented +itself by the abolition of episcopacy. This bold and +decisive measure made the breach irreparable. The +preachers had now committed themselves too far to recede, +even if they had desired to do so; and from that +moment, uniting themselves heartily with the people, +they took up a position which they have never since +abandoned. During the remaining twenty-three years +that James was in Scotland, they were occupied in +exciting the people against their rulers; and as they +became more democratic, so did the crown and nobles +grow more hostile, and display, for the first time, a disposition +to combine together in defence of their common +interests. In 1603, James ascended the throne of England, +and the struggle began in earnest. It lasted, with +few interruptions, eighty-five years, and, during its +continuance, the Presbyterian clergy never wavered; +they were always steady to the good cause; always on +the side of the people. This greatly increased their +influence; and what favoured it still more was, that, +besides being the champions of popular liberty, they +were also the champions of national independence. When +James I. and the two Charles's attempted to force episcopacy +upon Scotland, the Scotch rejected it, not only +because they hated the institution, but also because they +looked on it as the mark of a foreign domination, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +they were determined to resist. Their nearest and +most dangerous enemy was England; and they spurned +the idea of receiving bishops who must, in the first +instance, be consecrated in London, and who, it was +certain, would never have been admitted into Scotland +unless England had been the stronger country. It was, +therefore, on patriotic, as well as religious, grounds, that +the Scotch clergy, during the seventeenth century, +struggled against episcopacy;<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> and when they overthrew +it, in 1638, their bold and determined conduct +associated, in the popular mind, the love of country with +the love of the church. Subsequent events strengthened +this association.<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> In 1650, Cromwell invaded Scotland, +overthrew the Scotch in the battle of Dunbar, and intrusted +to Monk the task of curbing their spirit, by +building fortresses, and establishing a long chain of +military posts.<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> The nation, cowed and broken, gave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +way, and, for the first time for three centuries, felt the +pressure of a foreign yoke. The clergy alone remained +firm.<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> Cromwell, who knew that they were the chief +obstacle to completing his conquest, hated them, and +did every thing he could to ruin them.<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> But their +power was too deeply seated to be shaken. From their +pulpits, they continued to influence and animate the +people. In face of the invaders, and in spite of them, +the Scotch church continued to hold its General Assemblies, +until the summer of 1653. Then, indeed, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +had to yield to brute force; and the people, to their +unutterable grief, beheld the venerated representatives +of the Scotch kirk driven from their place of meeting +by English soldiers, and led like criminals through the +streets of Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p> + +<p>Thus it was that in Scotland, after the latter part of +the sixteenth century, every thing tended to increase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +the reputation of the clergy, by raising them to the +foremost rank among the defenders of their country. +And it was but natural that the spiritual classes, finding +themselves in the ascendant, should conduct the contest +according to views habitual to their profession, and +should be anxious for religious advantages, rather than +for temporal benefits. The war which the Scotch +waged against Charles I. partook more of the character +of a crusade than any war ever carried on by a Protestant +nation.<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> The main object was, to raise up presbyters, +and to destroy bishops. Prelacy was the +accursed thing, and that must be rooted out at every +hazard. To this, all other considerations were subordinate.<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> +The Scotch loved liberty, and hated England. +Yet, even these two passions, notwithstanding their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +strength, were as nothing, in comparison with their +intense desire to extend and to propagate, if need be at +the point of the sword, their own Presbyterian polity. +This was their first and paramount duty. They fought, +indeed, for freedom, but, above all, they fought for +religion. In their eyes, Charles was the idolatrous head +of an idolatrous church, and that church they were +resolved to destroy. They felt that their cause was +holy, and they went forth full of confidence, convinced +that the sword of Gideon was drawn on their side, and +that their enemies would be delivered up to them.</p> + +<p>The rebellion, therefore, against Charles, which, on +the part of the English, was essentially secular,<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> was, +on the part of the Scotch, essentially religious. This +was because with us, the laymen were stronger than the +clergy; while with them, the clergy were stronger than +the laymen. In 1643, both nations having united +against the king, it was thought advisable that an +intimate alliance should be concluded; but, in the +negotiations which followed, it is noticed, by a contemporary +observer, that though the English merely wished +for a civil league, the Scotch demanded a religious +covenant.<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> And as they would only continue the war +on condition that this was granted, the English were +obliged to give way. The result was the Solemn League +and Covenant, by which what seemed a cordial union +was effected between the two countries.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> Such a +compact was, however, sure to be short-lived, as each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +party had different objects; the aim of the English +being political, while that of the Scotch was religious. +The consequences of this difference were soon apparent. +In January 1645, negotiations having been opened with +the king, commissioners met at Uxbridge, with the +view of concluding a peace. The attempt failed, as +might have been expected, seeing that, not only were +the pretensions of the king irreconcilable with those of +his opponents, but that the pretensions of his opponents +were irreconcilable with each other. At Uxbridge, +during the conferences, the Scotch expressed their +readiness to concede to him what he required, if he +would gratify them in regard to the Church; while the +English, occupying themselves with civil and political +questions, cared less, says Clarendon, for what concerned +the Church than for anything else.<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> A better illustration +could hardly be found of the secular character +of the English rebellion, as compared with the spiritual +character of the Scotch rebellion. Indeed, the Scotch, +so far from concealing this, boasted of it, and evidently +thought that it proved how superior they were to their +worldly-minded neighbours. In February 1645, the +General Assembly issued an address to the nation, including +not only those who were at home, but also those +who served in armies out of Scotland. In this document, +which, proceeding from such a quarter, necessarily +exercised great influence, political considerations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +as having to do merely with the temporal happiness +of men, are treated as insignificant, and almost despicable. +That Rupert was defeated, and that York +and Newcastle were taken, were but trifling matters. +They were only the means of accomplishing an end, +and that end was the reformation of religion in England, +and the establishment there of the pure Presbyterian +polity.<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></p> + +<p>A war, undertaken with such holy objects, and conceived +in so elevated a spirit, was supposed to be placed +under the immediate protection of the Deity, on whose +behalf it was carried on. In the language of the time, +it was a war for God, and for God's church. Every +victory that was obtained, was the result, not of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +skill of the general, nor of the valour of the troops, but +was an answer to prayer.<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> When a battle was lost, it +was either because God was vexed at the sins of the +people,<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> or else to show them that they must not trust +to the arms of the flesh.<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> Nothing was natural; all +was supernatural. The entire course of affairs was +governed, not by their own antecedents, but by a series +of miracles. To assist the Scotch, winds were changed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +and storms were lulled. Such intelligence as was +important for them to receive, was often brought by +sea; and, on those occasions, it was expected that, if +the wind were unfavourable, Providence would interfere, +would shift it from one quarter to another, and, when +the news had safely arrived, would allow it to return to +its former direction.<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a></p> + +<p>It was in this way that, in Scotland, every thing +conspired to strengthen that religious element which +the force of circumstances had, at an early period, made +prominent, and which now threatened to absorb all the +other elements of the national character. The clergy +were supreme; and habits of mind natural and becoming +to themselves, were diffused among all classes. +The theories of a single profession outweighed those of +all other professions; and not only war, but also trade, +literature, science, and art, were held of no account +unless they ministered to the general feeling. A state +of society so narrow and so one-sided, has never been +seen in any other country equally civilized. Nor did +there appear much chance of abating this strange monopoly. +As the seventeenth century advanced, the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +train of events was continued; the clergy and the +people always making common cause against the crown, +and being, by the necessity of self-preservation, forced +into the most intimate union with each other. Of this, +the preachers availed themselves to strengthen their +own influence; and for upwards of a century their +exertions stopped all intellectual culture, discouraged all +independent inquiry, made men in religious matters +fearful and austere, and coloured the whole national +character with that dark hue, which, though now +gradually softening, it still retains.</p> + +<p>The Scotch, during the seventeenth century, instead +of cultivating the arts of life, improving their minds, or +adding to their wealth, passed the greater part of their +time in what were called religious exercises. The sermons +were so long and so frequent, that they absorbed +all leisure, and yet the people were never weary of +hearing them. When a preacher was once in the pulpit, +the only limit to his loquacity was his strength. Being +sure of a patient and reverential audience, he went on +as long as he could. If he discoursed for two hours +without intermission, he was valued as a zealous pastor, +who had the good of his flock at heart; and this was +about as much as an ordinary clergyman could perform, +because, in uttering his sentiments, he was expected to +display great vehemence, and to evince his earnestness +by toiling and sweating abundantly.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> This boundary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +was, however, often passed by those who were equal to +the labour; and Forbes, who was vigorous as well as +voluble, thought nothing of preaching for five or six +hours.<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> But, in the ordinary course of nature, such +feats were rare; and, as the people were in these matters +extremely eager, an ingenious contrivance was hit upon +whereby their desires might be satisfied. On great occasions, +several clergymen were present in the same +church, in order that, when one was fatigued, he might +leave the pulpit, and be succeeded by another, who, in +his turn, was followed by a third; the patience of the +hearers being apparently inexhaustible.<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> Indeed, the +Scotch, by the middle of the seventeenth century, had +grown accustomed to look up to their minister as if he +were a god, and to dwell with rapture upon every word +that dropt from his lips. To hear a favourite preacher, +they would incur any fatigue, and would undertake +long journeys without sleep or food.<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> Their power of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +attention was marvellous. The same congregation would +sometimes remain together for ten hours, listening to +sermons and prayers, interspersed with singings and +readings.<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> In an account of Scotland in 1670, it is +stated that, in a single church in Edinburgh, thirty +sermons were delivered every week.<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> Nor is this at all +unlikely, considering the religious enthusiasm of the +age. For, in those times, the people delighted in the +most harassing and ascetic devotions. Thus, for instance, +in 1653, when the sacrament was administered, +they pursued the following course. On Wednesday, +they fasted, and listened to prayers and sermons for +more than eight hours. On Saturday they heard two +or three sermons; and on Sunday, the number of sermons +was so great that they stayed in church more than +twelve hours; while, to conclude the whole, three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +four additional ones were preached on Monday by way +of thanksgiving.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></p> + +<p>Such eagerness, and yet such patience, indicate a +state of society altogether peculiar, and for which we +find no parallel in the history of any civilized country. +This intense desire to hear whatever the preachers had +to say, was, in itself, a homage of the most flattering +kind, and was naturally accompanied by a belief that +they were endowed with a light which was withheld from +their less gifted countrymen. It is not surprising that +the clergy, who, at no period, and in no nation, have +been remarkable for their meekness, or for a want of +confidence in themselves, should, under circumstances +so eminently favourable to their pretensions, have been +somewhat elated, and should have claimed an authority +even greater than that which was conceded to them. +And as this is intimately connected with the subsequent +history of Scotland, it will be necessary to collect some +evidence respecting their conduct, which will have the +further advantage of exhibiting the true character of +spiritual domination, and of showing how it works, not +only on the intellectual, but also on the practical, life of +a people.</p> + +<p>According to the Presbyterian polity, which reached +its height in the seventeenth century, the clergyman of +the parish selected a certain number of laymen on whom +he could depend, and who, under the name of elders, +were his councillors, or rather the ministers of his authority. +They, when assembled together, formed what +was called the Kirk-Session, and this little court, which +enforced the decisions uttered in the pulpit, was so supported +by the superstitious reverence of the people, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +it was far more powerful than any civil tribunal. By +its aid, the minister became supreme. For, whoever +presumed to disobey him was excommunicated, was deprived +of his property, and was believed to have incurred +the penalty of eternal perdition.<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> Against such weapons, +in such a state of society, resistance was impossible. +The clergy interfered with every man's private concerns, +ordered how he should govern his family, and often +took upon themselves the personal control of his household.<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> +Their minions, the elders, were everywhere;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +for each parish was divided into several quarters, and +to each quarter one of these officials was allotted, in +order that he might take special notice of what was +done in his own district.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> Besides this, spies were appointed, +so that nothing could escape their supervision.<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +Not only the streets, but even private houses, were +searched, and ransacked, to see if any one was absent +from church while the minister was preaching.<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> To +him, all must listen, and him all must obey. Without +the consent of his tribunal, no person might engage +himself, either as a domestic servant, or as a field +labourer.<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> If any one incurred the displeasure of +the clergy, they did not scruple to summon his servants +and force them to state whatever they knew +respecting him, and whatever they had seen done in +his house.<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> To speak disrespectfully of a preacher +was a grievous offence;<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> to differ from him was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +heresy;<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> even to pass him in the streets without saluting +him, was punished as a crime.<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> His very name +was regarded as sacred, and not to be taken in vain. +And that it might be properly protected, and held in +due honour, an Assembly of the Church, in 1642, forbad +it to be used in any public paper unless the consent +of the holy man had been previously obtained.<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p> + +<p>These and similar proceedings, being upheld by public +opinion, were completely successful. Indeed, they +could hardly have been otherwise, seeing that it was +generally believed that whoever gainsaid the clergy, +would be visited, not only with temporal penalties, but +also with spiritual ones. For such a crime, there was +punishment here, and there was punishment hereafter. +The preachers willingly fostered a delusion by which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +they benefited. They told their hearers, that what was +spoken in the pulpit was binding upon all believers, and +was to be regarded as immediately proceeding from the +Deity.<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> This proposition being established, other propositions +naturally followed. The clergy believed that +they alone were privy to the counsels of the Almighty, +and that, by virtue of this knowledge, they could determine +what any man's future state would be.<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> Going +still further, they claimed the power, not only of foretelling +his future state, but also of controlling it; and +they did not scruple to affirm that, by their censures, +they could open and shut the kingdom of heaven.<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +if this were not enough, they also gave out that a word +of theirs could hasten the moment of death, and by cutting +off the sinner in his prime, could bring him at once +before the judgment-seat of God.<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a></p> + +<p>Utterly horrible as such a pretension now appears, it +was made, not only with impunity, but with advantage; +and numerous instances are recorded, in which the people +believed that it was strictly enforced. The celebrated +John Welsh, sitting one night at table, round which a +party were assembled at supper, began to discourse to +the company respecting the state of their souls. Those +who were present listened with humility; but to this +general feeling there was one exception. For, it so happened +that a Roman Catholic was in the room, and he, +of course, disagreed with the opinions expressed by the +Presbyterian divine. If he had been a cautious man, +he would have kept his disagreement to himself; but +being a hot-headed youth, and being impatient at seeing +a single person engross the conversation, he lost +his temper, and not only ridiculed Welsh, but actually +made faces at him. Thereupon, Welsh charged the +company to take heed, and see what the Lord was +about to do to him who mocked. Scarcely had this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +threat been uttered, when it was carried into execution. +He who had dared to jest at the minister, suddenly fell, +sank under the table, and died there in presence of the +whole party.<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></p> + +<p>This happened early in the seventeenth century, and +being bruited abroad, it became a great terror to all +evil-doers. But, after a time, its effect appears to have +been weakened; since another man was equally rash +some forty or fifty years afterwards. It seems that a +Scotch clergyman of considerable repute, Mr. Thomas +Hog, was, like Welsh, sitting at supper, when it so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +chanced that the servants forgot to lay the knives. +Mr. Hog, thinking the opportunity a favourable one, +observed that such forgetfulness was of little moment, +and that, while we thought so much of our comforts +here, it was far more necessary to consider our condition +hereafter. A gentleman present, amused, either +by the manner of Mr. Hog, or by the skill with +which he introduced the topics of his own profession, +was unable to restrain himself, and burst out into a +violent fit of laughter. The minister, however, was not +to be checked, and he continued after such a fashion, +that the laughter was repeated louder than ever. At +length Mr. Hog turned round, and told his merry +comrade that very shortly he should seek for mercy, but +find it not. That same night, the scoffer was taken ill, +and in great alarm sent for Mr. Hog. It was, however, +useless. Before the clergyman could reach his room, +the sinner was lying dead, a lost and ruined man.<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> + +<p>Nor was it merely in private houses that such examples +were made. Sometimes the clergyman denounced +the offender from the pulpit, and the punishment was +as public as the offence. It is said that Gabriel Semple, +when preaching, had a strange habit of putting out his +tongue, and that this excited the mirth of a drunken +man, who went into the church, and, by way of derision, +put out his tongue also. But, to his horror, he found +that, though he could put it out, he could not draw it +in again. The result was, that the tongue stiffened; it +lost all sensibility; and, paralysis coming on, the man +died a few days after his transgression.<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a></p> + +<p>Occasionally, the penalty was less severe, though the +miracle was equally conspicuous. In 1682, a certain +woman took upon herself to scold the famous divine, +Peden, who was justly regarded as one of the great +lights of the Scotch Church. ‘I wonder,’ said that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +eminent man, ‘I wonder your tongue is not sore with +so much idle clatter.’ She indignantly replied, that +she had never suffered, either from a sore tongue, or +from a sore mouth. He told her that she soon would. +And the consequence of his saying so was, that her +tongue and gums swelled to that degree, that for some +days she was unable to take her usual food.<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a></p> + +<p>She escaped with her life; others were more sharply +handled. A clergyman was interrupted in the midst of +his sermon by three gentlemen leaving the church. It +is not stated that there was any thing offensive in their +manner; but their object in going was to amuse themselves +at some fair or race, and the minister, no doubt, +thought that they should have been content with the +gratification of hearing him. At all events, he was dissatisfied, +and, after the sermon was over, he censured +their conduct, and threatened them with the divine displeasure. +His words were remembered, and, to the awe +of his parishioners, every tittle was fulfilled. Of the +three gentlemen, all died violent deaths; one of them +broke his neck by falling from his horse, and another +was found in his room with his throat cut.<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> + +<p>Cases of this sort were frequent during the seventeenth +century; and as in that credulous age they were +firmly believed and widely circulated, the power of the +clergy was consolidated by them. The Laird of Hilton +once ventured to pull a minister out of a pulpit which +was not his own, and into which he had unlawfully intruded. +‘For the injury you have done to the servant +of God,’ cried the enraged preacher, ‘you shall be +brought into this church like a sticked sow.’ And so +indeed he was. Yet a little while, and Hilton became +entangled in a quarrel, was run through the body, and +his corpse, still bleeding, was carried into the very +church where the outrage had been committed.<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> + +<p>Even when a clergyman was in prison, he retained +the same power. His authority was delegated to him +from on high, and no temporal misfortune could curtail +it. In 1673, the Reverend Alexander Peden, when in +confinement, heard a young girl laughing at him outside +the door of his room, while he was engaged in those +vociferous devotions for which he was celebrated. The +mirth of the poor child cost her dear. Peden denounced +against her the judgment of God. In consequence of +that denunciation, the wind blew her from a rock on +which she was walking, and swept her into the sea, +where she was quickly drowned.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a></p> + +<p>Sometimes the vengeance of the clergy extended to +the innocent offspring of the man who had offended +them. A certain minister, whose name has not been +preserved, met with opposition in his parish, and fell +into pecuniary and other difficulties. He applied for +aid to a trader, who, being wealthy, ought, he thought, +to afford him assistance. The trader, however, thought +otherwise, and refused. Upon this, the clergyman declared +that God would visit him. The result was, that +his business not only declined, but his mind became +impaired, and he died an idiot. He had two sons and +two daughters. Both his sons went mad. One of his +daughters, likewise, lost her reason. The other daughter +being married, even her husband became destitute, and +the children of that marriage became beggars, that the +heinous crime might be visited to the third generation.<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p> + +<p>To prosecute a minister, or even to assert one's rights +against him before a civil tribunal, was not only a hazard, +but a certain ruin. About the year 1665, James Fraser +was sued in a court of law for a large sum of money, said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +to be due from his father's estate. As usually happens +in these cases, the party sued, considered that he was +unjustly treated, and that his opponent had no right to +make the claim. So far, all was natural. But the peculiarity +was, that Fraser, against whom the action was +brought, was a young man preparing for the ministry, +and, therefore, under the immediate protection of Providence. +Such an one was not to be vexed with impunity; +and we are assured by Fraser himself that God specially +interposed to prevent his ruin; that one of his opponents +was made unable to appear in court, and that the +Lord, laying his hand upon the others, put them to +death, in order that every obstacle might be at once +removed.<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a></p> + +<p>While stories of this sort were generally believed, it +was but natural that an opinion should grow up that it +was dangerous to meddle with a minister, or in any way +to interfere with his conduct.<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> The clergy, intoxicated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +by the possession of power, reached to such a pitch of +arrogance, that they did not scruple to declare, that +whoever respected Christ, was bound, on that very account, +to respect them.<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> They denounced the judgments +of God upon all who refused to hear the opinions they +propounded in their pulpits.<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> Nor did this apply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +merely to persons who usually formed their audience. +Such was their conceit, and so greedy were they after +applause, that they would not allow even a stranger to +remain in their parish, unless he, too, came to listen to +what they chose to say.<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> Because they had adopted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +the Presbyterian polity, they asserted that the Almighty +had never failed to punish every one who tried to supersede +it;<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> and as this was the perfection of the church, +those who were blind to its merits, were given over to +wrath, and were, indeed, the slaves of Satan.<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> The +clergy, who held this language respecting their opponents, +exhausted the choicest epithets of praise on themselves, +and on their own pursuits. When one of them +got into the pulpit, or took a pen in his hand, he +seemed as if he could not find words strong enough to +express his sense of the surpassing importance of that +class of which he was himself a member.<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> They alone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +knew the truth; they alone were able to inform and enlighten +mankind. They had their instruction direct from +heaven; they were, in fact, the ambassadors of Christ; +from him they received their appointment; and since no +one else could reward them, so no one else had a right +to rule them.<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> As they were messengers sent by the +Almighty, they were rightly termed angels, and it was +the duty of the people to listen to their minister, as if +he really were an angel who had descended upon earth.<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +His parishioners, therefore, were bound, not only to acknowledge +him and provide for him, but also to submit +to him.<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> Indeed, no one could refuse obedience, who +considered who the clergy were, and what functions they +performed. Besides being ambassadors and angels, they +were watchmen, who spied out every danger, and whose +sleepless vigilance protected the faithful.<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> They were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +the joy and delight of the earth. They were musicians, +singing the songs of sweetness; nay, they were sirens, +who sought to allure men from the evil path, and save +them from perishing.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> They were chosen arrows, stored +up in the quiver of God.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> They were burning lights +and shining torches. Without them, darkness would +prevail; but their presence illumined the world, and +made things clear.<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> Hence they were called stars, +which title also expressed the eminence of their office, +and its superiority over all others.<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> To make this still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +more apparent, prodigies were vouchsafed, and strange +lights might occasionally be seen, which, hovering round +the form of the minister, confirmed his supernatural +mission.<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> The profane wished to jest at these things, +but they were too notorious to be denied; and there +was a well-known case, in which, at the death of a +clergyman, a star was miraculously exhibited in the +firmament, and was seen by many persons, although it +was then midday.<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p> + +<p>Nor was this to be regarded as a solitary occurrence. +On the contrary, it usually happened, that when a +Scotch minister departed from this life, the event was +accompanied by portents, in order that the people might +understand that something terrible was going on, and +that they were incurring a serious, perhaps an irretrievable, +loss. Sometimes the candles would be mysteriously +extinguished, without any wind, and without any one +touching them.<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> Sometimes, even when the clergyman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +was preaching, the supernatural appearance of an animal +would announce his approaching end in face of the congregation, +who might vainly mourn what they were +unable to avert.<a name="FNanchor_476_476" id="FNanchor_476_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> Sometimes the body of the holy man +would remain for years unchanged and undecayed; +death not having the power over it which it would have +had over the corpse of a common person.<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a> On other +occasions, notice was given to him of his death, years +before it occurred;<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> and, to strike greater awe into the +public mind, it was remarked, that when one minister +died, others were taken away at the same time, so that, +the bereavement being more widely felt, men might, by +the magnitude of the shock, be rendered sensible of the +inestimable value of those preachers whose lives were +happily spared.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was, moreover, generally understood, that a minister, +during his abode in this world, was miraculously +watched over and protected. He was peculiarly +favoured by angels, who, though they did good offices +to all members of the true church, were especially +kind to the clergy;<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a> and it was well known, that the +celebrated Rutherford, when only four years old, +having fallen into a well, was pulled out by an angel, +who came there for the purpose of saving his life.<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> +Another clergyman, who was in the habit of oversleeping +himself, used to be roused to his duty in the +morning, by three mysterious knocks at his door, +which, if they did not produce a proper effect, were +repeated close to his bed. These knocks never failed +on Sunday, and on days when he had to administer the +communion; and they lasted during the whole of his +ministry, until he became old and infirm, when they +entirely ceased.<a name="FNanchor_482_482" id="FNanchor_482_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> + +<p>By the propagation of these and similar stories, in +a country already prepared for their reception, the +Scotch mind became imbued with a belief in miraculous +interposition, to an extent which would be utterly incredible +if it were not attested by a host of contemporary +and unimpeachable witnesses. The clergy, +partly because they shared in the general delusion, and +partly because they derived benefit from it, did every +thing they could to increase the superstition of their +countrymen, and to familiarize them with notions of the +supernatural world, such as can only be paralleled in +the monastic legends of the middle ages.<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> How they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +laboured to corrupt the national intellect, and how +successful they were in that base vocation, has been +hitherto known to no modern reader; because no one +has had the patience to peruse their interminable discourses, +commentaries, and the other religious literature +in which their sentiments are preserved. As, +however, the preachers were, in Scotland, more influential +than all other classes put together, it is only +by comparing their statements with what is to be found +in the general memoirs and correspondence of the +time, that we can at all succeed in reconstructing the +history of a period, which, to the philosophic student +of the human mind, is full of great, though melancholy, +interest. I shall, therefore, make no apology for entering +into still further details respecting these matters; +and I hope to put the reader in possession of such facts +as will connect the past history of Scotland with its +present state, and will enable him to understand why +it is, that so great a people are, in many respects, still +struggling in darkness, simply because they still live +under the shadow of that long and terrible night, +which for more than a century, covered the land. It +will also appear, that their hardness and moroseness of +character, their want of gaiety, and their indifference +to many of the enjoyments of life, are traceable to the +same cause, and are the natural product of the gloomy +and ascetic opinions inculcated by their religious +teachers. For, in that age, as in every other, the +clergy, once possessed of power, showed themselves +harsh and unfeeling masters. They kept the people +in a worse than Egyptian bondage, inasmuch as they +enslaved mind as well as body, and not only deprived +men of innocent amusements, but taught them that +those amusements were sinful. And so thoroughly +did they do their work, that, though a hundred and +fifty years have elapsed since their supremacy began +to wane, the imprint of their hands is everywhere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +discernible. The people still bear the marks of the +lash; the memory of their former servitude lives among +them; and they crouch before their clergy as they did +of old, abandoning their rights, sacrificing their independence, +and yielding up their consciences, to the +dictates of an intolerant and ambitious priesthood.</p> + +<p>Of all the means of intimidation employed by the +Scotch clergy, none was more efficacious than the doctrines +they propounded respecting evil spirits and +future punishment. On these subjects they constantly +uttered the most appalling threats. The language, +which they used, was calculated to madden men with +fear, and to drive them to the depths of despair. +That it often had this consequence, and produced most +fatal results, we shall presently see. And, what made +it more effectual was, that it completely harmonized +with those other gloomy and ascetic notions which the +clergy inculcated, and according to which, pleasures +being regarded as sinful, sufferings were regarded as +religious. Hence that love of inflicting pain, and that +delight in horrible and revolting ideas, which characterized +the Scotch mind during the seventeenth +century. A few specimens of the prevailing opinions +will enable the reader to understand the temper of +the time, and to appreciate the resources which the +Scotch clergy could wield, and the materials with +which they built up the fabric of their power.</p> + +<p>It was generally believed, that the world was overrun +by evil spirits, who not only went up and down the +earth, but also lived in the air, and whose business it +was to tempt and hurt mankind.<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> Their number was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +infinite, and they were to be found at all places and in +all seasons. At their head was Satan himself, whose +delight it was to appear in person, ensnaring or terrifying +every one he met.<a name="FNanchor_485_485" id="FNanchor_485_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> With this object, he assumed +various forms. One day, he would visit the earth as a +black dog;<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> on another day, as a raven;<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> on another, +he would be heard in the distance, roaring like a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +bull.<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> He appeared sometimes as a white man in +black clothes;<a name="FNanchor_489_489" id="FNanchor_489_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> and sometimes he came as a black +man in black clothes, when it was remarked that his +voice was ghastly, that he wore no shoes, and that one +of his feet was cloven.<a name="FNanchor_490_490" id="FNanchor_490_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> His stratagems were endless. +For, in the opinion of divines, his cunning increased +with his age; and having been studying for more than +five thousand years, he had now attained to unexampled +dexterity.<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> He could, and he did, seize both men and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +women, and carry them away through the air.<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> +Usually, he wore the garb of laymen, but it was said, +that, on more than one occasion, he had impudently +attired himself as a minister of the gospel.<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> At all +events, in one dress or other, he frequently appeared to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +the clergy, and tried to coax them over to his side.<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> In +that, of course, he failed; but, out of the ministry, few, +indeed, could withstand him. He could raise storms +and tempests; he could work, not only on the mind, +but also on the organs of the body, making men hear +and see whatever he chose.<a name="FNanchor_495_495" id="FNanchor_495_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> Of his victims, some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +he prompted to commit suicide,<a name="FNanchor_496_496" id="FNanchor_496_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> others to commit +murder.<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> Still, formidable as he was, no Christian +was considered to have attained to a full religious experience, +unless he had literally seen him, talked to +him, and fought with him.<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> The clergy were constantly +preaching about him, and preparing their audience +for an interview with their great enemy. The +consequence was, that the people became almost crazed +with fear. Whenever the preacher mentioned Satan, +the consternation was so great, that the church resounded +with sighs and groans.<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> The aspect of a +Scotch congregation in those days, is, indeed, hard +for us to conceive. Not unfrequently the people, benumbed +and stupefied with awe, were rooted to their +seats by the horrible fascination exercised over them, +which compelled them to listen, though they are described +as gasping for breath, and with their hair +standing on end.<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNanchor_500_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> Such impressions were not easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +effaced. Images of terror were left on the mind, and +followed the people to their homes, and in their daily +pursuits. They believed that the devil was always, +and literally, at hand; that he was haunting them, +speaking to them, and tempting them. There was +no escape. Go where they would, he was there. A +sudden noise, nay, even the sight of an inanimate +object, such as a stone, was capable of reviving the +association of ideas, and of bringing back to the +memory the language uttered from the pulpit.<a name="FNanchor_501_501" id="FNanchor_501_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p> + +<p>Nor is it strange that this should be the case. All +over Scotland, the sermons were, with hardly an exception, +formed after the same plan, and directed to +the same end. To excite fear, was the paramount +object.<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> The clergy boasted, that it was their special<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +mission to thunder out the wrath and curses of the +Lord.<a name="FNanchor_503_503" id="FNanchor_503_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> In their eyes, the Deity was not a beneficent +being, but a cruel and remorseless tyrant. They +declared that all mankind, a very small portion only +excepted, were doomed to eternal misery. And when +they came to describe what that misery was, their +dark imaginations revelled and gloated at the prospect. +In the pictures which they drew, they reproduced and +heightened the barbarous imagery of a barbarous age. +They delighted in telling their hearers, that they +would be roasted in great fires, and hung up by their +tongues.<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> They were to be lashed with scorpions, +and see their companions writhing and howling around<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +them.<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> They were to be thrown into boiling oil and +scalding lead.<a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> A river of fire and brimstone, broader +than the earth, was prepared for them;<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> in that, they +were to be immersed; their bones, their lungs, and +their liver, were to boil, but never be consumed.<a name="FNanchor_508_508" id="FNanchor_508_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> +At the same time, worms were to prey upon them; +and while these were gnawing at their bodies, they +were to be surrounded by devils, mocking and making +pastime of their pains.<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> Such were the first stages +of suffering, and they were only the first. For the +torture, besides being unceasing, was to become gradually +worse. So refined was the cruelty, that one +hell was succeeded by another; and, lest the sufferer +should grow callous, he was, after a time, moved on, +that he might undergo fresh agonies in fresh places, +provision being made that the torment should not pall +on the sense, but should be varied in its character, as +well as eternal in its duration.<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p> + +<p>All this was the work of the God of the Scotch +clergy.<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> It was not only his work, it was his joy +and his pride. For, according to them, hell was +created before man came into the world; the Almighty, +they did not scruple to say, having spent his previous +leisure in preparing and completing this place of torture, +so that, when the human race appeared, it might +be ready for their reception.<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> Ample, however, as +the arrangements were, they were insufficient; and +hell, not being big enough to contain the countless +victims incessantly poured into it, had, in these latter +days, been enlarged.<a name="FNanchor_513_513" id="FNanchor_513_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> There was now sufficient room. +But in that vast expanse there was no void, for the +whole of it reverberated with the shrieks and yells of +undying agony.<a name="FNanchor_514_514" id="FNanchor_514_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> They rent the air with horrid +sound, and, amid their pauses, other scenes occurred, +if possible, still more excruciating. Loud reproaches +filled the ear: children reproaching their parents, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +servants reproaching their masters. Then, indeed, +terror was rife, and abounded on every side. For, +while the child cursed his father, the father, consumed +by remorse, felt his own guilt; and both children and +fathers made hell echo with their piercing screams, +writhing in convulsive agony at the torments which +they suffered, and knowing that other torments more +grievous still were reserved for them.<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a></p> + +<p>Even now such language freezes the blood, when we +consider what must have passed through the minds of +those who could bring themselves to utter it. The +enunciation of such ideas unfolds the character of the +men, and lays bare their inmost spirit. We shudder, +when we think of the dark and corrupted fancy, the +vindictive musings, the wild, lawless, and uncertain +thoughts which must have been harboured by those +who could combine and arrange the different parts of +this hideous scheme. No hesitation, no compunction, +no feelings of mercy, ever seem to have entered their +breasts. It is evident, that their notions were well +matured; it is equally evident, that they delighted in +them. They were marked by a unity of conception, +and were enforced with a freshness and vigour of +language, which shows that their heart was in their +work. But before this could have happened, they +must have been dead to every emotion of pity and +tenderness. Yet, they were the teachers of a great +nation, and were, in every respect, the most influential +persons in that nation. The people, credulous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +grossly ignorant, listened and believed. We, at this +distance of time, and living in another realm of thought, +can form but a faint conception of the effect which +these horrible conceits produced upon them. They +were convinced that, in this world, they were incessantly +pursued by the devil, and that he, and other +evil spirits, were constantly hovering around them, in +bodily and visible shape, tempting them, and luring +them on to destruction. In the next world, the most +frightful and unheard-of punishments awaited them; +while both this world and the next were governed by +an avenging Deity, whose wrath it was impossible to +propitiate. No wonder that, with these ideas before +them, their reason should often give way, and that a +religious mania should set in, under whose influence +they, in black despair, put an end to their lives.<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> + +<p>Little comfort, indeed, could men then gain from +their religion. Not only the devil, as the author of all +evil, but even He whom we recognise as the author of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +all good, was, in the eyes of the Scotch clergy, a cruel +and vindictive being, moved with anger like themselves. +They looked into their own hearts, and there they found +the picture of their God. According to them, He was a +God of terror, instead of a God of love.<a name="FNanchor_517_517" id="FNanchor_517_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> To Him they +imputed the worst passions of their own peevish and +irritable nature. They ascribed to Him, revenge, cunning, +and a constant disposition to inflict pain. While +they declared that nearly all mankind were sinners beyond +the chance of redemption, and were, indeed, predestined +to eternal ruin, they did not scruple to accuse +the Deity of resorting to artifice against these unhappy +victims; lying in wait for them, that He might catch +them unawares.<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> The Scotch clergy taught their +hearers, that the Almighty was so sanguinary, and so +prone to anger, that He raged even against walls and +houses and senseless creatures, wreaking His fury more +than ever, and scattering desolation on every side.<a name="FNanchor_519_519" id="FNanchor_519_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> +Sooner than miss His fell and malignant purpose, He +would, they said, let loose avenging angels, to fall upon +men and upon their families.<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> Independently of this +resource, He had various ways whereby He could at once +content Himself and plague His creatures, as was +particularly shown in the devices which He employed +to bring famine on a people.<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> When a country was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +starving, it was because God, in His anger, had smitten +the soil, had stopped the clouds from yielding their moisture, +and thus made the fruits of the earth to wither.<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> +All the intolerable sufferings caused by a want of food, the +slow deaths, the agony, the general misery, the crimes +which that misery produced, the anguish of the mother +as she saw her children wasting away and could give +them no bread, all this was His act, and the work of His +hands.<a name="FNanchor_523_523" id="FNanchor_523_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> In His anger, He would sometimes injure the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +crops by making the spring so backward, and the +weather so cold and rainy, as to insure a deficiency in +the coming harvest.<a name="FNanchor_524_524" id="FNanchor_524_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> Or else, he would deceive men, +by sending them a favourable season, and, after letting +them toil and sweat in the hope of an abundant supply, +He would, at the last moment, suddenly step in, and +destroy the corn just as it was fit to be reaped.<a name="FNanchor_525_525" id="FNanchor_525_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> For, +the God of the Scotch Kirk was a God who tantalized +His creatures as well as punished them; and when He +was provoked, He would first allure men by encouraging +their expectations, in order that their subsequent misery +might be more poignant.<a name="FNanchor_526_526" id="FNanchor_526_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a></p> + +<p>Under the influence of this horrible creed, and from +the unbounded sway exercised by the clergy who advocated +it, the Scotch mind was thrown into such a state, +that, during the seventeenth, and part of the eighteenth, +century, some of the noblest feelings of which our nature +is capable, the feelings of hope, of love, and of gratitude, +were set aside, and were replaced by the dictates of a +servile and ignominous fear. The physical sufferings +to which the human frame is liable, nay, even the very +accidents to which we are casually exposed, were believed +to proceed, not from our ignorance, nor from our carelessness, +but from the rage of the Deity. If a fire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +chanced to break out in Edinburgh, the greatest alarm +was excited, because it was the voice of God crying out +against a luxurious and dissolute city.<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> If a boil or a +sore appeared on your body, that, too, was a divine +punishment, and it was more than doubtful whether it +might lawfully be cured.<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> The small-pox, being one +of the most fatal as well as one of the most loathsome of +all diseases, was especially sent by God; and, on that +account, the remedy of inoculation was scouted as a +profane attempt to frustrate His intentions.<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> Other +disorders, which, though less terrible, were very painful, +proceeded from the same source, and all owed their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +origin to the anger of the Almighty.<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> In every thing, +His power was displayed, not by increasing the happiness +of men, nor by adding to their comforts, but by +hurting and vexing them in all possible ways. His +hand, always raised against the people, would sometimes +deprive them of wine by causing the vintage to fail;<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> +sometimes, would destroy their cattle in a storm;<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +sometimes, would even make dogs bite their legs when +they least expected it.<a name="FNanchor_533_533" id="FNanchor_533_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a> Sometimes, He would display +His wrath by making the weather excessively dry;<a name="FNanchor_534_534" id="FNanchor_534_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> +sometimes, by making it equally wet.<a name="FNanchor_535_535" id="FNanchor_535_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> He was always +punishing; always busy in increasing the general suffering, +or, to use the language of the time, making the +creature smart under the rod.<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> Every fresh war was +the result of His special interference; it was not caused +by the meddling folly or insensate ambition of statesmen, +but it was the immediate work of the Deity, who +was thus made responsible for all the devastations, the +murders, and other crimes more horrible still, which war +produces.<a name="FNanchor_537_537" id="FNanchor_537_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> In the intervals of peace, which, at that +period, were very rare, He had other means of vexing +mankind. The shock of an earthquake was a mark of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +His displeasure;<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> a comet was a sign of coming tribulation;<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> +and when an eclipse appeared, the panic was +so universal, that persons of all ranks hastened to +church to deprecate His wrath.<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> What they heard +there, would increase their fear, instead of allaying it. +For the clergy taught their hearers, that even so ordinary +an event as thunder, was meant to excite awe, +and was sent for the purpose of showing to men with +how terrible a master they had to deal.<a name="FNanchor_541_541" id="FNanchor_541_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> Not to +tremble at thunder, was, therefore, a mark of impiety; +and, in this respect, man was unfavourably contrasted +with the lower animals, since they were invariably +moved by this symptom of divine power.<a name="FNanchor_542_542" id="FNanchor_542_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p> + +<p>These visitations, eclipses, comets, earthquakes, thunder, +famine, pestilence, war, disease, blights in the air, +failures in the crops, cold winters, dry summers, these, +and the like, were, in the opinion of the Scotch divines, +outbreaks of the anger of the Almighty against the sins +of men; and that such outbreaks were incessant is not +surprising, when we consider that, in the same age, and +according to the same creed, the most innocent, and even +praiseworthy, actions were deemed sinful, and worthy +of chastisement. The opinions held on this subject are +not only curious, but extremely instructive. Besides +forming an important part of the history of the human +mind, they supply decisive proof of the danger of allowing +a single profession to exalt itself above all other +professions. For, in Scotland, as elsewhere, directly +the clergy succeeded in occupying a more than ordinary +amount of public attention, they availed themselves of +that circumstance to propagate those ascetic doctrines, +which, while they strike at the root of human happiness, +benefit no one except the class which advocates them. +That class, indeed, can hardly fail to reap advantage +from a policy, which, by increasing the apprehensions to +which the ignorance and timidity of men make them too +liable, does also increase their eagerness to fly for support +to their spiritual advisers. And the greater the +apprehension, the greater the eagerness. Of this, the +Scotch clergy, who were perfect masters of their own +art, were well aware. Under their influence, a system +of morals was established, which, representing nearly +every act as sinful, kept the people in perpetual dread, +lest unwittingly they were committing some enormous +offence, which would bring upon their heads a signal +and overwhelming punishment.</p> + +<p>According to this code, all the natural affections, all +social pleasures, all amusements, and all the joyous instincts +of the human heart were sinful, and were to be +rooted out. It was sinful for a mother to wish to have +sons;<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> and, if she had any, it was sinful to be anxious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +about their welfare.<a name="FNanchor_544_544" id="FNanchor_544_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> It was a sin to please yourself, +or to please others; for, by adopting either course, you +were sure to displease God.<a name="FNanchor_545_545" id="FNanchor_545_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> All pleasures, therefore, +however slight in themselves, or however lawful they +might appear, must be carefully avoided.<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> When +mixing in society, we should edify the company, if the +gift of edification had been bestowed upon us; but we +should by no means attempt to amuse them.<a name="FNanchor_547_547" id="FNanchor_547_547"></a><a href="#Footnote_547_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> Cheerfulness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +especially when it rose to laughter, was to be +guarded against; and we should choose for our associates +grave and sorrowful men, who were not likely to indulge +in so foolish a practice.<a name="FNanchor_548_548" id="FNanchor_548_548"></a><a href="#Footnote_548_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> Smiling, provided it stopped +short of laughter, might occasionally be allowed; still, +being a carnal pastime, it was a sin to smile on Sunday.<a name="FNanchor_549_549" id="FNanchor_549_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> +Even on week-days, those who were most imbued +with religious principles hardly ever smiled, but +sighed, groaned, and wept.<a name="FNanchor_550_550" id="FNanchor_550_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> A true Christian would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +be careful, in his movements, to preserve invariable +gravity, never running, but walking soberly, and not +treading out in a brisk and lively manner, as unbelievers +are wont to do.<a name="FNanchor_551_551" id="FNanchor_551_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> So, too, if he wrote to a friend, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +must beware lest his letter should contain any thing like +jocoseness; since jesting is incompatible with a holy and +serious life.<a name="FNanchor_552_552" id="FNanchor_552_552"></a><a href="#Footnote_552_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a></p> + +<p>It was, moreover, wrong to take pleasure in beautiful +scenery; for a pious man had no concern with such +matters, which were beneath him, and the admiration +of which should be left to the unconverted.<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> The unregenerate +might delight in these vanities, but they who +were properly instructed, saw Nature as she really was, +and knew that as she, for about five thousand years, had +been constantly on the move, her vigour was well-nigh +spent, and her pristine energy had departed.<a name="FNanchor_554_554" id="FNanchor_554_554"></a><a href="#Footnote_554_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a> To the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +eye of ignorance, she still seemed fair and fresh; the +fact, however, was, that she was worn out and decrepit; +she was suffering from extreme old age; her frame, no +longer elastic, was leaning on one side, and she soon +would perish.<a name="FNanchor_555_555" id="FNanchor_555_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> Owing to the sin of man, all things +were getting worse, and nature was degenerating so fast, +that already the lilies were losing their whiteness, and +the roses their smell.<a name="FNanchor_556_556" id="FNanchor_556_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> The heavens were waxing +old;<a name="FNanchor_557_557" id="FNanchor_557_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> the very sun, which lighted the earth, was becoming +feeble.<a name="FNanchor_558_558" id="FNanchor_558_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> This universal degeneracy was sad to +think of; but the profane knew it not. Their ungodly +eyes were still pleased by what they saw. Such was +the result of their obstinate determination to indulge +the senses, all of which were evil; the eye being, beyond +comparison, the most wicked. Hence, it was especially +marked out for divine punishment; and, being constantly +sinning, it was afflicted with fifty-two different diseases, +that is, one disease for each week in the year.<a name="FNanchor_559_559" id="FNanchor_559_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_559_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> + +<p>On this account, it was improper to care for beauty +of any kind; or, to speak more accurately, there was no +real beauty. The world afforded nothing worth looking +at, save and except the Scotch Kirk, which was incomparably +the most beautiful thing under heaven.<a name="FNanchor_560_560" id="FNanchor_560_560"></a><a href="#Footnote_560_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a> To +look at that was a lawful enjoyment, but every other +pleasure was sinful. To write poetry, for instance, was +a grievous offence, and worthy of especial condemnation.<a name="FNanchor_561_561" id="FNanchor_561_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> +To listen to music was equally wrong; for men +had no right to disport themselves in such idle recreation. +Hence the clergy forbade music to be introduced +even during the festivities of a marriage;<a name="FNanchor_562_562" id="FNanchor_562_562"></a><a href="#Footnote_562_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> neither +would they permit, on any occasion, the national entertainment +of pipers.<a name="FNanchor_563_563" id="FNanchor_563_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a> Indeed, it was sinful to look at +any exhibition in the streets, even though you only +looked at it from your own window.<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> Dancing was so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +extremely sinful, that an edict, expressly prohibiting it, +was enacted by the General Assembly, and read in every +church in Edinburgh.<a name="FNanchor_565_565" id="FNanchor_565_565"></a><a href="#Footnote_565_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> New Year's Eve had long been +a period of rejoicing in Scotland, as in other parts of +Europe. The Church laid her hands on this also, and +ordered that no one should sing the songs usual on that +day, or should admit such singers into his own private +house.<a name="FNanchor_566_566" id="FNanchor_566_566"></a><a href="#Footnote_566_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a></p> + +<p>At the christening of a child, the Scotch were accustomed +to assemble their relations, including their distant +cousins, in whom, then as now, they much abounded. +But this caused pleasure, and pleasure was sinful. It +was, therefore, forbidden; the number of guests was +limited; and the strictest supervision was exercised by +the clergy, to prevent the possibility of any one being +improperly happy on such occasions.<a name="FNanchor_567_567" id="FNanchor_567_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> + +<p>Not only at baptisms, but also at marriages, the same +spirit was displayed. In every country, it has been usual +to make merry at marriages; partly from a natural +feeling, and partly, perhaps, from a notion that a contract +so often productive of misery, might, at all events, begin +with mirth. The Scotch clergy, however, thought +otherwise. At the weddings of the poor, they would +allow no rejoicing;<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> and at the weddings of the rich, +it was the custom for one of them to go for the express +purpose of preventing an excess of gaiety. A better +precaution could hardly be devised; but they did not +trust exclusively to it. To check the lusts of the flesh, +they, furthermore, took into account the cookery, the +choice of the meats, and the number of the dishes. They +were, in fact, so solicitous on these points, and so +anxious that the nuptial feast should not be too attractive +that they fixed its cost, and would not allow any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +person to exceed the sum which they thought proper to +name.<a name="FNanchor_569_569" id="FNanchor_569_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a></p> + +<p>Nothing escaped their vigilance. For, in their opinion, +even the best man was, at his best time, so full of +turpitude, that his actions could not fail to be wicked.<a name="FNanchor_570_570" id="FNanchor_570_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> +He never passed a day without sinning, and the smallest +sin deserved eternal wrath.<a name="FNanchor_571_571" id="FNanchor_571_571"></a><a href="#Footnote_571_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> Indeed, every thing he +did was sinful, no matter how pure his motives.<a name="FNanchor_572_572" id="FNanchor_572_572"></a><a href="#Footnote_572_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> Man +had been gradually falling lower and lower, and had +now sunk to a point of debasement, which made him +inferior to the beasts that perish.<a name="FNanchor_573_573" id="FNanchor_573_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> Even before he was +born, and while he was yet in his mother's womb, his +guilt began.<a name="FNanchor_574_574" id="FNanchor_574_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> And when he grew up, his crimes multiplied +thick and fast; one of the most heinous of them +being the practice of teaching children new words,—a +horrible custom, justly visited by divine wrath.<a name="FNanchor_575_575" id="FNanchor_575_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> This,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +however, was but one of a series of innumerable and incessant +offences; so that the only wonder was, that the +earth could restrain herself at the hideous spectacle +which man presented, and that she did not open her +mouth, as of old, and swallow him even in the midst of +his wickedness.<a name="FNanchor_576_576" id="FNanchor_576_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> For, it was certain, that in the whole +creation, there was nothing so deformed and monstrous +as he.<a name="FNanchor_577_577" id="FNanchor_577_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a></p> + +<p>Such being the case, it behoved the clergy to come +forward, and to guard men against their own vices, by +controlling their daily actions, and forcing them to a +right conduct. This they did vigorously. Aided by +the elders, who were their tools and the creatures of their +power, they, all over Scotland, organized themselves into +legislative bodies, and, in the midst of their little senate, +they enacted laws which the people were bound to obey. +If they refused, woe be to them. They became unruly +sons of the Church, and were liable to be imprisoned, to +be fined, or to be whipped,<a name="FNanchor_578_578" id="FNanchor_578_578"></a><a href="#Footnote_578_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> or to be branded with a hot +iron,<a name="FNanchor_579_579" id="FNanchor_579_579"></a><a href="#Footnote_579_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> or to do penance before the whole congregation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +humbling themselves, bare-footed, and with their hair +cut on one side,<a name="FNanchor_580_580" id="FNanchor_580_580"></a><a href="#Footnote_580_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a> while the minister, under pretence +of rebuking them, enjoyed his triumph.<a name="FNanchor_581_581" id="FNanchor_581_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> All this was +natural enough. For the clergy were the delegates of +heaven, and the interpreters of its will. They, therefore, +were the best judges of what men ought to do; and any +one whom they censured was bound to submit with +humility and repentance.<a name="FNanchor_582_582" id="FNanchor_582_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></p> + +<p>The arbitrary and irresponsible tribunals, which now +sprung up all over Scotland, united the executive authority +with the legislative, and exercised both functions at +the same time. Declaring that certain acts ought not to +be committed, they took the law into their own hands, +and punished those who had committed them. According +to the principles of this new jurisprudence, of which the +clergy were the authors, it became a sin for any Scotchman +to travel in a Catholic country.<a name="FNanchor_583_583" id="FNanchor_583_583"></a><a href="#Footnote_583_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> It was a sin for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +any Scotch innkeeper to admit a Catholic into his inn.<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> +It was a sin for any Scotch town to hold a market either +on Saturday or on Monday, because both days were near +Sunday.<a name="FNanchor_585_585" id="FNanchor_585_585"></a><a href="#Footnote_585_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> It was a sin for a Scotch woman to wait at +a tavern;<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> it was a sin for her to live alone;<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> it was +also a sin for her to live with unmarried sisters.<a name="FNanchor_588_588" id="FNanchor_588_588"></a><a href="#Footnote_588_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +was a sin to go from one town to another on Sunday, +however pressing the business might be.<a name="FNanchor_589_589" id="FNanchor_589_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> It was a +sin to visit your friend on Sunday;<a name="FNanchor_590_590" id="FNanchor_590_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> it was likewise +sinful either to have your garden watered,<a name="FNanchor_591_591" id="FNanchor_591_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> or your +beard shaved.<a name="FNanchor_592_592" id="FNanchor_592_592"></a><a href="#Footnote_592_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> Such things were not to be tolerated +in a Christian land. No one, on Sunday, should pay +attention to his health, or think of his body at all. On +that day, horse-exercise was sinful;<a name="FNanchor_593_593" id="FNanchor_593_593"></a><a href="#Footnote_593_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> so was walking +in the fields, or in the meadows, or in the streets, or +enjoying the fine weather by sitting at the door of your +house.<a name="FNanchor_594_594" id="FNanchor_594_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> To go to sleep on Sunday, before the duties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +of the day were over, was also sinful, and deserved church +censure.<a name="FNanchor_595_595" id="FNanchor_595_595"></a><a href="#Footnote_595_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> Bathing, being pleasant as well as wholesome, +was a particularly grievous offence; and no man +could be allowed to swim on Sunday.<a name="FNanchor_596_596" id="FNanchor_596_596"></a><a href="#Footnote_596_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a> It was, in fact, +doubtful whether swimming was lawful for a Christian +at any time, even on week-days, and it was certain that +God had, on one occasion, shown His disapproval, by +taking away the life of a boy while he was indulging in +that carnal practice.<a name="FNanchor_597_597" id="FNanchor_597_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></p> + +<p>That it was a sin to cleanse one's body, might, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +have been taken for granted; seeing that the Scotch +clergy looked on all comforts as sinful in themselves, +merely because they were comforts.<a name="FNanchor_598_598" id="FNanchor_598_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> The great object +of life was, to be in a state of constant affliction.<a name="FNanchor_599_599" id="FNanchor_599_599"></a><a href="#Footnote_599_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> +Whatever pleased the senses, was to be suspected.<a name="FNanchor_600_600" id="FNanchor_600_600"></a><a href="#Footnote_600_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> +A Christian must beware of enjoying his dinner; for +none but the ungodly relished their food.<a name="FNanchor_601_601" id="FNanchor_601_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> By a parity +of reasoning, it was wrong for a man to wish to advance +himself in life, or in any way to better his condition.<a name="FNanchor_602_602" id="FNanchor_602_602"></a><a href="#Footnote_602_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> +Either to make money, or to save it, was unsuited to +Christians; and even to possess much of it was objectionable, +because it not only ministered to human pleasures, +but encouraged those habits of foresight and of +provision for the future, which are incompatible with +complete resignation to the Divine will. To wish for +more than was necessary to keep oneself alive, was a sin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +as well as a folly, and was a violation of the subjection +we owe to God.<a name="FNanchor_603_603" id="FNanchor_603_603"></a><a href="#Footnote_603_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> That it was contrary to His desire, +was, moreover, evident, from the fact that He bestowed +wealth liberally upon misers and covetous men; a remarkable +circumstance, which, in the opinion of Scotch +divines, proved that He was no lover of riches, otherwise +He would not give them to such base and sordid +persons.<a name="FNanchor_604_604" id="FNanchor_604_604"></a><a href="#Footnote_604_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a></p> + +<p>To be poor, dirty, and hungry, to pass through life<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +in misery, and to leave it with fear, to be plagued with +boils, and sores, and diseases of every kind, to be always +sighing and groaning, to have the face streaming with +tears, and the chest heaving with sobs, in a word, to +suffer constant affliction, and to be tormented in all +possible ways; to undergo these things was deemed a +proof of goodness, just as the contrary was a proof of +evil. It mattered not what a man liked; the mere fact +of his liking it, made it sinful. Whatever was natural, +was wrong. The clergy deprived the people of their +holidays, their amusements, their shows, their games, +and their sports; they repressed every appearance of joy, +they forbade all merriment, they stopped all festivities, +they choked up every avenue by which pleasure could +enter, and they spread over the country an universal +gloom.<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> Then, truly, did darkness sit on the land. +Men, in their daily actions and in their very looks, became +troubled, melancholy, and ascetic. Their countenance +soured, and was downcast. Not only their opinions, +but their gait, their demeanour, their voice, their general +aspect, were influenced by that deadly blight which +nipped all that was genial and warm. The way of life +fell into the sear and yellow leaf; its tints gradually +deepened; its bloom faded, and passed off; its spring, +its freshness, and its beauty, were gone; joy and love +either disappeared or were forced to hide themselves in +obscure corners, until at length the fairest and most +endearing parts of our nature, being constantly repressed, +ceased to bear fruit, and seemed to be withered into +perpetual sterility.</p> + +<p>Thus it was, that the national character of the Scotch +was, in the seventeenth century, dwarfed and mutilated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +With nations, as with individuals, the harmony and +free development of life can only be attained by exercising +its principal functions boldly and without fear. +Those functions are of two kinds; one set of them increasing +the happiness of the mind, another set increasing +the happiness of the body. If we could suppose a +man completely perfect, we should take for granted +that he would unite these two forms of pleasure in the +highest degree, and would extract, both from body and +mind, every enjoyment consistent with his own happiness, +and with the happiness of others. But, as no +such character is to be found, it invariably occurs, that +even the wisest of us are unable to hold the balance; +we, therefore, err, some in over-indulging the body, +some in over-indulging the mind. Comparing one set +of indulgences with the other, there can be no doubt +that the intellectual pleasures are, in many respects, +superior to the physical; they are more numerous, +more varied, more permanent, and more ennobling; +they are less liable to cause satiety in the individual, +and they produce more good to the species. But for +one person who can enjoy intellectual pleasures, there +are at least a hundred who can enjoy physical pleasures. +The happiness derived from gratifying the senses, +being thus diffused over a wider area, and satisfying, at +any given moment, a greater number of persons than +the other form of happiness is capable of, does, on that +account, possess an importance which many who call +themselves philosophers are unwilling to recognize. +Too often have philosophic and speculative thinkers, by +a foolish denunciation of such pleasures, done all in +their power to curtail the quantity of happiness of +which humanity is susceptible. Forgetting that we +have bodies as well as minds, and forgetting, too, that +in an immense majority of instances the body is more +active than the mind, that it is more powerful, that it +plays a more conspicuous part, and is fitted for greater +achievements, such writers commit the enormous error +of despising that class of actions to which ninety-nine +men out of every hundred are most prone, and for +which they are best fitted. And for committing this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +error they pay the penalty of finding their books unread, +their systems disregarded, and their scheme of +life adopted, perhaps, by a small class of solitary +students, but shut out from that great world of reality +for which it is unsuited, and in which it would produce +the most serious mischief.</p> + +<p>If, then, we review the history of opinion in connexion +with the history of action, we may probably +say, that the ascetic notions of philosophers, such, for +instance, as the doctrines of the Stoics, and similar +theories of mortification, have not worked the harm +which might have been expected, and have not succeeded +in abridging, to any perceptible extent, the +substantial happiness of mankind. There are, I apprehend, +two reasons why they have failed. In the first +place, these philosophers have, with hardly an exception, +had little real acquaintance with human nature, +and have, therefore, been unable to touch those chords, +and appeal to those hidden motives, by influencing +which one man gains over another to his side. And, +in the second place, they, fortunately for us, have never +possessed authority, and have, therefore, been unable +either to enforce their doctrine by penalties, or to recommend +it by rewards.</p> + +<p>But, though philosophers have failed in their effort +to lessen the pleasures of mankind, there is another +body of men, who, in making the same attempt, have +met with far greater success. I mean, of course, the +theologians, who, considered as a class, have, in every +country and in every age, deliberately opposed themselves +to gratifications which are essential to the +happiness of an overwhelming majority of the human +race. Raising up a God of their own creation, whom +they hold out as a lover of penance, of sacrifice, and of +mortification, they, under this pretence, forbid enjoyments +which are not only innocent, but praiseworthy. +For, every enjoyment by which no one is injured, is +innocent; and every innocent enjoyment is praiseworthy, +because it assists in diffusing that spirit of content +and of satisfaction which is favourable to the practice +of benevolence towards others. The theologians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +however, for reasons which I have already stated, +cultivate an opposite spirit, and, whenever they have +possessed power, they have always prohibited a large +number of pleasurable actions, on the ground that such +actions are offensive to the Deity. That they have no +warrant for this, and that they are simply indulging in +peremptory assertions on subjects respecting which we +have no trustworthy information, is well known to +those who, impartially, and without preconceived bias, +have studied their arguments, and the evidence which +they adduce. On this, however, I need not dilate; for, +inasmuch as men are, almost every year, and certainly +every generation, becoming more accustomed to close +and accurate reasoning, just in the same proportion is +the conviction spreading, that theologians proceed from +arbitrary assumptions, for which they have no proof, +except by appealing to other assumptions, equally arbitrary +and equally unproven. Their whole system +reposes upon fear, and upon fear of the worst kind; +since, according to them, the Great Author of our being +has used His omnipotence in so cruel a manner as to +endow his creatures with tastes, instincts, and desires, +which He not only forbids them to gratify, but which, +if they do gratify, shall bring on themselves eternal +punishment.</p> + +<p>What the theologians are to the closet, that are the +priests to the pulpit. The theologians work upon the +studious, who read; the clergy act upon the idle, who +listen. Seeing, however, that the same man often performs +both offices, and seeing, too, that the spirit and tendency +of each office are the same, we may, for practical +purposes, consider the two classes as identical; and, putting +them together, and treating them as a whole, it must +be admitted by whoever will take a comprehensive +view of what they have actually done, that they have +been, not only the most bitter foes of human happiness, +but also the most successful ones. In their high and +palmy days, when they reigned supreme, when credulity +was universal and doubt unknown, they afflicted +mankind in every possible way; enjoining fasts, and +penances, and pilgrimages, teaching their simple and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +ignorant victims every kind of austerity, teaching them +to flog their own bodies, to tear their own flesh, and to +mortify the most natural of their appetites. This was +the state of Europe in the middle ages. It is still the +state of every part of the world where the priesthood are +uncontrolled. Such ascetic and self-tormenting observances +are the inevitable issue of the theological spirit, +if that spirit is unchecked. Now, and owing to the +rapid march of our knowledge, it is constantly losing +ground, because the scientific and secular spirit is encroaching +on its domain. Therefore, in our time, and +especially in our country, its most repulsive features +are disguised, and it is forced to mask its native +ugliness. Among our clergy, a habit of grave and +decent compromise has taken the place of that bold and +fiery war which their predecessors waged against a +sensual and benighted world. Their threats have perceptibly +diminished. They now allow us a little +pleasure, a little luxury, a little happiness. They no +longer tell us to mortify every appetite, and to forego +every comfort. The language of power has departed +from them. Here and there, we find vestiges of the +ancient spirit; but this is only among uneducated men, +addressing an ignorant audience. The superior clergy, +who have a character to lose, are grown cautious; and, +whatever their private opinion may be, they rarely venture +on those terrific denunciations with which their +pulpits once resounded, and which, in times of yore, +made the people shrink with fear, and humbled every +one except him by whom the denunciation was uttered.</p> + +<p>Still, though much of this has vanished, enough +remains to show what the theological spirit is, and to +justify a belief, that nothing but the pressure of public +opinion prevents it from breaking out into its former +extravagance. Many of the clergy persist in attacking +the pleasures of the world, forgetting that, not only the +world, but all which the world contains, is the work of +the Almighty, and that the instincts and desires, which +they stigmatise as unholy, are part of his gifts to man. +They have yet to learn, that our appetites, being as +much a portion of ourselves as any other quality we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +possess, ought to be indulged, otherwise the whole individual +is not developed. If a man suppresses part of +himself, he becomes maimed and shorn. The proper +limit to self-indulgence is, that he shall neither hurt +himself nor hurt others. Short of this, everything is +lawful. It is more than lawful; it is necessary. He +who abstains from safe and moderate gratification of +the senses, lets some of his essential faculties fall into +abeyance, and must, on that account, be deemed imperfect +and unfinished. Such an one is incomplete; he is +crippled; he has never reached his full stature. He may +be a monk; he may be a saint; but a man he is not. +And now, more than ever, do we want true and genuine +men. No previous age has had so much work to do, and, +to accomplish that work, we need robust and vigorous +natures, whose every function has been freely exercised +without let or hindrance. Never before, was the practice +of life so arduous; never were the problems +presented to the human mind so numerous, or so complicated. +Every addition to our knowledge, every fresh +idea, opens up new difficulties, and gives birth to new +combinations. Under this accumulated pressure, we +shall assuredly sink, if we imitate the credulity of our +forefathers, who allowed their energies to be cramped +and weakened by those pernicious notions, which the +clergy, partly from ignorance, and partly from interest, +have, in every age, palmed on the people, and have, +thereby, diminished the national happiness, and retarded +the march of national prosperity.</p> + +<p>In the same way, we constantly hear of the evils of +wealth, and of the sinfulness of loving money; although +it is certain that, after the love of knowledge, there is +no one passion which has done so much good to mankind +as the love of money. It is to the love of money +that we owe all trade and commerce; in other words, +the possession of every comfort and luxury which our +own country is unable to supply. Trade and commerce +have made us familiar with the productions of many +lands, have awakened curiosity, have widened our +ideas by bringing us in contact with nations of various +manners, speech, and thought, have supplied an outlet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +for energies which would otherwise have been pent up +and wasted, have accustomed men to habits of enterprise, +forethought, and calculation, have, moreover, +communicated to us many arts of great utility, and +have put us in possession of some of the most valuable +remedies with which we are acquainted, either to save +life or to lessen pain. These things we owe to the love +of money. If theologians could succeed in their desire +to destroy that love, all these things would cease, and +we should relapse into comparative barbarism. The +love of money, like all our appetites, is liable to abuse; +but to declaim against it as evil in itself, and, above all, +to represent it as a feeling, the indulgence of which +provokes the wrath of God, is to betray an ignorance, +natural, perhaps, in former ages, but shameful in our +time, particularly when it proceeds from men who give +themselves out as public teachers, and profess that it is +their mission to enlighten the world.</p> + +<p>Injurious, however, as all this is to the best interests +of society, it is nothing in comparison with the doctrines +formerly advocated by the Scotch divines. What their +ideas were, I have shown from their own sermons, the +reading of which has been the most painful literary task +I ever undertook, since, in addition to the narrowness +and the dogmatism which even the best of such compositions +contain, there is, in these productions, a hardness +of heart, an austerity of temper, a want of sympathy +with human happiness, and a hatred of human nature, +such as have rarely been exhibited in any age, and, I +rejoice to think, have never been exhibited in any other +Protestant country. These things, I have resuscitated +from the oblivion in which they had long been buried, +partly because it was necessary to do so in order to +understand the history of the Scotch mind, and partly +because I desired to show what the tendency of theologians +is, when that tendency is uncontrolled. Protestants, +generally, are too apt to suppose that there is +something in their creed which protects them against +those hurtful extravagances which have been, and, +to a certain extent, still are, practised in the Catholic +Church. Never was a greater mistake. There is but one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +protection against the tyranny of any class; and that is, +to give that class very little power. Whatever the pretensions +of any body of men may be, however smooth +their language, and however plausible their claims, they +are sure to abuse power, if much of it is conferred on +them. The entire history of the world affords no instance +to the contrary. In Catholic countries, France +alone excepted, the clergy have more authority than in +Protestant countries. Therefore, in Catholic countries, +they do more harm than in Protestant countries, and +their peculiar views are developed with greater freedom. +The difference depends, not on the nature of the creed, +but on the power of the class. This is very apparent in +Scotland, where the clergy, being supreme, did, Protestants +though they were, imitate the ascetic, the unsocial, +and the cruel doctrines, which, in the Catholic +Church, gave rise to convents, fastings, scourgings, and +all the other appliances of an uncouth and ungenial +superstition.</p> + +<p>Indeed, the Scotch divines, in some of their theories, +went beyond any section of the Catholic Church, except +the Spanish. They sought to destroy, not only human +pleasures, but also human affections. They held that +our affections are necessarily connected with our lusts, +and that we must, therefore, wean ourselves from them +as earthly vanities.<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> A Christian had no business with +love or sympathy. He had his own soul to attend to, +and that was enough for him. Let him look to himself. +On Sunday, in particular, he must never think of benefiting +others; and the Scotch clergy did not hesitate to +teach the people, that on that day it was sinful to save a +vessel in distress, and that it was a proof of religion to +leave ship and crew to perish.<a name="FNanchor_607_607" id="FNanchor_607_607"></a><a href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> They might go; none<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +but their wives and children would suffer, and that was +nothing in comparison with breaking the Sabbath. So, +too, did the clergy teach, that on no occasion must food +or shelter be given to a starving man, unless his opinions +were orthodox.<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> What need for him to live? Indeed, +they taught that it was a sin to tolerate his notions at +all, and that the proper course was, to visit him with +sharp and immediate punishment.<a name="FNanchor_609_609" id="FNanchor_609_609"></a><a href="#Footnote_609_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> Going yet further, +they broke the domestic ties, and set parents against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +their offspring. They taught the father to smite the +unbelieving child, and to slay his own boy sooner than +allow him to propagate error.<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> As if this were not +enough, they tried to extirpate another affection, even +more sacred and more devoted still. They laid their +rude and merciless hands on the holiest passion of which +our nature is capable, the love of a mother for her son. +Into that sanctuary, they dared to intrude; into that, they +thrust their gaunt and ungentle forms. If a mother +held opinions of which they disapproved, they did not +scruple to invade her household, take away her children, +and forbid her to hold communication with them.<a name="FNanchor_611_611" id="FNanchor_611_611"></a><a href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> +Or if, perchance, her son had incurred their displeasure, +they were not satisfied with forcible separation, but they +laboured to corrupt her heart, and harden it against her +child, so that she might be privy to the act. In one of +these cases, mentioned in the records of the church of +Glasgow, the Kirk-Session of that town summoned before +them a woman, merely because she had received into +her house her own son, after the clergy had excommunicated +him. So effectually did they work upon her mind, +that they induced her to promise, not only that she would +shut her door against her child, but that she would aid +in bringing him to punishment. She had sinned in +loving him; she had sinned, even, in giving him shelter; +but, says the record, ‘she promised not to do it again,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +and to tell the magistrates when he comes next to +her.’<a name="FNanchor_612_612" id="FNanchor_612_612"></a><a href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a></p> + +<p>She promised not to do it again. She promised to +forget him, whom she had born of her womb and +suckled at her breast. She promised to forget her +boy, who had ofttimes crept to her knees, who had slept +in her bosom, and whose tender frame she had watched +over and nursed. All the dearest associations of the +past, all that the most exquisite form of human affection +can give or receive, all that delights the memory, all +that brightens the prospect of life, all vanished, all passed +away from the mind of this poor woman, at the bidding +of her spiritual masters. At one fell swoop, all were +gone. So potent were the arts of these men, that they +persuaded the mother to conspire against her son, that +she might deliver him up to them. They defiled her +nature, by purging it of its love. From that day her +soul was polluted. She was lost to herself, as well as +lost to her son. To hear of such things is enough to +make one's blood surge again, and raise a tempest in +our inmost nature. But to have seen them, to have +lived in the midst of them, and yet not to have rebelled +against them, is to us utterly inconceivable, and proves +in how complete a thraldom the Scotch were held, and +how thoroughly their minds, as well as their bodies, +were enslaved.</p> + +<p>What more need I say? What further evidence need +I bring to elucidate the real character of one of the most +detestable tyrannies ever seen on the earth? When the +Scotch Kirk was at the height of its power, we may +search history in vain for any institution which can compete +with it, except the Spanish Inquisition. Between +these two, there is a close and intimate analogy. Both +were intolerant, both were cruel, both made war upon +the finest parts of human nature, and both destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +every vestige of religions freedom. One difference, +however, there was, of vast importance. In political +matters, the Church, which was servile in Spain, was +rebellious in Scotland. Hence the Scotch always had +one direction in which they could speak and act with +unrestrained liberty. In politics, they found their vent. +There, the mind was free. And this was their salvation. +This saved them from the fate of Spain, by securing to +them the exercise of those faculties which otherwise +would have lain dormant, if, indeed, they had not been +entirely destroyed by that long and enfeebling servitude +in which their clergy retained them, and from which, +but for this favourable circumstance, no escape would +have been open.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> In 1638, one of the most eminent of the Scotch clergy +writes: ‘Our maine feare’ is ‘to have our religion lost, our throats +cutted, our poore countrey made ane English province, to be disposed +upon for ever hereafter at the will of a Bishope of Canterburie.’ +<i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, vol. i. p. 66. Compare p. 450. ‘This +kirk is a free and independant kirk, no less then the kingdom is a free +and independant kingdom; and as our own Patriots can best judge what is +for the good of the kingdom, so our own Pastors should be most able to +judge what form of worship beseemeth our Reformation, and what serveth +most for the good of the People.’ Two generations later, one of the most +popular arguments against the Union was, that it might enable the +English to force episcopacy upon Scotland. See <i>De Foe's History of the +Union between England and Scotland</i>, pp. 222, 284, 359. ‘The danger of +the Church of Scotland, from the suffrages of English bishops,’ &c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> The hatred which the Scotch naturally felt against the +English for having inflicted so much suffering upon them, was intense +about the middle of the seventeenth century, notwithstanding the +temporary union of the two nations against Charles. In 1652, ‘the +criminal record is full of cases of murder of English soldiers. They +were cut off by the people whenever a fitting opportunity occurred, and +were as much detested in Scotland as the French soldiers were in Spain +during the Peninsular war.’ <i>The Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. +98, Edinburgh, 1845. See also p. 167: ‘a nationall quarrell, and not for +the Stuarts.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> <i>Browne's History of the Highlands</i>, vol. ii. pp. 75–77: +‘the English army was augmented to twenty thousand men, and citadels +erected in several towns, and a long train of military stations drawn +across the country to curb the inhabitants.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> Clarendon, under the year 1655, says, ‘Though Scotland was +vanquished, and subdued, to that degree, that there was no place nor +person who made the least show of opposing Cromwell; who, by the +administration of Monk, made the yoke very grievous to the whole nation; +yet the preachers kept their pulpit license; and, more for the affront +that was offered to presbytery, than the conscience of what was due to +majesty, many of them presumed to pray for the king; and generally, +though secretly, exasperated the minds of the people against the present +government.’ <i>Clarendon's History of the Rebellion</i>, p. 803.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> And, what they must have felt very acutely, he would not go +to hear them preach. A writer of that time informs us that, even in +1648, when Cromwell was in Edinburgh, ‘he went not to their churches; +but it is constantle reported that ewerie day he had sermons in his oune +ludginge, himself being the preacher, whensoewer the spirit came upon +him; which took him lyk the fitts of an ague, somtyms twise, sometyms +thryse in a day.’ <i>Gordon's Britane's Distemper</i>, p. 212. In 1650, +according to another contemporary, ‘he made stables of all the churches +for hes horsses quhersoeuer he came, and burned all the seatts and pewes +in them; riffled the ministers housses, and distrayed ther cornes.’ +<i>Balfour's Annales of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. p. 88. The clergy, on the +other hand, employing a resource with which their profession has always +been familiar, represented Cromwell as opposing Providence, because he +was opposing them. Rutherford (<i>Religious Letters</i>, reprinted Glasgow, +1824, p. 346) says, that he fought ‘against the Lord's secret ones;’ and +Row (<i>Continuation of Blair's Autobiography</i>, p. 335), under the year +1658, triumphantly observes: ‘In the beginning of September this year, +the Protector, that old fox, died. It was observed, as a remarkable cast +of divine providence, that he died upon the 3d of September, which he, +glorying of routing of our armies at Dunbar and Worcester on that day, +used to call <i>his day</i>. On that same very day the Just Judge called him +to an account,’ &c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> See contemporary notices of this, in <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, p. +110; and in <i>The Diary of Mr. John Lamont of Newton</i>, pp. 56, 57. But +the best account is that given by Baillie, in a letter to Calamy, dated +Glasgow, 27th July 1653. He writes: ‘That on the 20th of July last, when +our Generall Assemblie was sett in the ordinarie tyme and place, +Lieutenant-Colonell Cotterall besett the church with some rattes of +musqueteirs and a troup of horse; himself (after our fast, wherein Mr. +Dickson and Mr. Dowglas had two gracious sermons) entered the +Assemblie-house, and immediately after Mr. Dickson the Moderator his +prayer, required audience; wherein he inquired, If we did sitt there by +the authority of the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England? or of +the Commanders-in-chiefe of the English forces? or of the English Judges +in Scotland? The Moderator replyed, That we were ane Ecclesiasticall +synod, ane Spirituall court of Jesus Christ, which medled not with +anything Civile; that our authoritie wes from God, and established by +the lawes of the land yet standing unrepealed; that, by the Solemn +League and Covenant, the most of the English army stood obliedged to +defend our Generall Assemblie. When some speeches of this kind had +passed, the Lieutenant-Colonell told us, his order was to dissolve us; +whereupon he commanded all of us to follow him, else he would drag us +out of the rowme. When we had entered a Protestation of this unheard-of +and unexampled violence, we did ryse and follow him; he ledd us all +through the whole streets a myle out of the towne, encompassing us with +foot-companies of musqueteirs, and horsemen without; all the people +gazing and mourning as at the saddest spectacle they had ever seen. When +he had ledd us a myle without the towne, he then declared what further +he had in commission, That we should not dare to meet any more above +three in number; and that against eight o'clock to-morrow, we should +depart the towne, under paine of being guiltie of breaking the publick +peace: And the day following, by sound of trumpet, we were commanded off +towne under the paine of present imprisonment. Thus our Generall +Assemblie, the glory and strength of our Church upon earth, is, by your +souldiarie, crushed and trod under foot, without the least provocatione +from us, at this time, either in word or deed.’ <i>Baillie's Letters and +Journals</i>, vol. iii. pp. 225, 226.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> In August 1640, the army marched into England; and ‘it was +very refreshfull to remark, that after we came to ane quarter at night, +there was nothing almost to be heard throughout the whole army but +singing of Psalms, prayer, and reading of Scripture by the souldiers in +their severall hutts.’ <i>Select Biographies</i>, edited by Mr. Tweedie for +the Wodrow Society, vol. i. p. 163. ‘The most zealous among them +boasted, they should carry the triumphant banners of the covenant to +Rome itself.’ <i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, p. 124. In 1644, the +celebrated divine, Andrew Cant, was appointed by the Commissioners of +the General Assembly, ‘to preach at the opening of the Parliament, +wherein he satisfied their expectation fully. For, the main point he +drove at in his sermon, was to state an opposition betwixt King Charles +and King Jesus (as he was pleased to speak) and upon that account to +press resistance to King Charles for the interest of King Jesus. It may +be wondered that such doctrine should have relish'd with men brought up +in the knowledge of the Scriptures; and yet, such was the madness of the +times, that none who preach'd in public since the beginning of the +Troubles, had been so cried up as he was for that sermon.’ <i>Guthry's +Memoirs</i>, pp. 136, 137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> ‘The rooting out of prelacy and the wicked hierarchy +therein so obviously described, is the main duty.’ <i>Naphtali, or the +Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland</i>, pp. 53, 54. This refers to the +Covenant of 1643. So, too, the continuator of <i>Row's History of the +Kirk</i>, p. 521, says, under the year 1639, that the object of the war +was, ‘to withstand the prelaticall faction and malignant, countenanced +by the kinge in his owne persone.’ Compare the outbreak of the Reverend +Samuel Rutherford, against ‘the accursed and wretched prelates, the +Antichrist's first-born, and the first fruit of his foul womb.’ +<i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 179.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Our civil war was not religious; but was a struggle between +the Crown and the Parliament. See a note in <i>Buckle's History of +Civilization</i>, vol. i. p. 359.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> In September 1643, Baillie, writing an account of the +proceedings of the Westminster Assembly in the preceding month, says, +‘In our committees also we had hard enough debates. The English were for +a civill League, we for a religious Covenant.’ Letter to Mr. William +Spang, dated 22nd September 1643, in <i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, +vol. ii. p. 90.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> ‘The Solemn League and Covenant,’ which ‘is memorable as +the first approach towards an intimate union between the kingdoms, but, +according to the intolerant principles of the age, a federal alliance +was constructed on the frail and narrow basis of religious communion.’ +<i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. pp. 258, 259. The passage, +however, which I have quoted, in the last note, from Baillie, shows that +England was not responsible for the intolerant principles, or, +consequently, for the narrow basis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> The Chancellor of Scotland ‘did as good as conclude “that +if the king would satisfy them in the business of the Church, they would +not concern themselves in any of the other demands.”’ … ‘And it was +manifest enough, by the private conferences with other of the +commissioners, that the parliament took none of the points in +controversy less to heart, or were less united in, than in what +concerned the Church.’ <i>Clarendon's History of the Rebellion</i>, edit. +Oxford, 1843, p. 522. See also p. 527: ‘that the Scots would insist upon +the whole government of the Church, and in all other matters would defer +to the king.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> See this extraordinary document in <i>Acts of the General +Assembly of the Church of Scotland from 1638 to 1842</i>, pp. 122–128, +Edinburgh, 1843. It is entitled ‘A solemne and seasonable warning to the +noblemen, barons, gentlemen, burrows, ministers, and commons of +Scotland; as also to armies without and within this kingdom.’ In it (p. +123) occurs the following passage: ‘And for our part, our forces sent +into that kingdom, in pursuance of that Covenant, have been so +mercifully and manifestly assisted and blessed from heaven (though in +the mids of many dangers and distresses, and much want and hardship), +and have been so farre instrumentall to the foyling and scattering of +two principall armies; first, the Marquesse of Newcastle his army; and +afterwards Prince Rupert's and his together; and to the reducing of two +strong cities, York and Newcastle, that we have what to answer the enemy +that reproacheth us concerning that businesse, and that which may make +iniquitie it self to stop her mouth. But which <i>is more unto us than all +victories or whatsomever temporall blessing</i>, the reformation of +religion in England, and uniformity therein between both kingdoms (a +principal end of that Covenant), is so far advanced, that the English +Service-Book with the Holy-Dayes and many other ceremonies contained in +it, together with the Prelacy, the fountain of all these, are abolished +and taken away by ordinance of parliament, and a directory for the +worship of God in all the three kingdoms agreed upon in the Assemblies, +and in the Parliaments of both kingdoms, without a contrary voice in +either; the government of the kirk by congregational elderships, +classical presbyteries, provincial and national assemblies, is agreed +upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, which is also voted and +concluded in both Houses of the Parliament of England.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> In 1644, ‘God ansuered our Wednesday's prayers: Balfour +and Waller had gotten a glorious victorie over Forth and Hopton, and +routed them totallie, horse and foot.’ <i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, +vol. ii. p. 155. In the same year, thanksgivings being offered at +Aberdeen for the victory of Leslie over Rupert, ‘oure minister Mr. +William Strathauchin declairit out of pulpit that this victory wes +miraculous, wrocht by the fynger of God.’ <i>Spalding's History of the +Troubles</i>, vol. ii. p. 254. In 1648, the Commissioners of the General +Assembly, in an address to the Prince of Wales, stated that the Deity +had been ‘fighting for his people;’ meaning by his people, the Scotch +people. They added, that the fact of their enemies having been repulsed, +was a proof of ‘how sore the Lord hath been displeased with their way.’ +<i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, vol. ii. p. 424, Oxford, 1773, folio.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> Two Scotch notices are now before me of the fatal battle +of Dunbar. According to one, the defeat was intended to testify against +‘the great sin and wickedness’ of the people. <i>Naphtali, or the +Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. 75. According to the other, it +was owing to the anger of the Deity at the Scotch showing any favour to +the partizans of Charles. For, says the Reverend Alexander Shields, +‘both at that time, and since that time, the Lord never countenanced an +expedition where that malignant interest was taken in unto the state of +the quarrel. Upon this, our land was invaded by Oliver Cromwell, who +defeat our army at Dunbar, where the anger of the Lord was evidently +seen to smoke against us, for espousing that interest.’ <i>Shields' Hind +let loose</i>, p. 75. These opinions were formed after the battle. Before +the battle, a different hypothesis was broached. Sir Edward Walker, who +was in Scotland at the time, tells us, that the clergy assured the +people that ‘they had an army of saints, and that they could not be +beaten.’ <i>Journal of Affairs in Scotland in 1650</i>, in <i>Walker's +Historical Discourses</i>, London, 1705, folio, p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> ‘Each new victory of Montrose was expressly attributed to +the admonitory “indignation of the Lord” against his chosen people for +their sin, in “trusting too much to the arm of flesh.”’ <i>Napier's Life +of Montrose</i>, Edinburgh, 1840, p. 283. Compare <i>Guthrie's Considerations +contributing unto the Discovery of the Dangers that threaten Religion</i>, +pp. 274, 275, reprinted Edinburgh, 1846. Guthrie was at the height of +his reputation in the middle of the seventeenth century. Lord Somerville +says of the Scotch, when they were making war against Charles I., that +it was ‘ordinary for them, dureing the wholl tyme of this warre, to +attribute ther great successe to the goodnesse and justice of their +cause, untill Divyne Justice trysted them with some crosse +dispensatione, and then you might have heard this language from them, +that it pleased the Lord to give his oune the heavyest end of the tree +to bear, that the saints and people of God must still be sufferers while +they are here away; that that malignant party was God's rod to punish +them for their unthankfullnesse,’ &c. <i>Somerville's Memorie of the +Somervilles</i>, vol. ii. pp. 351, 352.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> Baillie mentions, in 1644, an instance of these +expectations being fulfilled. He says (<i>Letters and Journals</i>, vol. ii. +p. 138), ‘These things were brought in at a very important nick of time, +by God's gracious providence: Never a more quick passage from Holy +Island to Yarmouth in thirtie houres; they had not cast anchor halfe an +houre till the wind turned contrare.’ Compare p. 142: ‘If this were +past, we look for a new lyfe and vigoure in all affaires, especiallie if +it please God to send a sweet northwind, carrying the certain news of +the taking of Newcastle, which we dailie expect.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> No one, perhaps, carried this further than John Menzies, +the celebrated professor of divinity at Aberdeen. ‘Such was his uncommon +fervour in the pulpit, that, we are informed, he “used to change his +shirt always after preaching, and to wet two or three napkins with tears +every sermon.”’ Note in <i>Wodrow's Correspondence</i>, vol. ii. p. 222. +James Forbes, also, was ‘an able and zealous preacher, who after every +sermon behooved to change his shirt, he spoke with such vehemency and +sweating.’ <i>Select Biographies</i>, published by the Wodrow Society, vol. +i. p. 333. Lord Somerville, who wrote in 1679, mentions ‘their +thundering preachings.’ <i>Memorie of the Somervilles</i>, vol. ii. p. 388. A +traditionary anecdote, related by the Dean of Edinburgh, refers to a +later period, but is characteristic of the class. ‘Another description I +have heard of an energetic preacher more forcible than delicate—“Eh, +our minister had a great power o' watter, for he grat, and spat, and +swat like mischeef.”’ <i>Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character</i>, by +E. B. Ramsay, Dean of Edinburgh, p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> He ‘was a very learned and pious man; he had a strange +faculty of preaching five or six hours at a time.’ <i>Burnet's History of +his own Time</i>, vol. i. p. 38. +Even early in the eighteenth century, when theological fervour was +beginning to decline, and sermons were consequently shorter, Hugh +Thomson came near to Forbes. ‘He was the longest preacher ever I heard, +and would have preached four (or) five hours, and was not generally +under two hours; that almost every body expected.’ … ‘He was a piouse +good man, and a fervent affectionat preacher, and, when I heard him, he +had a vast deal of heads, and a great deal of matter, and generally very +good and practicall, but very long.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, +vol. iv. p. 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> In 1653, Lamont casually mentions, in his journal, that +‘the one came doune from the pulpit and the other went vp, in the tyme +that the psalme after the first sermon was singing, so that ther was no +intermission of the exercise, nether were the peopell dismissed till +both sermons were ended.’ <i>The Diary of Mr. John Lamont of Newton</i>, p. +58. Burnet (<i>History of his own Time</i>, vol. i. p. 92) says, ‘I remember +in one fast day there were six sermons preached without intermission. I +was there myself, and not a little weary of so tedious a service.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> When Guthrie preached at Fenwick, ‘his church, although a +large country one, was overlaid and crowded every Sabbath-day, and very +many, without doors, from distant parishes, such as Glasgow, Paisley, +Hamilton, Lanerk, Kilbryde, Glasford, Strathaven, Newmills, Egelsham and +many other places, who hungered for the pure gospel preached, and got a +meal by the word of his ministry. It was their usual practice to come to +Fenwick on Saturday, and to spend the greatest part of the night in +prayer to God, and conversation about the great concerns of their souls, +to attend the public worship on the Sabbath, to dedicate the remainder +of that holy day in religious exercises, and then to go home on Monday +the length of ten, twelve or twenty miles without grudging in the least +at the long way, want of sleep or other refreshments; neither did they +find themselves the less prepared for any other business through the +week.’ <i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, 2nd edit., Glasgow, 1781, p. 311. +One woman went forty miles to hear Livingstone preach. See her own +statement, in <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. ii. p. 249.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> Spalding gives the following account of what happened at +Aberdeen in 1644. ‘So heir in Old Abirdene, upone the sevint of July, we +had ane fast, entering the churche be nyne houris, and continewit +praying and preiching whill tua houris. Efter sermon, the people sat +still heiring reiding whill efternone's sermon began and endit, whiche +continewit till half hour to sex. Then the prayer bell rang to the +evening prayeris, and continewit whill seven.’ <i>Spalding's History of +the Troubles</i>, vol. ii. p. 244, edit. Edinburgh, 1829, 4to. See also p. +42: ‘the people keipit churche all day.’ This was also at Aberdeen, in +1642.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> ‘Out of one pulpit now they have thirty sermons per week, +all under one roof.’ <i>A Modern Account of Scotland</i>, in <i>The Harleian +Miscellany</i>, vol. vi. p. 138, edit. Park, London, 1810, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> ‘But where the greatest part was more sound, they gave the +sacrament with a new and unusual solemnity. On the Wednesday before, +they held a fast day, with prayers and sermons for about eight or ten +hours together: on the Saturday they had two or three preparation +sermons: and on the Lord's day they had so very many, that the action +continued above twelve hours in some places: and all ended with three or +four sermons on Monday for thanksgiving.’ <i>Burnet's History of his own +Time</i>, vol. i. p. 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> ‘The power of those kirk-sessions, which are now private +assemblages, in whose meetings and proceedings the public take no +interest whatever, is defined to be the cognizance of parochial matters +and cases of scandal; but in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, +especially during the Covenanting reign of terror after the outbreak of +the Civil War against Charles I., the kirk-sessions of Scotland were the +sources of excessive tyranny and oppression—were arbitrary, +inquisitorial, and revengeful, to an extent which exceeds all belief. It +is truly stated by the author of the “Memoirs of Locheill”—“Every +parish had a tyrant, who made the greatest Lord in his district stoop to +his authority. The kirk was the place where he kept his court; the +pulpit his throne or tribunal from whence he issued out his terrible +decrees; and twelve or fourteen sour ignorant enthusiasts, under the +title of Elders, composed his council. If any, of what quality soever, +had the assurance to disobey his orders, the dreadful sentence of +excommunication was immediately thundered out against him, his goods and +chattels confiscated and seized, and he himself being looked upon as +actually in the possession of the devil, and irretrievably doomed to +eternal perdition.”’ Introduction to <i>The Kirk-Session Register of +Perth</i>, in <i>The Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. pp. 229–230, +Edinburgh, 1845. In regard to the perdition which the sentence of +excommunication was supposed to involve, one of the most influential +Scotch divines of that time merely expresses the prevailing notion, when +he asserts, that whoever was excommunicated was thereby given up to +Satan. ‘That he who is excommunicated may be truly said to be delivered +to Sathan is undeniable.’ <i>Gillespie's Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the +Divine Ordinance of Church Government Vindicated</i>, 1646, 4to, p. 239. +‘Excommunication, which is a shutting out of a Church-member from the +Church, whereby Sathan commeth to get dominion and power over him.’ +<i>Ibid.</i> p. 297. ‘Sure I am an excommunicate person may truly be said to +be delivered to Sathan.’ p. 424.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> Clarendon, under the year 1640, emphatically says +(<i>History of the Rebellion</i>, p. 67), ‘The preacher reprehended the +husband, governed the wife, chastised the children, and insulted over +the servants, in the houses of the greatest men.’ The theory was, that +‘ministers and elders must be submitted unto us as fathers.’ <i>Shields' +Enquiry into Church Communion</i>, 2nd edit., Edinburgh, 1747, p. 66. In +the middle of the seventeenth century, one of the most famous of the +Scotch preachers openly asserted the right of his profession to +interfere in family matters, on the ground that such was the custom in +the time of Joshua. ‘The Ministers of God's house have not only the +ministry of holy things, as Word and Sacraments, committed to their +charge, but also the power of ecclesiastical government to take order +with scandalous offences within the familie; both these are here +promised to Joshua and the Priests.’ <i>Hutchison's Exposition of the +Minor Prophets</i>, vol. iii. p. 72, London, 1654. In 1603, the Presbytery +of Aberdeen took upon themselves to order that every master of a house +should keep a rod, that his family, including his servants, might be +beaten if they used improper language. ‘It is concludit that thair salbe +in ewerie houss a palmar.’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk +Session, Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, printed for the Spalding +Club, 4to, Aberdeen, 1846, p. 194. It also appears (p. 303) that, in +1674, the clergyman was expected to exercise supervision over all +visitors to private houses; since he ought to be informed, ‘iff ther be +anie persone receaved in the familie without testimoniall presented to +the minister.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> In 1650, it was ordered, ‘That everie paroche be divydit +in severall quarteris, and each elder his owne quarter, over which he is +to have speciall inspectioun, and that everie elder visit his quarter +once everie month at least, according to the act of the Generall +Assemblie, 1649, and in thair visitatioun tak notice of all disorderlie +walkeris, especiallie neglectouris of God's worship in thair families, +sueareris, haunteris of aill houses, especiallie at vnseasonable tymes, +and long sitteris thair, and drinkeris of healthis; and that he dilate +these to the Sessioun.’ <i>Selections from the Minutes of the Synod of +Fife</i>, printed for the Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh, 1837, 4to, p. 168. +‘The elders each one in his own quarter, for trying the manners of the +people.’ <i>The Government and Order of the Church of Scotland</i>, +Edinburgh, 1690, p. 14. This scarce little volume is reprinted from the +edition of 1641. See the advertisement at the beginning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> In 1652, the Kirk-Session of Glasgow ‘brot boyes and +servants before them, for breaking the Sabbath, and other faults. They +had clandestine censors, and gave money to some for this end.’ <i>Wodrow's +Collections</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. 74, Glasgow, 1848, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> ‘It is thocht expedient that ane baillie with tua of the +sessioun pas throw the towne everie Sabboth day, and nott sic as thay +find absent fra the sermones ather afoir or efter none; and for that +effect that thay pas and <i>sersche sic houss as they think maist meit</i>, +and pas athort the streittis.’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk +Session, Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. 26. ‘To pas throw the +towne to caus the people resort to the hering of the sermones.’ p. 59. +‘Ganging throw the towne on the ordinar preiching dayes in the weik, als +weill as on the Saboth day, to caus the people resort to the sermones.’ +p. 77. See also p. 94; and <i>Wodrow's Collections</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. +37: ‘the Session allous the searchers to go into houses and apprehend +absents from the kirk.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> ‘Another peculiarity was the supervision wielded over the +movements of people to such a degree that they could neither <i>obtain +lodging nor employment</i> except by a licence from the Kirk-Session, or, +by defying this police court, expose themselves to fine and +imprisonment.’ <i>Lawson's Book of Perth</i>, p. xxxvii. Edinburgh, 1847.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> In 1652, Sir Alexander Irvine indignantly writes, that the +presbytery of Aberdeen, ‘when they had tried many wayes, bot in vaine, +to mak probable this their vaine imaginatione, they, at lenthe, when all +other meanes failed thame, by ane unparalelled barbaritie, enforced my +serwandis to reweall upon oathe what they sawe, herd, or knewe done +within my house, beyond which no Turkische inquisitione could pase.’ +<i>The Miscellany of the Spalding Club</i>, vol. iii. p. 206, Aberdeen, 1846, +4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> In 1656, a servant was ordered to be brought before the +Kirk-Session of Aberdeen ‘for her rayleing againest Mr. Andrew Cant, +minister, in saying that becaus the said Mr. Andrew spak againest Yuill, +he spak lyke ane old fool.’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk +Session, Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. 138. In 1642, the +Presbytery of Lanark had up a certain James Baillie, because he stated +the extremely probable circumstance, ‘that two fooles mett togither, +when the Minister and his sone mett togither.’ <i>Selections from the +Registers of the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, printed for the Abbotsford Club, +Edinburgh, 1839, 4to, p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> In 1644, ‘If you dissent from them in a theological tenet, +it is heresy.’ <i>Presbytery Displayed</i>, 1644, p. 39, reprinted London, +1663, 4to. In 1637, ‘If ye depart from <i>what I taught you in a +hair-breadth</i> for fear or favour of men, or desire of ease in this +world, I take heaven and earth to witness, that ill shall come upon you +in end.’ <i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 116. In 1607, ‘Mr. William +Cowper, Minister, complained upon Robert Keir that he had disdainfully +spoken of his doctrine. The (Kirk) Session ordained him to be warned to +the morrow.’ <i>Lawson's Book of Perth</i>, p. 247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> In 1619, a man was summoned before the Kirk-Session of +Perth, because, among other things, he would not perform ‘that civil +duty of salutation, as becomes him to his pastor;’ but ‘passed by him +without using any kind of reverence.’ <i>The Chronicle of Perth</i>, +Edinburgh, 1831, 4to, p. 80. The complaint was preferred by the minister +himself. Indeed, the Scotch clergy took these things so much to heart, +that they set up a theory to the effect that whoever showed them any +disrespect, was prompted thereto by Satan. ‘It is Satan's great engine +to draw men to contemne God and his word, under pretext of disrespect +and prejudice against the Messengers only.’ … ‘It may let us see their +guilt who despise most eminent ordinary Messengers.’ <i>Hutcheson's +Exposition of the Minor Prophets</i>, vol. i. pp. 205, 233.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> The General Assembly of Saint Andrews, in 1642, passed ‘an +act against using ministers' names in any of the public papers, without +their own consent.’ <i>Stevenson's History of the Church of Scotland</i>, p. +503.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> ‘Directions for a believer's walk, given by Christ's +ministers from his word, are his own, and are accounted by him as if he +did immediately speak them himself.’ <i>Durham's Exposition of the Song of +Solomon</i>, p. 102. I quote from the Glasgow reprint of 1788. That my +references may be easily verified, and any error, if error there be, +detected, I mention that the exact edition used will, in every case, be +found specified in the List of Authors at the beginning of this work. +But, if it will give the reader any additional confidence, I will +venture to observe, that I am always scrupulously careful in reference +to quotations, having looked out each passage afresh, as the sheets came +from the printers hands. Some of the circumstances narrated in this +chapter are so monstrous, that I hope to be excused in saying that I +have taken all possible pains to secure their literal accuracy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> ‘Yea, such was their arrogance, that, as if they had been +privy to the councils of God, or the dispensers of his vengeance to the +world, they presumed to pronounce upon their future state, and doomed +them, both body and soul, to eternal torments.’ <i>Wishart's Memoirs of +the Marquis of Montrose</i>, p. 237. ‘Ye heard of me the whole counsel of +God. <i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 16. 'I am free from the blood +of all men; for I have communicated to you the whole counsel of God.’ +<i>Ibid.</i> p. 191. ‘This is the great business of Gospel Ministers, to +declare the whole counsel of God.’ <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of +Salvation</i>, p. 4. ‘Asserting that he had declared the whole counsel of +God, and had keeped nothing back.’ <i>Life of the Rev. A. Peden</i>, p. 41, +in vol. i. of <i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> ‘The power of the keys is given to the Ministers of the +church, wherewith not only by the preaching of the word, but also to +church censures (sic) they open and shut the kingdom of heaven.’ +<i>Dickson's Truth's Victory over Error</i>, p. 282. ‘To preach the Word, +impugne, rebuik, admonishe, exhort and correct, and that under no less +paine then casting both bodie and soull into eternall hell's fire.’ +<i>Forbes' Certaine Records touching the Estate of the Kirk</i>, p. 519. ‘The +next words, “Whatsoever ye shall bind on Earth shall be bound in +Heaven,” being spoken to the Apostles, and in them to other Ministers of +Jesus Christ.’ <i>Gillespie's Aaron's Rod Blossoming</i>, p. 366. ‘The keys +of the kingdom of Heaven’ … ‘are committed and intrusted to the +pastors and other ruling officers of the Church.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 260.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> ‘Gird up the loins of your mind, and make you ready for +meeting the Lord; I have often summoned you, and now I summon you again, +to compear before your Judge, to make a reckoning of your life.’ +<i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 235. ‘Mr. Cameron, musing a little, +said, “You, and all who do not know my God in mercy, shall know him in +his judgments, which shall be sudden and surprising in a few days upon +you; and I, as a sent servant of Jesus Christ, whose commission I bear, +and whose badge I wear upon my breast, give you warning, and leave you +to the justice of God.” Accordingly, in a few days after, the said +Andrew, being in perfect health, took his breakfast plentifully, and +before he rose fell a-vomiting, and vomited his heart's blood in the +very vessel out of which he had taken his breakfast; and died in a most +frightful manner.’ <i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, p. 406.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> ‘Sitting at supper with the Lord Ochiltree (who was uncle +to Mr. Welsh's wife), as his manner was, he entertained the company with +godly and edifying discourse, which was well received by all the company +save only one debauched Popish young gentleman, who sometimes laughed, +and sometimes mocked and made faces; whereupon Mr. Welsh brake out into +a sad abrupt charge upon all the company to be silent, and observe the +work of the Lord upon that profane mocker, which they should presently +behold; upon which immediately the profane wretch sunk down and died +beneath the table, but never returned to life again, to the great +astonishment of all the company.’ <i>History of Mr. John Welsh, Minister +of the Gospel at Ayr</i>, in <i>Select Biographies</i>, vol. i. p. 29. ‘Mr. +Welsh being by the Captaine, set at the upper end, intertained the +company with grave and edifying discourse which all delighted to hear, +save this young Papist, who, with laughter and derision, laboured to +silence him, which was little regarded by Mr. Welsh. But after supper, +while the guests sate a little, this youth stood up at the lower end of +the table, and while Mr. Welsh proceeded from grave to gracious +entertainment of his company, the youth came to that height of insolence +as with the finger to point at him and with the face to make flouting +grimaces, whereby he grieved the holy man, so as on a suddain he was +forced to a silence. The whole company, who had heard him with delight, +were silent with him. Within a little, Mr. Welsh, as moved by the spirit +of God, broke forth into these words: “Gentlemen, the spirit of God is +provoked against us, and I shall intreat you not to be afraid to see +what God shall do among you before you rise from the table, for he will +smite some of you with death before you go hence.” All were silently +astonished, waiting to see the issue with fear. And while every man +feared himselfe, except the insolent youth, he fel down dead suddenly at +the foot of the table to shew the power of God's jealousie against the +mockers of his Spirit and the offers of his grace.’ <i>Fleming's +Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, pp. 374, 375.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> ‘When they sat doun to supper, it seems, knives were +forgote; and when the servant was rebuked, Mr. Hogg said, there was noe +matter, for he had one in his pocket, and it was a necessary companion +for a travailer; and, as his use was upon evry thing, he took occasion +to raise a spirituall discourse from it: “If we wer soe carefull about +accommodations in our way here, what care should we take in our +spirituall journey!” and the like; at which the factour takes a kink of +laughing. Mr. Hogg looked at him with a frown, and went on in his +discourse. Within a little, at somewhat or other, he laughed out yet +louder, and Mr. Hogg stoped a litle, and looked him very stern in the +face, and went on in his discourse, upon the free grace of God; and, at +some expression or other, the man fell a laughing and flouting very +loud: Upon which Mr. Hogg stoped, and directed his discourse to him, to +this purpose: “Alace!” sayes he, “my soul is afflicted to say what I +must say to you, sir, and I am constrained and pressed in spirit to say +it, and cannot help it. Sir, you nou dispise the grace of God, and mock +at it; but I tell you, in the name of the Lord, that the time is coming, +and that very shortly, when you (will) seek ane offer of grace, but +shall not find it!” Upon which the man arose, laughing and flouting, and +went to his room. After he was away, the lady asked Mr. Hogg, What he +thought would come upon him? He answered, he kneu noe more then he had +said, and that he was constrained and oblidged to say it against his +inclination; and he could not accompt for some of these impressions he +sometimes felt, and after Providences would clear, and that shortly; but +what it was, when, or where, he kneu not. The man told some of the +servants that a phanatick Minister had been pronouncing a curse on him, +but he did not value him nor it either. After Mr. Hogg had been somtime +with the lady, he went to his room; and after he had, as he used to doe, +spent some time in prayer, he putt off his cloaths, and just as he was +stepping into his bedd, a servant comes and knocks at the dore and +cryes, “For the Lord's sake, Mr. Hogg, come doun staires, presently, to +the factour's room!” He put on his cloaths, as quickly as possible, and +came doun, but the wretch was dead before he reached him!’ <i>Analecta, +or Materials for a History of Remarkable Providences, mostly relating to +Scotch Ministers and Christians</i>, by the Rev. Robert Wodrow, vol. i. pp. +265, 266. Compare <i>The Life of Mr. Thomas Hog</i>, in <i>Howie's Biographia</i>, +p. 543, where a version is given, slightly different, but essentially +the same.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> ‘He tells me, that when in the South country, he heard +this story, which was not doubted about Geddart’ (i.e. Jedburgh): ‘Mr. +Gabriel Semple had gote a habite, when speaking and preaching, of +putting out his tongue, and licking his lipps very frequently. Ther was +a fellou that used to ape him, in a way of mock; and one day, in a +druken caball, he was aping him and putting out his tongue; and it +turned stiffe and sensless, and he could not drau it in again, but in a +feu dayes dyed. This accompt is soe odd, that I wish I may have it +confirmed from other hands.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. ii. p. 187.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> ‘About the same time, wading Douglas-water very deep,’ +(he) ‘came to a house there; the good wife of the house insisted (as +most part of women do not keep a bridle-hand) in chiding of him; which +made him to fret, and said, I wonder that your tongue is not sore with +so much idle clatter. She said, I never had a sore tongue nor mouth all +my days. He said, It will not be long so. Accordingly, her tongue and +gooms swelled so, that she could get no meat taken for some days.’ +<i>Account of the Life and Death of Mr. Walter Smith</i>, p. 93, in vol. ii. +of <i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> ‘I hear from Lady Henriett Campbell, who was present at a +Communion at Jeddart (Jedburgh), some years before Mr. Gabriel Semple's +death, that, either on the fast day, or Saturnday, ther wer three +gentlmen either in the parish or noturely knouen thereabout, who rose in +the time of the last sermon, and with their servants went out of (the +church), either to some fair or some race, not farr off. After sermon, +when Mr. Semple rose to give the ordinary advertisments, he began with +taking nottice of this, and said, he had remarked three gentlmen rise in +time of sermon, and contemptuously and boldly leave God's service to goe +to a fair, or race, as he supposed; but sayes, “It's born in upon me, +and I am perswaded of it, the Lord will not suffer them to goe off time, +without some remarkable judgment, and I am much mistaken if the most +part that have seen them committ the sin, will not hear of the +punishment of such open despite to the ordinances of Christ.” This +peremptoryness did very much surprize Lady H(enriett), and coming home +from sermon with my Lord Lothian and his Lady, in coach, she expressed +her surprize at it. My Lord Lothian said, “The Minister is a man of God, +and I am perswaded not one word of his will fall to the ground!” Within +some feu moneths, my Lord or my Lady, writing to Lady H(enriett), +signifyed to her, that one of these gentlmen was found in his room, (if +I forgett not), with his throat cutt; and a second, being drunk, fell +off his horse, and broke his neck; and some while after, shee heard the +third had dyed some violent death.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. pp. +344, 345.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> ‘In the time of sermon, the Laird of Hiltoun comes in, and +charges him in the midst of his work, to come out of (the) pulpite, in +the king‘s name. Mr. Douglasse refused; whereupon the Laird comes to the +pulpit, and pulls him out by force! When he sau he behoved to yeild, he +said, “Hiltoun, for this injury you have done to the servant of God, +knou what you are to meet with! In a litle time you shall be brought +into this very church, like a sticked sou!” And in some litle time +after, Hilton was run throu the body, and dyed by, if I mistake not, +Annandale‘s brother, either in a douell or a drunken toilzie, and his +corpes wer brought in, all bleeding, into that church. “Touch not mine +annoynted, and doe my prophets noe harm!”’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. ii. +p. 154. In the same work (vol. iv. p. 268) the Reverend Mr. Wodrow +writes, that he had been subsequently informed, ‘that the story is very +true about the denuntiation upon the Laird of Hiltoun, as I have (I +think) published it; and ther is a man yet alive who was witness to it, +and in the church at the time.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> ‘While prisoner in the Bass, one Sabbath morning, being +about the publick worship of God, a young lass, about the age of +thirteen or fourteen years, came to the chamber-door, mocking with loud +laughter: He said, Poor thing, thou mocks and laughs at the worship of +God; but ere long, God shall write such a sudden, surprising judgment on +thee, that shall stay thy laughing, and thou shalt not escape it. Very +shortly thereafter, she was walking upon the rock, and there came a +blast of wind, and sweeped her off the rock into the sea, where she was +lost.’ <i>Life and Death of Mr. Alexander Peden</i>, p. 43, in vol. i. of <i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>. See also +<i>Howie's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>, p. 487.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> ‘He (Mr. Fordyce, in Aberdeen) tells me this following +accompt, which he had from personall observation: When he lived near +Frazerburge, in the North, there was a minister settled there, <i>jure +devoluto</i>, the toun being biggotted against Presbytery to a pitch, and +only two or three that had any seeming liking that way. After the +Minister is setled, he expected much encouragement from one Ougstoun, I +think his name was, who had professed much respect for him +in that way. A while after, in some difficulty, the +Minister came to him, and desired his countenance and assistance in the +difficulty. He at first put the Minister off with delay: and within a +litle plainly mocked him, and would doe nothing. The Minister came from +him to my informer, who lived a litle from the place, and gave him ane +account (of) what had befallen him, and said, “I expected much from that +man, and reaconed upon his help and assistance, in soe comfortless a +setlement as I have ventured on; and he has not only disappointed me, +but mocked me!” And the Minister was like to sink under the thoughts of +this carriage; and after some silence, he said, very peremptorly, “I am +much mistaken, yea, I'le say it, God hath sent me, and spoken by me. God +will visite that man, and something more than ordinary will befall him +and his!” My informer was very much stunned and greived at such a +peremptory declaration. However, it was accomplished, to my informer's +personall knowledge. The man was a trader, who was very rich, worth near +four or five thousand pounds sterling in stock. He had two sons and two +daughters. Within some litle time, one of his sons turned distracted, +and I think continues soe still. The other son, in some distemper, +turned silly, and litle better, and dyed. His daughters, one was maryed, +and her husband lost all his stock at sea, twice or thrice; his +goodfather stocked him once or twice, and all was still lost, and they +and their children are miserable. The other daughter fell into a +distemper, wherein she lost her reason. The man himself, after that +time, never throve; his means wasted away insensibly; and throu all +things, he fell under melancholy, and turned silly, and dyed stupide. +All this fell out in some feu years after what passed above; and my +relator kneu all this particularly, and had occasion to be upon the +man's bussiness and affairs.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. ii. pp. 175, +176. See also, in another work by this eminent Scotch divine, an account +of what happened, when ‘a rash young man’ having destroyed the property +of a clergyman, named Boyd, ‘it was observed that that family did never +thrive afterwards, but were in a decaying condition till they are +reduced almost to nothing.’ <i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of +Ministers of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. part. i. p. 215.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> See Fraser's Life of Himself, in vol. ii. of <i>Select +Biographies</i>, edited by the Rev. W. K. Tweedie. ‘Nothing now remained of +all my father's great fortune but a small wadset of sixteen chalders, +liferented likewise by my mother. And about the same +time a new (though an unjust) adversary charges both her and me for +36,000 merks, and a reduction of our rights; so that our whole +livelihood was either gone or at the stake. For four years did this +adversary vex us, and was like to have undone us as to our temporal +condition, had not the Lord prevented.’ p. 196. ‘I, ignorant what +defences to make, had in my company a registrate horning, which I +accidentally and without premeditation (God putting it in my mind at the +same time) did cast in, by which he, being the king's rebel, was +incapacitate from pursuing me. And the Lord so ordered it that he never +after compeared to trouble me, by which means I was delivered from a +loss and a fashery, and had but one court to wait upon.’ p. 202. ‘My +condition during this time was a wrestling condition with the sons of +Zeruiah that were too strong for me; little or no overcoming, yet +violent wrestling.’ … ‘For I humbled myself under the sense of the +calamities of our family, and my own particular wants; I besought him to +keep us from utter destruction. And the Lord was pleased to hear; <i>he +destroyed by death my chief adversaries</i>, I found shifts to pay my many +petty debts, gained our law-action, and was restored to some of my +ancient possessions again.’ pp. 227, 228.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> ‘So hazardous a thing it is to meddle with Christ's sent +servants.’ <i>Life of Mr. William Guthrie, Minister at Fenwick</i>, by the +Rev. William Dunlop, reprinted in <i>Select Biographies</i>, vol. ii. p. 62. +To arrest a clergyman on a civil or criminal process, was an act full of +danger, inasmuch as the Deity would hardly fail to avenge it. This +applied even to the officers who executed the arrest, as well as to him +by whom it was ordered. See, for instance, <i>Some Remarkable Passages of +the Life and Death of Mr. John Semple, Minister of the Gospel</i>, p. 171 +(in <i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>, vol. i.). ‘Some time +thereafter, he gat orders to apprehend Mr. Semple; he intreated to +excuse him, for Mr. Semple was the minister and man he would not meddle +with; for he was sure, if he did that, some terrible mischief would +suddenly befal him. Mr. Arthur Coupar, who was Mr. Semple's precentor, +told these passages to a Reverend Minister in the church, yet alive, +worthy of all credit, who told me.’ Durham boasts that, ‘when Ministers +have most to do, and <i>meet with most opposition</i>, God often furnisheth +them accordingly with more boldnesse, gifts, and assistance than +ordinary. Christ's witnesses are a terrible party; for as few as these +witnesses are, none of their opposits do gain at their hand; <i>whoever +hurteth them shall in this manner be killed</i>. Though they be despicable +in sackcloth, yet <i>better oppose a king in his strength, and giving +orders from his throne covered in cloath of state, than them</i>: though +they may burn some and imprison others, yet their opposers will pay +sickerly for it. This is not because of any worth that is in them, or +for their own sake; But 1. for His sake and for His authority that +sendeth them. 2. for the event of their word, which will certainly come +to passe, and that more terribly, and as certainly, as ever any +temporall judgement was brought on by Moses or Elias.’ <i>Durham's +Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 416.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> ‘These who are trusted by Christ to be keepers of the +vineyard, and his ministers, ought also to be respected by the people +over whom they are set; and Christ allows this on them. Where Christ is +respected and gets his due, there the keepers will be respected and get +their due.’ <i>Durham's Exposition of the Song of Solomon</i>, pp. 450, 451. +Fergusson complacently says, that to affront a clergyman by not +believing his statement, or ‘message,’ as he terms it, is a ‘dishonour +done to God.’ <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> ‘As it is true concerning vs, that necessitie lyeth vpon +vs to preach, and woe will bee to vs if wee preach not; so it is true +concerning you, that a necessitie lyeth vpon you to heare, and <i>woe will +be to you if you heare not</i>.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> The following order was promulgated by the Kirk-Session of +Aberdeen on the 12th July 1607. ‘The said day, in respect it wes delatit +to the sessioun that thair is sindrie landvart gentillmen and vtheris +cum to this towne, quha mackis thair residence thairin, and resortis not +to the preching nather on Saboth nor vlk dayes; thairfor, it is ordanit +that thrie elderis of everie quarter convene with the ministrie in the +sessioun hous, immediatlie efter the ending of the sermone on Tuysday +nixt, and thair tak vp the names of the gentillmen and vtheris skipperis +duelling in this burgh, quha kepis nocht the Kirk, nor resortis not to +the hering of Godis word; and thair names being taken vp, ordains ane +off the ministeris, with a baillie, to pas vnto thame and admoneis thame +to cum to the preichingis, and keip the Kirk, vthervayes to remowe thame +aff the towne.’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk Session, +Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. 58. It was not enough to go +occasionally to church; the attendance must be regular; otherwise the +clergy were dissatisfied, and punished the delinquents. In the +Presbytery Book of Strathbogie it is recorded that, on the 29th +September 1649, ‘Mr. Johne Reidfurd being posed quhat diligence he had +vsed to the Lady Frendraught, reported, shoe had hard three sermons, and +so, as he thought, shoe intended to continow ane hearer. The bretheren, +considering her long continowed contumacie and delay of her process, by +<i>heiring a sermon now and then</i>, thought not <i>that kind of heiring +satufactorie</i>, quherfor Mr. Robert Watson, and Mr. Robert Irving, ver +ordained to goe with Mr. Johne Reidfurd, and requyre the said Lady to +subscryv the Covenant, quherby shoe might testifie her conformitie vith +the Kirk of Scotland, quhilk, if shoe refused, the said Mr. Johne vas +ordained to pronounce the sentence of excommunicatioun against hir +before the Provinciall Assemblie, as he vold be answerable therto.’ +<i>Extracts from the Presbytery Book of Strathbogie</i>, p. 115. Neither +distance, nor illness, might be pleaded as a valid excuse. Under no +circumstances, would the preachers tolerate the affront of any one +displaying an unwillingness to hear their sermons. In 1650, ‘compeired +the Lord Oliphant, being summondit for not keeping his parish kirk of +Abercherdour, vho declared his inabilitie of bodie many tymes, and the +want of houses for accommodating him and his familie so farr distant +from the same, vas the onlie caus, quhilk he promised to amend in tym +comming. Mr. John Reidfurd ordained to report the same to the +presbytrie, and vpon his continowed absence, to processe him.’ +<i>Presbytery Book of Strathbogie</i>, p. 149. See more on this subject in +<i>Registers of the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, pp. 5, 33, 67; <i>Minutes of the +Presbyteries of St. Andrews and Cupar</i>, pp. 67, 68, 90, 153; <i>Minutes of +the Synod of Fife</i>, pp. 18, 55, 132; and <i>Spalding's History of the +Troubles</i>, vol. ii. p. 57. Spalding also mentions (p. 114) that at +Aberdeen, in 1643, the clergy discoursed every Tuesday, Thursday, and +Saturday, in the afternoon; on which occasions, ‘the people is compellit +to attend their Lectureis, or ther cryit out against.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> ‘And it may be truly said, as the Church of Scotland hath +had no detractors, but such as were ignorant of her, or misinformed +about her, or whom faction, partiality, prejudice, wickedness, or love +of unlawful liberty did inspire; so no person or party hath endeavoured +hithertil to root out Presbytery, but the Lord hath made it a burdensome +stone unto them.’ <i>Naphtali</i>, sig. B 2 rev. ‘The Lord's wrath shall so +meet his enemies in the teeth, wheresoever they turn, that they shall be +forced to forsake their pursuing of the Church.’ <i>Dickson's Explication +of the First Fifty Psalms</i>, p. 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> ‘The true children of the Kirk are indeed the excellent +ones of the earth, and princes indeed, wherever they live, in comparison +of all other men who are but the beastly slaves of Satan.’ <i>Dickson's +Explication of the First Fifty Psalms</i>, p. 312. Another high authority +carefully identifies ‘the true religion’ with ‘the true presbyterial +profession.’ See <i>An Enquiry into Church Communion by Mr. Alexander +Shields, Minister of the Gospel at Saint Andrews</i>, p. 126. His remark +applies to the ‘Burgess-oaths.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> Fergusson gives an ingenious turn to this, and says that +it was their duty to praise their own profession, not for their own +sake, but for the sake of others. ‘It is the duty of Christ's ministers +to commend and magnify their office, not for gaining praise and esteem +to themselves, 2 Cor. iii. 1, but that the malice of Satan and his +instruments may be hereby frustrated, 2 Cor. xi. 12, who labours to +bring that sacred calling into contempt; that so it may have the less of +success upon people's hearts.’ <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles +of Paul</i>, p. 180.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> ‘Neither is there any mediate authoritie betweene the Lord +and his ambassadours, in the affaires of their message; he only sendeth +them; he alone gives them to be pastors and doctors, etc.; he alone +shall judge them; he alone shall reward them; to him alone they must +give an accompt of their dispensation; and he himselfe alone doth +immediatlie rule them by his spirit and word.’ <i>Forbes' Certaine Records +touching the Estate of the Kirk</i>, p. 435. In reference to these amazing +pretensions, the Scotch clergy were constantly terming themselves the +ambassadors of the Deity; thereby placing themselves infinitely above +all other men. See, for instance, <i>Durham's Commentarie upon the Book of +the Revelation</i>, pp. 86, 100, 160. <i>Durham's Law Unsealed</i>, pp. 85, 96. +<i>Halyburton's Great Concern of Salvation</i>, p. 402. <i>Fergusson's +Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, pp. 17, 273. <i>Shields' Enquiry into +Church Communion</i>, p. 72. <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. ii. p. 118, vol. +iii. p. 178. <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 122. <i>Monro's +Sermons</i>, p. 207. <i>Gillespie's Aaron's Rod Blossoming</i>, pp. 240, 413. +<i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 166. <i>Rutherford's Free Disputation against +Pretended Liberty of Conscience</i>, p. 41. <i>Dickson's Truth's Victory over +Error</i>, p. 274. <i>Gray's Great and Precious Promises</i>, pp. 50, 74. +<i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, p. 429. <i>Cockburn's Jacob's +Vow, or Man's Felicity and Duty</i>, p. 401. <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the +Book of Job</i>, pp. 461, 479.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> ‘Ministers are called Angels, because they are God's +Messengers, intrusted by Him with a high and heavenly imployment; and it +is a title that should put Ministers in mind of their duty, to do God's +will on earth as the Angels do it in heaven, in a spiritual and heavenly +way, cheerfully, willingly and readily: and it <i>should put people in +mind of their duty, to take this word off Ministers hands, as from +Angels</i>.’ <i>Durham's Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 496. +‘Therefore are Ministers called Angels, and Angels, Ministers,’ p. 596. +Cockburn says that this is the reason why ‘we should behave ourselves +decently and reverently’ in church; ‘for if the presence of Kings +overawe us, how much more should the presence of God and Angels.’ +<i>Cockburn's Jacob's Vow, or Man's Felicity and Duty</i>, p. 356. Another +Scotch divine asserts that he and his brethren are able to instruct the +angels, and free them from their ignorance. See the audacious passage in +<i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, p. 180: ‘<i>This may +commend the ministers of the gospel not a little unto men</i>, and beget +reverence in them towards the same, that even the blessed angels are in +some sort bettered by it, and that it is therefore respected by them: +for Paul commendeth his office from this, that by occasion thereof “unto +the principalities and powers, was made known the manifold wisdom of +God.” Though angels be most knowing creatures, as enjoying the immediate +sight and presence of God, Matt. xviii. 10, yet <i>they are ignorant of +some things, which, by God's way of dispensing the Gospel to his church, +they come to a more full knowledge off</i>.’ After this, it is a slight +matter to find Monro insisting that ‘the people should consider our +character as the most difficult and most sacred.’ <i>Monro's Sermons</i>, p. +202.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> ‘He is obliged to minister unto them in the gospel; and +they are obliged to submit to him, strengthen him, acknowledge him, +communicate to him in all good things, and to provide for him,’ &c. +<i>Durham's Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 90. That the +clergy are ‘rulers and governors,’ and that their business is ‘ruling +and watching over the flock,’ is likewise affirmed in <i>Gillespie's +Aaron's Rod Blossoming</i>, pp. 172, 313. Compare <i>The Correspondence of +the Rev. Robert Wodrow</i>, vol. i. p. 181: ‘rule over the people and speak +the word;’ and <i>Rutherford's Free Disputation against Pretended Liberty +of Conscience</i>, p. 41: ‘the commanding power in the Ambassadour of +Christ.’ See also the ‘reverential estimation’ inculcated in <i>Boston's +Sermons</i>, p. 186.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> ‘Called watchmen by a name borrowed from the practice of +centinels in armies or cities.’ They are ‘Satan's greatest eyesores.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the Minor Prophets</i>, vol. ii. p. 158, vol. +iii. p. 208. ‘They being made watchmen, do thereby become the butt of +Satan's malice.’ … ‘The Enemy's principal design is sure to be against +the watchman, because he prevents the surprising of his people by Satan,’ +at least ‘tis his business to do so.’ <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of +Salvation</i>, p. 24. Compare <i>Guthrie's Considerations contributing unto +the Discovery of the Dangers that threaten Religion</i>, p. 259; +<i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, pp. 97, 106; <i>Durham's +Exposition of the Song of Solomon</i>, pp. 278, 443, and <i>Wodrow's +Correspondence</i>, vol. i. pp. 84, 244.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> One of the most popular of the Scotch preachers in the +seventeenth century, actually ranks himself, in this respect, as doing +the same work as the Son of God. ‘Christ and his ministers are the +musicians that do apply their songs to catch men's ears and hearts, if +so be they may stop their course and not perish. These are blessed +syrens that do so.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Rutherford terms himself, ‘a chosen arrow hid in his +quiver.’ <i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, p. 230. To read the coarse +materialism contained in this and other extracts, will, I know, shock, +and so far offend, many pure and refined minds, whose feelings I would +not needlessly wound. But no one can understand the history of the +Scotch intellect, who refuses to enter into these matters; and it is for +the reader to choose whether or not he will remain ignorant of what I, +as an historian, am bound to disclose. His remedy is easy. He has only +either to shut the book, or else to pass on at once to the next +chapter.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> ‘The Lord calleth men to be preachers, and hath them in +his hand as starres, holding them out sometime to one part of the world, +and sometime to another, that we may communicate light to them that are +sitting in darkness.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> ‘Ministers are called Stars, for these reasons: I. To +signifie and point out the eminence and dignity of the office, that it +is a glorious and shineing office. II. To point out what is the +especiall end of this office; It is to give light: as the use of Stars +is to give light to the world; so it's Ministers main imployment to +shine and give light to others; to make the world, which is a dark +night, to be lightsome.’ <i>Durham's Commentarie upon the Book of the +Revelation</i>, p. 43. See also pp. 151, 368; and <i>Dickson's Truth's +Victory over Error</i>, p. 176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> The Rev. James Kirton says of the Rev. John Welsh, that +some one who observed him walking, ‘saw clearly a strange light surround +him, and heard him speak strange words about his spiritual joy.’ <i>Select +Biographies</i>, edited by the Rev. W. K. Tweedie, vol. i. p. 12. But more +than this remains to be told. The hearts of the Scotch clergy were so +lifted up with pride, that they believed—horrible to relate—that they +had audible and verbal communications from the Almighty God, which +bystanders could hear. One of these stories, relating also to Welsh, +will be found, as tradition handed it down, in <i>Howie's Biographia +Scoticana</i>, p. 148. I cannot quote such blasphemy; and those who doubt +my statement had better refer to the second edition of Howie's work, +published at Glasgow in 1781. It may probably be met with in the British +Museum.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> ‘Mr. Johne M'Birnie at Aberdeen, (but first at the South +Ferrie, over aganis the Castell of Broughtie,) a most zealous and +painfull pastor, a great opposer of hierarchie. He was a shyning torch +and a burning starre; wherefore the Lord miraculouslie made, at his +death, a starre to appeare in heaven at the noonetyde of the day; +whilk many yit alive testifies that they did evidentlie see it (at +Whitsunday 1609).’ <i>Row's History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, p. 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> Mr. James Stirling, minister of Barony, Glasgow, writes +respecting his father, Mr. John Stirling, minister at Kilbarchan, that +the ‘day he was burryed ther wer two great candles burning in the +chamber, and they did go out most surprisingly without any wind causing +them to go out.’ <i>Analecta, or Materials for a History of Remarkable +Providences</i>, by the Rev. Robert Wodrow, vol. iii. p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> ‘This night, Glanderston told me, that it was reported for +a truth at Burroustoness, that about six weeks since Mr. David +Williamson was preaching in his own church in Edinburgh, and in the +midle of the sermon, a ratton came and sat doun on his Bible. This +made him stope; and after a little pause, he told the congregation that +this was a message of God to him, and broke off his sermon, and took a +formall fareweel of his people, and went home, and continoues sick.’ +<i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> ‘The same person’ (<i>i.e.</i> the Rev. Mr. White) ‘adds, that +some years ago, when Mr. Bruce's grave was opened, to lay in his +grandchild, his body was almost fresh and uncorrupted, to the great +wonder of many; and if I right remember, the grave was again filled up, +and another made. The fresh body had no noisome smell. It was then +nearly eighty years after he was buried. My informer was minister of +Larbert when this happened.’ <i>Wodrow's Life of Bruce</i>, p. 150, prefixed +to <i>Bruce's Sermons</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> ‘He’ (John Lockhart) ‘tells me Mr. Robert Paton, minister +at Barnweel, his father-in-lau, had a particular for-notice, seven or +eight years before, of his death: That he signifyed so much to my +informer.’ … ‘When my informer came, he did not apprehend any hazard, +and signifyed so much to his father-in-lau, Mr. Paton. He answered, +‘John, John, I am to dye at this time; and this is the time God warned +me of, as I told you.’ In eight or ten dayes he dyed. Mr. Paton was a +man very much (beloved) and mighty in prayer.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. +iii. p. 451. Compare the case of Henderson (in <i>Wodrow's +Correspondence</i>, vol. iii. p. 33), where the notice was much shorter, +but ‘all fell out as he had foretold.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> ‘Generally, I observe that Ministers' deaths are not +single, but severall of them together.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. iii. +p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> The Rev. William Row (in his <i>Continuation of Blair's +Autobiography</i>, p. 153) says, ‘Without all doubt, though it cannot be +proven from Scripture, that every one has a tutelar angel, yet it is +certain that the good angels do many good offices to the people of God, +<i>especially to his ministers and ambassadors</i>, which we do not see, and +do not remark or know.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> ‘Mr. James Stirling, and Mr. Robert Muir, and severall +others in the company, agreed on this accompt of Mr. Rutherford. When +about four years old, he was playing about his father's house, and a +sister of his, somewhat older than he, with him. Mr. Rutherford fell +into a well severall fathoms deep, and not full, but faced about with +heuen stone, soe that it was not possible for any body to get up almost, +far less a child. When he fell in, his sister ran into the house near +by, and told that Samuell was fallen into the well; upon which his +father and mother ran out, and found him sitting on the grasse beside +the well; and when they asked him, Hou he gote out? he said, after he +was once at the bottome, he came up to the tope, and ther was a bonny +young man pulled him out by the hand. Ther was noe body near by at the +time; and soe they concluded it was noe doubt ane angell. The Lord had +much to doe with him.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 57. See also vol. +iii. pp. 88, 89, where this circumstance is again mentioned as ‘a +tradition anent him’ in the place of his birth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> ‘Mr. William Trail, minister at ****, tells me that his +father, Mr. William Trail, minister at Borthwick, used every morning, +when he had publick work on his hand, to hear three knocks at his +chamber dore; and if, throu wearynes, or heaviness, he did sitt these, +ther wer ordinarily three knocks at his bed-head, which he never durst +sitt, but gott up to his work. This was ordinarily about three in the +morning. This, at first, in his youth, frighted him; but at lenth it +turned easy to him, and he believed these knocks and awaknings proceed +from a good art. That these never failed him on Sabbaths and at +Communions, when he was obliged to rise early: That when he turned old +and infirm, towards the close of his dayes, they intirely ceased and +left him.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. ii. p. 307. This work, in four +quarto volumes, is invaluable for the history of the Scotch mind; being +a vast repertory of the opinions and traditions of the clergy, during +the seventeenth, and early part of the eighteenth, century. Wodrow was a +man of ability, certainly above the average; his honesty is +unimpeachable, as the jealous scrutiny which the episcopalians have made +of his great work on the History of the Church of Scotland, decisively +proves; and he was in the constant habit of personal and epistolary +communication with the leading characters of his age. I have, therefore, +freely used his <i>Analecta</i>; also his <i>Collections upon the Lives of +Ministers</i>, which is likewise in four quarto volumes; and his +<i>Correspondence</i>, in three thick octavo volumes. It would be difficult +to find a more competent witness respecting the sentiments of his +ecclesiastical brethren. It would be impossible to find a more candid +one.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> In illustration of this, a volume might be filled with +extracts from the writings of the Scotch divines of the seventeenth +century. The following passage is, perhaps, as good as any. ‘Yea, it can +hardly be instanced any great change, or revolution in the earth, which +hath not had some such extraordinary herald going before. Can the world +deny how sometimes these prodigious signes have been shaped out to point +at the very nature of the stroke then imminent, by a strange resemblance +to the same, such as a flaming sword in the air, the appearance of +armies fighting even sometimes upon the earth, to the view of many most +sober and judicious onlookers, also showers of blood, the noise of +drummes, and such like, which are known usually to go before warr and +commotions.’ <i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, 1681, p. 216.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> Durham, after mentioning ‘old abbacies or monasteries, or +castles when walls stand and none dwelleth in them,’ adds, ‘If it be +asked, If there be such a thing, as the haunting of evill spirits in +these desolate places? We answer 1. That there are evill spirits +rangeing up and down through the earth is certain, even though hell be +their prison properly, yet have they a sort of dominion and abode both +in the earth and air; partly, as a piece of their curse, this is laid on +them to wander; partly as their exercise to tempt men, or bring +spirituall or temporall hurt to them,’ &c. <i>Durham's Commentarie upon +the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 582. So, too, Hutcheson (<i>Exposition of +the Book of Job</i>, p. 9): ‘We should remember that we sojourn in a world +where Devils are, and do haunt among us;’ and Fleming (<i>Fulfilling of +the Scripture</i>, p. 217): ‘But the truth itself is sure, that such a +party is at this day, encompassing the earth, and trafficking up and +down there, to prove which by arguments were to light a candle to let +men see that it is day, while it is known what <i>ordinary familiar +converse many have therewith</i>.’ One of their favourite abodes was the +Shetland Islands, where, in the middle of the seventeenth century, +‘almost every family had a Brouny or evil spirit so called.’ See the +account given by the Rev. John Brand, in his work entitled <i>A Brief +Description of Orkney, Zetland, Pightland-Firth, and Caithness</i>, pp. +111, 112, Edinburgh, 1701.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> ‘There is not one whom he assaulteth not.’ <i>Abernethy's +Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 101. ‘On the right hand and on the left.’ +<i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 273. Even early in the eighteenth century, +the ‘most popular divines’ in Scotland, affirmed that Satan ‘frequently +appears clothed in a corporeal substance.’ <i>Memoirs of Charles Lee +Lewes, written by Himself</i>, vol. iii. pp. 29, 30, London, 1805.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> ‘This night James Lochheid told me, that last year, if I +mistake not, at the Communion of Bafrou, he was much helped all day. At +night, when dark somewhat, he went out to the feilds to pray; and a +terrible slavish fear came on him, that he almost lost his senses. +Houever, he resolved to goe on to his duty. By (the time) he was at the +place, his fear was off him; and lying on a knou-side, a black dogg came +to his head and stood. He said he kneu it to be Satan, and shooke his +hand, but found nothing, it evanishing.’ … ‘Lord help against his +devices, and strenthen against them!’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. +24. The <i>Registers of the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, p. 77, contain a +declaration, in 1650, that ‘the devill appeared like a little whelpe,’ +and afterwards, ‘like a brown whelpe.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_487_487" id="Footnote_487_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a> The celebrated Peden was present when ‘there came down the +appearance of a raven, and sat upon one man's head.’ … Thereupon, +‘going home, Mr. Peden said to his land-lord, I always thought there was +Devilry among you, but I never thought that he did appear visibly among +you, till now I have seen it. O, for the Lord's sake quit this way,’ +<i>The Life and Death of Mr. Alexander Peden, late Minister of the Gospel +at New Glenluce in Galloway</i>, pp. 111, 112, in vol. i. of <i>Walker's +Biographia Presbyteriana</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> ‘I heard a voice just before me on the other side of the +hedge, and it seemed to be like the groaning of an aged man. It +continued so some time. I knew no man could be there; for, on the other +side of the hedge, where I heard the groaning, there was a great stank +or pool. I nothing doubted but it was Satan, and I guessed his design; +but still I went on to beg the child's life. At length he roared and +made a noise like a bull, and that very loud. From all this I concluded, +that I had been provoking God some way or other in the duty, and that he +was angry with me, and had let the enemy loose on me, and might give him +leave to tear me in pieces. This made me intreat of God, to shew me +wherefore he contended, and begged he would rebuke Satan. The enemy +continued to make a noise like a bull, and seemed to be coming about the +hedge towards the door of the summer-seat, bellowing as he came along.’ +<i>Stevenson's Rare, Soul-Strengthening, and Comforting Cordial for Old +and Young Christians</i>, p. 29. This book was published, and prepared for +the press, by the Rev. William Cupples. See Mr. Cupples' letter at the +beginning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> In 1684, with ‘black cloaths, and a blue band, and white +handcuffs.’ <i>Sinclair's Satan's Invisible World Discovered</i>, p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> ‘He observed one of the black man's feet to be cloven, and +that the black man's apparel was black, and that he had a blue band +about his neck, and white hand-cuffs, and that he had hoggers upon his +legs without shoes; and that the black man's voice was hollow and +ghastly.’ <i>Satan's Invisible World Discovered</i>, p. 9. ‘The devil +appeared in the shape of a black man,’ p. 31. See also <i>Brand's +Description of Orkney</i>, p. 126: ‘all in black.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> ‘The acquired knowledge of the Devill is great, hee being +an advancing student, and still learning now above five thousand +yeares.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying and Drawing Sinners to Himselfe</i>, p. +204. ‘He knowes very well, partly by the quicknesse of his nature, and +partly by long experience, being now very neere six thousand yeeres +old.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 219. ‘Hee, being compared with vs, +hath many vantages; as that he is more subtill in nature, being of +greater experience, and more ancient, being now almost sixe thousand +yeeres old.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 403. ‘The diuell here is both diligent and +cunning, and (now almost of sixe thousand yeeres) of great experience.’ +<i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 142. ‘Satan, such an ingenious +and experimented spirit.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 67. ‘His great +sleight and cunning.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 110. Other eulogies of his skill may be +seen in <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, p. 475; and in +<i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, p. 45. A ‘minister,’ whose name +is not mentioned, states that he is ‘of an excellent substance, of great +natural parts, long experience, and deep understanding.’ <i>Sinclair's +Satan's Invisible World Discovered</i>, p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> In Professor Sinclair's work (<i>Satan's Invisible World +Discovered</i>, p. 141), we find, in 1684, ‘an evident instance, that the +devil can transport the bodies of men and women through the air. It is +true, he did not carry her far off, but not for want of skill and +power.’ Late in the seventeenth century, it was generally believed that +one of Satan's accomplices was literally ‘strangled in his chair by the +devil, least he should make a confession to the detriment of the +service.’ <i>Crawfurd's History of the Shire of Renfrew</i>, part iii. p. +319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> See the account of a young preacher being deceived in this +way, in <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. pp. 103, 104. The Rev. Robert Blair +detected the cheat, and ‘with ane awful seriousness appearing in his +countenance, began to tell the youth his hazard, and that the man whom +he took for a Minister was the Divel, who had trepanned him, and brought +him into his net; advised him to be earnest with God in prayer, and +likewise not to give way to dispair, for ther was yet hope.’ The +preacher had, on this occasion, been so far duped as to give the devil +‘a written promise’ to do whatever he was requested. As soon as the Rev. +Mr. Blair ascertained this fact, he took the young man before the +Presbytery, and narrated the circumstance to the members. ‘They were all +strangely affected with it, and resolved unanimously to dispatch the +Presbitry business presently, and to stay all night in town, and on the +morrow to meet for prayer in one of the most retired churches of the +Presbitry, acquainting none with their business, (but) taking the youth +alongst with them, whom they keeped alwise close by them. Which was +done, and after the Ministers had prayed all of them round, except Mr. +Blair, who prayed last, in time of his prayer there came a violent +rushing of wind upon the church, so great that they thought the church +should have fallen down about their ears, and with that the youth's +paper and covenant’ (<i>i.e.</i> the covenant which he had signed at the +request of Satan) ‘droops down from the roof of the church among the +Ministers.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_494_494" id="Footnote_494_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a> ‘The devil strikes at them, that in them he may strike at +the whole congregation.’ <i>Boston's Sermons</i>, p. 186. Fleming +(<i>Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, p. 379) gives an account of his +appearing to one of the Scotch clergy. Compare <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. +iv. p. 110. In 1624, Bruce writes, ‘I heard his voice as vively as ever +I heard any thing, not being sleeping, but waking.’ <i>Life of Bruce</i>, p. +8, prefixed to <i>Bruce's Sermons</i>. The only remedy was immediate +resistance. ‘It is the duty of called ministers to go on with courage in +the work of the Lord, notwithstanding of any discouragement of that +kind, receiving manfully the first onset chiefly of Satan's fury, as +knowing their ceding to him will make him more cruel.’ <i>Fergusson's +Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, p. 74. In the seventeenth century, +the Scotch clergy often complimented each other on having baffled him, +and thereby put him in a passion. Thus, in 1626, Dickson writes to Boyd: +‘The devil is mad against you, he fears his kingdom.’ <i>Life of Robert +Boyd, in Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of Ministers</i>, vol. ii. +part i. p. 238. See also pp. 165, 236.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> ‘He can delude ears, eyes, &c., either by misrepresenting +external objects, or by inward disturbing of the faculties and organes, +whereby men and women may, and do often, apprehend that they hear, see, +&c. such and such things, which, indeed, they do not.’ <i>Durham's +Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 128. ‘Raise tempests.’ +<i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 122. ‘His power and might, whereby +through God's permission, he doth raise up storms, commove the elements, +destroy cattle,’ &c. <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of Paul</i>, +p. 264. ‘Hee can work curiously and strongly on the walls of bodily +organs, on the shop that the understanding soule lodgeth in, and on the +necessary tooles, organs, and powers of fancie, imagination, memory, +humours, senses, spirits, bloud,’ &c. <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. +212. Semple, giving notice of his intention to administer the sacrament, +told the congregation ‘that the Devil would be so envious about the good +work they were to go about, that he was afraid he would be permitted to +raise a storm in the air with a speat of rain, to raise the waters, +designing to drown some of them; but it will not be within the compass +of his power to drown any of you, no not so much as a dog.’ <i>Remarkable +Passages of the Life and Death of Mr. John Semple</i>, <i>Minister of the +Gospel</i>, pp. 168, 169, in vol. i. of <i>Walker's Biographia +Presbyteriana</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> <i>Sinclair's Satan's Invisible World Discovered</i>, p. 137. +<i>Memoirs of the Life and Experiences of Marion Laird of Greenock, with a +Preface by the Rev. Mr. Cock</i>, pp. 43, 44, 45, 84, 85, 172, 222, 223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> ‘I shall next show how the murderer Satan visibly appeared +to a wicked man, stirred him up to stab me, and how mercifully I was +delivered therefrom.’ <i>The Autobiography of Mr. Robert Blair, Minister +of St. Andrews</i>, p. 65. See also <i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the +Scripture</i>, pp. 379, 380.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> ‘One Mr. Thomas Hogg, a very popular presbyterian preacher +in the North, asked a person of great learning, in a religious +conference, whether or not he had seen the Devil? It was answered him, +“That he had never seen him in any visible appearance.” “Then, I assure +you,” saith Mr. Hogg, “that you can never be happy till you see him in +that manner; that is, until you have both a personal converse and combat +with him.”’ <i>Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence</i>, pp. 28, 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> ‘Ye go to the kirk, and when ye hear the devil or hell +named in the preaching, ye sigh and make a noise.’ <i>The Last and +Heavenly Speeches of John, Viscount Kenmure</i>, in <i>Select Biographies</i>, +vol. i. p. 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> Andrew Gray, who died in 1656, used such language, ‘that +his contemporary, the foresaid Mr. Durham, observed, That many times he +caused the very hairs of their head to stand up.’ <i>Howie's Biographia +Scoticana</i>, p. 217. James Hutcheson boasted of this sort of success. ‘As +he expressed it, “I was not a quarter of ane hour in upon it, till I sau +a dozen of them all gasping before me.” He preached with great freedome +<i>all day</i>, and fourteen or twenty dated their conversion from that +sermon.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 131. When Dickson preached, +‘many were so choaked and taken by the heart, that through terrour, the +spirit in such a measure convincing them of sin, in hearing of the word +they have been made to fall over, and thus carried out of the church.’ +<i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, p. 347. There was hardly any +kind of resource which these men disdained. Alexander Dunlop ‘entered +into the ministry at Paislay, about the year 1643 or 1644.’ … ‘He used +in the pulpit, to have a kind of a groan at the end of some sentences. +Mr. Peebles called it a holy groan.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. iii. pp. +16, 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> A schoolmaster, recording his religious experiences +(<i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 246), says: ‘If any thing had given a +knock, I would start and shiver, the seeing of a dogg made me affrayed, +the seeing of a stone in the feild made me affrayed, and as I thought a +voice in my head saying, “It's Satan.”’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> Only those who are extensively read in the theological +literature of that time, can form an idea of this, its almost universal +tendency. During about a hundred and twenty years, the Scotch pulpits +resounded with the most frightful denunciations. The sins of the people, +the vengeance of God, the activity of Satan, and the pains of hell, were +the leading topics. In this world, calamities of every kind were +announced as inevitable; they were immediately at hand; that generation, +perhaps that year, should not pass away without the worst evils which +could be conceived, falling on the whole country. I will merely quote +the opening of a sermon which is now lying before me, and which was +preached, in 1682, by no less a man than Alexander Peden. ‘There is +three or four things that I have to tell you this day; and the first is +this, A bloody sword, a bloody sword, a bloody sword, for thee, O +Scotland, that shall reach the most part of you to the very heart. And +the second is this, Many a mile shall ye travel in thee, O Scotland! and +shall see nothing but waste places. The third is this, The most fertile +places in thee, O Scotland! shall be waste as the mountain tops. And +fourthly, The women with child in thee, O Scotland! shall be dashed in +pieces. And fifthly, There hath been many conventicles in thee, O +Scotland! but ere it be long, God shall have a conventicle in thee, that +shall make thee Scotland tremble. Many a preaching hath God wared on +thee, O Scotland! but ere it be long God's judgments shall be as +frequent in Scotland as these precious meetings, wherein he sent forth +his faithful servants to give faithful warning in his name of their +hazard in apostatizing from God, and in breaking all his noble vows. God +sent out a Welsh, a Cameron, a Cargill, and a Semple to preach to thee; +but ere long God shall preach to thee by a bloody sword.’ <i>Sermons by +Eminent Divines</i>, pp. 47, 48.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> To ‘thunder out the Lord's wrath and curse.’ <i>Durham's +Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 191. ‘It is the duty of +Ministers to preach judgments.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor +Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 93. ‘If ministers when they threaten be not the +more serious and fervent, the most terrible threatening will but little +affect the most part of hearers.’ <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the +Epistles of Paul</i>, p. 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> The clergy were not ashamed to propagate a story of a boy +who, in a trance, had been mysteriously conveyed to hell, and thence +permitted to revisit the earth. His account, which is carefully +preserved by the Rev. Robert Wodrow (<i>Analecta</i>, vol. i. p. 51) was, +that ‘ther wer great fires and men roasted in them, and then cast into +rivers of cold water, and then into boyling water; others hung up by the +tongue.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> ‘Scortched in hell-fire and hear the howling of their +fellow-prisoners, and see the ugly devils, the bloody scorpions with +which Satan lasheth miserable soules.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, pp. +491, 492.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> ‘Boiling oil, burning brimstone, scalding lead.’ <i>Sermons +by Eminent Divines</i>, p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> ‘A river of fire and brimstone broader than the earth.’ +<i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 35. ‘See the poor wretches lying in +bundles, boiling eternally in that stream of brimstone.’ <i>Halyburton's +Great Concern of Salvation</i>, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> ‘Tongue, lungs, and liver, bones and all, shall boil and +fry in a torturing fire.’ <i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 17. ‘They +will be universal torments, every part of the creature being tormented +in that flame. When one is cast into a fiery furnace, the fire makes its +way into the very bowels, and leaves no member untouched: what part then +can have ease, when the damned swim in a lake of fire burning with +brimstone?’ <i>Boston's Human Nature in its Four-fold State</i>, p. 458.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_509_509" id="Footnote_509_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a> ‘While wormes are sporting with thy bones, the devils +shall make pastime of thy paines.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, +p. 97. ‘They will have the society of devils in their torments, being +shut up with them in hell.’ <i>Boston's Human Nature in its Four-fold +State</i>, p. 442. ‘Their ears filled with frightful yellings of the +infernal crew.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 460.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> This fundamental doctrine of the Scotch divines is +tersely summed up in <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 130: ‘You shall +go out of one hell into a worse; eternity is the measure of its +continuance, and the degrees of itself are answerable to its duration.’ +The author of these sermons died in 1653.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> And, according to them, the barbarous cruelty was the +natural result of His Omniscience. It is with pain, that I transcribe +the following impious passage. ‘Consider, Who is the contriver of these +torments. There have been some very exquisite torments contrived by the +wit of men, the naming of which, if ye understood their nature, were +enough to fill your hearts with horror; but <i>all these fall as far short +of the torments ye are to endure, as the wisdom of man falls short of +that of God</i>.’ … ‘<i>Infinite wisdom has contrived that evil</i>.’ <i>The Great +Concern of Salvation, by the late Reverend Mr. Thomas Halyburton</i>, edit. +Edinburgh, 1722, p. 154.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> ‘Men wonder what he could be doing all that time, if we +may call it time which hath no beginning, and how he was employed.’ … +‘Remember that which a godly man answered some wanton curious wit, who, +in scorn, demanded the same of him—“He was preparing hell for curious +and proud fools,” said he.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> ‘Hell hath inlarged itselfe.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for +the Soule</i>, p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> ‘Eternal shriekings.’ <i>Sermons by Eminent Divines</i>, p. +394. ‘Screakings and howlings.’ <i>Gray's Great and Precious Promises</i>, p. +20. ‘O! the screechs and yels that will be in hell.’ <i>Durham's +Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. 654. ‘The horrible +scrieches of them who are burnt in it.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. +175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> ‘When children and servants shall go, as it were, in +sholes to the Pit, cursing their parents and their masters who brought +them there. And parents and masters of families shall be in multitudes +plunged headlong in endless destruction, because they have not only +murdered their own souls, but also imbrued their hands in the blood of +their children and servants. O how doleful will the reckoning be amongst +them at that day! When the children and servants shall upbraid their +parents and masters. “Now, now, we must to the Pit, and we have you to +blame for it; your cursed example and lamentable negligence has brought +us to the Pit.”’ … ‘And on the other hand, how will the shrieks of +parents fill every ear? “I have damn'd myself, I have damn'd my +children, I have damn'd my servants. While I fed their bodies, and +clothed their backs, I have ruined their souls, and brought double +damnation on myself.”’ <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of Salvation</i>, pp. +527, 528. See this further worked out in <i>Boston's Human Nature in its +Four-fold State</i>, pp. 378, 379: ‘curses instead of salutations, and +tearing of themselves, and raging against one another, instead of the +wonted embraces.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> William Vetch, ‘preaching in the town of Jedburg to a +great congregation, said, “There are two thousand of you here to day, +but I am sure fourscore of you will not be saved;” upon which, three of +his ignorant hearers being in despair, despatch'd themselves soon +after.’ <i>Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence</i>, p. 23. See also the life, or +rather panegyric, of Vetch in <i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, where this +circumstance is not denied, but, on the contrary, stated to be no +‘disparagement to him,’ p. 606. The frame of mind which the teachings of +the clergy encouraged, and which provoked self-murder, is vividly +depicted by Samuel Rutherford, the most popular of all the Scotch +divines of the seventeenth century. ‘Oh! hee lieth down, and hell +beddeth with him; hee sleepeth, and hell and hee dreame together; hee +riseth, and hell goeth to the fields with him; hee goes to his garden, +there is hell.’ … ‘The man goes to his table, O! hee dare not eat, hee +hath no right to the creature; to eat is sin and hell; so hell is in +every dish. To live is sinne, <i>hee would faine chuse strangling</i>; every +act of breathing is sin and hell. Hee goes to church, there is a dog as +great as a mountaine before his eye: Here be terrors.’ <i>Rutherford's +Christ Dying</i>, 1647, 4to, pp. 41, 42. Now, listen to the confessions of +two of the tortured victims of the doctrines enunciated by the clergy; +victims who, after undergoing ineffable agony, were more than once, +according to their own account, tempted to put an end to their lives. +‘The cloud lasted for two years and some months.’ … ‘The arrows of the +Almighty did drink up my spirits; night and day his hand lay heavy upon +me, so that even my bodily moisture was turned into the drought of +summer. When I said sometimes that my couch would ease my complaint, I +was filled with tossings to the dawning of the day.’ … ‘Amidst all my +downcastings, I had the roaring lion to grapple with, who likes well to +fish in muddy waters. He strongly suggested to me that I should not eat, +because I had no right to food; or if I ventured to do it, the enemy +assured me, that the wrath of God would go down with my morsel; and that +I had forfeited a right to the divine favour, and, therefore, had +nothing to do with any of God's creatures.’ … ‘However, so violent were +the temptations of the strong enemy, that I frequently forgot to eat my +bread, and durst not attempt it; and when, through the persuasion of my +wife, I at any time did it, the enemy through the day did buffet me in a +violent way, assuring me that the wrath of God had gone over with what I +had taken.’ … ‘The enemy after all did so pursue me, that he violently +suggested to my soul, that, some time or other, God would suddenly +destroy me as with a thunderclap: which so filled my soul with fear and +pain, that, every now and then, I looked about me, to receive the divine +blow, still expecting it was a coming; yea, many a night I durst not +sleep, lest I had awakened in everlasting flames.’ <i>Stevenson's Rare +Cordial</i>, pp. 11–13. Another poor creature, after hearing one of +Smiton's sermons, in 1740, says, ‘Now, I saw myself to be a condemned +criminal; but I knew not the day of my execution. I thought that there +was nothing between me and hell, but the brittle thread of natural +life.’ … ‘And in this dreadful confusion, I durst not sleep, lest I had +awakened in everlasting flames.’ … ‘And Satan violently assaulted me to +take away my own life, seeing there was no mercy for me.’ … ‘Soon after +this, I was again violently assaulted by the tempter to take away my own +life; he presented to me a knife therewith to do it; no person being in +the house but myself. The enemy pursued me so close, that I could not +endure so much as to see the knife in my sight, but laid it away.’ … +‘One evening, as I was upon the street, Satan violently assaulted me to +go into the sea and drown myself; it would be the easiest death. Such a +fear of Satan then fell upon me, as made my joints to shake, so that it +was much for me to walk home; and when I came to the door, I found +nobody within; I was afraid to go into the house, lest Satan should get +power over me.’ <i>Memoirs of the Life and Experiences of Marion Laird of +Greenock</i>, pp. 13, 14, 19, 45, 223, 224.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> Binning says, that ‘since the first rebellion’ (that is, +the fall of Adam), ‘there is nothing to be seen but the terrible +countenance of an angry God.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> ‘He will, as it were, lie in wait to take all advantages +of sinners to undo them.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor +Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> ‘His wrath rages against walls, and houses, and +senselesse creatures more now then at that time’ (<i>i.e.</i> at the time +when the Old Testament was written). ‘See what desolation he hath +wrought in Ireland, what eating of horses, of infants, and of killed +souldiers, hath beene in that land, and in Germany.’ <i>Rutherford's Free +Disputation against Pretended Liberty of Conscience</i>, pp. 244, 245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> ‘Albeit there were no earthly man to pursue Christ's +enemies; yet avenging angels, or evil spirits shall be let forth upon +them and their families to trouble them.’ <i>Dickson's Explication of the +First Fifty Psalms</i>, p. 229.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> ‘God hath many wayes and meanes whereby to plague man, +and <i>reach his contentments</i>.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor +Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 286. ‘God hath variety of means whereby to plague +men, and to bring upon them any affliction he intendeth against them; +and particularly he hath several wayes whereby to bring on famine. He +can arme all his creatures to cut off men's provision, one of them after +another; he can make the change of aire, and small insects do that worke +when he pleaseth.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 422. The same divine, in another +elaborate treatise, distinctly imputes to the Deity a sensation of +pleasure in injuring even the innocent. ‘When God sends out a scourge, +of sword, famine, or pestilence, suddenly to overthrow and cut people +off, not only are the wicked reached thereby (which is here supposed), +but even the innocent, that is such as are righteous and free of gross +provocations; for, in any other sense, none are innocent, or free of +sin, in this life. Yea, further, in trying of the innocent by these +scourges, <i>the Lord seems to act as one delighted with it</i>, and little +resenting the great extremities wherewith they are pressed.’ <i>Hutcheson's +Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, 1669, folio, p. 123. Compare p. 359. ‘It +pleaseth the Lord to exercise great variety in afflicting the children +of men,’ &c. But, after all, mere extracts can give but a faint idea of +the dark and malignant spirit which pervades these writings.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> ‘The present dearth and famine quhilk seases vpon many, +quhairby God his heavie wrath is evidentlie perceaved to be kindlit +against vs.’ <i>Selections from the Minutes of the Synod of Fife</i>, p. 98. +‘Smiting of the fruits of the ground.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the +Minor Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 277. ‘Makes fruits to wither.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. +ii. p. 183. ‘Hee restraines the clouds, and bindeth up the wombe of +heaven, in extreme drought.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 52. +‘Sometime hee maketh tho heauen aboue as brasse, and the earth beneath +as iron; so that albeit men labour and sow, yet they receiue no +increase: sometime againe hee giues in due season the first and latter +raine, so that the earth renders abundance, but the Lord by blasting +windes, or by the caterpillar, canker-worme and grasse-hopper doth +consume them, who come out as exacters and officers sent from God to +poind men in their goods.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 433.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> ‘Under the late dearth this people suffered greatly, the +poor were numerous, and many, especially about the town of Kilsyth, were +at the point of starving; yet, as I frequently observed to them, I could +not see any one turning to <i>the Lord who smote them</i>, or crying to him +because of their sins, while <i>they howled upon their beds for bread</i>.’ +<i>Robe's Narratives of the Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God</i>, p. +68.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, pp. 152, 153. Much rain in the autumn, +was ‘the Lord's displeasure upon the land.’ <i>Minutes of the Presbyteries +of Saint Andrews and Cupar</i>, p. 179.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> ‘Men sweat, till, sow much, and the sun and summer, and +clouds, warme dewes and raines smile upon cornes and meddowes, yet God +steppeth in betweene the mouth of the husbandman and the sickle, and +blasteth all.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 87. Compare <i>Baillie's +Letters</i>, vol. iii. p. 52, on the ‘continuance of very intemperate rain +upon the corns,’ as one of the ‘great signs of the wrath of God.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> ‘When the Lord is provoked, he can not only send an +affliction, but so order it, by faire appearances of a better lot, and +heightening of the sinners expectation and desire, as may make it most +sad.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor Prophets</i>, vol. iii. pp. 9, +10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> In 1696, there was a fire in Edinburgh; whereupon +Moncrief, in his sermon next day, ‘told us, “That God's voice was crying +to this city, and that he was come to the very ports, and was crying +over the walls to us; that we should amend our ways, lest he should come +to our city, and consume us in a terrible manner.” I cannot tell what +this Dispensation of Providence wrought on me,’ &c. <i>Memoirs or +Spiritual Exercises of Elizabeth West, written by her own Hand</i>, pp. 41, +42. See also, at pp. 122, 123, the account of another conflagration, +where it is said, ‘there was much of God to be seen in this fire.’ +Compare a curious passage in <i>Calderwood's History of the Kirk of +Scotland</i>, vol. vii. pp. 455, 456.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> The Rev. James Fraser had a boil, and afterwards a fever. +‘During this sickness he miraculously allayed the pain of my boil, and +speedily, and that without means, cured it; for however I bought some +things to prevent it, yet, looking on it as a punishment from God, I +knew not if I could be free to take the rod out of his hand, and to +counterwork him.’ <i>Memoirs of the Rev. James Fraser of Brea, Minister of +the Gospel at Culross, written by Himself</i>, in <i>Select Biographies</i>, +vol. ii. p. 223. Durham declaims against ‘Sinful shunning and shifting +off suffering;’ and Rutherford says, ‘No man should rejoice at weakness +and diseases; but I think we may have a sort of gladness at boils and +sores, because, without them, Christ's fingers, as a slain Lord, should +never have touched our skin.’ <i>Durham's Law Unsealed</i>, p. 160; +<i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 265. I do not know what effect +these passages may produce upon the reader; but it makes my flesh creep +to quote them. Compare <i>Stevenson's Rare, Soul-strengthening, and +Comforting Cordial</i>, p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> It was not until late in the eighteenth century, that the +Scotch clergy gave up this notion. At last, even they became influenced +by the ridicule to which their superstition exposed them, and which +produced more effect than any argument could have done. The doctrines, +however, which they and their predecessors had long inculcated, had so +corrupted the popular mind, that instances will, I believe, be found +even in the nineteenth century, of the Scotch deeming precautions +against small-pox to be criminal, or, as they called it, flying in the +face of Providence. The latest evidence I can at this moment put my hand +on, is in a volume published in 1797. It is stated by the Rev. John +Paterson, that, in the parish of Auldearn, in the county of Nairn, ‘Very +few have fallen a sacrifice to the small-pox, though the people are in +general averse to inoculation, from the general gloominess of their +faith, which teaches them, that all diseases which afflict the human +frame are instances of the Divine interposition, for the punishment of +sin; any interference, therefore, on their part, they deem an usurpation +of the prerogative of the Almighty.’ <i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of +Scotland</i>, vol. xix. p. 618, Edinburgh, 1797. See also vol. xiv. p. 52, +Edinburgh, 1795. This is well said. No doubt, so abject, and so +pernicious, a superstition among the people, was the result of ‘the +general gloominess of their faith.’ But the Rev. John Paterson has +forgotten to add, that the gloominess of which he complains, was in +strict conformity with the teachings of the most able, the most +energetic, and the most venerated of the Scotch clergy. Mr. Paterson +renders scant justice to his countrymen, and should rather have praised +the tenacity with which they adhered to the instructions they had long +been accustomed to receive.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> The Rev. John Welsh, when suffering from a painful +disorder, and also from other troubles, writes: ‘My douleurs ar +impossible to expresse.’ … ‘It is the Lord's indignation.’ See his +letter, in <i>Miscellany of the Wodrow Society</i>, vol. i. p. 558. See also +<i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 128. A pain in one's side was the work of +‘the Lord’ (<i>Memoirs of Marion Laird</i>, p. 95); so was a sore throat +(<i>Wast's Memoirs</i>, p. 203); and so was the fever in pleurisy. <i>Robe's +Narratives of the Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God</i>, p. 66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> In January 1653, ‘This tyme, and mony monethis befoir, +thair wes great skairshtie of wynes. In this also appered Godis justice +toward this natioun for abusing of that blissing many yeiris befoir.’ +<i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, p. 105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_532_532" id="Footnote_532_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a> This idea was so deeply rooted, that we actually find a +public fast and humiliation ordered, on account of ‘this present uncouth +storme of frost and snaw, quhilk hes continewit sa lang that the +bestiall ar dieing thik fauld.’ <i>Records of the Kirk Session, +Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> ‘There was a dog bit my leg most desperately. I no sooner +received this, but I saw the hand of God in it.’ <i>Wast's Memoirs</i>, p. +114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> ‘The evident documentis of Goddis wrath aganes the land, +be the extraordinarie drouth.’ <i>Records of the Kirk Session, Presbytery, +and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> ‘The hynous synnes of the land produced much takines of +Godis wraith; namelie, in this spring tyme, for all Februar and a great +pairt of Marche wer full of havie weittis.’ <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, p. 152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of Salvation</i>, p. 85. +<i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the Scripture</i>, pp. 101, 149, 176. <i>Balfour's +</i>, vol. i. p. 169. <i>Boston's Sermons</i>, p. 52. <i>Boston's Human +Nature in its Four-fold State</i>, pp. 67, 136. <i>Memoirs of Marion Laird</i>, +pp. 63, 90, 113, 163. <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, pp. +62, 91, 140, 187, 242, 310, 449, 471, 476, 527, 528.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> ‘War is one of the sharp scourges whereby God punisheth +wicked nations; and it cometh upon a people, not accidentally, but <i>by +the especial providence of God</i>, who hath peace and war in his own +hand.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor Prophets</i>, vol. ii. p. 3. In +1644, ‘Civill war wracks Spaine, and lately wracked Italie: it is coming +by appearance shortlie upon France. The just Lord, who beholds with +patience the wickednesse of nations, at last <i>arises in furie</i>.’ … ‘The +Swedish and Danish fleets, after a hott fight, are making for a new +onsett: great blood is feared shall be shortly shed there, both by sea +and land. The <i>anger of the Lord</i> against all christendome is great.’ +<i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, vol. ii. pp. 190, 223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> ‘Earthquakes, whereby God, when he is angry, overthrows +and overturns very mountains.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the Book of +Job</i>, p. 114. ‘The ministris and sessioun convening in the sessioun +hous, considdering the fearfull erthquak that wes yisternicht, the aucht +of this instant, throughout this haill citie about nine houris at evin, +to be a document that God is angrie aganes the land and aganes this +citie in particular, for the manifauld sinnis of the people,’ &c. +<i>Records of the Kirk Session, Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, p. +64.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> ‘Whatever natural causes may be adduced for those +alarming appearances, the system of comets is yet so uncertain, and they +have so frequently preceded desolating strokes and turns in public +affairs, that they seem designed in providence to stir up sinners to +seriousness. Those preachers from heaven, when God's messengers were +silenced, neither prince nor prelate could stop.’ <i>Wodrow's History of +the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> ‘People of all sortes rane to the churches to deprecat +God's wrath.’ <i>Balfour's Annales</i>, vol. i. p. 403. This was in 1598.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_541_541" id="Footnote_541_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a> ‘By it, he manifests his power and shows himself +terrible.’ <i>Durham's Commentarie upon the Book of the Revelation</i>, p. +33. Compare <i>Row's History of the Kirk</i>, p. 333; and a passage in +<i>Laird's Memoirs</i>, p. 69, which shows how greedily their credulous +hearers imbibed such notions: ‘There were several signal evidences that +the Lord's righteous judgments were abroad in the earth; great claps of +thunder,’ &c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> ‘The stupidity and senselessnesse of man is greater than +that of the brute creatures, which are all more moved with the thunder, +then the hearts of men for the most part.’ <i>Dickson's Explication of the +First Fifty Psalms</i>, p. 193. Hutcheson makes a similar remark concerning +earthquakes. ‘The shaking and trembling of insensible creatures, when +God is angry, serves to condemn men, who are not sensible of it, nor +will stoop under his hand.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, +p. 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> Lady Colsfeild ‘had born two or three daughters, and was +sinfully anxious after a son, to heir the estate of Colsfeild.’ <i>Wodrow's +Analecta</i>, vol. iii. p. 293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> Under the influence of this terrible creed, the amiable +mother of Duncan Forbes, writing to him respecting his own health and +that of his brother, speaks ‘of my sinful God-provoking anxiety, both +for your souls and bodies.’ <i>Burton's Lives of Lovat and Forbes</i>, p. +724. The theological theory, underlying and suggesting this, was, that +‘grace bridles these affections.’ <i>Boston's Human Nature in its Four-fold +State</i>, p. 184. Hence its rigid application on days set apart for +religious purposes. The Rev. Mr. Lyon (<i>History of Saint Andrews</i>, vol. +i. p. 458) mentions that some of the Scotch clergy, in drawing up +regulations for the government of a colony, inserted the following +clause: ‘No husband shall kiss his wife, and no mother shall kiss her +child on the Sabbath day.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> ‘The more you please yourselves and the world, the +further you are from pleasing God.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. ii. p. 55. +Elsewhere (vol. ii. p. 45): ‘Amity to ourselves is enmity to God.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> ‘Pleasures are most carefully to be auoided: because they +both harme and deceiue.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 251. +At p. 268, the same authority says, ‘Beate downe thy body, and bring it +to subiection by abstaining, not only from vnlawfull pleasures, but also +from lawfull and indifferent delights.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_547_547" id="Footnote_547_547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_547_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a> According to <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of Job</i>, p. 6, +‘there is no time wherein men are more ready to miscarry, and discover +any bitter root in them, then when they are about +the liberal use of the creatures, and amidst occasions of mirth and +cheerfulness.’ How this doctrine ripened, cannot be better illustrated +than from the sentiments entertained, so late as the early part of the +eighteenth century, by Colonel Blackader, a Scotch officer, who was also +an educated man, who had seen much of the world, and might, to some +degree, be called a man of the world. In December 1714, he went to a +wedding, and, on his return home, he writes: ‘I was cheerful, and +perhaps gave too great a swing to raillery, but I hope not light or vain +in conversation. I desire always to have my speech seasoned with salt, +and ministering profit to the hearers. Sitting up late, and merry +enough, though I hope innocent; but I will not justify myself.’ <i>The +Life and Diary of Lieut.-Col. J. Blackader, by Andrew Crichton</i>, p. 453. +On another occasion (p. 511), in 1720, he was at an evening party. ‘The +young people were merry. I laid a restraint upon myself for fear of +going too far, and joined but little, only so as not to show moroseness +or ill-breeding. We sat late, but the conversation was innocent, and no +drinking but as we pleased. However, much time is spent; which I dare +not justify. <i>In all things we offend.</i>’ At p. 159, he writes, ‘I should +always be mixing something that may edify in my discourse;’ and, says +his biographer (p. 437), ‘Conversation, when it ceased to accomplish +this object, he regarded as <i>degenerating into idle entertainment</i>, +which ought to be checked rather than encouraged.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_548_548" id="Footnote_548_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a> ‘Frequent the gravest company, and the fellowship of +those that are sorrowfull.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. +416. Compare the attacks on ‘too much carnal mirth and laughter,’ in +<i>Durham's Law Unsealed</i>, p. 323; in <i>Fleming's Fulfilling of the +Scripture</i>, p. 226; and in <i>Fergusson's Exposition of the Epistles of +Paul</i>, p. 227. See also <i>Gray's Spiritual Warfare</i>, p. 42. Cowper says, +‘Woe be unto them that now laugh, for assuredly they shall weepe, the +end of their joy shall be endleese mourning and gnashing of teeth, they +shall shed tears abundantly with Esau, but shall find no place for +mercy.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 271. Hutcheson, in a train of +unusual liberality, permits occasional laughter. He says, ‘There is a +faculty of laughing given to men, which certainly is given for use, at +least at sometimes; and diversions are sometime needfull for men who are +serious and employed in weighty affairs.’ … ‘And particularly, laughter +is sometimes lawful for magistrates and others in publick charge, not +only that they may recreate themselves, but that, thereby, and by the +like insinuating carriage, they may gain the affection of the people.’ +<i>Hutcheson‘s Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, edit. folio, 1669, pp. 389, +390.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> In 1650, when Charles II. was in Scotland, ‘the clergy +reprehended him very sharply, if he smiled on those days’ (Sundays). +<i>Clarendon's History of the Rebellion</i>, book xiii. p. 747, edit. Oxford, +1843.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> It is said of Donald Cargill, that, ‘his very countenance +was edifying to beholders; often sighing with deep groans.’ <i>A Cloud of +Witnesses for the Royal Prerogatives of Jesus Christ</i>, p. 423. The +celebrated James Durham was ‘a person of the utmost gravity, and scarce +smiled at anything.’ <i>Howie's Biographia Scoticana</i>, p. 226. Of +Livingston, we are told ‘that he was a very affectionate person, and +weeped much; that it was his ordinary way, and might be observed almost +every Sabbath, that when he came into the pulpite he sate doun a litle, +and looked first to the one end of the kirk, and then to the other; and +then, ordinarly, the tear shott in his eye, and he weeped, and oftimes +he began his preface and his work weeping.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. +ii. p. 249. James Alexander ‘used to weep much in prayer and preaching; +he was every way most savoury.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. iii. p. 39. As to the Rev. +John Carstairs, ‘his band in the Sabbath would have been all wett, as if +it had been douked, with tears, before he was done with his first +prayer.’ p. 48. Aird, minister of Dalserf, ‘weeping much’ (<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. +iii. p. 56), ‘Mr. James Stirling tells me he was a most fervent, +affectionat, weeping preacher.’ p. 172; and the Rev. Alexander Dunlop +was noted for what was termed ‘a holy groan,’ vol. iii. p. 21. See also, +on weeping as a mark of religion, <i>Wast's Memoirs</i>, pp. 83, 84; and +<i>Robe's Narrative of the Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God</i>, pp. +21, 31, 75, 150. One passage from the most popular of the Scotch +preachers, I hesitate as to the propriety of quoting; but it is +essential that their ideas should be known, if the history of Scotland +is to be understood. Rutherford, after stating whom it is that we should +seek to imitate, adds: ‘Christ did never laugh on earth that we read of, +but he wept.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, 1647, 4to, p. 525. I publish +this with no irreverent spirit; God forbid that I should. But I will not +be deterred from letting this age see the real character of a system +which aimed at destroying all human happiness, exciting slavish and +abject fear, and turning this glorious world into one vast theatre of +woe.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> ‘Walk with a sober pace, not “tinkling with your feet.”’ +<i>Memoirs of the Rev. James Fraser, written by Himself</i>, in <i>Select +Biographies</i>, vol. ii. p. 280. ‘It is somewhat like this, or less than +this, which the Lord condemneth, <i>Isa.</i> iii. 16, ‘Walking and mincing, +or tripping and making a tinkling with their feet.’ What is that but +disdaining the grave way of walking, to affect an art in it? as many do +now in our days; and shall this be displeasing to the Lord, and not the +other? seeing he loveth, and is best pleased with, the native way of +carrying the body.’ <i>Durham's Law Unsealed</i>, p. 324. ‘The believer hath, +or at least ought to have, and, if he be like himself, will have, a well +ordered walk, and will be in his carriage stately and princely.’ +<i>Durham's Exposition of the Song of Solomon</i>, p. 365.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> ‘At home, writing letters to a friend. My vein is +inclined to jest and humour. The letter was too comical and jocose; and +after I had sent it away, I had a check that it was too light, and +jesting foolishly. I sent and got it back, and destroyed it. My temper +goes too far that way, and I ought to check it, and be more on my guard, +and study edification in every thing.’ <i>Crichton's Life and Diary of +Blackader</i>, pp. 536, 537. Even amongst young children, from eight years +old and upwards, toys and games were bad; and it was a good sign when +they were discarded. ‘Some very young, of eight and nine years of age, +some twelve and thirteen. They still inclined more and more to their +duty, so that they meet three times a day, in the morning, at night, and +at noon. Also they have forsaken all their childish fancies and plays; +so these that have been awakened are known by their countenance and +conversation, their walk and behaviour.’ <i>Robe's Narratives of the +Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God</i>, pp. 79, 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> ‘To the unmortified man, the world smelleth like the +garden of God’ … ‘the world is not to him an ill-smelled stinking +corps.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 498. But those who were properly +mortified, knew that ‘the earth is but a potter's house’ (<i>Ibid.</i>, p. +286); ‘an old thred-bare-worn case’ (<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 530); a ‘smoky house’ +(<i>Rutherford's Religious Letters</i>, p. 100); a ‘plaistered, rotten world’ +(<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 132); and ‘an ashy and dirty earth’ (<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 169). ‘The +earth also is spotted (like the face of a woman once beautifull, but now +deformed with scabs of leprosie) with thistles, thornes, and much barren +wilderness.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_554_554" id="Footnote_554_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a> ‘Wearinesse and motion is laid on Moon and Sunne, and all +creatures on this side of the Moon. Seas ebbe and flow, and that's +trouble; winds blow, rivers move, heavens and stars these five thousand +yeares, except one time, have not had sixe minutes rest.’ … ‘The Sunne +that never rests, but moves as swiftly in the night as in the day.’ +<i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, pp. 12, 157. ‘This is the world's old age; +it is declining; albeit it seem a fair and beautiful thing in the eyes +of them who know no better, and unto them who are of yesterday and know +nothing, it looks as if it had been created yesterday; yet the truth is, +and a believer knows, it is near the grave.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. +iii. p. 372.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> ‘This, then, I say, is the state all things ye see are +in,—it is their old age. The creation now is an old rotten house that +is all dropping through and leaning to the one side.’ <i>Binning's +Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 398.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_556_556" id="Footnote_556_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a> ‘The lilies and roses, which, no doubt, had more +sweetnesse of beauty and smell, before the sin of man made them +vanity-sick.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 185.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> ‘The heavens that are supposed to be incorruptible, yet +they wax old as doth a garment.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 95.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> ‘The neerer the sun drawes to the end of his daily +course, the lesse is his strength, for we see the Sunne in the evening +decayes in heat; so it is, the longer by reuolution he turnes about in +his sphere, he waxes alway the weaker; and, to vse the similitude of the +holy spirit, as a garment the older it groweth becomes the lesse +beautifull.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> ‘It is so delicate by nature, that since it was the first +sense that offended, it is, aboue all the rest, made subject (as a +condigne punishment) to as many maladies, as there are weekes in a +yeere.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 501. The Scotch divines +were extremely displeased with our eyes. Rutherford contemptuously calls +them ‘two clay windows.’ <i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 570. Gray, +going still further, says, ‘these cursed eyes of ours.’ <i>Gray's Great +and Precious Promises</i>, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> ‘The true visible Kirk where God's ordinances are set up, +as he hath appointed, where his word is purely preached, is the most +beautifull thing under heaven.’ <i>Dickson's Explication of the First +Fifty Psalms</i>, p. 341.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> I have one very late, and, on that account, very curious, +instance of the diffusion of this feeling in Scotland. In 1767, a +vacancy occurred in the mastership of the grammar-school of Greenock. +It was offered to John Wilson, the author of ‘Clyde.’ But, says his +biographer, ‘the magistrates and minister of Greenock thought fit, +before they would admit Mr. Wilson to the superintendance of the grammar +school, to stipulate that he should abandon “the profane and +unprofitable art of poem-making.”’ <i>Lives of Eminent Scotsmen by the +Society of Ancient Scots</i>, 1821, vol. v. p. 169.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> ‘Sept. 22. 1649.—The quhilk day the Sessioune caused mak +this act, that ther sould be no pypers at brydels, and who ever sould +have a pyper playing at their brydell on their mariage day, sall loose +their consigned money, and be farder punisched as the Sessioune thinks +fitt.’ <i>Extracts from the Registers of the Presbytery of Glasgow, and of +the Kirk Sessions of the Parishes of Cambusnethan Humbie and Stirling</i>, +p. 34. This curious volume is a quarto, and without date; unless, +indeed, one of the title-pages is wanting in my copy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> See the Minutes of the Kirk Session of Glasgow, in +<i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of Ministers</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. +76; also the case of ‘Mure, pyper,’ in <i>Selections from the Minutes of +the Presbyteries of Saint Andrews and Cupar</i>, p. 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> This notion lingered on, probably to the beginning of +this century; certainly to late in the last. In a work published in +Scotland in 1836, it is stated, that a clergyman was still alive, who +was ‘severely censured,’ merely because, when Punch was performing, ‘the +servant was sent out to the showman to request him to come below the +windows of her master's house, that the clergyman and his wife might +enjoy the sight.’ <i>Traditions of Perth by George Penny</i>, Perth, 1836, p. +124.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> ‘17 Feb. 1650. Ane act of the commissioun of the Generall +Assemblie wes red in all the churches of Edinburgh dischargeing +promiscuous dansing.’ <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, p. 3. See also <i>Acts of the +General Assembly of the Church of Scotland</i>, 1638–1842, p. 201; +<i>Register of the Kirk Session of Cambusnethan</i>, p. 35; <i>Minutes of the +Presbyteries of St. Andrews and Cupar</i>, pp. 55, 181; <i>Minutes of the +Synod of Fife</i>, pp. 150, 169, 175; and a choice passage in <i>A Collection +of Sermons by Eminent Divines</i>, p. 51.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> See <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk Session, +Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, pp. 77, 78, forbidding any one to +‘giwe ony meatt or drink to these sangsteris or lat thame within thair +houss.’ The singers were to be ‘put in prisoun.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> In 1643 the Presbytery of St. Andrews ordered that +‘because of the great abuse that is likewayes among them by conveening +multitudes at baptismes and contracts, the ministers and sessions are +appointed to take strict order for restraineing these abuses, that in +number they exceid not sixe or seven. As also ordaines that the hostlers +quho mak such feists salbe censured by the sessions.’ <i>Minutes of the +Presbyteries of St. Andrews and Cupar</i>, p. 11. See also <i>Records of the +Kirk Session, Presbytery, and Synod of Aberdeen</i>, pp. 109, 110, +complaining of the custom ‘that everie base servile man in the towne, +when he has a barne to be baptesed, invitis tuelff or sextene persones +to be his gossopes and godfatheris to his barne,’ &c.; and enacting +‘that it shall not be lesume to any inhabitant within this burt +quhasoever, to invite any ma persones to be godfatheris to thair barne +in ony tyme cumming bot tua or four at the most, lyk as the Kirk +officier is expresslie commandit and prohibitt that from hence furth he +tak vp no ma names to be godfatheris, nor giwe any ma vp to the redar +bot four at the most, vnder all hiest censure he may incur be the +contrairie, and this ordinance to be intimat out of pulpitt, that the +people pretend no ignorance thairof.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> They forbade music and dancing; and they ordered that not +more than twenty-four persons should be present. See the enactment, in +1647, respecting ‘Pennie bryddells,’ in <i>Minutes of the Presbyteries of +St. Andrews and Cupar</i>, p. 117. In 1650, ‘The Presbyterie being sadly +weghted with the report of the continwance, and exhorbitant and +unnecessarly numerous confluences of people at pennie brydles, and of +inexpedient and wnlawfull pypeing and dancing at the same, so scandalous +and sinfull in this tyme of our Churches lamentable conditioun; and +being apprehensive that ministers and Kirk Sessiouns have not bein so +vigilant and active (as neid werre), for repressing of these disorders, +doe therfor most seriously recommend to ministers and Kirk Sessiouns to +represse the same.’ <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 169, 170. See, further, <i>Registers of +the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, p. 29; and <i>Extracts from the Presbytery Book +of Strathbogie</i>, pp. 4, 144.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> See two curious instances of limitation of price, in +<i>Irving's History of Dumbartonshire</i>, p. 567; and in <i>Wodrow's +Collections upon the Lives of Ministers</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. 34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> ‘What a vile, haughty, and base creature he is—how +defiled and desperately wicked his nature—how abominable his actions; +in a word, what a compound of darkness and wickedness he is—a heap of +defiled dust, and a mass of confusion—a sink of impiety and iniquity, +<i>even the best of mankind</i>, those of the rarest and most refined +extraction, <i>take them at their best estate</i>.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. +ii. p. 302. Compare <i>Boston's Human Nature in its Four-fold State</i>, pp. +26, 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> ‘The least sin cannot but deserve God's wrath and curse +eternally.’ <i>Dickson's Truth's Victory over Error</i>, p. 71. ‘All men, +even the regenerate, sin daily.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> ‘Our best works have such a mixture of corruption and sin +in them, that they deserve his curse and wrath.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 130.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> ‘But now, falling away from God, hee hath also so farre +degenerated from his owne kind, that he is become inferiour to the +beasts.’ <i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 251. ‘O! is not man become so +brutish and ignorant, that he may be sent unto the beasts of the field +to be instructed of that which is his duty?’ <i>Gray's Spiritual Warfare</i>, +p. 28. ‘Men are naturally more bruitish than beasts themselves.’ +<i>Boston's Human Nature in its Four-fold State</i>, p. 58. ‘Worse than the +beast of the field.’ <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of Salvation</i>, p. 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_574_574" id="Footnote_574_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a> ‘Infants, even in their mother's belly, have in +themselves sufficient guilt to deserve such judgments;’ <i>i.e.</i> when +women with child are ‘ript up.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the Minor +Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_575_575" id="Footnote_575_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a> ‘And in our speech, our Scripture and old Scots names are +gone out of request; instead of <i>Father</i> and <i>Mother</i>, <i>Mamma</i> and +<i>Papa</i>, training children to speak nonsense, and what they do not +understand. These few instances, amongst many that might be given, are +additional causes of God's wrath.’ <i>The Life and Death of Mr. Alexander +Peden, late Minister of the Gospel at New Glenluce, in Galloway</i>, in +<i>Walker's Biographia Presbyteriana</i>, vol. i. p. 140.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_576_576" id="Footnote_576_576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_576_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a> ‘Yea, if the Lord did not restraine her, shee would open +her mouth and swallow the wicked, as she did Corah, Dathan, and Abiram.’ +<i>Cowper's Heaven Opened</i>, p. 257. Compare <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on the +Minor Prophets</i>, vol. i. p. 507.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_577_577" id="Footnote_577_577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_577_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a> ‘There is nothing so monstrous, so deformed in the world, +as man.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 234. ‘There is not in all the +creation such a miserable creature as man.’ <i>Ibid.</i> vol. iii. p. 321. +‘Nothing so miserable.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_578_578" id="Footnote_578_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a> ‘December 17th, 1635. Mention made of a correction house, +which the Session ordeans persons to be taken to, both men and women, +and appoints them to be whipt every day during the Session's will.’ +<i>Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of Ministers</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. +67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_579_579" id="Footnote_579_579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_579_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a> On the 22nd October 1648, the Kirk Session of Dunfermline +ordered that a certain Janet Robertson ‘shall be cartit and scourged +through the town, and markit with an hot iron.’ <i>Chalmers' History of +Dunfermline</i>, p. 437.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> ‘As they punish by pecuniary fines, so corporally too, by +imprisoning the persons of the delinquents, using them disgracefully, +carting them through cities, making them stand in logges, as they call +them, pillaries (which in the country churches are fixed to the two +sides of the main door of the Parish Church), cutting the halfe of their +hair, shaving their beards, &c., and it is more than ordinary, by their +“original” and “proper power,” to banish them out of the bounds and +limits of the parish, or presbytery, as they list to order it.’ +<i>Presbytery Displayd</i>, p. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> The Scotch clergy of the seventeenth century were not +much given to joking; but on one of these occasions a preacher is said +to have hazarded a pun. A woman, named Ann Cantly, being made to do +penance, ‘Here’ (said the minister), ‘Here is one upon the stool of +repentance, they call her <i>Cantly</i>; she saith herself, she is an honest +woman, but I trow <i>scantly</i>.’ <i>Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence</i>, p. 125. +From what I have read of Scotch theology, I can bear testimony to the +accuracy of this book, so far as its general character is concerned. +Indeed, the author, through fear of being entirely discredited, has +often rather understated his case.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> As Durham says, in his <i>Exposition of the Song of +Solomon</i>, p. 451, ‘It is no burden to an honest believer to acknowledge +Christ's ministers, to obey their doctrine, and submit to their +censures.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_583_583" id="Footnote_583_583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_583_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a> A man, named Alexander Laurie, was brought before the +Kirk Session of Perth, ‘and being inquired by the minister if, in his +last being out of this country, he had been in Spain, answered that he +was in Portugal, but was never present at mass, neither gave reverence +to any procession, and that he was never demanded by any concerning his +religion. The said Alexander being removed and censured, it was thought +good by the (Kirk) Session that he should be admonished not to travel in +these parts again, except that they were otherwise reformed in +religion.’ <i>Extracts from the Kirk-Session Register of Perth</i>, in <i>The +Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. 274. Still earlier, that is, in +1592, the clergy attempted to interfere even with commerce, ‘allegeing +that the marchands could not mak vayage in Spayne without danger of +their sawlis, and tharefore willit thayme in the nayme of God to +absteyne.’ <i>The Historie of King James the Sext</i>, p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> See the case of Patrick Stewart, and Mr. Lawson's note +upon it, in <i>Lawson's Book of Perth</i>, p. 238. In this instance, the +‘Roman Catholic gentleman’ had been excommunicated, which made matters +still worse.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_585_585" id="Footnote_585_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a> The Presbytery of Edinburgh, ‘by their transcendent sole +authority, discharged any market to be kept on Monday; the reason was, +because it occasioned the travelling of men and horse the Lord's-day +before, which prophaned the Sabbath.’ <i>Presbytery Displayd</i>, p. 10. In +1650, Saturday was also taken in by another ecclesiastical senate. ‘The +Presbyterie doe appoint the severall brethren in burghes, to deale with +such as have not changed ther Mondayes and Satterdayes mercats to other +dayes of the weeke, that they may doe the same <i>primo quoque tempore</i>.’ +<i>Minutes of the Presbyteries of St. Andrews and Cupar</i>, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> In 1650, ‘For “the down-bearing of sin,” women were not +allowed to act as waiters in taverns, but “allenarly men-servands and +boys.”’ <i>Chambers' Annals</i>, vol. ii. p. 196. This order ‘wes red and +publictlie intimat in all the kirkis of Edinburgh.’ <i>Nicoll's Diary</i>, p. +5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> ‘Forsameikle as dilatation being made, that Janet Watson +holds an house by herself where <i>she may give occasion of slander</i>, +therefore Patrick Pitcairn, elder, is ordained to admonish her in the +session's name, either to marry, or then pass to service, otherwise that +she will not be suffered to dwell by herself.’ <i>Kirk-Session Records of +Perth</i>, in <i>The Chronicle of Perth</i>, p. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_588_588" id="Footnote_588_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a> ‘Ordains the two sisters, Elspith and Janet Stewart, that +they be not found in the house again with their sister, but every one of +them shall go to service, or where they may be best entertained without +slander, under the penalty of warding their persons and banishment of +the town.’ <i>Kirk-Session Register</i>, in <i>Lawson's Book of Perth</i>, p. +169.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> ‘Compeirit William Kinneir, and confest his travelling on +the Sabbath day, which he declairit was out of meer necessitie, haveing +two watters to croce, and ane tempestuos day, quhilk moowit him to fear +that he wold not get the watters crost, and so his credit might faill. +He was sharpelie admonished, and promist newer to doe the lyke again.’ +<i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk-Session of Aberdeen</i>, p. 136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_590_590" id="Footnote_590_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a> ‘Compearit Thomas Gray, and confest that one Sunday in +the morning, he went to Culter to visit a friend, and stayed thair all +night. The sessioune warnit him, <i>apud acta</i>, to the next day, and +appointed Patrick Gray, his master, to be cited to the next day, to give +furder informatioune in the matter. (Sharply rebuked before the +pulpit.)’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk-Session of Aberdeen</i>, +p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> ‘It was reported that Margaret Brotherstone did water her +kaill wpon the Sabbath day, and thairwpon was ordained to be cited.’ … +‘Compeired Margaret Brotherstone, and confessed her breach of Sabbath in +watering of her kaill, and thairwpon ordained to give evidence in +publick of her repentance the next Lord's day.’ <i>Extracts from the +Register of the Kirk-Session of Humbie</i>, p. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_592_592" id="Footnote_592_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a> Even so late as the middle of the eighteenth century, +‘clergymen were sometimes libelled’ … ‘for shaving’ on Sunday. +<i>Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, vol. xvi. p. 34, +Edinburgh, 1795. At an earlier period, no one might be shaved on that +day. See <i>The Spottiswoode Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. p. 276; and <i>Lawson's +Book of Perth</i>, pp. 224, 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_593_593" id="Footnote_593_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a> ‘Compeired John Gordon of Avachie, and confessed that he +had transgressed in travailing on the Sabbath day with horse, going for +a milston. Referred to the session of Kinor for censure.’ <i>Extracts from +the Presbytery Book of Strathbogie</i>, p. 236. See also the case mentioned +in <i>Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 172; +‘This riding on horseback of a Sunday was deemed a great scandal.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_594_594" id="Footnote_594_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a> In 1647, the punishment was ordered of whoever was guilty +of ‘sitting or walking idle upon the streetes and feildes’ on Sunday. +<i>Selections from the Minutes of the Synod of Fife</i>, p. 152. In 1742, +‘sitting idle at their doors’ and ‘sitting about doors’ was profane. +<i>Robe's Naratives of the Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God</i>, pp. +109, 110. In 1756, at Perth, ‘to stroll about the fields, or even to +walk upon the inches, was looked upon as extremely sinful, and an +intolerable violation of the fourth commandment.’ <i>Penny's Traditions of +Perth</i>, p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> In 1656, ‘Cite Issobell Balfort, servand to William +Gordone, tailyeor, beeing found sleeping at the Loche side on the Lord's +day in tyme of Sermon.’ <i>Selections from the Records of the Kirk-Session +of Aberdeen</i>. p. 137. It was a sin even for children to feel tired of +the interminable sermons which they were forced to hear. Halyburton, +addressing the young people of his congregation, says, ‘Have not you +been glad when the Lord's day was over; or, at least, <i>when the +preaching was done</i>, that ye might get your liberty. Has it not been a +burden to you, to sit so long in the church? Well, <i>this is a great +sin</i>.’ See this noticeable passage, in <i>Halyburton's Great Concern of +Salvation</i>, p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_596_596" id="Footnote_596_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a> In 1719, the Presbytery of Edinburgh indignantly +declares, ‘Yea, some have arrived at that height of impiety, as not to +be ashamed of washing in waters, and swimming in rivers upon the holy +Sabbath.’ <i>Register of Presbytery of Edinburgh, 29th April 1719</i>, in +<i>Arnot's History of Edinburgh</i>, p. 204.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> So late as 1691, the Kirk-Session of Glasgow attempted to +prevent all boys from swimming, whatever the day might be. But as the +Church was then on the decline, it was necessary to appeal to the civil +authority for help. What the result was, I have not been able to +ascertain. There is, however, a curious notice, in <i>Wodrow's Collections +upon the Lives of Ministers</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. 77, stating that, on +‘August 6th, 1691, the Session recommends it to the magistrates to think +on some overtures for discharging boyes from swimming, in regard one was +lately lost.’ I have met with other evidence respecting this; but I +cannot remember the passages.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> The Rev. James Fraser says, ‘The world is a dangerous +thing and a great evil, and the comforts of it a hell.’ <i>Select +Biographies</i>, vol. ii. p. 220. Compare <i>Gray's Spiritual Warfare</i>, p. +22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_599_599" id="Footnote_599_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a> ‘It is good to be continually afflicted here.’ <i>Select +Biographies</i>, vol. ii. p. 220. Gray, advocating the same doctrine, sums +up his remarks by a suggestion, that, ‘I think David had never so sweet +a time as then, when he was pursued as a partridge by his son Absalom.’ +<i>Gray's Great and Precious Promises</i>, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> ‘Suspect that which pleaseth the senses.’ <i>Abernethy's +Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> Durham, in his long catalogue of sins, mentions as one, +‘the preparing of meat studiously, that is, when it is too riotously +dressed, for pleasing men's carnal appetite and taste, or palate, by the +fineness of it, and other curiosities of that kind.’ <i>Durham's Law +Unsealed</i>, p. 333. See also p. 48, on ‘palate-pleasers;’ and Dickson's +opinion of the ‘rarest dishes and best meats.’ <i>Dickson's Explication of +the Psalms</i>, p. 84. According to another of the Scotch divines, whoever +makes one good meal and has enough left for a second, is in imminent +peril. ‘He that is full, and hath enough to make him fuller, will easily +deny God, and be exalted against him: his table shall be a snare to his +body, and a snare to his soule.’ <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, +p. 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_602_602" id="Footnote_602_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a> For, says Abernethy (<i>Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 488), +‘men are loth to lend their eare to the Word, when they abound in +prosperity.’ So, too, Hutcheson, in his <i>Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, +p. 387: ‘Such is the weakness even of godly men, that they can hardly +live in a prosperous condition, and not be overtaken with some security, +carnal confidence, or other miscarriage.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_603_603" id="Footnote_603_603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_603_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a> See this theory worked out in <i>Cockburn's Jacob's Vow, or +Man's Felicity and Duty</i>, pp. 71–75. He says, ‘And certainly to crave +and be desirous of more than what is competent for the maintenance and +support of our lives, is both inconsistent with that dependence and +subjection we owe to God, and doth also bespeak a great deal of vanity, +folly, and inconsiderateness.’ Boston, striking at the very foundation +of that practice of providing for the future, which is the first and +most important maxim in all civil wisdom, and which peculiarly +distinguishes civilized nations from barbarians, asks his hearers, ‘Why +should men rack their heads with cares how to provide for to-morrow, +while they know not if they shall then need anything?’ <i>Boston's Human +Nature in its Four-fold State</i>, p. 300. Hutcheson thinks that those who +are guilty of such impious prudence, deserve to be starved. ‘When men +are not content with food and rayment, but would still heap up more, it +is just with God to leave them not so much as bread; and to suffer men +to have an evil eye upon them, and to pluck at them, even so long as +they have meat.’ <i>Hutcheson's Exposition of the Book of Job</i>, p. 296. +Binning, going still further, threatens eternal ruin. ‘Ye may have +things necessary here,—food and raiment; and if ye seek more, if ye +will be rich, and will have superfluities, then ye shall fall into many +temptations, snares, and hurtful lusts which shall drown you in +perdition.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 355.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> ‘If God loved riches well, do ye think he would give them +so liberally, and heap them up upon some base covetous wretches? Surely +no.’ <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. iii. p. 366. Gray, in his zeal against +wealth, propounds another doctrine, which I do not remember to have seen +elsewhere. He says, ‘All that the owner of riches hath, is, the seeing +of them; which a man, who is a passer by, may likeways have, though he +be not possessor of them.’ <i>Gray's Spiritual Warfare</i>, p. 128. I hope +that the reader will not suspect me of having maliciously invented any +of these passages. The books from which they are quoted, are, with only +two or three exceptions, all in my library, and may be examined by +persons who are curious in such matters.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> ‘The absence of external appearances of joy in Scotland, +in contrast with the frequent holidayings and merry-makings of the +continent, has been much remarked upon. We find in the records of +ecclesiastical discipline clear traces of the process by which this +distinction was brought about. To the puritan kirk of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, every outward demonstration of natural good +spirits was a sort of sin, to be as far as possible repressed.’ … ‘The +whole sunshine of life was, as it were, squeezed out of the community.’ +<i>Chambers' Annals of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 336, vol. ii. p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> ‘A Christian should mortifie his affections, which are +his predominant lusts, to which our affections are so much joined, and +our soul doth so much go out after.’ <i>Gray's Spiritual Warfare</i>, p. 29. +‘That blessed work of weaning of affections from all things that are +here.’ <i>Gray's Great and Precious Promises</i>, p. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_607_607" id="Footnote_607_607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_607_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a> ‘One of our more northern ministers, whose parish lies +along the coast between Spey and Findorn, made some fishermen do penance +for sabbath-breaking, in going out to sea, though purely with endeavour +to save a vessel in distress by a storm.’ <i>Letters from a Gentleman in +the North of Scotland</i>, vol. i. p. 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_608_608" id="Footnote_608_608"></a><a href="#FNanchor_608_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a> ‘The master of a family may, and ought to, deny an act of +humanity or hospitality to strangers that are false teachers.’ +<i>Rutherford's Free Disputation against Pretended Liberty of Conscience</i>, +p. 176. ‘The Holy Ghost forbiddeth the master of every Christian family +to owne a hereticke as a guest.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 219. See also p. 235.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_609_609" id="Footnote_609_609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_609_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a> ‘We hold that tolleration of all religions is not farre +from blasphemy.’ <i>Rutherford's Free Disputation against Pretended +Liberty of Conscience</i>, p. 20. ‘If wolves be permitted to teach what is +right in their own erroneous conscience, and there be no “Magistrate to +put them to shame,” <i>Judg.</i> xviii. 7, and no King to punish them, then +godlinesse and all that concernes the first Table of the Law must be +marred.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 230. ‘Wilde and atheisticall liberty of +conscience,’ p. 337. ‘Cursed toleration,’ p. 400. See also, in the same +work (pp. 110, 244), Rutherford's remarks on the murder of Servetus. In +1645, Baillie, who was then in London, writes, ‘The Independents here +plead for a tolleration both for themselfes and other sects. My +Dissuasive is come in time to doe service here. We hope God will assist +us to remonstrate the wickedness of such an tolleration.’ And on account +of the Independents wishing to show common charity towards persons who +differed in opinions from themselves, Baillie writes next year (1646), +‘The Independents has the least zeale to the truth of God of any men we +know.’ <i>Baillie's Letters and Journals</i>, vol. ii. pp. 328, 361. Blair, +who was in London in 1649, was sorely vexed with ‘the most illegal, +irreligious, and wicked proceedings and actings of the sectarian army;’ +one of their crimes being the attempt ‘to ruin religion by their +toleration.’ <i>Continuation of the Autobiography of Mr. Robert Blair, +Minister of St. Andrews</i>, p. 213. For other evidence of this persecuting +spirit, see <i>Dickson's Truth's Victory over Error</i>, pp. 159, 163, +199–202; <i>Abernethy's Physicke for the Soule</i>, p. 215; <i>Durham's +Exposition of the Song of Solomon</i>, p. 147; <i>Durham's Commentarie upon +the Book of the Revelation</i>, pp. 141, 143, 330; and <i>Shields' Hind let +loose</i>, p. 168.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> ‘A third benefit (which is a branch of the former), is +zeal in the godly against false teachers, who shall be so tender of the +truth and glory of God, and the safety of the Church (all which are +endangered by error), that it shall overcome natural affection in them; +so that parents shall not <i>spare their own children</i>, being seducers, +but shall either by an heroick act (such as was in Phinehas, <i>Numb.</i> +<span class="smcap">XXV.</span> 8), <i>themselves judge him worthy to die, and give sentence and +execute it</i>, or cause him to be punished, by bringing him to the +Magistrate,’ &c…. ‘The toleration of a false religion in doctrine or +worship, and the exemption of the erroneous from civil punishment, is no +more lawful under the New Testament than it was under the Old.’ <i>An +Exposition of the Prophecie of Zechariah</i>, in <i>Hutcheson's Exposition on +the Minor Prophets</i>, vol. iii. p. 203, 8vo. 1654.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> <i>Selections from the Registers of the Presbytery of +Lanark</i>, pp. <span class="smcap">X.</span> 33, 56, 63, 65, 73.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> I copy the exact words from <i>Wodrow's Collections upon +the Lives of Ministers of the Church of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. part ii. p. +71. An order had been previously obtained from the government, +‘requiring the magistrates to expell furth of the Toun all excomunicated +persons.’</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot">AN EXAMINATION OF THE SCOTCH INTELLECT DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</div> + +<p>To complete the history and analysis of the Scotch +mind, I have now to examine the peculiar intellectual +movement which appeared in the eighteenth century, +and which, for several reasons, deserves careful +attention. It was essentially a reaction against that +theological spirit which predominated during the seventeenth +century. Such a reaction would hardly have been +possible, except for the fact which I have already noticed, +namely, that the political activity which produced the +rebellion against the Stuarts, saved the Scotch mind +from stagnating, and prevented that deep slumber into +which the progress of superstition would naturally have +thrown it. The long and stubborn conflict with a despotic +government, kept alive a certain alertness and +vigour of understanding, which survived the struggle +that gave it birth. When the contest was ended, and +peace was restored, the faculties which, for three generations, +had been exercised in resisting the executive +authority, sought other employment, and found another +field in which they could disport themselves. Hence it +was, that the boldness which, in the seventeenth century, +was practical, became, in the eighteenth century, +speculative, and produced a literature, which attempted +to unsettle former opinions, and to disturb the ancient +landmarks of the human mind. The movement was revolutionary, +and bore the same relation to ecclesiastical +tyranny, which the previous movement had borne to +political tyranny. But this new rebellion had one striking +characteristic. In nearly every other country, when +the intellect has fairly arrayed itself against the exclusive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +pretensions of the Church, it has happened that the +secular philosophy, which has been engendered, has been +an inductive philosophy, taking for its basis individual +and specific experience, and seeking, by that means, to +overthrow the general and traditional notions, on which +all church power is founded. The plan has been, to refuse +to accept principles which could not be substantiated +by facts; while the opposite and theological plan +is, to force the facts to yield to the principles. In the +former case, experience precedes theory; in the latter +case, theory precedes experience, and controls it. In +theology, certain principles are taken for granted; and, +it being deemed impious to question them, all that remains +for us is to reason from them downwards. This +is the deductive method. On the other hand, the inductive +method will concede nothing, but insists upon +reasoning upwards, and demands that we shall have the +liberty of ascertaining the principles for ourselves. In +a complete scheme of our knowledge, and when all our +resources are fully developed and marshalled into order, +as they must eventually be, the two methods will be, +not hostile, but supplementary, and will be combined +into a single system. At present, however, we are very +far from such a result; and not only is every mind more +prone to one method than to another, but we find, historically, +that different ages and different countries have +been characterised by the extent to which one of these +two schemes has predominated; and we also find, +that a study of this antagonism is the surest way of +understanding the intellectual condition of any period.</p> + +<p>That the inductive philosophy is even more marked +by its secular tendencies than by its scientific ones, will +be evident to whoever observes the epochs in which it +has been most active, and has possessed most adherents. +Of this, the history of the French mind, in the eighteenth +century, affords a good instance, where, after the death +of Louis XIV., we may clearly trace the connexion between +the growth of the inductive method, and the subsequent +overthrow of the Gallican Church. In England, +too, the rise of the Baconian philosophy, with its determination +to subordinate ancient principles to modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +experience, was the heaviest blow which has ever been +inflicted on the theologians, whose method is to begin, +not with experience, but with principles, which are said +to be inscrutable, and which we are bound to believe +without further difficulty. And I need hardly remind +the reader, that scarcely was that philosophy established +among us, when it produced those bold inquiries which +quickly ended in the downfall of the English Church +under Charles I. From that terrible defeat, our clergy +did, for a time, partly rally; but as their apparent success, +in the reign of Charles II., was owing to political +changes, and not to social ones, they were unable to recover +their hold over society, and, unless the nation +should retrograde, there is no possibility that they ever +should recover it. Over the inferior order of minds, they +still wield great influence; but the Baconian philosophy, +by bringing their favourite method into disrepute, has +sapped the very base of their system. From the moment +that their mode of investigation was discredited, +the secret of their power was gone. From the moment +that men began to insist on inquiring into the validity +of first principles, instead of accepting them without +inquiry, and humbly submitting to them as matters of +faith and of necessary belief; from that moment, the +theologians, driven from one post to another, and constantly +receding before the pressure of advancing knowledge, +have been forced to abandon entrenchment after +entrenchment, until what they have retained of their +former territory is hardly worth the struggle. As a last +resource, they, at the close of the eighteenth century, +determined to use the weapons of their opponents; and +Paley and his successors, enlarging the scheme which +Ray and Derham had feebly sketched, endeavoured, by +a skilful employment of the inductive method, to compensate +their party for the failure of the deductive one. +But their project, though ably conceived, has come to +naught. It is now generally admitted, that nothing can +be made of it, and that it is impossible to establish the +old theological premises by a chain of inductive reasoning. +Respecting this, the most eminent philosophers +agree with the most eminent theologians; and, since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +time of Kant in Germany, and of Coleridge in England, +none of our ablest men, even among divines themselves, +have recurred to a plan which Paley, indeed, pursued +with vigour, but of which our Bridgewater Treatises, +our Prize-Essays, and such schoolboy productions, are +poor and barren imitations.<a name="FNanchor_613_613" id="FNanchor_613_613"></a><a href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> No great thinkers now +follow this course in matters of religion. On the contrary, +they prefer the safer, as well as the more philosophic, +method, of dealing with these subjects on transcendental +grounds, frankly confessing that they elude the +grasp of that inductive philosophy which, in the department +of science, has achieved such signal triumphs.</p> + +<p>The opposition of these two methods, and the inapplicability +of the inductive method to theological pursuits +being thus apparent, it is not strange that the +Scotch should have adopted one of the methods with +great zeal, and to the almost complete exclusion of the +other. Scotland, being essentially theological, followed +the theological plan. The intellectual history of +that country, in the seventeenth century, is almost +entirely the history of theology. With the single +exception of Napier, who was born in the middle of +the sixteenth century, all the most vigorous thinkers +were divines. In physical science, scarcely anything +was done.<a name="FNanchor_614_614" id="FNanchor_614_614"></a><a href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> There was no poetry, no drama, no original<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +philosophy, no fine compositions, no secular literature, +now worth reading.<a name="FNanchor_615_615" id="FNanchor_615_615"></a><a href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> The only men of real<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +influence were the clergy. They governed the nation +and the pulpit was the chief engine of their power. +From the pulpit, they moved all classes and all sorts +intellects; the highest as well as the lowest. There, they +instructed them, and threatened them; saying whatever +they liked, and knowing that what they said would +be believed.<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> But all their sermons, and all their controversial +writings, are eminently deductive; not +of them attempts an inductive argument. The +idea of such a thing never entered their heads. They +assumed the truth of their own religion and moral +notions, most of which they had borrowed from +antiquity; they made those notions the major premises +of their syllogisms, and from them they reasoned downwards +till they obtained their conclusions. They never +suspected that premises, taken from ancient times +might be the result of the inductions of those times +and that, as knowledge advanced, the inductions might +need revising. They assumed, that God has given +us first principles, and that He, having revealed them +it would ill become us to scrutinize them. That He +had revealed them, they took for granted, and deemed +it unnecessary to prove.<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a> Their method being +entirely deductive, all they were concerned with was +to beware that no error crept in between the premises +and the conclusions. And this part of their task they +accomplished with great ability. They were acute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +dialecticians, and rarely blundered in what is termed +the formal part of logic. In dealing with their premises +after they obtained them, they were extremely +skilful; how they obtained them, they were very heedless. +That was a point they never examined with +anything approaching to impartiality. According to +their method, all that was requisite was, to draw inferences +from what had been supernaturally communicated. +On the other hand, the inductive method would have +taught them that the first question was, whether or not +they had been supernaturally communicated? They, +as deductive reasoners, assumed the very preliminaries +which inductive reasoners would have disputed. They +proceeded from generals to particulars, instead of from +particulars to generals. And they would not allow +either themselves or others to sift the general propositions, +which were to cover and control the particular +facts. It was enough for them that the wider propositions +were already established, and were to be treated +according to the rules of the old and syllogistic logic. +Indeed, they were so convinced of the impropriety of +the inductive method, that they did not hesitate to +assert, that it was by means of the syllogism that the +Deity communicated His wishes to man.<a name="FNanchor_618_618" id="FNanchor_618_618"></a><a href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a></p> + +<p>It was naturally to be expected, that the clergy, +holding these views respecting the best means of arriving +at truth, should do all in their power to bring +over the nation to their side, and should labour to make +their own method of investigation entirely supersede +the opposite method. Nor was this a very difficult task. +The prevailing credulity was one great point in their +favour, inasmuch as it made men more willing to +accept propositions than to scrutinise them. When the +propositions were accepted, nothing was left but to +reason from them; and the most active intellects in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +Scotland, being constantly engaged in this process, +acquired complete mastery over it, and the dexterity +they displayed increased its repute. Besides this, the +clergy, who were its zealous champions, had monopolized +all the sources of education, both public and +private. In no other Protestant country, have they +exercised such control over the universities; not only +the doctrines taught, but also the mode of teaching +them, being, in Scotland, placed under the supervision +of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_619_619" id="FNanchor_619_619"></a><a href="#Footnote_619_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a> This power they, of course, used to +propagate their own plan of obtaining truth; and, as +long as their power remained undiminished, it was +hardly possible that the opposite, or inductive, plan +should gain a hearing. Over grammar-schools, the +clergy possessed an authority fully equal to that which +they had in the universities.<a name="FNanchor_620_620" id="FNanchor_620_620"></a><a href="#Footnote_620_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> They also appointed and +removed, at their own pleasure, teachers of every grade, +from village schoolmasters to tutors in private families.<a name="FNanchor_621_621" id="FNanchor_621_621"></a><a href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +In this way, each generation, as it arose, was brought +under their influence, and made subject to their notions. +Taking the mind of Scotland while it was young and +flexible, they bent it to their own method. Hence, +that method became supreme; it reigned every where; +not a voice was lifted up against it; and no one had an +idea that there was more than one path by which truth +could be reached, or that the human understanding +was of any use, except to deal deductively with premisses, +which were not to be inductively examined.</p> + +<p>The inductive or analytic spirit being thus unknown, +and the deductive or synthetic spirit being alone +favoured, it happened that, when, early in the eighteenth +century, the circumstances already mentioned gave +rise to a great intellectual movement, that movement, +though new in its results, was not new in the method +by which the results were obtained. A secular philosophy +was, indeed, established, and the ablest men, +instead of being theological, became scientific. But so +completely had the theological plan occupied Scotland, +that even philosophers were unable to escape from its +method, and, as I am about to show, the inductive +method exercised no influence over them. This most +curious fact is the key to the history of Scotland in the +eighteenth century, and explains many events which +would otherwise appear incompatible with each other. +It also suggests an analogy with Germany, where the +deductive method has, for a long period, been equally +prevalent, owing to precisely the same causes. In both +countries, the secular movement of the eighteenth +century was unable to become inductive; and this intellectual +affinity between two such otherwise different +nations, is, I have no doubt, the principal reason why +the Scotch and German philosophies have so remarkably +acted and reacted upon each other; Kant and +Hamilton being the most finished specimens of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +intercourse. To this, England forms a complete contrast. +For more than a hundred and fifty years after +the death of Bacon, the greatest English thinkers, +Newton and Harvey excepted, were eminently inductive; +nor was it until the nineteenth century that +signs were clearly exhibited of a counter-movement, +and an attempt was made to return in some degree to +the deductive method.<a name="FNanchor_622_622" id="FNanchor_622_622"></a><a href="#Footnote_622_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> This we are, in many respects, +justified in doing, because, in the progress of our knowledge, +we have, by a long course of induction, arrived +at several conclusions which we may safely treat deductively; +that is to say, we may make them the +major premisses of new arguments. The same process +has been seen in France, where the exclusively +inductive philosophy of the eighteenth century preceded +a partial resuscitation of deductive philosophy in +the nineteenth century. In Scotland, however, there +have been no such vicissitudes. In that country, men +have always been deductive; even the most original +thinkers being unable to liberate themselves from the +universal tendency, and being forced to accept a method +which time had consecrated, and which was interwoven +with all the associations of the national mind.</p> + +<p>To understand the investigation into which we are +about to enter, the reader must firmly seize, and keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +before his eyes, the essential difference between deduction, +which reasons from principles, and induction, which +reasons to principles. He must remember, that induction +proceeds from the smaller to the greater; deduction, from +the greater to the smaller. Induction is from particulars +to generals, and from the senses to the ideas; deduction +is from generals to particulars, and from the ideas to the +senses. By induction, we rise from the concrete to the +abstract; by deduction, we descend from the abstract to +the concrete. Accompanying this distinction, there are +certain qualities of mind, which, with extremely few +exceptions, characterize the age, nation, or individual, +in which one of these methods is predominant. The +inductive philosopher is naturally cautious, patient, and +somewhat creeping; while the deductive philosopher is +more remarkable for boldness, dexterity, and often rashness. +The deductive thinker invariably assumes certain +premisses, which are quite different from the hypotheses +essential to the best induction. These premisses are sometimes +borrowed from antiquity; sometimes they are taken +from the notions which happen to prevail in the surrounding +society; sometimes they are the result of a +man's own peculiar organization; and sometimes, as we +shall presently see, they are deliberately invented, with +the object of arriving, not at truth, but at an approximation +to truth. Finally, and to sum up the whole, we +may say that a deductive habit, being essentially synthetic, +always tends to multiply original principles or +laws; while the tendency of an inductive habit is to +diminish those laws by gradual and successive analysis.</p> + +<p>These being the two fundamental divisions of human +inquiry, it is surely a most remarkable fact in the history +of Scotland, that, during the eighteenth century, all the +great thinkers belonged to the former division, and that, +in the very few instances of induction which their works +contain, it is evident, from the steps they subsequently +took, that they regarded such inductions as unimportant +in themselves, and as only valuable in so far as they +supplied the premisses for another and deductive investigation. +As the various departments of our knowledge +have never yet been co-ordinated and treated as a whole,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +probably no one is aware of the universality of this +movement in Scotland, and of the extent to which it +pervaded every science, and governed every phase of +thought. To prove, therefore, the force with which it +acted, I now purpose to examine its working in all the +principal forms of speculation, whether physical or moral, +and to show that in each the same method was adopted. +In doing this, I must, for the sake of clearness, proceed +according to a natural arrangement of the different +topics; but I will, whenever it is possible, also follow +the chronological order in which the Scotch mind unfolded +itself; so that we may understand, not only the +character of that remarkable literature, but likewise the +steps of its growth, and the astonishing vigour with +which it emancipated itself from the shackles which +superstition had imposed.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the great secular philosophy of +Scotland is undoubtedly due to Francis Hutcheson.<a name="FNanchor_623_623" id="FNanchor_623_623"></a><a href="#Footnote_623_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> +This eminent man, though born in Ireland, was of +Scotch family, and was educated in the University of +Glasgow, where he received the appointment of Professor +of Philosophy in the year 1729.<a name="FNanchor_624_624" id="FNanchor_624_624"></a><a href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> By his lectures, +and by his works, he diffused a taste for bold inquiries +into subjects of the deepest importance, but concerning +which it had previously been supposed nothing fresh was +to be learned; the Scotch having hitherto been taught, +that all truths respecting our own nature, which were +essential to be known, had been already revealed. Hutcheson, +however, did not fear to construct a system of +morals according to a plan entirely secular, and no example +of which had been exhibited in Scotland before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +his time. The principles from which he started, were +not theological, but metaphysical. They were collected +from what he deemed the natural constitution of the +mind, instead of being collected, as heretofore, from what +had been supernaturally communicated. He, therefore, +shifted the field of study. Though he was a firm believer +in revelation, he held that the best rules of conduct +could be ascertained without its assistance, and could be +arrived at by the unaided wit of man; and that, when +arrived at, they were, in their aggregate, to be respected +as the Law of Nature.<a name="FNanchor_625_625" id="FNanchor_625_625"></a><a href="#Footnote_625_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> This confidence in the power +of the human understanding was altogether new in Scotland, +and its appearance forms an epoch in the national +literature. Previously, men had been taught that the +understanding was a rash and foolish thing, which ought +to be repressed, and which was unfit to cope with the +problems presented to it.<a name="FNanchor_626_626" id="FNanchor_626_626"></a><a href="#Footnote_626_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> Hutcheson, however, held +that it was quite able to deal with them, but that, to do +so, it must be free and unfettered. Hence, he strenuously +advocated that right of private judgment which +the Scotch Kirk had not only assailed, but had almost +destroyed. He insisted that each person had a right to +form his opinion according to the evidence he possessed, +and that, this right being inalienable, none but weak +minds would abstain from exercising it.<a name="FNanchor_627_627" id="FNanchor_627_627"></a><a href="#Footnote_627_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a> Every one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +was to judge according to his own light, and nothing +could be gained by inducing men to profess sentiments +contrary to their convictions.<a name="FNanchor_628_628" id="FNanchor_628_628"></a><a href="#Footnote_628_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> So far, however, was +this from being understood, that we found all the little +sects quarrelling among themselves, and abusing each +other, merely because their views were different. It was +strange to hear how the professors of one creed would +stigmatize the professors of other creeds as idolatrous, +and would demand that penalties should be inflicted on +them. In point of fact, all had much that was good; +and their only real evil was, this love of persecution.<a name="FNanchor_629_629" id="FNanchor_629_629"></a><a href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> +But the vulgar deemed every one a heretic who did not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +believe what they believed; and this way of thinking +had been too much countenanced by the clergy, many of +whom felt their vanity offended at the idea of laymen +pretending to be wiser than their spiritual teachers, and +venturing to disagree with what they said.<a name="FNanchor_630_630" id="FNanchor_630_630"></a><a href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a></p> + +<p>Such large views of liberty were far in advance of +the country in which they were propounded, and could +exercise no influence, except over a few thinking men. +These, and similar doctrines, were, however, repeated by +Hutcheson, in his lectures, every year.<a name="FNanchor_631_631" id="FNanchor_631_631"></a><a href="#Footnote_631_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a> And strange, +indeed, they must have seemed. To those who received +them, they were utterly subversive of the prevailing +theological spirit, which regarded toleration as impious, +and which, seeking to confine the human mind within +the limits of foregone conclusions, deemed it a duty to +chastise those who overstepped them. In opposition to +this, Hutcheson let in the elements of inquiry, of discussion, +and of doubt. There is also another point in which +his philosophy is memorable, as the beginning of the +great rebellion of the Scotch intellect. We saw, in the +last chapter, how successfully the teachers of the people +had inculcated doctrines of the darkest asceticism, and +how naturally those doctrines had arisen out of the enormous +authority possessed by the Church. Against such +notions, Hutcheson set his face strenuously. He rightly +supposed, that an admiration of every kind of beauty, +so far from being sinful, is essential to a complete and +well-balanced mind; and the most original part of his +philosophy consists of the inquiries which he made into +the working and origin of our ideas on that subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +Hitherto, the Scotch had been taught that the emotions +which beauty excites, were owing to the corruption of +our nature, and ought to be repressed. Hutcheson, on the +other hand, insisted that they were good in themselves; +that they were part of the general scheme of human +affairs, and that they deserved a special and scientific +study.<a name="FNanchor_632_632" id="FNanchor_632_632"></a><a href="#Footnote_632_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> And with such skill did he investigate them, +that, in the opinion of one of the highest living authorities, +he is the originator of all subsequent inquiries into +these matters; his being the first attempt to deal with +the subject of beauty in a broad and comprehensive +spirit.<a name="FNanchor_633_633" id="FNanchor_633_633"></a><a href="#Footnote_633_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></p> + +<p>Not only in speculative views, but also in practical +recommendations, Hutcheson displayed the same tendency; +every where endeavouring to break down that +gloomy fabric which superstition had built up.<a name="FNanchor_634_634" id="FNanchor_634_634"></a><a href="#Footnote_634_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> His<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +predecessors, and, indeed, nearly all his contemporaries +who exercised much influence, represented pleasure as +immoral, and opposed themselves to the fine arts, which +they considered dangerous, as ministering to our pleasures, +and thereby distracting our minds from serious +concerns. Hutcheson, however, declared that the fine +arts were to be cherished; for, he said, they are not only +agreeable, but also reputable, and to employ our time +with them is honourable.<a name="FNanchor_635_635" id="FNanchor_635_635"></a><a href="#Footnote_635_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> That such is the case is +obvious enough to us, but it was long, indeed, since +similar language had been heard in Scotland from a great +public teacher, and it was completely opposed to the +prevailing notions. But Hutcheson went even further. +Not content with raising his voice in favour of wealth,<a name="FNanchor_636_636" id="FNanchor_636_636"></a><a href="#Footnote_636_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> +which the Scotch clergy stigmatized as one of the most +pernicious and carnal of all things, he fearlessly asserted +that all our natural appetites are lawful, and that the +gratification of them is consistent with the highest +virtue.<a name="FNanchor_637_637" id="FNanchor_637_637"></a><a href="#Footnote_637_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> In his eyes, they were lawful, because they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +were natural; while, according to the theological theory, +their being natural made them unlawful. And here lies +the fundamental difference between the practical views +of Hutcheson and those previously received. He, like +every great thinker since the seventeenth century, loved +human nature, and respected it; but he neither loved nor +respected those who unduly trammelled it, and thereby +weakened its vigour, as well as impaired its beauty. He +placed more confidence in mankind, than in the rulers of +mankind. The Scotch divines, who preceded him, were +the libellers of their species; they calumniated the whole +human race. According to them, there was nothing in +us but sin and corruption; and, therefore, all our desires +were to be checked. It is the peculiar glory of Hutcheson, +that he was the first man in Scotland who publicly +combated these degrading notions. With a noble and +lofty aim did he undertake his task. Venerating the +human mind, he was bent on vindicating its dignity +against those who disputed its titles. Unhappily, he +could not succeed; the prejudices of his time were +too strong. Still, he did all that was in his power. +He opposed the tide which he was unable to stem; he +attacked what it was impossible to destroy; and he cast +from his philosophy, with vehement scorn, those base +prejudices, which, by aspersing all that is great and +magnanimous, had long blinded the eyes of their contemporaries, +and, by bringing into fresh prominence the +old and mischievous dogma of moral degeneracy, had +represented our nature as a compound of vices, and had +been unable to see how many virtues we really possess, +how much of the spirit of self-sacrifice, and of free disinterested +benevolence has always existed; how much of +good even the worst of us retain; and how, among the +ordinary and average characters of whom the world is +composed, the desire of benefiting others is more frequent +than the desire of hurting them, kindness is more +common than cruelty, and the number of good deeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +does, on the whole, far outweigh the number of bad +ones.<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a></p> + +<p>Thus much as to the tendency of Hutcheson's philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_639_639" id="FNanchor_639_639"></a><a href="#Footnote_639_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a> +We have now to ascertain his method, that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +to say, the plan which he adopted in order to obtain his +results. This is a very important part of our present +inquiry; and we shall find that, in the study of moral +philosophy, as in the study of all subjects not yet raised +to sciences, there are not only two methods, but that each +method leads to different consequences. If we proceed +by induction, we arrive at one conclusion; if we proceed +by deduction, we arrive at another. This difference in +the results, is always a proof that the subject, in which +the difference exists, is not yet capable of scientific treatment, +and that some preliminary difficulties have to be +removed, before it can pass from the empirical stage +into the scientific one. As soon as those difficulties are +got rid of, the results obtained by induction, will correspond +with those obtained by deduction; supposing, of +course, that both lines of argument are fairly managed. +In such case, it will be of no importance whether we +reason from particulars to generals, or from generals to +particulars. Either plan will yield the same consequences, +and this agreement between the consequences, proves +that our investigation is, properly speaking, scientific. +Thus, for instance, in chemistry, if, by reasoning deductively +from general principles, we could always predict +what would happen when we united two or more elements, +even supposing those elements were new to us; +and if, by reasoning inductively from each element, we +could arrive at the same conclusion, one process would +corroborate the other, and, by their mutual verification, +the science would be complete. In chemistry, we cannot +do this; therefore, chemistry is not yet a science, +although, since the introduction into it, by Dalton, of the +ideas of weight and number, there is every prospect of +its becoming one. On the other hand, astronomy is a +science, because, by employing the deductive weapon of +mathematics, we can compute the motions and perturbations +of bodies; and, by employing the inductive weapon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +of observation, the telescope reveals to us the accuracy +of our previous, and, as it were, foregone, inferences. +The fact agrees with the idea; the particular event confirms +the general principle; the principle explains the +event; and their unanimity authorizes us to believe that +we must be right, since, proceed as we may, the conclusion +is the same; and the inductive plan, of striking +averages, harmonizes with the deductive plan, of +reasoning from ideas.</p> + +<p>But, in the study of morals there is no such harmony. +Partly from the force of prejudice, and partly from the +complexity of the subject, all attempts at a scientific +investigation of morals have failed. It is not, therefore, +surprising that, in this field, the inductive inquirer arrives +at one conclusion, and the deductive inquirer at +another. The inductive inquirer endeavours to attain his +object by observing the actions of men, and subjecting +them to analysis, in order to learn the principles which +regulate them. The deductive inquirer, beginning at +the other end, assumes certain principles as original, +and reasons from them to the facts which actually appear +in the world. The former proceeds from the concrete to +the abstract; the latter, from the abstract to the concrete. +The inductive moralist looks at the history of +past society, or at the condition of the present, and takes +for granted that the first step is, to assemble the facts, +and then to generalize them. The deductive inquirer, +using the facts rather to illustrate his principles, than to +suggest them, appeals, in the first place, not to external +facts, but to internal ideas, and he makes those ideas the +major premiss of a syllogistic argument. Both parties +agree, that we have the power of judging some actions +to be right, and others to be wrong. But as to how we +get that power, and as to what that power is, they are +at utter variance. The inductive philosopher says, that +its object is happiness, that we get it by association, and +that it is due to the action and reaction of social causes, +which are susceptible of analysis. The deductive philosopher +says, that this power of distinguishing between +right and wrong, aims, not at happiness, but at truth; +that it is inherent, that it cannot be analyzed, that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +a primary conviction, and that we may assume it and +reason from it, but can never hope to explain it by +reasoning to it.</p> + +<p>It requires but a slight acquaintance with the works +of Hutcheson to see that he belongs to the latter of these +two schools. He assumes, that all men have what he +terms a moral faculty, which, being an original principle, +does not admit of analysis.<a name="FNanchor_640_640" id="FNanchor_640_640"></a><a href="#Footnote_640_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> He further assumes, that +the business of this faculty is to regulate all our powers.<a name="FNanchor_641_641" id="FNanchor_641_641"></a><a href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> +From these two assumptions, he reasons downwards to +the visible facts of our conduct, and deductively constructs +the general scheme of life. His plan being entirely synthetic, +he depreciates the analytic method, and complains +of it as an artful attempt to diminish the number of our +perceptive powers.<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> The truth is, that every such +diminution would have taken away some of his original +principles, and would thereby have prevented him from +using them as the major premisses of separate arguments. +And if you deprive a deductive reasoner of his major +premisses, you leave him nothing on which to stand. +Hutcheson, therefore, like all the philosophers of his +school, was extremely jealous of the invasions of the inductive +spirit, with its constant tendency to attack convictions +supposed to be primary, and seek to resolve +them into their elements. He repulsed such encroachments +upon his major premisses, because the power and +beauty of his method were displayed in reasoning from +the premisses, and not in reasoning to them. According +to him, the moral faculty, and the authority which it +exercised, were impervious to analysis; it was impossible +to track them higher, or to resolve them into simpler +constituents; and it was in vain that many attempted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +to refer them to circumstances external to themselves, +such as education, custom, or the association of ideas.<a name="FNanchor_643_643" id="FNanchor_643_643"></a><a href="#Footnote_643_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a></p> + +<p>Hence, the judgments which men pass upon the +conduct of others, or of themselves, are, in their origin, +altogether inexplicable; each judgment being merely a +different form of one great moral faculty. Inasmuch, +however, as that faculty escapes observation, and is only +known by its results, it is evident that, for all purposes +of reasoning, the judgments must be deemed primary, +and arguments are to be constructed from them, as if +they were the ultimate and highest conditions of our +nature. In this way, Hutcheson was led to that love of +multiplying original principles, which Sir James Mackintosh +has justly noticed as a characteristic of his +philosophy, and, after him, of the Scotch philosophy in +general;<a name="FNanchor_644_644" id="FNanchor_644_644"></a><a href="#Footnote_644_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> though the distinguished author of this +remark has failed to perceive that such characteristic +was but a single part of a far larger scheme, and was +intimately connected with those habits of deductive +thought which a long train of preceding circumstances +had indelibly imprinted on the Scotch mind.</p> + +<p>In Hutcheson, the tendency was so strong, as to make +him believe, that, by arguing from a certain number of +original principles, he could construct the theory and +explain the march of human affairs, with little or no +aid from the experience of the past, or, indeed, of the +present. His views, for instance, respecting the nature +and objects of legislation, criminal, as well as civil, might +have been written by a recluse who had never quitted +his hermitage, and whose purity was still unsoiled by +the realities of the world. Starting from the so-called +nature of things, his first steps were ideal, and from them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> +he sought to advance to the actual. In his account of +the duties of life, as they existed before the power of +government was consolidated, he quotes no evidence to +show what really happened among barbarous tribes who +were in that state; but he contents himself with deductive +inferences from the principles he had previously +laid down.<a name="FNanchor_645_645" id="FNanchor_645_645"></a><a href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> Difficult questions relating to the laws of +property, are treated in the same manner; that is to say, +the conclusions respecting them are arrived at on speculative +grounds, and not by comparing how the different +enactments have worked in different countries.<a name="FNanchor_646_646" id="FNanchor_646_646"></a><a href="#Footnote_646_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a> Experience +is either shut out, or made subordinate to +theory; and facts are adduced to illustrate the inference, +but not to suggest it. So, too, the proper relation between +the people and their rulers, and the amount of +liberty which the people should possess, instead of being +inductively generalized from an historical inquiry into +the circumstances which had produced most happiness, +might, in the opinion of Hutcheson, be ascertained by +reasoning from the nature of government, and from the +ends for which it was instituted.<a name="FNanchor_647_647" id="FNanchor_647_647"></a><a href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a></p> + +<p>The next great attempt to study the actions of men +scientifically, and to generalize the principles of their +conduct without the intervention of supernatural ideas, +was made by Adam Smith, who, in 1759, published his +<i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, and, in 1776, his <i>Wealth +of Nations</i>. To understand the philosophy of this, by +far the greatest of all the Scotch thinkers, both works +must be taken together, and considered as one; since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +they are, in reality, the two divisions of a single subject. +In the <i>Moral Sentiments</i>, he investigates the sympathetic +part of human nature; in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, +he investigates its selfish part. And as all of us are +sympathetic as well as selfish; in other words, as all of +us look without as well as within, and as this classification +is a primary and exhaustive division of our motives +to action, it is evident, that if Adam Smith had completely +accomplished his vast design, he would at once +have raised the study of human nature to a science, +leaving nothing for subsequent inquirers except to ascertain +the minor springs of affairs, all of which would +find their place in this general scheme, and be deemed +subordinate to it. In his attempt to perform this prodigious +task, and to traverse the enormous field which +he saw lying before him, he soon perceived that an inductive +investigation was impossible, because it would +require the labour of many lives even to assemble the +materials from which the generalization was to be made. +Moved by this reflection, and, probably, moved still +more by the intellectual habits which prevailed around +him, he resolved on adopting the deductive method instead +of the inductive; but, in seeking for the premisses +from which he was to reason, and on which his structure +was to be built, he resorted to a peculiar artifice, +which is perfectly valid, and which he had an undoubted +right to employ, though, to make it available, requires +such delicate tact, and involves so many refinements, +that extremely few writers have used it with effect on +social questions either before or since.</p> + +<p>The plan to which I allude is, that when any subject +becomes unmanageable by the inductive method, whether +from the impossibility of experimenting upon it, or +from its extreme natural complexity, or from the presence +of immense and bewildering details collected +around it, we may, in all such cases, make an imaginary +separation of inseparable facts; and reason upon trains +of events which have no real and independent existence, +and which are nowhere to be found except in the mind +of the inquirer. A result obtained in this way, cannot +be strictly true; but, if we have reasoned accurately, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +will be as near truth as were the premisses from which +we started. To make it perfectly true, we must confront +it with other results, which we have arrived at +in a similar way, and from the same subject. These +separate inferences may eventually be coördinated into +a single system; so that, while each inference contains +only an imperfect truth, the whole of the inferences, +when put together, will contain perfect truth.</p> + +<p>Such hypothetical arguments are evidently based +upon an intentional suppression of facts; and the artifice +is necessary, because, without the suppression, the +facts would be unmanageable. Each argument leads +to a conclusion which approximates to truth; hence, +whenever the premisses are so comprehensive as almost +to exhaust the facts to which they refer, the conclusion +will be so near to complete truth as to be of +the greatest value, even before it is coördinated with +other conclusions drawn from the same department of +inquiry.</p> + +<p>Geometry exhibits the most perfect example of this +logical stratagem. The object of the geometrician is, +to generalize the laws of space; in other words, to ascertain +the necessary and universal relations of its various +parts. Inasmuch, however, as space would have no +parts unless it were divided, the geometrician is forced +to assume such a division; and he takes the simplest +possible form of it, a division by lines. Now, a line +considered as a fact, that is, as it is found in the actual +world, must always have two qualities, length and +breadth. However slight these qualities may be, every +line has them both. But if the geometrician took both +into consideration, he would find himself in the presence +of a problem too complicated for the resources of the +human understanding to deal with; or, at all events, +too complicated for the present resources of our knowledge. +He, therefore, by a scientific artifice, deliberately +strikes off one of these qualities, and asserts that +a line is length without breadth. He knows that the +assertion is false, but he also knows that it is necessary. +For, if you deny it, he can prove nothing. If you +insist upon his letting into his premisses the idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +breadth, he is unable to proceed, and the whole fabric +of geometry falls to the ground. Since, however, the +breadth of the faintest line is so slight as to be incapable +of measurement, except by an instrument used under +the microscope, it follows that the assumption, that +there can be lines without breadth, is so nearly true, +that our senses, when unassisted by art, cannot detect +the error. Formerly, and until the invention of the +micrometer, in the seventeenth century, it was impossible +to detect it at all. Hence, the conclusions of the +geometrician approximate so close to truth, that we are +justified in accepting them as true. The flaw is too +minute to be perceived. But that there is a flaw, appears +to me certain. It appears certain, that whenever +something is kept back in the premisses, something +must be wanting in the conclusion. In all such cases, +the field of inquiry has not been entirely covered; and +part of the preliminary facts being suppressed, it must, +I think, be admitted, that complete truth is unattainable, +and that no problem in geometry has yet been +exhaustively solved.<a name="FNanchor_648_648" id="FNanchor_648_648"></a><a href="#Footnote_648_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a></p> + +<p>Still, the amazing triumphs effected in this branch of +mathematics, show how powerful a weapon that form +of deduction is, which proceeds by an artificial separation +of facts, in themselves inseparable. So little, however, +is the philosophy of the method understood, that +when, late in the eighteenth century, political economy +assumed a scientific form, many persons, who were +otherwise well instructed, reproached its cultivators +with their hard-heartedness; such objectors being unable +to see, that the science could not be constructed if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +it were necessary to take in the whole range of generous +and benevolent affections. The political economist aims +at discovering the laws of wealth, which are far too +complicated to be studied under every aspect. He, +therefore, selects one of those aspects, and generalizes +the laws as they are exhibited in the selfish parts of +human nature. And he is right in doing so, simply +because men, in the pursuit of wealth, consider their +own gratification oftener than the gratification of others. +Hence, he, like the geometrician, blots out one part of +his premisses, in order that he may manipulate the +remaining part with greater ease. But we must always +remember, that political economy, though a profound +and beautiful science, is only a science of one department +of life, and is founded upon a suppression of some +of the facts in which all large societies abound. It +suppresses, or, what comes to the same thing, it ignores, +many high and magnanimous feelings which we could +ill afford to lose. We are not, therefore, to allow its +conclusions to override all other conclusions. We may +accept them in science, and yet reject them in practice. +Thus, the political economist, when confining himself to +his own department, says, with good reason, that it is +both absurd and mischievous for government to undertake +to supply the working-classes with employment. +This assertion, he, as a political economist, can prove; +and yet, notwithstanding its scientific truth, it may +be practically right for a government to do the exact +opposite. It may be right for a government to supply +the employment, when the people are so ignorant as to +demand it, and when, at the same time, they are so +powerful as to plunge the country into anarchy if the +demand is refused. Here, the view of the politician +takes in all the premisses of which the political economist +had only taken in a portion. In the same way, as +a matter of economic science, it is wrong for any one to +relieve the poor; since nothing is better established, +than that to relieve poverty increases it, by encouraging +improvidence. But, in spite of this, the antagonistic +principle of sympathy will come into play, and will, in +some minds, operate with such force, as to make it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +advisable, that he who feels it should give alms, because, +if he abstains from giving them, the violence which he +does to his own nature may inflict more mischief on +himself, than his bestowal of charity would inflict on +the general interests of society.</p> + +<p>It will not, I hope, be considered that, in these remarks, +I have digressed from the main argument of the +present chapter, since, although, in making them, I have +aimed at clearing up a general question respecting the +nature of scientific proof, I have only done so with the +more particular object of illustrating the philosophy of +Adam Smith, and of explaining the method which that +most profound and original thinker pursued. We shall +now be able to see how entirely his plan was deductive, +and what a peculiar form of deduction it was. In his +two great works, he first lays down certain ideas, and +from them he marches on to the facts of the external +world. And, in each work, he reasons from only +part of his premisses; supplying the other part in the +other work. None of us are exclusively selfish, and +none of us are exclusively sympathetic. But Adam +Smith separates in speculation qualities which are inseparable +in reality. In his <i>Moral Sentiments</i>, he ascribes +our actions to sympathy; in his <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, he +ascribes them to selfishness. A short view of these two +works will prove the existence of this fundamental difference, +and will enable us to perceive that each is supplementary +to the other; so that, in order to understand +either, it is necessary to study both.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, Adam Smith lays +down one great principle from which he reasons, and +to which all the others are subordinate. This principle +is, that the rules which we prescribe to ourselves, and +which govern our conduct, are solely arrived at by +observing the conduct of others.<a name="FNanchor_649_649" id="FNanchor_649_649"></a><a href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> We judge ourselves,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +because we had previously judged them. Our notions +are obtained from without, and not from within. If, +therefore, we lived entirely alone, we could have no idea +of merit or demerit, and it would be impossible for us +to form an opinion as to whether our sentiments were +right or wrong.<a name="FNanchor_650_650" id="FNanchor_650_650"></a><a href="#Footnote_650_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> To acquire this knowledge, we must +look abroad. Inasmuch, however, as we have no direct +experience of what other persons actually feel, we can +only gain the information by conceiving what we should +feel if we were in their place.<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id="FNanchor_651_651"></a><a href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> Hence, all men are, +in imagination, constantly changing situations with +others; and though the change is ideal, and lasts but +for a moment, it is the foundation of that great and +universal impulse which is called Sympathy.<a name="FNanchor_652_652" id="FNanchor_652_652"></a><a href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a></p> + +<p>By proceeding from these premisses, a vast number +of social phenomena may be explained. We naturally +sympathize with joy more than with sorrow.<a name="FNanchor_653_653" id="FNanchor_653_653"></a><a href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> Hence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +that admiration for prosperous and successful persons, +which is quite independent of any benefit we expect +from them; and hence, too, the existence of different +ranks and of social distinctions, all of which emanate +from the same source.<a name="FNanchor_654_654" id="FNanchor_654_654"></a><a href="#Footnote_654_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> Hence, also, the feeling of +loyalty, which is a product, not of reason, nor of fear, +nor of a sense of public convenience, but rather of sympathy +with those above us, begetting an extraordinary +compassion for even their ordinary sufferings.<a name="FNanchor_655_655" id="FNanchor_655_655"></a><a href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a> Custom +and fashion play a great part in the world, but they +owe their origin entirely to sympathy;<a name="FNanchor_656_656" id="FNanchor_656_656"></a><a href="#Footnote_656_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> and so do the +various systems of philosophy which have flourished at +different times, the disagreement between which depends +on the fact, that each philosopher has sympathized with +different ideas, some sympathizing with the notion of +fitness or congruity, some with that of prudence, some +with that of benevolence, and every one developing the +conception paramount in his own mind.<a name="FNanchor_657_657" id="FNanchor_657_657"></a><a href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> To sympathy, +again, we must ascribe the establishment of +rewards and punishments, and the whole of our criminal +laws, none of which would have existed but for our disposition +to sympathize with those who either do good +or suffer harm; for the circumstance of society being +protected by penal laws, is a subsequent and subordinate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> +discovery, which confirms our sense of their propriety, +but did not suggest it.<a name="FNanchor_658_658" id="FNanchor_658_658"></a><a href="#Footnote_658_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> The same principle causes +the difference of character exhibited by different classes, +such as the irritability of poets, compared with the +coolness of mathematicians;<a name="FNanchor_659_659" id="FNanchor_659_659"></a><a href="#Footnote_659_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> it likewise causes that +social difference between the sexes, which makes men +more remarkable for generosity, and women for humanity.<a name="FNanchor_660_660" id="FNanchor_660_660"></a><a href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> +All these results illustrate the workings of +sympathy, and are the remote, but still the direct, +operations of that principle. Indeed, we can trace to it +some of the minutest divisions of character; pride and +vanity, for instance, being dependent on it, although +those two passions are often confused together, and are +sometimes strangely blended in the same mind.<a name="FNanchor_661_661" id="FNanchor_661_661"></a><a href="#Footnote_661_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a></p> + +<p>Sympathy, then, is the main-spring of human conduct. +It arises, not so much from witnessing the passions +of other persons, as from witnessing the situation +which excites those passions.<a name="FNanchor_662_662" id="FNanchor_662_662"></a><a href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> To this single process +we are indebted, not only for the highest principles, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +also for the deepest emotions. For, the greatest affection +of which we are capable, is merely sympathy fixed +into habit; and the love which exists between the nearest +relations, is not inherent, but is derived from this +mighty and controlling principle, which governs the +whole course of affairs.<a name="FNanchor_663_663" id="FNanchor_663_663"></a><a href="#Footnote_663_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a></p> + +<p>By this bold hypothesis, Adam Smith, at one stroke, +so narrowed the field of inquiry, as to exclude from it +all considerations of selfishness as a primary principle, +and only to admit its great antagonist, sympathy. The +existence of the antagonism, he distinctly recognizes. +For, he will not allow that sympathy is in any way to +be deemed a selfish principle.<a name="FNanchor_664_664" id="FNanchor_664_664"></a><a href="#Footnote_664_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a> Although he knew that +it is pleasurable, and that all pleasure contains an element +of selfishness, it did not suit the method of his +philosophy to subject the principle of sympathy to such +an inductive analysis as would reveal its elements. His +business was, to reason from it, and not to it. Concentrating +his energy upon the deductive process, and +displaying that dialectic skill which is natural to his +countrymen, and of which he himself was one of the +most consummate masters the world has ever seen, he +constructed a system of philosophy, imperfect indeed, +because the premisses were imperfect, but approaching +truth as closely as it was possible for any one to do who +abstained from giving due consideration to the selfish +part of human nature. Into the workings of its sympathetic +part, he looked with a minuteness, and he +reasoned from it with a subtlety, which make his work +the most important that has ever been written on this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +interesting subject. But, inasmuch as his plan involved +a deliberate suppression of preliminary and essential +facts, the results which he obtained do not strictly correspond +to those which are actually observed in the +world.<a name="FNanchor_665_665" id="FNanchor_665_665"></a><a href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a> This, however, as I have shown, is not a valid +objection; since such discrepancy between the ideal and +the actual, or between the abstract and the concrete, is +the necessary consequence of that still early condition +of our knowledge, which forces us to study complicated +questions piecemeal, and to raise them to sciences by +separate and fragmentary investigations.</p> + +<p>That Adam Smith saw this necessity, and that his +seeing it was the cause of the method he pursued, is +evident from the fact, that in his next great work he +followed the same plan, and, though he argued from +new premisses, he carefully avoided arguing from any +of the old ones. Convinced that, in his theory of morals, +he had reasoned as accurately as possible from the +principles supplied by sympathy, his capacious and +insatiable mind, deeming that nothing had been done +while aught remained to do, urged him to pass on to +the opposite passion of selfishness, and treat it in the +same manner, so that the whole domain of thought +might be covered. This he did in his <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, +which, though even a greater work than his <i>Moral +Sentiments</i>, is equally one-sided, in reference to the +principles which it assumes. It assumes that selfishness +is the main regulator of human affairs, just as his previous +work had assumed sympathy to be so. Between +the two works there elapsed an interval of seventeen +years; the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> not being published till +1776. But what shows that to their author both were +part of a single scheme, is the notable circumstance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +that, so early as 1753, he had laid down the principles +which his later work contains.<a name="FNanchor_666_666" id="FNanchor_666_666"></a><a href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> This was while his +former work was still in meditation, and before it had +seen the light. It is, therefore, clear, that the study +which he made, first of one passion, and then of its opposite, +was not a capricious or accidental arrangement, +but was the consequence of that vast idea which presided +over all his labours, and which, when they are rightly +understood, gives to them a magnificent unity. And a +glorious object of ambition it was. His aspiring and +comprehensive genius, sweeping the distant horizon, and +taking in the intermediate space at a glance, sought to +traverse the whole ground in two separate and independent +directions, indulging the hope, that, by supplying +in one line of argument the premisses which were +wanting in the other, their opposite conclusions would +be compensatory rather than hostile, and would serve +as a broad and permanent basis on which one great +science of human nature might be safely built.</p> + +<p>The <i>Wealth of Nations</i> is, as I have elsewhere observed,<a name="FNanchor_667_667" id="FNanchor_667_667"></a><a href="#Footnote_667_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> +probably the most important book which has +ever been written, whether we consider the amount of +original thought which it contains, or its practical influence. +Its practical recommendations were extremely +favourable to those doctrines of freedom which the +eighteenth century ushered in; and this secured to +them an attention which otherwise they would not have +received. While, therefore, the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> was +the proximate cause of a great change in legislation,<a name="FNanchor_668_668" id="FNanchor_668_668"></a><a href="#Footnote_668_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> +a deeper analysis will show, that the success of the book, +and, consequently, the alteration of the laws, depended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +upon the operation of more remote and general causes. +It must also be confessed, that those same causes predisposed +the mind of Adam Smith to the doctrines of +liberty, and gave him a sort of prejudice in favour of +conclusions which limited the interference of the legislator. +Thus much he borrowed from his age; but one +thing he did not borrow. His wide and organizing +mind was all his own. This would have made him great +under any circumstances; to make him powerful, required +a peculiar conjunction of events. That conjunction +he enjoyed, and he turned it to good account. The +influence of his contemporaries was enough to make +him liberal; his own capacity was enough to make him +comprehensive. He had, in a most remarkable degree, +that exuberance of thought, which is one of the highest +forms of genius, but which leads those who possess it +into distant excursions, which, though they have one +common aim, are often stigmatized as digressions, simply +because they who criticize are unable to discern the +great principle which pervades the whole, and unites +the various parts into a single scheme. This has been +especially the case with Adam Smith, whose immortal +work has often been exposed to such shallow objections. +And certainly, the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> displays a breadth +of treatment which those who cannot sympathize with, +are very likely to ridicule. The phenomena, not only +of wealth, but also of society in general, classified and +arranged under their various forms; the origin of the +division of labour, and the consequences which that +division has produced; the circumstances which gave +rise to the invention of money, and to the subsequent +changes in its value; the history of those changes traced +in different ages, and the history of the relations which +the precious metals bear to each other; an examination +of the connection between wages and profits, and of the +laws which govern the rise and fall of both; another +examination of the way in which these are concerned, +on the one hand, with the rent of land, and, on the +other hand, with the price of commodities; an inquiry +into the reason why profits vary in different trades, and +at different times; a succinct, but comprehensive, view<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> +of the progress of towns in Europe since the fall of the +Roman Empire; the fluctuations, during several centuries, +in the prices of the food of the people, and a +statement of how it is, that, in different stages of society, +the relative cost of land and of meat varies; the history +of corporation laws and of municipal enactments, and +their bearing on the four great classes of apprentices, +manufacturers, merchants, and landlords; an account +of the immense power and riches formerly enjoyed by +the clergy, and of the manner in which, as society advances, +they gradually lose their exclusive privileges; +the nature of religious dissent, and the reason why the +clergy of the established Church can never contend +with it on terms of equality, and, therefore, call on the +State to help them, and wish to persecute when they +cannot persuade; why some sects profess more ascetic +principles, and others more luxurious ones; how it was, +that, during the feudal times, the nobles acquired their +power, and how that power has, ever since, been gradually +diminishing; how the rights of territorial jurisdiction +originated, and how they died away; how the +sovereigns of Europe obtained their revenue, what the +sources of it are, and what classes are most heavily taxed +in order to supply it; the cause of certain virtues, such +as hospitality, flourishing in barbarous ages, and decaying +in civilized ones; the influence of inventions and +discoveries in altering the distribution of power among +the various classes of society; a bold and masterly sketch +of the peculiar sort of advantages which Europe derived +from the discovery of America and of the passage round +the Cape; the origin of universities, their degeneracy +from their original plan, the corruption which has gradually +crept over them, and the reason why they are so +unwilling to adopt improvements, and to keep pace with +the wants of the age; a comparison between public and +private education, and an estimate of their relative advantages;—these, +and a vast number of other subjects, +respecting the structure and development of society, +such as the feudal system, slavery, emancipation of serfs, +origin of standing armies, and of mercenary troops, effects +produced by tithes, laws of primogeniture, sumptuary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> +laws, international treaties concerning trade, rise of +European banks, national debts, influence of dramatic +representations over opinions, influence of foreign travels +over opinions, colonies, poor-laws,—all topics of a miscellaneous +character, and many of them diverging from +each other,—all are fused into one great system, and +irradiated by the splendour of one great genius. Into +that dense and disorderly mass, did Adam Smith introduce +symmetry, method, and law. At his touch, anarchy +disappeared, and darkness was succeeded by light. +Much, of course, he took from his predecessors, though +nothing like so much as is commonly supposed. On +this sort of borrowing, the best and strongest of us are +dependent. But, after making every possible allowance +for what he gathered from others, we must honestly say, +that no single man ever took so great a step upon so +important a subject, and that no single work which is +now preserved, contains so many views, which were +novel at the time, but which subsequent experience has +ratified. What, however, for our present purpose, is +most important to observe, is, that he obtained these +results by arguing from principles which the selfish part +of human nature exclusively supplied, and that he +omitted those sympathetic feelings of which every human +being possesses at least some share, but which he could +not take into consideration, without producing a problem, +the number of whose complications it would have +been hopeless to unravel.</p> + +<p>To avoid, therefore, being baffled, he simplified the +problem, by erasing from his view of human nature those +premisses which he had already handled in his <i>Theory +of Moral Sentiments</i>. At the beginning of the <i>Wealth of +Nations</i>, he lays down two propositions: 1st, that all +wealth is derived, not from land, but from labour; and +2d, that the amount of the wealth depends, partly on the +skill with which the labour is conducted, and partly on +the proportion between the number of those who labour +and the number of those who do not labour. The rest +of the work, is an application of these principles, to explain +the growth and mechanism of society. In applying +them, he everywhere assumes, that the great moving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> +power of all men, all interests, and all classes, in all +ages, and in all countries, is selfishness. The opposite +power of sympathy he entirely shuts out; and I hardly +remember an instance in which even the word occurs +in the whole course of his work. Its fundamental assumption +is, that each man exclusively follows his own +interest, or what he deems to be his own interest. And +one of the peculiar features of his book is, to show that, +considering society as a whole, it nearly always happens +that men, in promoting their own interest, will unintentionally +promote the interest of others. Hence, the +great practical lesson is, not to restrain selfishness, but +to enlighten it; because there is a provision in the +nature of things, by which the selfishness of the individual +accelerates the progress of the community. According +to this view, the prosperity of a country depends +on the amount of its capital; the amount of its capital +depends on the habit of saving, that is, on parsimony, +as opposed to generosity; while the habit of saving is, +in its turn, governed by the desire we all feel of bettering +our condition,—a desire so inherent in our nature, +that it comes with us from the womb, and only leaves +us in the grave.<a name="FNanchor_669_669" id="FNanchor_669_669"></a><a href="#Footnote_669_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a></p> + +<p>This constant effort of every man, to better his own +condition, is so salutary, as well as so powerful, that it +is often capable of securing the progress of society, in +spite of the folly and extravagance of the rulers of mankind.<a name="FNanchor_670_670" id="FNanchor_670_670"></a><a href="#Footnote_670_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a> +If it were not for this propensity, improvement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +would be impossible. For human institutions are constantly +stopping our advance, by thwarting our natural +inclinations.<a name="FNanchor_671_671" id="FNanchor_671_671"></a><a href="#Footnote_671_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> And no wonder that this should be the +case, seeing that the men who are at the head of affairs, +and by whom the institutions are contrived, have, perhaps, +a certain rough and practical sagacity; but being, +from the narrowness of their understandings, incapable +of large views, their councils are determined by those +mere casual fluctuations which alone they are able to +perceive.<a name="FNanchor_672_672" id="FNanchor_672_672"></a><a href="#Footnote_672_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> They do not see that we have prospered, +not on account of their enactments, but in the teeth of +them; and that the real cause of our prosperity is the +fact that we enjoy undisturbed the fruit of our own +labour.<a name="FNanchor_673_673" id="FNanchor_673_673"></a><a href="#Footnote_673_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> Whenever this right is tolerably secure, every +man will be bent on procuring for himself either present +enjoyment or future profit; and if he does not aim at +one of these objects, he is void of common understanding.<a name="FNanchor_674_674" id="FNanchor_674_674"></a><a href="#Footnote_674_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> +If he possess capital, he will probably aim at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +both, but, in doing so, he will never consider the interest +of others; his sole motive will be his own private +profit.<a name="FNanchor_675_675" id="FNanchor_675_675"></a><a href="#Footnote_675_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a> And it is well that such should be the case. +For, by thus pursuing his personal interest, he aids +society more than if his views were generous and +exalted. Some people affect to carry on trade for the +good of others; but this is mere affectation, though, to +say the truth, it is an affectation not very common +among merchants, and many words are not needed to +dissuade them from so foolish a practice.<a name="FNanchor_676_676" id="FNanchor_676_676"></a><a href="#Footnote_676_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a></p> + +<p>In this way, Adam Smith completely changes the +premisses which he had assumed in his earlier work. +Here, he makes men naturally selfish; formerly, he had +made them naturally sympathetic.<a name="FNanchor_677_677" id="FNanchor_677_677"></a><a href="#Footnote_677_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Here, he represents +them as pursuing wealth for sordid objects, and +for the narrowest personal pleasures; formerly he represented +them as pursuing it out of regard to the +sentiments of others, and for the sake of obtaining their +sympathy.<a name="FNanchor_678_678" id="FNanchor_678_678"></a><a href="#Footnote_678_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a> In the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, we hear no +more of this conciliatory and sympathetic spirit; such +amiable maxims are altogether forgotten, and the affairs +of the world are regulated by different principles. It +now appears that benevolence and affection have no influence +over our actions. Indeed, Adam Smith will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +hardly admit common humanity into his theory of +motives. If a people emancipate their slaves, it is a +proof, not that the people are acted on by high moral +considerations, nor that their sympathy is excited by +the cruelty inflicted on these unhappy creatures. +Nothing of the sort. Such inducements to conduct are +imaginary, and exercise no real sway. All that the +emancipation proves, is, that the slaves were few in +number, and, therefore, small in value. Otherwise, they +would not have been emancipated.<a name="FNanchor_679_679" id="FNanchor_679_679"></a><a href="#Footnote_679_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a></p> + +<p>So, too, while in his former work, he had ascribed +the different systems of morals to the power of sympathy, +he, in this work, ascribes them entirely to the +power of selfishness. He observes, that, among the +lower ranks of society, dissipation is more fatal to individuals, +than it is among the higher ranks. The extravagance +which dissipation produces, may injure the +fortune of a wealthy man, but the injury is usually +capable of being repaired, or, at all events, he can indulge +his vices for years without completely destroying +his fortune, and without bringing himself to utter ruin. +To the labourer, a similar indulgence would be fatal in +a single week; it would not merely reduce him to beggary, +and perhaps send him to jail, but it would destroy +his future prospects, by taking away that character for +sobriety and regularity on which his employment depends. +Hence, the better class of common people, +guided by their interest, look with aversion on excesses +which they know to be fatal; while the upper ranks +finding that a moderate amount of vice hurts neither +their purse nor their reputation consider such license to +be one of the advantages which their fortune confers, +and they value, as one of the privileges belonging to +their station, the liberty of indulging themselves without +being censured. Therefore it is, that they who +dissent from the established Church have a purer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +system of morals, or, at all events, an austerer one, than +they who agree with it. For, new religious sects usually +begin among the common people, the thinking part of +whom are, by their interest, driven to strict views of +the duties of life. Consequently, the advocates of the +new opinion profess a similar strictness, seeing that it +is the surest means of increasing their proselytes. Thus +it is that sectaries and heretics, governed by interest +rather than by principle, adopt a code of morals which +is suited to their own purpose, and the rigidity of which +is strongly contrasted with the laxer code of more orthodox +believers.<a name="FNanchor_680_680" id="FNanchor_680_680"></a><a href="#Footnote_680_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a> Owing to the operation of the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +principle, we also find, that, among the orthodox themselves, +the clergy embrace a stricter system of morals in +countries where church benefices are nearly equal than +they do in countries where the benefices are very +unequal. This is because, when all the benefices are +nearly equal, none can be very rich, and, consequently, +even the most conspicuous among the clergy will have +but small incomes. But a man who has little to spend +can have no influence, unless his morals are exemplary. +Having no wealth to give him weight the vices of levity +would make him ridiculous. To avoid contempt, and +also to avoid the expense which a looseness of conduct +occasions, and which his narrow circumstances cannot +afford, he has but one remedy, and that remedy he +adopts. He retains his influence, and saves his pocket, +by protesting against pleasures which he cannot conveniently +enjoy; in this, as in all other cases, pursuing +that plan of life which his own interest urges him to +follow.<a name="FNanchor_681_681" id="FNanchor_681_681"></a><a href="#Footnote_681_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span></p> + +<p>In these striking generalizations, which, though they +contain a large amount of truth, are far from containing +the whole truth, no room is left for the magnanimous +parts of our nature to act; but the system of morals, +prevailing at any one time or in any one class, is solely +ascribed to the dictates of unalloyed selfishness. Adam +Smith, by reasoning from this principle, with that exquisite +subtlety which characterized his mind, explains +many other circumstances which society presents, and +which at first sight appear incongruous. According to +the old notions, which, indeed, are not yet quite extinct, +those who received wages were under a personal obligation +to those who paid them; that is to say, they were +under a moral obligation, over and above the obligation +of performing certain services. It was believed that a +master could not only select what servants he chose, but +could pay them what he chose; or, at all events, that +it was the will of the masters, considered as a body, +which fixed the usual and average rate of wages.<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a> The +lower classes were, therefore, much indebted to the +higher ones for giving them so much as they did; and +it was incumbent upon all persons, who received wages, +to take them with humble thankfulness, and with a +feeling of gratitude, on account of the favour bestowed +upon them by the generosity of their superiors.</p> + +<p>This doctrine, so convenient to the upper classes of +society, and so natural to the universal ignorance which +formerly prevailed on these matters, began to be shaken +by the speculative thinkers of the seventeenth century; +but it was reserved for the eighteenth century to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +overthrow it, by letting in the great idea of necessity, +and proving, that the rate of wages established in a country, +was the inevitable consequence of the circumstances +in which that country was placed, and had no connexion +with the wishes of any individual, or, indeed, with the +wishes of any class. To all instructed persons, this is +now a familiar truth. Its discovery has excluded the +notion of gratitude from the pecuniary relation between +employers and employed, and has made known that +servants or workmen who receive wages, have no more +reason to be grateful than those who pay them. For, +no choice having been exercised in fixing the wages, no +favour can be conferred in their payment. The whole +process is compulsory, and is the result of what had +previously happened. Scarcely had the eighteenth +century passed away, when this most important discovery +was completed. It was decisively proved, that +the reward of labour depends solely on two things; +namely, the magnitude of that national fund out of +which all labour is paid, and the number of the +labourers among whom the fund is to be divided.</p> + +<p>This vast step in our knowledge is due, mainly, though +not entirely, to Malthus, whose work on Population, +besides marking an epoch in the history of speculative +thought, has already produced considerable practical +results, and will probably give rise to others more considerable +still. It was published in 1798; so that Adam +Smith, who died in 1790, missed what to him would +have been the intense pleasure of seeing how, in it, his +own views were expanded rather than corrected. Indeed, +it is certain, that without Smith there would have +been no Malthus; that is, unless Smith had laid the +foundation, Malthus could not have raised the superstructure. +It was Adam Smith, who, far more than any +other man, introduced the conception of uniform and +necessary sequence into the apparently capricious phenomena +of wealth, and who studied those phenomena +by the aid of principles, of which selfishness alone supplied +the data. According to his view, the employers +of labour have, as employers, no benevolence, no sympathy, +no virtue of any kind. Their sole aim is, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +own selfish interest. They are constantly engaged in a +tacit, if not in an open, combination, to prevent the +lower ranks from being benefited by a rise of wages; +and they sometimes combine for the purpose even of +depressing those wages below their actual rate.<a name="FNanchor_683_683" id="FNanchor_683_683"></a><a href="#Footnote_683_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> +Having no bowels, they think only of themselves. The +idea of their wishing to mitigate the inequalities of +fortune, is to be exploded as one of the chimeras of that +protective spirit, which imagined that society could +not go on, unless the richer classes relieved the poorer +ones, and sympathized with their troubles. This antiquated +notion is further rebutted by the fact, that wages +are always higher in summer than in winter, although +the expenses which a labourer incurs in winter, being +heavier than in summer, he ought, on principles of +common humanity, to receive more money during the +more expensive season.<a name="FNanchor_684_684" id="FNanchor_684_684"></a><a href="#Footnote_684_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a> In the same way, in years of +scarcity, the dearness of food causes many persons to +go to service, in order to support their families. The +masters, instead of charitably paying such servants +more on account of the unfortunate position in which +they are placed, avail themselves of that position to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +pay them less. They make better terms for themselves; +they lower wages just at the moment when sympathy +for misfortune would have raised them; and, as they +find that their servants, besides being worse remunerated, +are, by poverty, made more submissive, they consider +that scarcity is a blessing, and that dear years +are to be commended as more favourable to industry +than cheap ones.<a name="FNanchor_685_685" id="FNanchor_685_685"></a><a href="#Footnote_685_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a></p> + +<p>Adam Smith, therefore, though he failed in grasping +the remote cause of the rate of wages, clearly saw that +the approximate cause was, not the generosity of human +nature, but its selfishness, and that the question was +one of supply and demand; each side striving to extract +as much as possible from the other.<a name="FNanchor_686_686" id="FNanchor_686_686"></a><a href="#Footnote_686_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> By the aid of +the same principle, he explained another curious fact, +namely, the extravagant rewards bestowed on some of +the most despicable classes of society, such, for instance, +as opera-dancers, who always receive enormous pay for +insignificant services. He observes, that one of the +reasons why we pay them so highly, is, because we +despise them. If to be a public dancer were a creditable +occupation, more persons would be brought up to +it, and the supply of public dancers becoming greater, +competition would lower their wages. As it is, we +look on them disdainfully. By way of compensating +the disdain, we have to bribe them largely to induce +them to follow their pursuit.<a name="FNanchor_687_687" id="FNanchor_687_687"></a><a href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> Here we see, that the +reward which one class bestows on another, instead of +being increased by sympathy, is increased by scorn; so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +that the more we contemn the tastes and the way of +life of our fellow-creatures, the more liberal we are in +recompensing them.</p> + +<p>Passing to another, and somewhat different, class, +Adam Smith threw new light on the cause of that hospitality +for which the clergy were famous during the +Middle Ages, and for the magnificence of which they +have received great praise. He shows that, although +they undoubtedly relieved a large amount of distress, +this is not to be ascribed to them as a merit, since it +resulted from the peculiarity of their position, and since, +moreover, they did it for their own advantage. In the +Middle Ages, the clergy possessed enormous wealth, +and their revenues were mostly paid, not in money, but +in kind, such as corn, wine, and cattle. Trade and +manufactures being hardly known, the clergy could +find no use for these commodities except to feed other +people. By employing them in that way, they benefited +themselves in the most effectual manner. They +gained a reputation for extensive charity; they increased +their influence; they multiplied the number of their +adherents; and they not only advanced themselves to +temporal power, but they secured to their spiritual +threats a respect, which, without this contrivance, it +would have been impossible for them to obtain.<a name="FNanchor_688_688" id="FNanchor_688_688"></a><a href="#Footnote_688_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a></p> + +<p>The reader will now be able to understand the nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> +of that method of investigation which is adopted in the +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, and of which I have given more +instances than I should otherwise have done, partly +because the question of philosophic method lies at the +very root of our knowledge, and partly because no +attempt has hitherto been made to analyze the intellect +of Adam Smith, by considering his two great works as +the opposite, but yet the compensatory, parts of a single +scheme. And, as he is by far the greatest thinker +Scotland has produced, I need hardly apologize, in a +history of the Scotch mind, for devoting so much +attention to his system, and endeavouring to examine +it at its base. But, having done so, it would be a +needless prolixity to treat with equal fulness the productions +of those other eminent Scotchmen who lived +at the same time, and nearly all of whom pursued a +method essentially, though not entirely, the same; that +is to say, they preferred the deductive process of +reasoning from principles, to the inductive process of +reasoning to them. In that peculiar form of deduction +which consists in a deliberate suppression of part of +the principles, Adam Smith stands alone. For, though +others attempted to follow that plan, they did so +irregularly, and at intervals, and did not, like him, see +the importance of keeping close to their method, and +of invariably abstaining from letting into the premisses +of their arguments, considerations which would complicate +the problem that they wished to solve.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among the contemporaries of Adam Smith, one of +the first, in eminence, as well as in reputation, is David +Hume. His views respecting political economy were +published in 1752,<a name="FNanchor_689_689" id="FNanchor_689_689"></a><a href="#Footnote_689_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> that is, the very year in which +Adam Smith taught the principles subsequently unfolded +in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>. But Hume, though a +most accomplished reasoner, as well as a profound and +fearless thinker, had not the comprehensiveness of +Adam Smith, nor had he that invaluable quality of +imagination without which no one can so transport +himself into past ages as to realize the long and progressive +movements of society, always fluctuating, yet, +on the whole, steadily advancing. How unimaginative +he was, appears, not only from the sentiments he expressed, +but likewise from many traits in his private +life.<a name="FNanchor_690_690" id="FNanchor_690_690"></a><a href="#Footnote_690_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> It appears, also, in the very colour and mechanism +of his language; that beautiful and chiselled +style in which he habitually wrote, polished as marble, +but cold as marble too, and wanting that fiery enthusiasm +and those bursts of tempestuous eloquence, +which, ever and anon, great objects naturally inspire, +and which rouse men to their inmost depths. This it +was, which, in his <i>History of England</i>,—that exquisite +production of art, which, in spite of its errors, will be +admired as long as taste remains among us,—prevented +him from sympathizing with those bold and generous +natures, who, in the seventeenth century, risked their +all to preserve the liberty of their country. His imagination +was not strong enough to picture the whole of +that great century, with its vast discoveries, its longings +after the unknown, its splendid literature, and what +was better than all these, its stern determination to +vindicate freedom, and to put down tyranny. His clear +and powerful understanding saw these things separately, +and in their various parts, but could not fuse +them into a single form, because he lacked that peculiar +faculty which assimilates the past to the present, and +enables the mind to discern both with almost equal ease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> +That Great Rebellion, which he ascribed to the spirit of +faction, and the leaders of which he turned into ridicule, +was but the continuation of a movement which can be +clearly traced to the twelfth century, and of which such +events as the invention of printing, and the establishment +of the Reformation, were merely successive symptoms. +For all this, Hume cared nothing. In regard +to philosophy, and in regard to the purely speculative +parts of religious doctrines, his penetrating genius +enabled him to perceive that nothing could be done, +except by a spirit of fearless and unrestrained liberty. +But this was the liberty of his own class; the liberty +of thinkers, and not of actors. His absence of imagination +prevented him from extending the range of his +sympathy beyond the intellectual classes, that is, beyond +the classes of whose feelings he was directly +cognizant. It would, therefore, appear, that his political +errors were due, not, as is commonly said, to his +want of research, but rather to the coldness of his +temperament.<a name="FNanchor_691_691" id="FNanchor_691_691"></a><a href="#Footnote_691_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> It was this which made him stop +where he did, and which gave to his works the singular +appearance of a profound and original thinker, in the +middle of the eighteenth century, advocating practical +doctrines, so illiberal, that, if enforced, they would lead to +despotism, and yet, at the same time, advocating speculative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +doctrines, so fearless and enlightened, that they +were not only far in advance of his own age, but have, in +some degree, outstripped even the age in which we live.</p> + +<p>Among his speculative views, the most important are +his theory of causation as discarding the idea of power, +and his theory of the laws of association. Neither of +these theories are, in their primary conception, quite +original, but his treatment made them as valuable as if +they had been entirely his own. His theory of miracles, +in connexion, on the one hand, with the principles of +evidence, and, on the other hand, with the laws of causation, +is worked out with consummate skill, and, after +having received the modifications subsequently imposed +by Brown, has now become the foundation on which +the best inquirers into these matters take their stand.<a name="FNanchor_692_692" id="FNanchor_692_692"></a><a href="#Footnote_692_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> +His work on the principles of morals, by generalizing +the laws of expediency, prepared the way for Bentham, +who afterwards incorporated with them an estimate of +the more remote consequences of human actions; Hume, +having chiefly confined himself to their more immediate +consequences. The doctrine of utility was common to +each; but while Hume applied it mainly to the individual, +Bentham applied it to the surrounding society. +Though Bentham was more comprehensive, yet Hume, +having come first, was more original. The praise of +originality must also be accorded to his economical +theories, in which he advocated those principles of free +trade, which politicians began to adopt many years +after his death.<a name="FNanchor_693_693" id="FNanchor_693_693"></a><a href="#Footnote_693_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a> In opposition to the notions then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +prevailing, he distinctly asserted, that all commodities, +though apparently bought by money, are in reality +bought by labour.<a name="FNanchor_694_694" id="FNanchor_694_694"></a><a href="#Footnote_694_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> Money, therefore, is not the subject +of commerce, and is of no use except to facilitate +it.<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> Hence, it is absurd for a nation to trouble itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +about the balance of trade, or to make regulations to +discourage the exportation of the precious metals.<a name="FNanchor_696_696" id="FNanchor_696_696"></a><a href="#Footnote_696_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> +Neither does the average rate of interest depend on +their scarcity or abundance, but upon the operation of +more general causes.<a name="FNanchor_697_697" id="FNanchor_697_697"></a><a href="#Footnote_697_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> As a necessary consequence of +these positions, Hume inferred that the established +policy was wrong, which made trading states look upon +each other as rivals, while, in point of fact, the question, +if considered from a certain height, was one, not of +rivalry, but of coöperation; every country being benefited +by the increasing wealth of its neighbours.<a name="FNanchor_698_698" id="FNanchor_698_698"></a><a href="#Footnote_698_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> Those +who know the character of commercial legislation, and +the opinions of even the most enlightened statesmen a +century ago, will consider these views as extremely +remarkable to have been propounded in the year 1752. +But what is more remarkable still, is, that their author<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +subsequently detected the fundamental error which +Adam Smith committed, and which vitiates many of his +conclusions. The error consists in his having resolved +price into three components, namely, wages, profit, and +rent; whereas it is now known that price is a compound +of wages and profit, and that rent is not an element of +it, but a result of it. This discovery is the corner-stone +of political economy; but it is established by an argument +so long and so refined, that most minds are unable +to pursue it without stumbling, and the majority of +those who acquiesce in it are influenced by the great +writers to whom they pay deference, and whose judgment +they follow. It is, therefore, a striking proof of +the sagacity of Hume, that in an age when the science +was but dawning, and when he could receive little help +from his predecessors, he should have discovered a mistake +of this sort, which lies so far beneath the surface. +Directly the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> appeared, he wrote to +Adam Smith, disputing his position that rent is a part +of price;<a name="FNanchor_699_699" id="FNanchor_699_699"></a><a href="#Footnote_699_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> and this letter, written in the year 1776, is +the first indication of that celebrated theory of rent, +which, a little later, Anderson, Malthus, and West, saw, +and imperfectly developed, but which it was reserved +for the genius of Ricardo to build up on a broad and +solid foundation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is very observable, that Hume and Adam Smith, +who made such immense additions to our knowledge +of the principles of trade, had no practical acquaintance +with it.<a name="FNanchor_700_700" id="FNanchor_700_700"></a><a href="#Footnote_700_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> Hume had, at an early period of his life, +been in a mercantile house; but he threw up that employment +in disgust, and buried himself in a provincial +town, to think, rather than to observe.<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FNanchor_701_701"></a><a href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> Indeed, one +of the capital defects of his mind, was a disregard of +facts. This did not proceed, as is too often the case, +from that worst form of moral obliquity, an indifference +to truth; since he, on the contrary, was an ardent +lover of it, and was, moreover, a man of the purest and +most exemplary character, utterly incapable of falsehood, +or of prevarication of any kind.<a name="FNanchor_702_702" id="FNanchor_702_702"></a><a href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> In him, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +contempt for facts was merely the exaggerated result of +a devotion to ideas. He not only believed, with perfect +justice, that ideas are more important than facts, but +he supposed that they should hold the first place +in the order of study, and that they should be developed +before the facts are investigated. The Baconian +philosophy, which, though it allows a preliminary and +tentative hypothesis, strongly insists upon the necessity +of first collecting the facts, and then proceeding to the +ideas, excited his aversion; and this, I have no doubt, +is the reason why he, who was usually so lenient in his +judgments, and was so keen an admirer of intellectual +greatness is, nevertheless, grossly unfair towards +Bacon, with whose method it was impossible for him to +sympathize, though he could not deny its utility, in +physical science.<a name="FNanchor_703_703" id="FNanchor_703_703"></a><a href="#Footnote_703_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> If Hume had followed the Baconian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +scheme, of always rising from particulars to generals, +and from each generalization to that immediately above +it, he would hardly have written one of his works. +Certainly, his economical views would never have appeared, +since political economy is as essentially a +deductive science as geometry itself.<a name="FNanchor_704_704" id="FNanchor_704_704"></a><a href="#Footnote_704_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a> Reversing the +inductive process, he was in favour of beginning with +what he termed general arguments, by which he hoped +to demonstrate the inaccuracy of opinions which facts +were supposed to have proved.<a name="FNanchor_705_705" id="FNanchor_705_705"></a><a href="#Footnote_705_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a> He did not stop to +investigate the facts from which the inference had been +drawn, but he inverted the order by which the inference +was to be obtained. The same dislike to make the +facts of trade the basis of the science of trade, was displayed +by Adam Smith, who expresses his want of +confidence in statistics, or, as it was then termed, +political arithmetic.<a name="FNanchor_706_706" id="FNanchor_706_706"></a><a href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> It is, however, evident, that +statistical facts are as good as any other facts, and, +owing to their mathematical form, are very precise.<a name="FNanchor_707_707" id="FNanchor_707_707"></a><a href="#Footnote_707_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> +But when they concern human actions, they are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +result of all the motives which govern those actions; +in other words, they are the result, not merely of +selfishness, but also of sympathy. And as Adam +Smith, in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, dealt with only one +of these passions, namely, selfishness, he would have +found it impossible to conduct his generalization from +statistics, which are necessarily collected from the products +of both passions. Such statistical facts were, in +their origin, too complex to be generalized; especially +as they could not be experimented upon, but could +only be observed and arranged. Adam Smith, perceiving +them to be unmanageable, very properly rejected +them as the basis of his science, and merely used +them by way of illustration, when he could select what +he liked. The same remark applies to other facts +which he drew from the history of trade, and, indeed, +from the general history of society. All of these are +essentially subsequent to the argument. They make +the argument more clear, but not more certain. For, +it is no exaggeration to say, that, if all the commercial +and historical facts in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> were false, +the book would still remain, and its conclusions would +hold equally good, though they would be less attractive. +In it, every thing depends upon general principles, +and they, as we have seen, were arrived at in +1752, that is, twenty-four years before the work was +published in which those principles were applied. +They must, therefore, have been acquired independently +of the facts which Adam Smith, subsequently incorporated +with them, and which he learnt during that long +period of twenty-four years. And the ten years which +he employed in composing his great work, were not +spent in one of those busy haunts of men, where he +might have observed all the phenomena of industry, +and studied the way in which the operations of trade +affect human character, and are affected by it. He did +not resort to one of those vast marts and emporiums of +commerce, where the events were happening which he +was seeking to explain. That was not his method. +On the contrary, the ten years, during which he was +occupied in raising to a science the most active department<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +of life, were passed in complete seclusion in +Kirkaldy, his quiet little birthplace.<a name="FNanchor_708_708" id="FNanchor_708_708"></a><a href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> He had always +been remarkable for absence of mind, and was so little +given to observation, as to be frequently oblivious of +what was passing around him.<a name="FNanchor_709_709" id="FNanchor_709_709"></a><a href="#Footnote_709_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a> In that obliviousness, +he, amid the tranquil scenes of his childhood, could +now indulge without danger. There, cheered, indeed, +by the society of his mother, but with no opportunity +of observing human nature upon a large scale, and far +removed from the hum of great cities, did this mighty +thinker, by the force of his own mind, unravel the +numerous and complicated phenomena of wealth, detect +the motives which regulate the conduct of the most +energetic and industrious portion of mankind, and lay +bare the schemes and the secrets of that active life +from which he was shut out, while he, immured in +comparative solitude, was unable to witness the very +facts which he succeeded in explaining.</p> + +<p>The same determination to make the study of principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +precede that of facts, is exhibited by Hume in +one of his most original works, the <i>Natural History of +Religion</i>. In reference to the title of this treatise, we +must observe that, according to the Scotch philosophers, +the natural course of any movement is by no +means the same as its actual course. This discrepancy +between the ideal and the real, was the unavoidable +result of their method.<a name="FNanchor_710_710" id="FNanchor_710_710"></a><a href="#Footnote_710_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> For, as they argued deductively +from fixed premisses, they could not take into +account the perturbations to which their conclusions +were liable, from the play and friction of the surrounding +society. To do that, required a separate inquiry. +It would have been needful to investigate the circumstances +which caused the friction, and thus prevented +the conclusions from being, in the world of fact, the +same as they were in the world of speculation. What +we call accidents, are constantly happening, and they +prevent the real march of affairs from being identical +with the natural march. And, as long as we are +unable to predict those accidents, there will always be +a want of complete harmony between the inferences of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +a deductive science and the realities of life; in other +words, our inferences will tend towards truth, but +never completely attain it.<a name="FNanchor_711_711" id="FNanchor_711_711"></a><a href="#Footnote_711_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a></p> + +<p>With peculiar propriety, therefore, did Hume term +his work a <i>Natural History of Religion</i>. It is an +admirable specimen of the deductive method. Its only +fault is that he speaks too confidently of the accuracy of +the results to which, on such a subject, that method +could attain. He believed, that, by observing the +principles of human nature, as he found them in his +own mind, it was possible to explain the whole course +of affairs, both moral and physical.<a name="FNanchor_712_712" id="FNanchor_712_712"></a><a href="#Footnote_712_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a> These principles +were to be arrived at by experiments made on himself; +and having thus arrived at them, he was to reason +from them deductively, and so construct the entire +scheme. This he contrasts with the inductive plan, +which he calls a tedious and lingering process; and +while others might follow that slow and patient method +of gradually working their way towards first principles, +his project was, to seize them at once, or, as he expresses +himself, not to stop at the frontier, but to march +directly on the capital, being possessed of which, he +could gain an easy victory over other difficulties, +and could extend his conquests over the sciences.<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> +According to Hume, we are to reason, not in order to +obtain ideas, but we are to have clear ideas before we +reason.<a name="FNanchor_714_714" id="FNanchor_714_714"></a><a href="#Footnote_714_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a> By this means, we arrive at philosophy; and +her conclusions are not to be impugned, even if they do +happen to clash with science. On the contrary, her +authority is supreme, and her decisions, being essentially +true, must always be preferred to any generalization +of the facts which the external world presents.<a name="FNanchor_715_715" id="FNanchor_715_715"></a><a href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a></p> + +<p>Hume, therefore, believed that all the secrets of the +external world are wrapped up in the human mind. +The mind was not only the key by which the treasure +could be unlocked; it was also the treasure itself. +Learning and science might illustrate and beautify our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +mental acquisitions, but they could not communicate +real knowledge; they could neither give the prime +original materials, nor could they teach the design according +to which those materials must be worked.</p> + +<p>In conformity with these views, the <i>Natural History +of Religion</i> was composed. The object of Hume in +writing it, was, to ascertain the origin and progress of +religious ideas; and he arrives at the conclusion, that +the worship of many Gods must, every where, have +preceded the worship of one God. This, he regards as +a law of the human mind, a thing not only that always +has happened, but that always must happen. His proof +is entirely speculative. He argues that the earliest state +of man is necessarily a savage state; that savages can +feel no interest in the ordinary operations of nature, +and no desire to study the principles which govern +those operations; that such men must be devoid of +curiosity on all subjects which do not personally +trouble them; and that, therefore, while they neglect +the usual events of nature, they will turn their minds +to the unusual ones.<a name="FNanchor_716_716" id="FNanchor_716_716"></a><a href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a> A violent tempest, a monstrous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> +birth, excessive cold, excessive rain, sudden and fatal +diseases, are the sort of things to which the attention +of the savage is confined, and of which alone he desires +to know the causes. Directly he finds that such causes +are beyond his control, he reckons them superior to +himself, and, being incapable of abstracting them, he +personifies them; he turns them into deities; polytheism +is established; and the earliest creed of mankind +assumes a form which can never be altered, as long as +men remain in this condition of pristine ignorance.<a name="FNanchor_717_717" id="FNanchor_717_717"></a><a href="#Footnote_717_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a></p> + +<p>These propositions, which are not only plausible, but +which are probably true, ought, according to the inductive +philosophy, to have been generalized from a +survey of facts; that is, from a collection of evidence +respecting the state of religion and of the speculative +faculties among savage tribes. But this, Hume abstains +from doing. He refers to none of the numerous +travellers who have visited such people; he does not, +in the whole course of his work, mention even a single +book where facts respecting savage life are preserved. +It was enough for him, that the progress from a belief +in many Gods to a belief in one God, was the natural +progress; which is saying, in other words, that it appeared +to his mind to be the natural progress.<a name="FNanchor_718_718" id="FNanchor_718_718"></a><a href="#Footnote_718_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> With +that, he was satisfied. In other parts of his essay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> +where he treats of the religious opinions of the ancient +Greeks and Romans, he displays a tolerable, though by +no means remarkable, learning; but the passages +which he cites, do not refer to that entirely barbarous +society in which, as he supposes, polytheism first arose. +The premisses, therefore, of the argument are evolved +out of his own mind. He reasons deductively from the +ideas which his powerful intellect supplied, instead of +reasoning inductively from the facts which were peculiar +to the subject he was investigating.</p> + +<p>Even in the rest of his work, which is full of refined +and curious speculation, he uses facts, not to demonstrate +his conclusions, but to illustrate them. He, therefore, +selected those facts which suited his purpose, leaving +the others untouched. And this, which many critics +would call unfair, was not unfair in him; because he +believed, that he had already established his principles +without the aid of those facts. The facts might benefit +the reader, by making the argument clearer, but they +could not strengthen the argument. They were more +intended to persuade than to prove; they were rather +rhetorical than logical. Hence, a critic would waste +his time if he were to sift them with a minuteness +which would be necessary, supposing that Hume had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +built an inductive argument upon them. Otherwise, +without going far, it might be curious to contrast them +with the entirely different facts which Cudworth, eighty +years before, had collected from the same source, and +on the same subject. Cudworth, who was much superior +to Hume in learning, and much inferior to him in +genius,<a name="FNanchor_719_719" id="FNanchor_719_719"></a><a href="#Footnote_719_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> displayed, in his great work on the <i>Intellectual +System of the Universe</i>, a prodigious erudition, to prove +that, in the ancient world, the belief in one God was a +prevailing doctrine. Hume, who never refers to Cudworth, +arrives at a precisely opposite conclusion. Both +quoted ancient writers; but while Cudworth drew his +inferences from what he found in those writers, Hume +drew his from what he found in his own mind. Cudworth, +being more learned, relied on his reading; +Hume, having more genius, relied on his intellect. +Cudworth, trained in the school of Bacon, first collected +the evidence, and then passed the judgment. Hume, +formed in a school entirely different, believed that the +acuteness of the judge was more important than the +quantity of the evidence; that witnesses were likely to +prevaricate; and that he possessed, in his own mind, +the surest materials for arriving at an accurate conclusion. +It is not, therefore, strange, that Cudworth +and Hume, pursuing opposite methods, should have +obtained opposite results, since such a discrepancy is, +as I have already pointed out, unavoidable, when men +investigate, according to different plans, a subject which, +in the existing state of knowledge, is not amenable to +scientific treatment.</p> + +<p>The length to which this chapter has already extended, +and the number of topics which I have still to +handle, will prevent me from examining, in detail, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> +philosophy of Reid, who was the most eminent among +the purely speculative thinkers of Scotland, after Hume +and Adam Smith, though, in point of merit, he must be +placed far below them. For, he had neither the comprehensiveness +of Smith, nor the fearlessness of Hume. +The range of his knowledge was not wide enough to +allow him to be comprehensive; while a timidity, almost +amounting to moral cowardice, made him recoil +from the views advocated by Hume, not so much on +account of their being false, as on account of their being +dangerous. It is, however, certain, that no man can +take high rank as a philosopher, who allows himself to be +trammelled by considerations of that kind. A philosopher +should aim solely at truth, and should refuse to +estimate the practical tendency of his speculations. If +they are true, let them stand; if they are false, let them +fall. But, whether they are agreeable or disagreeable, +whether they are consolatory or disheartening, whether +they are safe or mischievous, is a question, not for philosophers, +but for practical men. Every new truth +which has ever been propounded, has, for a time, caused +mischief; it has produced discomfort, and often unhappiness, +sometimes by disturbing social or religious +arrangements, and sometimes merely by the disruption +of old and cherished associations of thought. It is only +after a certain interval, and when the framework of +affairs has adjusted itself to the new truth, that its good +effects preponderate; and the preponderance continues +to increase, until, at length, the truth causes nothing +but good. But, at the outset, there is always harm. +And, if the truth is very great, as well as very new, +the harm is serious. Men are made uneasy; they +flinch; they cannot bear the sudden light; a general +restlessness supervenes; the face of society is disturbed, +or perhaps convulsed; old interests, and old beliefs, are +destroyed, before new ones have been created. These +symptoms are the precursors of revolution; they have +preceded all the great changes through which the world +has passed; and while, if they are not excessive, they +forebode progress, so if they are excessive, they +threaten anarchy. It is the business of practical men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> +to moderate such symptoms, and to take care that the +truths which philosophers discover, are not applied so +rashly as to dislocate the fabric, instead of strengthening +it. But the philosopher has only to discover the truth, +and promulgate it; and that is hard work enough for +any man, let his ability be as great as it may. This +division of labour, between thinkers and actors, secures +an economy of force, and prevents either class from +wasting its power. It establishes a difference between +science, which ascertains principles, and art, which applies +them. It also recognizes, that the philosopher and +the practical man, having each a separate part to play, +each is, in his own field, supreme. But it is a sad confusion +for either to interfere with the other. In their +different spheres, both are independent, and both are +worthy of admiration. Inasmuch, however, as practical +men should never allow the speculative conclusions of +philosophers, whatever be their truth, to be put in actual +operation, unless society is, in some degree, ripe for +their reception; so, on the other hand, philosophers are +not to hesitate, and tremble, and stop short in their +career, because their intellect is leading them to conclusions +subversive of existing interests. The duty of a +philosopher is clear. His path lies straight before him. +He must take every pains to ascertain the truth; and, +having arrived at a conclusion, he, instead of shrinking +from it because it is unpalatable, or because it seems +dangerous, should on that very account, cling the closer +to it, should uphold it in bad repute, more zealously +than he would have done in good repute; should noise +it abroad far and wide, utterly regardless what opinions +he shocks, or what interests he imperils; should, on its +behalf, court hostility and despise contempt, being well +assured, that, if it is not true, it will die, but that, if it +is true, it must produce ultimate benefit, albeit unsuited +for practical adoption by the age or country in which it +is first propounded.</p> + +<p>But Reid, notwithstanding the clearness of his mind +and his great powers of argument, had so little of the +real philosophic spirit, that he loved truth, not for its +own sake, but for the sake of its immediate and practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> +results. He himself tells us, that he began to study +philosophy, merely because he was shocked at the consequences +at which philosophers had arrived. As long +as the speculations of Locke and of Berkeley were not +pushed to their logical conclusions, Reid acquiesced in +them, and they were good in his eyes.<a name="FNanchor_720_720" id="FNanchor_720_720"></a><a href="#Footnote_720_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a> While they +were safe and tolerably orthodox, he was not over-nice +in inquiring into their validity. In the hands of Hume, +however, philosophy became bolder and more inquisitive; +she disturbed opinions which were ancient, and +which it was pleasant to hold; she searched into the +foundation of things, and by forcing men to doubt and +to inquire, she rendered inestimable service to the cause +of truth. But this was precisely the tendency at which +Reid was displeased. He saw that such disturbance +was uncomfortable; he saw that it was hazardous; +therefore, he endeavoured to prove that it was groundless. +Confusing the question of practical consequences +with the totally different question of scientific truth, he +took for granted that, because to his age the adoption +of those consequences would be mischievous, they must +be false. To the profound views of Hume respecting +causation, he gravely objects, that if they were carried +into effect, the operation of criminal law would be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +imperilled.<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> To the speculations of the same philosopher +concerning the metaphysical basis of the theory +of contracts, he replies, that such speculations perplex +men, and weaken their sense of duty; they are, therefore, +to be disapproved of, on account of their tendency.<a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> +With Reid, the main question always is, not +whether an inference is true, but what will happen if +it is true. He says, that a doctrine is to be judged by +its fruits;<a name="FNanchor_723_723" id="FNanchor_723_723"></a><a href="#Footnote_723_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> forgetting that the same doctrine will +bear different fruits in different ages, and that the consequences +which a theory produces in one state of +society, are often diametrically opposed to those which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> +it produces in another. He thus made his own age the +standard of all future ones. He also trammelled philosophy +with practical considerations; diverting thinkers +from the pursuit of truth, which is their proper department, +into the pursuit of expediency, which is not their +department at all. Reid was constantly stopping to +inquire, not whether theories were accurate, but whether +it was advisable to adopt them; whether they were +favourable to patriotism, or to generosity, or to friendship;<a name="FNanchor_724_724" id="FNanchor_724_724"></a><a href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a> +in a word, whether they were comfortable, and +such as we should at present like to believe.<a name="FNanchor_725_725" id="FNanchor_725_725"></a><a href="#Footnote_725_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> Or else, +he would take other ground, still lower, and still more +unworthy of a philosopher. In opposing, for instance, +the doctrine, that our faculties sometimes deceive us,—a +doctrine which, as he well knew, had been held by +men whose honesty was equal to his own, and whose +ability was superior to his own,—he does not scruple to +enlist on his side the prejudices of a vulgar superstition; +seeking to blacken the tenet which he was unable to +refute. He actually asserts, that they who advocate it, +insult the Deity, by imputing to the Almighty that He +has lied. Such being the consequence of the opinion, +it of course follows that the opinion must be rejected +without further scrutiny, since, to accept it, would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> +produce fatal results on our conduct, and would, indeed, +be subversive of all religion, of all morals, and of all +knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_726_726" id="FNanchor_726_726"></a><a href="#Footnote_726_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a></p> + +<p>In 1764, Reid published his <i>Inquiry into the Human +Mind</i>; and in that, and in his subsequent work, entitled +<i>Essays on the Powers of the Mind</i>, he sought to destroy +the philosophy of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. And as +Hume was the boldest of the three, it was chiefly his +philosophy which Reid attacked. Of the character of +this attack, some specimens have just been given; but +they rather concern his object and motives, while what +we have now to ascertain is, his method, that is, the +tactics of his warfare. He clearly saw, that Hume had +assumed certain principles, and had reasoned deductively +from them to the facts, instead of reasoning +inductively from the facts to them. To this method, he +strongly, and perhaps fairly, objects. He admits that +Hume had reasoned so accurately, that if his principles +were conceded, his conclusions must likewise be conceded.<a name="FNanchor_727_727" id="FNanchor_727_727"></a><a href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a> +But, he says, Hume had no right to proceed +in such a manner. He had no right to assume principles, +and then to argue from them. The laws of +nature were to be arrived at, not by conjecturing in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> +this way, but by a patient induction of facts.<a name="FNanchor_728_728" id="FNanchor_728_728"></a><a href="#Footnote_728_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a> Discoveries +depended solely on observation and experiment; +and any other plan could only produce theories, +ingenious, perhaps, and plausible, but quite worthless.<a name="FNanchor_729_729" id="FNanchor_729_729"></a><a href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a> +For, theory should yield to fact, and not fact +to theory.<a name="FNanchor_730_730" id="FNanchor_730_730"></a><a href="#Footnote_730_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a> Speculators, indeed, might talk about +first principles, and raise a system by reasoning from +them. But, the fact was, that there was no agreement +as to how a first principle was to be recognized; since +a principle which one man would deem self-evident, +another would think it necessary to prove, and a third +would altogether deny.<a name="FNanchor_731_731" id="FNanchor_731_731"></a><a href="#Footnote_731_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a></p> + +<p>The difficulties of deductive reasoning are here admirably +portrayed. It might have been expected, that +Reid would have built up his own philosophy according +to the inductive plan, and would have despised that +assumption of first principles, with which he taunts his +opponents. But it is one of the most curious things in +the history of metaphysics, that Reid after impeaching +the method of Hume, follows the very same method +himself. When he is attacking the philosophy of +Hume, he holds deduction to be wrong. When he is +raising his own philosophy, he holds it to be right. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> +deemed certain conclusions dangerous, and he objects +to their advocates, that they argued from principles, +instead of from facts: and that they assumed themselves +to be in possession of the first principles of truth, +although people were not agreed as to what constituted +a first principle. This is well put, and hard to answer. +Strange, however, to say, Reid arrives at his own conclusions, +by assuming first principles to an extent far +greater than had been done by any writer on the opposite +side. From them, he argues; his whole scheme +is deductive; and his works scarcely contain a single +instance of that inductive logic, which, when attacking +his opponents, he found it convenient to recommend. +It is difficult to conceive a better illustration of the +peculiar character of the Scotch intellect in the +eighteenth century, and of the firm hold, which, what +may be called, the anti-Baconian method, had upon +that intellect. Reid was a man of considerable ability, +of immaculate honesty, and was deeply convinced that +it was for the good of society that the prevailing philosophy +should be overthrown. To the performance of +that task, he dedicated his long and laborious life; he +saw that the vulnerable point of the adverse system +was its method; he indicated the deficiencies of that +method, and declared, perhaps wrongly, but at all +events sincerely, that it could never lead to truth. +Yet, and notwithstanding all this, such was the pressure +of the age in which he lived, and so completely did the +force of circumstances shape his understanding, that, +in his own works, he was unable to avoid that very +method of investigation which he rebuked in others. +Indeed, so far from avoiding it, he was a slave to it. +The evidence of this I will now give, because, besides +its importance for the history of the Scotch mind, it is +valuable as one of many lessons, which teach us how +we are moulded by the society which surrounds us; +how even our most vigorous actions are influenced by +general causes of which we are often ignorant, and +which few of us care to study; and, finally, how lame +and impotent we are, when, as individuals, we try to +stem the onward current, resisting the great progress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> +instead of aiding it, and vainly opposing our little +wishes to that majestic course of events, which admits +of no interruption, but sweeps on, grand and +terrible, while generation after generation passes away, +successively absorbed in one mighty vortex.</p> + +<p>Directly Reid, ceasing to refute the philosophy of +Hume, began to construct his own philosophy, he succumbed +to the prevailing method. He now assures us, +that all reasoning must be from first principles, and +that, so far from reasoning to those principles, we must +at once admit them, and make them the basis of all +subsequent arguments.<a name="FNanchor_732_732" id="FNanchor_732_732"></a><a href="#Footnote_732_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> Having admitted them, they +become a thread to guide the inquirer through the +labyrinth of thought.<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> His opponents had no right +to assume them, but he might do so, because to him +they were intuitive.<a name="FNanchor_734_734" id="FNanchor_734_734"></a><a href="#Footnote_734_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> Whoever denied them, was +not fit to be reasoned with.<a name="FNanchor_735_735" id="FNanchor_735_735"></a><a href="#Footnote_735_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> Indeed, to investigate +them, or to seek to analyze them, was wrong as well as +foolish, because they were part of the constitution of +things; and of the constitution of things no account +could be given, except that such was the will of God.<a name="FNanchor_736_736" id="FNanchor_736_736"></a><a href="#Footnote_736_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span></p> + +<p>As Reid obtained his first principles with such ease, +and as he carefully protected them by forbidding any +attempt to resolve them into simpler elements, he was +under a strong temptation to multiply them almost +indefinitely, in order that, by reasoning from them, he +might raise a complete and harmonious system of the +human mind. To that temptation he yielded with a +readiness, which is truly surprising, when we remember +how he reproached his opponents with doing the same +thing. Among the numerous first principles which he +assumes, not only as unexplained, but as inexplicable, +are the belief in Personal Identity;<a name="FNanchor_737_737" id="FNanchor_737_737"></a><a href="#Footnote_737_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> the belief in the +External World;<a name="FNanchor_738_738" id="FNanchor_738_738"></a><a href="#Footnote_738_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> the belief in the Uniformity of +Nature;<a name="FNanchor_739_739" id="FNanchor_739_739"></a><a href="#Footnote_739_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a> the belief in the Existence of Life in +Others;<a name="FNanchor_740_740" id="FNanchor_740_740"></a><a href="#Footnote_740_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> the belief in Testimony;<a name="FNanchor_741_741" id="FNanchor_741_741"></a><a href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> also in the +power of distinguishing truth from error,<a name="FNanchor_742_742" id="FNanchor_742_742"></a><a href="#Footnote_742_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> and even +in the correspondence of the face and voice to the +thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_743_743" id="FNanchor_743_743"></a><a href="#Footnote_743_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a> Of belief generally, he asserts that there +are many principles,<a name="FNanchor_744_744" id="FNanchor_744_744"></a><a href="#Footnote_744_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a> and he regrets that any one +should have rashly attempted to explain them.<a name="FNanchor_745_745" id="FNanchor_745_745"></a><a href="#Footnote_745_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a> Such +things are mysterious, and not to be pried into. We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> +have also other faculties, which being original and indecomposable, +resist all inductive treatment, and can +neither be resolved into simpler elements, nor referred +to more general laws. To this class, Reid assigns +Memory,<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> Perception,<a name="FNanchor_747_747" id="FNanchor_747_747"></a><a href="#Footnote_747_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> Desire of Self-Approbation,<a name="FNanchor_748_748" id="FNanchor_748_748"></a><a href="#Footnote_748_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a> +and not only Instinct, but even Habit.<a name="FNanchor_749_749" id="FNanchor_749_749"></a><a href="#Footnote_749_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a> Many of our +ideas, such as those concerning Space and Time, are +equally original;<a name="FNanchor_750_750" id="FNanchor_750_750"></a><a href="#Footnote_750_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> and other first principles there are, +which have not been enunciated, but from which we +may reason.<a name="FNanchor_751_751" id="FNanchor_751_751"></a><a href="#Footnote_751_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> They, therefore, are the major premisses +of the argument; no reason having yet been +given for them, they must be simple; and not having +yet been explained, they are, of course, inexplicable.<a name="FNanchor_752_752" id="FNanchor_752_752"></a><a href="#Footnote_752_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a></p> + +<p>All this is arbitrary enough. Still, in justice to Reid, +it must be said, that, having made these assumptions, +he displayed remarkable ability in arguing from them, +and that, in attacking the philosophy of his time, he +subjected it to a criticism, which has been extremely +serviceable. His lucidity, his dialectic skill, and the +racy and masculine style in which he wrote, made him +a formidable opponent, and secured to his objections a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> +respectful hearing. To me, however, it appears, that +notwithstanding the attempts, first of M. Cousin, and +afterwards of Sir William Hamilton, to prop up his +declining reputation, his philosophy, as an independent +system, is untenable, and will not live. In this I may +be mistaken; but what is quite certain is, that nothing +can be more absurd than to suppose, as some have +done, that he adopted the inductive, or, as it is popularly +called, Baconian method. Bacon, indeed, would +have smiled at such a disciple, assuming all sorts of +major premisses, taking general principles for granted +with the greatest recklessness, and reserving his skill +for the task of reasoning from propositions for which +he had no evidence, except that on a cursory, or, as he +termed it, a common-sense, inspection, they appeared +to be true.<a name="FNanchor_753_753" id="FNanchor_753_753"></a><a href="#Footnote_753_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a> This refusal to analyze preconceived +notions, comes under the head of what Bacon stigmatized +as the <i>anticipatio naturæ</i>, and which he deemed +the great enemy of knowledge, on account of the dangerous +confidence it places in the spontaneous and +uncorrected conclusions of the human mind. When,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> +therefore, we find Reid holding up the Baconian philosophy, +as a pattern which it behoves all inquirers to +follow;<a name="FNanchor_754_754" id="FNanchor_754_754"></a><a href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> and when we, moreover, find Dugald Stewart, +who, though a somewhat superficial thinker, was, at +all events, a careful writer, supposing that Reid had +followed it,<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> we meet with fresh proof of how difficult +it was for Scotchmen of the last age to imbibe the true +spirit of inductive logic, since they believed, that a +system which flagrantly violated its rules, had been +framed in strict accordance with them.</p> + +<p>Leaving mental philosophy, I now come to physical +science, in which, if anywhere, we might expect that +the inductive plan would predominate, and would triumph +over the opposite, or deductive, one. How far +this was the case, I will endeavour to ascertain, by an +examination of the most important discoveries which +have been made by Scotchmen concerning the organic +and inorganic world. And, as my object is merely to +indicate the turn and character of the Scotch mind, I +shall avoid all details respecting the practical effects of +those discoveries, and shall confine myself to such a +narration as will exhibit their purely scientific aspect, +so as to enable the reader to understand what additions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> +were made to our knowledge of the laws of nature, and +in what way the additions were made. The character +of each discovery, and its process, will be stated, but +nothing more. Neither here, nor in any part of this +Introduction, do I pretend to investigate questions of +practical utility, or to trace the connexion between the +discoveries of science and the arts of life. That I shall +do in the body of the work itself, where I hope to explain +a number of minute social events, many of which +are regarded as isolated, if not incongruous. For the +present, I solely aim at those broad principles, which, +by marking out the epochs of thought, underlie the +whole fabric of society, and which must be clearly +apprehended before history can cease to be a mere +empirical assemblage of facts, of which the scientific +basis being unsettled, the true order and coherence must +be unknown.</p> + +<p>Among the sciences which concern the inorganic +world, the laws of heat occupy a conspicuous place. On +the one hand, they are connected with geology, being +intimately allied, and, indeed, necessarily bound up, +with every speculation respecting the changes and present +condition of the crust of the earth. On the other +hand, they touch the great questions of life, both animal +and vegetable; they have to do with the theory of species, +and of race; they modify soil, food, and organization; +and to them we must look for valuable help +towards solving those great problems in biology, which, +of late years, have occupied the attention of the boldest +and most advanced philosophers.</p> + +<p>Our present knowledge of the laws of heat, may be +briefly stated as branching into five fundamental divisions. +These are: latent heat; specific heat; the conduction +of heat; the radiation of heat; and, finally, the +undulatory theory of heat; by which last, we are gradually +discarding our old material views, and are accustoming +ourselves to look upon heat as simply one of +the forms of force, all of which, such as light, electricity, +magnetism, motion, gravitation, and chemical affinity, +are constantly assuming each other's shape, but, in their +total amount, are incapable either of increase or of diminution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a><a href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a> +This grand conception, which is now placing +the indestructibility of force on the same ground as the +indestructibility of matter, has an importance far above +its scientific value, considerable as that undoubtedly is. +For, by teaching us, that nothing perishes, but that, on +the contrary, the slightest movement of the smallest +body, in the remotest region, produces results which +are perpetual, which diffuse themselves through all +space, and which, though they may be metamorphosed, +cannot be destroyed, it impresses us with such an exalted +idea of the regular and compulsory march of physical +affairs, as must eventually influence other and higher +departments of inquiry. Our habits of thought are so +connected and interwoven, that notions of law and of +the necessary concatenation of things, can never be introduced +into one field of speculation, without affecting +other fields which lie contiguous to it. When, therefore, +the modern doctrine of conservation of force,<a name="FNanchor_757_757" id="FNanchor_757_757"></a><a href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> +becomes firmly coupled with the older doctrine of conservation +of matter, we may rest assured that the human +mind will not stop there, but will extend to the study +of Man, inferences analogous to those already admitted +in the study of Nature. Having once recognized that +the condition of the material universe, at any one +moment, is simply the result of every thing which has +happened at all preceding moments, and that the most +trivial disturbance would so violate the general scheme, +as to render anarchy inevitable, and that, to sever from +the total mass even the minutest fragment, would, by +dislocating the structure, bury the whole in one common +ruin, we, thus admitting the exquisite adjustment of +the different parts, and discerning, too, in the very +beauty and completeness of the design, the best proof +that it has never been tampered with by the Divine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> +Architect, who called it into being, in whose Omniscience +both the plan, and the issue of the plan, resided +with such clearness and unerring certainty, that not a +stone in that superb and symmetrical edifice has been +touched since the foundation of the edifice was laid, +are, by ascending to this pitch and elevation of thought, +most assuredly advancing towards that far higher step, +which it will remain for our posterity to take, and which +will raise their view to so commanding a height, as to +insure the utter rejection of those old and eminently +irreligious dogmas of supernatural interference with the +affairs of life, which superstition has invented, and ignorance +has bequeathed, and the present acceptance of +which betokens the yet early condition of our knowledge, +the penury of our intellectual resources, and the inveteracy +of the prejudices in which we are still immersed.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, natural, that the physical doctrine of +indestructibility applied to force as well as to matter, +should be essentially a creation of the present century, +notwithstanding a few allusions made to it by some +earlier thinkers, all of whom, however, groped vaguely, +and without general purpose. No preceding age was +bold enough to embrace so magnificent a view as a +whole, nor had any preceding philosophers sufficient +acquaintance with nature to enable them to defend +such a conception, even had they desired to entertain +it. Thus, in the case now before us, it is evident, that +while heat was believed to be material, it could not be +conceived as a force, and therefore no one could grasp +the theory of its metamorphosis into other forces; +though there are passages in Bacon which prove that +he wished to identify it with motion. It was first +necessary to abstract heat into a mere property or +affection of matter, and there was no chance of doing +this until heat was better understood in its immediate +antecedents, that is, until, by the aid of mathematics, +its proximate laws had been generalized. But, with +the single exception of Newton, whose efforts, notwithstanding +his gigantic powers, were, on this subject, +very unsatisfactory, and who, moreover, had a decided +leaning towards the material theory, no one attempted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> +to unravel the mathematical laws of heat till the latter +half of the eighteenth century, when Lambert and +Black began the career which Prevost and Fourier +followed up. The mind, having been so slow in mastering +the preliminaries and outworks of the inquiry, +was not ripe for the far more difficult enterprise of +idealizing heat itself, and so abstracting it, as to strip +it of its material attributes, and leave it to nothing but +the speculative notion of an immaterial force.</p> + +<p>From these considerations, which were necessary to +enable the reader to appreciate the value of what was +done in Scotland, it will be seen how essential it was +that the laws of the movement of heat should be +studied before its nature was investigated, and before +the emission theory could be so seriously attacked as to +allow of the possibility of that great doctrine of the +indestructibility of force, which, I make no doubt, is +destined to revolutionize our habits of thought, and to +give to future speculations a basis infinitely wider than +any previously known. In regard to the movements of +heat, we owe the laws of conduction and of radiation +chiefly to France and Geneva, while the laws of specific +heat, and those of latent heat, were discovered in Scotland. +The doctrine of specific heat, though interesting, +has not the scientific importance which belongs to +the other departments of this great subject; but the +doctrine of latent heat is extremely curious, not only in +itself, but also on account of the analogies it suggests +with various branches of physical inquiry.</p> + +<p>What is termed latent heat, is exhibited in the following +manner. If, in consequence of the application +of heat, a solid passes into a liquid, as ice, for instance, +into water, the conversion occupies a longer time than +could be explained by any theory which had been propounded +down to the middle of the eighteenth century. +Neither was it possible to explain how it is, that ice +never rises above the temperature of 32° until it is +actually melted, no matter what the heat of the adjacent +bodies may be. There were no means of accounting +for these circumstances. And though practical +men, being familiar with them, did not wonder at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> +them, they caused great astonishment among thinkers, +who were accustomed to analyze events, and to seek a +reason for common and every-day occurrences.</p> + +<p>Soon after the middle of the eighteenth century, +Black, who was then one of the professors in the University +of Glasgow, turned his attention to this subject.<a name="FNanchor_758_758" id="FNanchor_758_758"></a><a href="#Footnote_758_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a> +He struck out a theory which, being eminently +original, was violently attacked, but is now generally +admitted. With a boldness and reach of thought not +often equalled, he arrived at the conclusion, that whenever +a body loses some of its consistence, as in the case +of ice becoming water, or water becoming steam, such +body receives an amount of heat which our senses, +though aided by the most delicate thermometer, can +never detect. For, this heat is absorbed; we lose all +sight of it, and it produces no palpable effect on the +material world, but becomes, as it were, a hidden property. +Black, therefore, called it latent heat, because, +though we conceive it as an idea, we cannot trace it as +a fact. The body is, properly speaking, hotter; and +yet its temperature does not rise. Directly, however, +the foregoing process is inverted, that is to say, directly +the steam is condensed into water, or the water hardened +into ice, the heat returns into the world of sense; +it ceases to be latent, and communicates itself to the +surrounding objects. No new heat has been created; +it has, indeed, appeared and disappeared, so far as +our senses are concerned; but our senses were deceived, +since there has, in truth, been neither addition +nor diminution.<a name="FNanchor_759_759" id="FNanchor_759_759"></a><a href="#Footnote_759_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a> That this remarkable theory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> +paved the way for the doctrine of the indestructibility +of force, will be obvious to whoever has +examined the manner in which, in the history of the +human mind, scientific conceptions are generated. The +process is always so slow, that no single discovery has +ever been made, except by the united labours of several +successive generations. In estimating, therefore, what +each man has done, we must judge him, not by the +errors he commits, but by the truths he propounds. +Most of his errors are not really his own. He inherits +them from his predecessors; and if he throws some of +them off, we should be grateful, instead of being dissatisfied +that he has not rejected all. Black, no doubt, +fell into the error of regarding heat as a material substance, +which obeys the laws of chemical composition.<a name="FNanchor_760_760" id="FNanchor_760_760"></a><a href="#Footnote_760_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> +But this was merely an hypothesis, which was +bequeathed to him, and with which the existing state +of thought forced him to encumber his theory. He +inherited the hypothesis, and could not get rid of his +troublesome possession. The real service which he +rendered is, that, in spite of that hypothesis, which +clung to him to the last, he, far more than any of his +contemporaries, contributed towards the great conception +of idealizing heat, and thus enabled his successors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> +to admit it into the class of immaterial and supersensual +forces. Once admitted into that class, the list of forces +became complete; and it was comparatively easy to +apply to the whole body of force, the same notion of +indestructibility, which had previously been applied to +the whole body of matter. But it was hardly possible +to effect this object, while heat stood, as it were, midway +between force and matter, yielding opposite results +to different senses; amenable to the touch, but invisible +to the eye. What was wanting, was to remove it +altogether out of the jurisdiction of the senses, and to +admit that, though we experience its effects, we can +only conceive its existence. Towards accomplishing +this, Black took a prodigious stride. Unconscious, +perhaps, of the remote tendency of his own labours, he +undermined that doctrine of material heat, which he +seemed to support. For, by his advocacy of latent +heat, he taught that its movements constantly baffle, +not only some of our senses, but all of them; and that, +while our feelings make us believe that heat is lost, +our intellect makes us believe that it is not lost. Here, +we have apparent destructibility, and real indestructibility. +To assert that a body received heat without its +temperature rising, was to make the understanding +correct the touch, and defy its dictates. It was a bold +and beautiful paradox, which required courage as well +as insight to broach, and the reception of which marks +an epoch in the human mind, because it was an immense +step towards idealizing matter into force. Some, +indeed, have spoken of invisible matter; but that is a +contradiction in terms, which will never be admitted, +as long as the forms of speech remain unchanged. +Nothing can be invisible, except force, mind, and the +Supreme Cause of all. We must, therefore, ascribe to +Black the signal merit that he first, in the study of +heat, impeached the authority of the senses, and +thereby laid the foundation of every thing which was +afterwards done. Besides the relation which his discovery +bears to the indestructibility of force, it is also +connected with one of the most splendid achievements +effected by this generation in inorganic physics;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> +namely, the establishment of the identity of light and +heat. To the senses, light and heat, though in some +respects similar, are in most respects dissimilar. Light, +for instance, affects the eye, and not the touch. Heat +affects the touch, but, under ordinary circumstances, +does not affect the eye. The capital difference, however, +between them is, that heat, unlike light, possesses +the property of temperature; and this property is so +characteristic, that until our understandings are invigorated +by science, we cannot conceive heat separated +from temperature, but are compelled to confuse one +with the other. Directly, however, men began to adopt +the method followed by Black, and were resolved to +consider heat as supersensual, they entered the road +which led to the discovery of light and heat being merely +different developments of the same force. Ignoring the +effects of heat on themselves, or on any part of the +creation, which was capable of feeling its temperature, +and would therefore be deceived by it, nothing was left +for them to do, but to study its effects on the inanimate +world. Then, all was revealed. The career of discovery +was fairly opened; and analogies between light +and heat, which even the boldest imagination had +hardly suspected, were placed beyond a doubt. To +the reflection of heat, which had been formerly known, +were now added the refraction of heat, its double +refraction, its polarization, its depolarization, its circular +polarization, the interference of its rays, and their +retardation; while, what is more remarkable than all, +the march of our knowledge on these points was so +swift, that before the year 1836 had come to a close, +the chain of evidence was completed by the empirical +investigations of Forbes and Melloni, they themselves +little witting that every thing which they accomplished +was prepared before they were born, that they were +but the servants and followers of him who indicated +the path in which they trod, and that their experiments, +ingenious as they were, and full of resource, +were simply the direct practical consequence of one of +those magnificent ideas which Scotland has thrown +upon the world, and the memory of which is almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> +enough so to bribe the judgment, as to tempt us to +forget, that, while the leading intellects of the nation +were engaged in such lofty pursuits, the nation itself, +untouched by them, passed them over with cold and +contemptuous indifference, being steeped in that deadening +superstition, which turns a deaf ear to every sort +of reason, and will not hearken to the voice of the +charmer, charm he never so wisely.</p> + +<p>By thus considering the descent and relationship of +scientific conceptions, we can alone understand what +we really owe to Black's discovery of latent heat. In +regard to the method of the discovery, little need be +said, since every student of the Baconian philosophy +must see, that the discovery was of a kind for which +none of the maxims of that system had provided. As +latent heat escapes the senses, it could not obey the +rules of a philosophy, which grounds all truth on observation +and experiment. The subject of the inquiry +being supersensual, there was no scope for what Bacon +called crucial experiments and separations of nature. +The truth was in the idea; experiments, therefore, +might illustrate it, might bring it up to the surface, +and so enable men to grasp it, but could not prove +it. And this, which appears on the very face of the +discovery, is confirmed by the express testimony of +Dr. Thomson, who knew Black, and was, indeed, one +of the most eminent of his pupils. We are assured by +this unimpeachable witness, that Black, about the year +1759 began to speculate concerning heat; that the +result of those speculations was the theory of latent +heat; that he publicly taught that theory in the year +1761; but that the experiments which were necessary +to convince the world of it were not made till 1764,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_761_761" id="FNanchor_761_761"></a><a href="#Footnote_761_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> +though, as I need hardly add, according to the inductive +method, it was a breach of all the rules of philosophy +to be satisfied with the theory three years before +the experiments were made, and it was a still greater +breach, not only to be satisfied with it, but to have +openly promulgated it as an original and unquestionable +truth, which explained, in a new manner, the +economy of the material world.</p> + +<p>The intellect of Black belonged to a class, which, in +the eighteenth century, was almost universal in Scotland, +but was hardly to be found in England, and which, +for want of a better word, we are compelled to call +deductive, though fully admitting that even the most +deductive minds have in them a large amount of induction, +since, indeed, without induction, the common +business of life could not be carried on. But for the purposes +of scientific classification, we may say, that a man +or an age is deductive, when the favourite process is +reasoning from principles instead of reasoning to them, +and when there is a tendency to underrate the value of +specific experience. That this was the case with the +illustrious discoverer of latent heat, we have seen, both +from the nature of the discovery, and from the decisive +testimony of his friend and pupil. And a further confirmation +may be found in the circumstance, that, +having once propounded his great idea, he, instead of +instituting a long series of laborious experiments, by +which it might be verified in its different branches, +preferred reasoning from it according to the general +maxims of dialectic; pushing it to its logical consequences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> +rather than tracking it into regions where the +senses might either confirm or refute it.<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> By following +this process of thought, he was led to some beautiful +speculations, which are so remote from experience, +that even now, with all the additional resources of our +knowledge, we cannot tell whether they are true or +false. Of this kind were his views respecting the +causes of the preservation of man, whose existence +would, he thought, be endangered, except for the power +which heat possesses of lying latent and unobserved. +Thus, for example, when a long and severe winter was +followed by sudden warmth, it appeared natural that +the ice and snow should melt with corresponding suddenness; +and if this were to happen, the result would +be such terrible inundations, that it would be hardly +possible for man to escape from their ravages. Even +if he escaped, his works, that is, the material products +of his civilization, would perish. From this catastrophe, +nothing saves him but the latent power of heat. Owing +to this power, directly the ice and snow begin to melt +at their surface, the heat enters their structure, where +a large part of it remains in abeyance, and thus losing +much of its power, the process of liquefaction is arrested. +This dreadful agent is lulled, and becomes +dormant. It is weakened at the outset of its career, and +is laid up, as in a storehouse, from which it can afterwards +emerge, gradually, and with safety to the human +species.<a name="FNanchor_763_763" id="FNanchor_763_763"></a><a href="#Footnote_763_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this way, as summer advances, a vast magazine of +heat is accumulated, and is preserved in the midst of +water, where it can do man no injury, since, indeed, his +senses are unable to feel it. There the heat remains +buried, until, in the rotation of the seasons, winter +returns, and the waters are congealed into ice. In the +process of congelation, that treasury of heat, which had +been hidden all the summer, reappears; it ceases to be +latent; and now, for the first time, striking the senses +of man, it tempers, on his behalf, the severity of winter. +The faster the water freezes, the faster the heat is disengaged; +so that, by virtue of this great law of nature, +cold actually generates warmth, and the inclemency of +every season, though it cannot be hindered, is softened +in proportion as the inclemency is more threatening.<a name="FNanchor_764_764" id="FNanchor_764_764"></a><a href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a></p> + +<p>Thus, again, inasmuch as heat becomes latent, and +flies from the senses, not only when ice is passing into +water, but also when water is passing into steam, we +find in this latter circumstance, one of the reasons why +man and other animals can live in the tropics, which, +but for this, would be deserted. They are constantly +suffering from the heat which is collected in their +bodies, and which, considered by itself, is enough to +destroy them. But this heat causes thirst, and they +consequently swallow great quantities of fluid, much of +which exudes through the pores of the skin in the form +of vapour. And as, according to the theory of latent +heat, vapour cannot be produced without a vast amount +of heat being buried within it, such vapour absorbs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> +carries off from the body, that which, if left in the +system, would prove fatal. To this we must add, that, +in the tropics, the evaporation of water is necessarily +rapid, and the vapour which is thus produced, becomes +another storehouse of heat, and a vehicle by which it +is removed from the earth, and prevented from unduly +interfering with the economy of life.<a name="FNanchor_765_765" id="FNanchor_765_765"></a><a href="#Footnote_765_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a></p> + +<p>From these and many other arguments, all of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> +were so essentially speculative, and dealt with such +hidden processes of nature, that even now we are not +justified either in confidently admitting them or in +positively denying them, Black was led to that great +doctrine of the indestructibility of heat,<a name="FNanchor_766_766" id="FNanchor_766_766"></a><a href="#Footnote_766_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> which, as I +have pointed out, has, in its connexion with the indestructibility +of force, a moral and social importance +even superior to its scientific value. Though the +evidence of which he was possessed was far more scanty +than what we now have, he, by the reach of his commanding +intellect, rather than by the number and +accuracy of his facts, became so penetrated with a conviction +of the stability of physical affairs, that he not +only applied that idea to the subtle phenomena of heat, +but, what was much harder to do, he applied it to cases +in which heat so entirely escapes the senses, that man +has no cognizance of it, except through the medium of +the imagination. According to his view, heat passes +through an immense variety of changes, during which +it appears to be lost; changes which no eye can ever +see, which no touch can ever experience, and which no +instrument can ever measure. Still, and in the midst +of all these changes, it remains intact. From it nothing +can be taken, and to it nothing can be added. In one +of those fine passages of his Lectures, which, badly +reported as they are,<a name="FNanchor_767_767" id="FNanchor_767_767"></a><a href="#Footnote_767_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> bear the impress of his elevated +genius, Black, after stating what would probably +happen, if the total amount of heat existing in the +world were to be diminished, proceeds to speculate on +the consequences of its being increased. Were it possible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> +for any power to add to it ever so little, it would +at once overstep its bounds; the equilibrium would be +disturbed; the framework of affairs would be disjointed. +The evil rapidly increasing, and acting with +accumulated force, nothing would be able to stop its +ravages. It must continue to gain ground, till all other +principles are absorbed and conquered. Sweeping on, +unhindered, and irresistible, before it, every animal +must perish, the whole vegetable world must disappear, +the waters must pass into vapour, and the solid parts +of the globe be merged and melted, until, at length, +the glorious fabric, loosened and dissolved, would fall +away, and return to that original chaos out of which it +had been evolved.<a name="FNanchor_768_768" id="FNanchor_768_768"></a><a href="#Footnote_768_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a></p> + +<p>These, like many other of the speculations of this +great thinker, will find small favour with those purely +inductive philosophers, who not only suppose, perhaps +rightly, that all our knowledge is in its beginning built +upon facts, but who countenance, what seems to me, +the very dangerous opinion, that every increase of +knowledge must be preceded by an increase of facts. +To such men it will appear, that Black had far better +have occupied himself in making new observations, or +devising new experiments, than in thus indulging his +imagination in wild and unprofitable dreams. They +will think, that these flights of fancy are suitable, indeed, +to the poet, but unworthy of that severe accuracy, +and of that close attention to facts, which ought to +characterize a philosopher. In England, especially, +there is, among physical inquirers, an avowed determination +to separate philosophy from poetry, and to +look upon them, not only as different, but as hostile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> +Among that class of thinkers, whose zeal and ability +are beyond all praise, and to whom we owe almost unbounded +obligations, there does undoubtedly exist a +very strong opinion, that, in their own pursuit, the +imagination is extremely dangerous, as leading to +speculations, of which the basis is not yet assured, and +generating a desire to catch too eagerly at distant +glimpses before the intermediate ground has been traversed. +That the imagination has this tendency is +undeniable. But they who object to it on this account, +and who would, therefore, divorce poetry from philosophy, +have, I apprehend, taken a too limited view of +the functions of the human mind, and of the manner +in which truth is obtained. There is, in poetry, a +divine and prophetic power, and an insight into the +turn and aspect of things, which, if properly used, +would make it the ally of science instead of the enemy. +By the poet, nature is contemplated on the side of the +emotions; by the man of science, on the side of the +understanding. But the emotions are as much a part +of us as the understanding: they are as truthful; they +are as likely to be right. Though their view is different, +it is not capricious. They obey fixed laws; they +follow an orderly and uniform course; they run in +sequences; they have their logic and method of inference. +Poetry, therefore, is a part of philosophy, simply +because the emotions are a part of the mind. If the +man of science despises their teaching, so much the +worse for him. He has only half his weapons; his +arsenal is unfilled. Conquests, indeed, he may make, +because his native strength may compensate the defects +of his equipment. But his success would be more +complete and more rapid, if he were properly furnished +and made ready for the battle. And I cannot but regard +as the worst intellectual symptom of this great +country, what I must venture to call the imperfect +education of physical philosophers, as exhibited both in +their writings and in their trains of thought. This is +the more serious, because they, as a body, form the +most important class in England, whether we look at +their ability, or at the benefits we have received from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> +them, or at the influence they are exercising, and are +likely to exercise, over the progress of society. It cannot, +however, be concealed, that they display an inordinate +respect for experiments, an undue love of minute +detail, and a disposition to overrate the inventors of +new instruments, and the discoverers of new, but often +insignificant, facts. Their predecessors of the seventeenth +century, by using hypotheses more boldly, and +by indulging their imagination more frequently, did +certainly effect greater things, in comparison with the +then state of knowledge, than our contemporaries, with +much superior resources, have been able to achieve. +The magnificent generalizations of Newton and Harvey +could never have been completed in an age absorbed in +one unvarying round of experiments and observations. +We are in that predicament, that our facts have outstripped +our knowledge, and are now encumbering its +march. The publications of our scientific institutions, +and of our scientific authors, overflow with minute and +countless details, which perplex the judgment, and +which no memory can retain. In vain do we demand +that they should be generalized, and reduced into order. +Instead of that, the heap continues to swell. We want +ideas, and we get more facts. We hear constantly of +what nature is doing, but we rarely hear of what man is +thinking. Owing to the indefatigable industry of this and +the preceding century, we are in possession of a huge +and incoherent mass of observations, which have been +stored up with great care, but which, until they are +connected by some presiding idea, will be utterly useless. +The most effective way of turning them to account, +would be to give more scope to the imagination, +and incorporate the spirit of poetry with the spirit of +science. By this means, our philosophers would double +their resources, instead of working, as now, maimed, +and with only half their nature. They fear the imagination, +on account of its tendency to form hasty +theories. But, surely, all our faculties are needed in +the pursuit of truth, and we cannot be justified in discrediting +any part of the human mind. And I can +hardly doubt, that one of the reasons why we, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> +England, made such wonderful discoveries during the +seventeenth century, was because that century was also +the great age of English poetry. The two mightiest +intellects our country has produced are Shakspeare +and Newton; and that Shakspeare should have preceded +Newton, was, I believe, no casual or unmeaning +event. Shakspeare and the poets sowed the seed, +which Newton and the philosophers reaped. Discarding +the old scholastic and theological pursuits, they drew +attention to nature, and thus became the real founders +of all natural science. They did even more than this. +They first impregnated the mind of England with bold +and lofty conceptions. They taught the men of their +generation to crave after the unseen. They taught +them to pine for the ideal, and to rise above the visible +world of sense. In this way, by cultivating the +emotions, they opened one of the paths which lead to +truth. The impetus which they communicated, survived +their own day, and, like all great movements, +was felt in every department of thought. But now it +is gone; and, unless I am greatly mistaken, physical +science is at present suffering from its absence. Since +the seventeenth century, we have had no poet of the +highest order, though Shelley, had he lived, would +perhaps have become one. He had something of that +burning passion, that sacred fire, which kindles the +soul, as though it came fresh from the altar of the +gods. But he was cut off in his early prime, when his +splendid genius was still in its dawn. If we except his +immature, though marvellous, efforts, we may assuredly +say, that, for nearly two hundred years, England has +produced no poetry which bears those unmistakable +marks of inspiration which we find in Spenser, in +Shakspeare, and in Milton. The result is, that we, +separated by so long an interval from those great +feeders of the imagination, who nurtured our ancestors, +and being unable to enter fully into the feelings of +poets, who wrote when nearly all opinions, and, therefore, +nearly all forms of emotion, were very different to +what they now are, cannot possibly sympathize with +those immortal productions so closely as their contemporaries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> +did. The noble English poetry of the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries is read more than ever, but +it does not colour our thoughts; it does not shape our +understandings, as it shaped the understandings of our +forefathers. Between us and them is a chasm, which +we cannot entirely bridge. We are so far removed from +the associations amid which those poems were composed, +that they do not flash upon us with that reality +and distinctness of aim, which they would have done, +had we lived when they were written. Their garb is +strange, and belongs to another time. Not merely +their dialect and their dress, but their very complexion +and their inmost sentiments, tell of bygone days, of +which we have no firm hold. There is, no doubt, a +certain ornamental culture, which the most highly +educated persons receive from the literature of the past, +and by which they sometimes refine their taste, and +sometimes enlarge their ideas. But the real culture of +a great people, that which supplies each generation +with its principal strength, consists of what is learnt +from the generation immediately preceding. Though +we are often unconscious of the process, we build nearly +all our conceptions on the basis recognized by those +who went just before us. Our closest contact is, not +with our forefathers, but with our fathers. To them +we are linked by a genuine affinity, which, being spontaneous, +costs us no effort, and from which, indeed, we +cannot escape. We inherit their notions, and modify +them, just as they modified the notions of their predecessors. +At each successive modification, something +is lost and something is gained, until, at length, the +original type almost disappears. Therefore it is, that +ideas entertained several generations ago, bear about +the same relation to us, as ideas preserved in a foreign +literature. In both cases, the ideas may adorn our +knowledge, but they are never so thoroughly incorporated +with our minds, as to be the knowledge itself. +The assimilation is incomplete, because the sympathy +is incomplete. We have now no great poets; and our +poverty in this respect is not compensated by the fact, +that we once had them, and that we may, and do, read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> +their works. The movement has gone by; the charm +is broken; the bond of union, though not cancelled, is +seriously weakened. Hence, our age, great as it is, and, +in nearly all respects, greater than any the world has +yet seen, has, notwithstanding its large and generous +sentiments, its unexampled toleration, its love of liberty, +and its profuse, and almost reckless, charity, a certain +material, unimaginative, and unheroic character, which +has made several observers tremble for the future. +So far as I can understand our present condition, I do +not participate in these fears, because I believe that the +good we have already gained, is beyond all comparison +greater than what we have lost. But that something +has been lost, is unquestionable. We have lost much +of that imagination, which, though, in practical life, it +often misleads, is, in speculative life, one of the highest +of all qualities, being suggestive as well as creative. +Even practically, we should cherish it, because the +commerce of the affections mainly depends on it. It +is, however, declining; while, at the same time, the +increasing refinement of society accustoms us more and +more to suppress our emotions, lest they should be +disagreeable to others. And as the play of the +emotions is the chief study of the poet, we see, in this +circumstance, another reason which makes it difficult +to rival that great body of poetry which our ancestors +possessed. Therefore, it is doubly incumbent on physical +philosophers to cultivate the imagination. It is a +duty they owe to their own pursuits, which would be +enriched and invigorated by such an enlargement of +their resources. It is also a duty which they owe to +society in general; since they, whose intellectual influence +is already greater than that of any other class, and +whose authority is perceptibly on the increase, might +have power enough to correct the most serious deficiency +of the present age, and to make us some amends +for our inability to produce such a splendid imaginative +literature as that which our forefathers created, and in +which the choicest spirits of the seventeenth century +did, if I may so say, dwell and have their being.</p> + +<p>If, therefore, Black had done nothing more than set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> +the example of a great physical philosopher giving free +scope to the imagination, he would have conferred +upon us a boon, the magnitude of which it is not easy +to overrate. And it is very remarkable, that, before he +died, that department of inorganic physics, which he +cultivated with such success, was taken up by another +eminent Scotchman, who pursued exactly the same +plan, though with somewhat inferior genius. I allude, +of course, to Leslie, whose researches on heat are well +known to those who are occupied with this subject; +while, for our present purpose, they are chiefly interesting +as illustrating that peculiar method which, in the +eighteenth century, seemed essential to the Scotch mind.</p> + +<p>About thirty years after Black propounded his famous +theory of heat, Leslie began to investigate the +same topic, and, in 1804, published a special dissertation +upon it.<a name="FNanchor_769_769" id="FNanchor_769_769"></a><a href="#Footnote_769_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> In that work, and in some papers in his +<i>Treatises on Philosophy</i>, are contained his views, several +of which are now known to be inaccurate,<a name="FNanchor_770_770" id="FNanchor_770_770"></a><a href="#Footnote_770_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> though +some are of sufficient value to mark an epoch in the +history of science. Such was his generalization respecting +the connexion between the radiation of heat, and +its reflection; bodies which reflect it most, radiating it +least, and those which radiate it most, reflecting it +least. Such, too, was another wide conclusion, which +the best inquirers have since confirmed, namely, that, +while heat is radiating from a body, the intensity of +each ray is as the sine of the angle which it makes +with the surface of that body.</p> + +<p>These were important steps, and they were the +result of experiments, preceded by large and judicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> +hypotheses. In relation, however, to the economy of +nature, considered as a whole, they are of small account +in comparison with what Leslie effected towards consolidating +the great idea of light and heat being identical, +and thus preparing his contemporaries for that theory +of the interchange of forces, which is the capital intellectual +achievement of the nineteenth century. But +it is interesting to observe, that, with all his ardour, +he could not go beyond a certain length. He was so +hampered by the material tendencies of his time, that +he could not bring himself to conceive heat as a purely +supersensual force, of which temperature was the external +manifestation.<a name="FNanchor_771_771" id="FNanchor_771_771"></a><a href="#Footnote_771_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> For this, the age was barely ripe. +We accordingly find him asserting, that heat is an +elastic fluid, extremely subtle, but still a fluid.<a name="FNanchor_772_772" id="FNanchor_772_772"></a><a href="#Footnote_772_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a> His +real merit was, that, notwithstanding the difficulties +which beset his path, he firmly seized the great truth, +that there is no fundamental difference between light +and heat. As he puts it, each is merely a metamorphosis +of the other. Heat is light in complete repose. +Light is heat in rapid motion. Directly light is combined +with a body, it becomes heat; but when it is +thrown off from that body, it again becomes light.<a name="FNanchor_773_773" id="FNanchor_773_773"></a><a href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a></p> + +<p>Whether this is true or false, we cannot tell; and +many years, perhaps many generations, will have to +elapse before we shall be able to tell. But the service +rendered by Leslie is quite independent of the accuracy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> +of his opinion, as to the manner in which light and heat +are interchanged. That they are interchanged, is the +essential and paramount idea. And we must remember, +that he made this idea the basis of his researches, at a +period when some very important facts, or, I should +rather say, some very conspicuous facts, were opposed +to it; while the main facts which favoured it were still +unknown. When he composed his work, the analogies +between light and heat, with which we are now acquainted, +had not been discovered; no one being aware, +that double refraction, polarization, and other curious +properties, are common to both. To grasp so wide a +truth in the face of such obstacles, was a rare stroke of +sagacity. But, on account of the obstacles, the inductive +mind of England refused to receive the truth, as it was +not generalized from a survey of all the facts. And +Leslie, unfortunately for himself, died too soon to enjoy +the exquisite pleasure of witnessing the empirical corroboration +of his doctrine by direct experiment, although +he clearly perceived that the march of discovery, in +reference to polarization, was leading the scientific +world to a point, of which his keen eye had discerned +the nature, when, to others, it was an almost invisible +speck, dim in the distant offing.<a name="FNanchor_774_774" id="FNanchor_774_774"></a><a href="#Footnote_774_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a></p> + +<p>In regard to the method adopted by Leslie, he assures +us, that, in assuming the principles from which +he reasoned, he derived great aid from poetry; for he +knew that the poets are, after their own manner, consummate +observers, and that their united observations +form a treasury of truths, which are nowise inferior to +the truths of science, and of which science must either +avail herself, or else suffer from neglecting them.<a name="FNanchor_775_775" id="FNanchor_775_775"></a><a href="#Footnote_775_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> +apply these truths rightly, and to fit them to the +exigencies of physical inquiry, is, no doubt, a most difficult +task, since it involves nothing less than holding +the balance between the conflicting claims of the emotions +and the understanding. Like all great enterprises, +it is full of danger, and, if undertaken by an +ordinary mind, would certainly fail. But there are two +circumstances which make it less dangerous in our +time, than in any earlier period. The first circumstance +is, that the supremacy of the human understanding, +and its right to judge all theories for itself, is now more +generally admitted than ever; so that there can be +little fear of our leaning to the opposite side, and +allowing poetry to encroach on science. The other +circumstance is, that our knowledge of the laws of +nature is much greater than that possessed by any +previous age; and there is, consequently, less risk of +the imagination leading us into error, inasmuch as we +have a large number of well-ascertained truths, which +we can confront with every speculation, no matter how +plausible or ingenious it may appear.</p> + +<p>On both these grounds, Leslie was, I apprehend, +justified in taking the course which he did. At all +events, it is certain, that, by following it, he came +nearer than would otherwise have been possible, to the +conceptions of the most advanced scientific thinkers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> +of our day. He distinctly recognized that, in the +material world, there is neither break nor pause; so +that what we call the divisions of nature have no +existence, except in our minds.<a name="FNanchor_776_776" id="FNanchor_776_776"></a><a href="#Footnote_776_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> He was even +almost prepared to do away with that imaginary difference +between the organic and inorganic world, which +still troubles many of our physicists, and prevents them +from comprehending the unity and uninterrupted march +of affairs. They, with their old notions of inanimate +matter, are unable to see that all matter is living, and +that what we term death is a mere expression by which +we signify a fresh form of life. Towards this conclusion, +all our knowledge is now converging; and it is +certainly no small merit in Leslie, that he, sixty years +ago, when really comprehensive views, embracing the +whole creation, were scarcely known among scientific +men, should have strongly insisted that all forces are of +the same kind, and that we have no right to distinguish +between them, as if some were living, and others were +dead.<a name="FNanchor_777_777" id="FNanchor_777_777"></a><a href="#Footnote_777_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a></p> + +<p>We owe much to him, by whom such views were +advocated. But they were then, and in a certain, +though far smaller degree, they are now, so out of the +domain of physical experience, that Leslie never could +have obtained them by generalizing in the way which +the inductive philosophy enjoins. His great work on +heat was executed, as well as conceived, on the opposite +plan;<a name="FNanchor_778_778" id="FNanchor_778_778"></a><a href="#Footnote_778_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a> and his prejudices on this point were so strong,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> +that we are assured by his biographer, that he would +allow no merit to Bacon, who organized the inductive +method into a system, and to whose authority we in +England pay a willing, and I had almost said a servile, +homage.<a name="FNanchor_779_779" id="FNanchor_779_779"></a><a href="#Footnote_779_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a></p> + +<p>Another curious illustration of the skill with which +the Scotch mind, when once possessed of a principle, +worked from it deductively, appears in the geological +speculations of Hutton, late in the eighteenth century. +It is well known, that the two great powers which have +altered the condition of our planet, and made it what it +is, are fire and water. Each has played so considerable +a part, that we can hardly measure their relative importance. +Judging, however, from the present appearance +of the crust of the earth, there is reason to believe, +that the older rocks are chiefly the result of fusion, and +that the younger are aqueous deposits. It is, therefore, +not unlikely, that, in the order in which the energies of +nature have unfolded themselves, fire preceded water, +and was its necessary precursor.<a name="FNanchor_780_780" id="FNanchor_780_780"></a><a href="#Footnote_780_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a> But, all that we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> +are as yet justified in asserting is, that these two +causes, the igneous and the aqueous, were in full operation +long before man existed, and are still busily working. +Perhaps they are preparing another change in our +habitation, suitable to new forms of life, as superior to +man, as man is superior to the beings who occupied the +earth before his time. Be this as it may, fire and water +are the two most important and most general principles +with which geologists are concerned; and though, on +a superficial view, each is extremely destructive, it is +certain that they can really destroy nothing, but can +only decompose and recompose; shifting the arrangements +of nature, but leaving nature herself intact. +Whether one of these elements will ever again get the +upper hand of its opponent, is a speculation of extreme +interest. For, there is reason to suspect, that, at one +period, fire was more active than water, and that, at +another period, water was more active than fire. That +they are engaged in incessant warfare, is a fact with +which geologists are perfectly familiar, though, in this, as +in many other cases, the poets were the first to discern the +truth. To the eye of the geologist, water is constantly +labouring to reduce all the inequalities of the earth to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> +a single level; while fire, with its volcanic action, is +equally busy in restoring those inequalities, by throwing +up matter to the surface, and in various ways disturbing +the crust of the globe.<a name="FNanchor_781_781" id="FNanchor_781_781"></a><a href="#Footnote_781_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> And as the beauty of the +material world mainly depends on that irregularity of +aspect, without which scenery would have presented no +variety of form, and but little variety of colour, we +shall, I think, not be guilty of too refined a subtlety, if +we say that fire, by saving us from the monotony to +which water would have condemned us, has been the +remote cause of that development of the imagination +which has given us our poetry, our painting, and our +sculpture, and has thereby not only wonderfully increased +the pleasures of life, but has imparted to the +human mind a completeness of function, to which, in +the absence of such a stimulus, it could not have +attained.</p> + +<p>When geologists began to study the laws according +to which fire and water had altered the structure of the +earth, two different courses were open to them, namely, +the inductive and the deductive. The deductive plan +was to compute the probable consequences of fire and +water, by reasoning from the sciences of thermotics +and hydrodynamics; tracking each element by an independent +line of argument, and afterwards coördinating +into a single scheme the results which had been separately +obtained. It would then only remain to inquire, +how far this imaginary scheme harmonized with the +actual state of things; and if the discrepancy between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> +the ideal and the actual were not greater than might +fairly be expected from the perturbations produced by +other causes, the ratiocination would be complete, and +geology would, in its inorganic department, become a +deductive science. That our knowledge is ripe for +such a process, I am far, indeed, from supposing; but +this is the path which a deductive mind would take, so +far as it was able. On the other hand, an inductive +mind, instead of beginning with fire and water, would +begin with the effects which fire and water had produced, +and would first study these two agents, not in +their own separate sciences, but in their united action +as exhibited on the crust of the earth. An inquirer of +this sort would assume, that the best way of arriving +at truth would be to proceed from effects to causes, +observing what had actually happened, and rising +from the complex results up to a knowledge of the +simple agents, by whose power the results have been +brought about.</p> + +<p>If the reader has followed the train of thought +which I have endeavoured to establish in this chapter, +and in the first volume, he will be prepared to +expect that when, in the latter half of the eighteenth +century, geology was first seriously studied, the +inductive plan of proceeding from effects to causes +became the favourite one in England; while the deductive +plan of proceeding from causes to effects, was +adopted in Scotland and in Germany. And such was +really the case. It is generally admitted, that, in +England, scientific geology owes its origin to William +Smith, whose mind was singularly averse to system, +and who, believing that the best way of understanding +former causes was to study present effects, occupied +himself, between the years 1790 and 1815, in a laborious +examination of different strata.<a name="FNanchor_782_782" id="FNanchor_782_782"></a><a href="#Footnote_782_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> In 1815, he,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> +after traversing the whole of England on foot, published +the first complete geological map which ever +appeared, and thus took the first great step towards +accumulating the materials for an inductive generalization.<a name="FNanchor_783_783" id="FNanchor_783_783"></a><a href="#Footnote_783_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> +In 1807, and, therefore, before he had brought +his arduous task to an end, there was formed in London +the Geological Society, the express object of which, we +are assured, was, to observe the condition of the earth, +but by no means to generalize the causes which had +produced that condition.<a name="FNanchor_784_784" id="FNanchor_784_784"></a><a href="#Footnote_784_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> The resolution was, perhaps, +a wise one. At all events, it was highly characteristic +of the sober and patient spirit of the English +intellect. With what energy and unsparing toil it has +been executed, and how the most eminent members of +the Geological Society have, in the pursuit of truth, +not only explored every part of Europe, but examined +the shell of the earth in America and in Northern Asia, +is well known to all who are interested in these matters;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> +nor can it be denied, that the great works of Lyell and +Murchison prove that the men who are capable of +such laborious enterprises, are also capable of the still +more difficult achievement of generalizing their facts +and refining them into ideas. They did not go as +mere observers, but they went with the noble object +of making their observations subservient to a discovery +of the laws of nature. That was their aim; and all +honour be to them for it. Still, it is evident, that +their process is essentially inductive; it is a procedure +from the observation of complex phenomena, up to the +elements to which those phenomena are owing; it is, +in other words, a study of natural effects, in order to +learn the operation of natural causes.</p> + +<p>Very different was the process in Germany and +Scotland. In 1787, that is, only three years before +William Smith began his labours, Werner, by his work +on the classification of mountains, laid the foundation +of the German school of geology.<a name="FNanchor_785_785" id="FNanchor_785_785"></a><a href="#Footnote_785_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> His influence +was immense; and among his pupils we find the names +of Mohs, Raumer, and Von Buch, and even that of +Alexander Humboldt.<a name="FNanchor_786_786" id="FNanchor_786_786"></a><a href="#Footnote_786_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> But the geological theory +which he propounded, depended entirely on a chain of +argument from cause to effect. He assumed, that all +the great changes through which the earth had passed, +were due to the action of water. Taking this for +granted, he reasoned deductively from premisses with +which his knowledge of water supplied him. Without +entering into details respecting his system, it is enough +to say, that, according to it, there was originally one +vast and primeval sea, which, in the course of time, +deposited the primitive rocks. The base of all was +granite; then gneiss; and others followed in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> +order. In the bosom of the water, which at first +was tranquil, agitations gradually arose, which, destroying +part of the earliest deposits, gave birth to new +rocks, formed out of their ruins. The stratified thus +succeeded to the unstratified, and something like +variety was established. Then came another period, +in which the face of the waters, instead of being merely +agitated, was convulsed by tempests, and, amid their +play and collision, life was generated, and plants and +animals sprung into existence. The vast solitude was +slowly peopled, the sea gradually retired; and a foundation +was laid for that epoch, during which man entered +the scene, bringing with him the rudiments of +order and of social improvement.<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a></p> + +<p>These were the leading views of a system which, we +must remember, exercised great sway in the scientific +world, and won over to its side minds of considerable +power. Erroneous and far-fetched though it was, it +had the merit of calling attention to one of the two +chief principles which have determined the present +condition of our planet. It had the further merit of +provoking a controversy, which was eminently serviceable +to the interests of truth. For, the great enemy +of knowledge is not error, but inertness. All that we +want is discussion, and then we are sure to do well, no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> +matter what our blunders may be. One error conflicts +with another; each destroys its opponent, and truth is +evolved. This is the course of the human mind, and +it is from this point of view that the authors of new +ideas, the proposers of new contrivances, and the originators +of new heresies, are benefactors of their +species. Whether they are right or wrong, is the least +part of the question. They tend to excite the mind; +they open up the faculties; they stimulate us to fresh +inquiry; they place old subjects under new aspects; +they disturb the public sloth; and they interrupt, +rudely, but with most salutary effect, that love of +routine, which, by inducing men to go grovelling on +in the ways of their ancestors, stands in the path of +every improvement, as a constant, an outlying, and, +too often, a fatal obstacle.</p> + +<p>The method adopted by Werner was evidently deductive, +since he argued from a supposed cause, and +reasoned from it to the effects. In that cause, he +found his major premiss, and thence he worked downwards +to his conclusion, until he reached the world of +sense and of reality. He trusted in his one great idea, +and he handled that idea with consummate skill. On +that very account, did he pay less attention to existing +facts. Had he chosen, he, like other men, could have +collected them, and subjected them to an inductive +generalization. But he preferred the opposite path. +To reproach him with this is irrational; for, in his +journey after truth, he chose one of the only two roads +which are open to the human mind. In England, indeed, +we are apt to take for granted that one road is +infinitely preferable to the other. It may be so; but +on this, as on many other subjects, assertions are current +which have never been proved. At all events, +Werner was so satisfied with his method, that he would +not be at the pains of examining the position of rocks +and their strata, as they are variously exhibited in +different countries; he did not even explore his own +country, but, confining himself to a corner of Germany, +he began and completed his celebrated system,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> +without investigating the facts on which, according to +the inductive method, that system should have been +built.<a name="FNanchor_788_788" id="FNanchor_788_788"></a><a href="#Footnote_788_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a></p> + +<p>Exactly the same process, on the same subject, and +at the same time, was going on in Scotland. Hutton, +who was the founder of Scotch geology, and who, in +1788, published his <i>Theory of the Earth</i>, conducted the +inquiry just as Werner did; though, when he began +his speculations, he had no knowledge of what Werner +was doing.<a name="FNanchor_789_789" id="FNanchor_789_789"></a><a href="#Footnote_789_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> The only difference between them was, +that while Werner reasoned from the agency of water, +Hutton reasoned from the agency of fire. The cause +of this may, I think, be explained. Hutton lived in a +country where some of the most important laws of +heat had, for the first time, been generalized, and where +consequently, that department of inorganic physics had +acquired great reputation. It was natural for a Scotchman +to take more than ordinary interest in a subject +in which Scotland had been so successful, and had obtained +so much fame. We need not, therefore, wonder +that Hutton, who, like all men, felt the intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> +bent of the time in which he lived, should have yielded +to an influence of which he was, perhaps, unconscious. +In obedience to the general mental habits of his country +he adopted the deductive method. In further +obedience to the more special circumstances connected +with his own immediate pursuits, he gathered the +principles from which he reasoned from a study of fire, +instead of gathering them, as Werner did, from a study +of water.</p> + +<p>Hence it is, that, in the history of geology, the followers +of Werner are known as Neptunists, and those of +Hutton as Plutonists.<a name="FNanchor_790_790" id="FNanchor_790_790"></a><a href="#Footnote_790_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> And these terms represent the +only difference between the two great masters. In the +most important points, namely their method, they were +entirely agreed. Both were essentially one-sided; both +paid a too exclusive attention to one of the two principal +agents which have altered, and are still altering, +the crust of the earth; both reasoned from those agents, +instead of reasoning to them; and both constructed +their system without sufficiently studying the actual and +existing facts; committing, in this respect, an error +which the English geologists were the first to rectify.</p> + +<p>As I am writing a history, not of science, but of +scientific method, I can only briefly glance at the +nature of those services which Hutton rendered to +geology, and which are so considerable, that his system +has been called its present basis.<a name="FNanchor_791_791" id="FNanchor_791_791"></a><a href="#Footnote_791_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a> This, however, is +too strongly expressed; for, though Hutton was far +from denying the influence of water,<a name="FNanchor_792_792" id="FNanchor_792_792"></a><a href="#Footnote_792_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a> he did not +concede enough to it, and there is a tendency among +several geologists to admit that the system of Werner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> +considered as an aqueous theory, contains a larger +amount of truth than the advocates of the igneous +theory are willing to allow. Still, what Hutton did +was most remarkable, especially in reference to what +are now termed metamorphic rocks, the theory of +whose formation he was the first to conceive.<a name="FNanchor_793_793" id="FNanchor_793_793"></a><a href="#Footnote_793_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> Into +this, and into their connexion, on the one hand, with +the sedimentary rocks, and, on the other hand, with +those rocks whose origin is perhaps purely igneous, I +could not enter without treading on debatable ground. +But, putting aside what is yet uncertain, I will mention +two circumstances respecting Hutton which are undisputed, +and which will give some idea of his method, +and of the turn of his mind. The first circumstance is, +that, although he ascribed to subterranean heat, as exhibited +in volcanic action, a greater and more constant +energy than any previous inquirers had ventured to +do,<a name="FNanchor_794_794" id="FNanchor_794_794"></a><a href="#Footnote_794_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a> he preferred speculating on the probable consequences +of that action, rather than drawing inferences +from the facts which the action presented; he being on +this point so indifferent, that he arrived at his conclusions +without inspecting even a single region of active +volcanoes, where he might have watched the workings +of nature, and seen what she was really about.<a name="FNanchor_795_795" id="FNanchor_795_795"></a><a href="#Footnote_795_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> +other circumstance is equally characteristic. Hutton, in +his speculations concerning the geological effects of heat, +naturally availed himself of the laws which Black had +unfolded. One of those laws was, that certain earths +owe their fusibility to the presence of fixed air in +them before heat has expelled it; so that if it were +possible to force them to retain their fixed air, or carbonic +acid gas, as we now call it, no amount of heat +could deprive them of the capability of being fused. +The fertile mind of Hutton saw, in this discovery, a +principle from which he could construct a geological +argument. It occurred to him, that great pressure +would prevent the escape of fixed air from heated +rocks, and would thus enable them to be fused, notwithstanding +their elevated temperature. He then +supposed that, at a period anterior to the existence of +man, such a process had taken place under the surface +of the sea, and that the weight of so great a column of +water had prevented the rocks from being decomposed +while they were subjected to the action of fire. In this +way, their volatile parts were held together, and they +themselves might be melted, which could not have happened +except for this enormous pressure. By following +this line of argument, he accounted for the consolidation +of strata by heat; since, according to the premisses from +which he started, the oily, or bituminous parts, would +remain, in spite of the efforts of heat to disperse +them.<a name="FNanchor_796_796" id="FNanchor_796_796"></a><a href="#Footnote_796_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> This striking speculation led to the inference, +that the volatile components of a substance, and +its fixed components, may be made to cohere, in the +very teeth of that apparently irresistible agent whose +business it is to effect their separation. Such an inference +was contrary to all experience; or, to say the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> +least, no man had ever seen an instance of it.<a name="FNanchor_797_797" id="FNanchor_797_797"></a><a href="#Footnote_797_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a> Indeed, +the event was only supposed to happen in consequence +of circumstances which were never met with +on the surface of the globe, and which, therefore, were +out of the range of all human observation.<a name="FNanchor_798_798" id="FNanchor_798_798"></a><a href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> The +utmost that could be expected was, that, by means of +our instruments, we might, perhaps, on a small scale, +imitate the process which Hutton had imagined. It +was possible, that a direct experiment might artificially +combine great pressure with great heat, and that the +result might be, that the senses would realize what the +intellect had conceived.<a name="FNanchor_799_799" id="FNanchor_799_799"></a><a href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> But the experiment had +never been tried, and Hutton, who delighted in reasoning +from ideas rather than from facts, was not likely to +undertake it.<a name="FNanchor_800_800" id="FNanchor_800_800"></a><a href="#Footnote_800_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a> He cast his speculation on the world,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> +and left it to its fate.<a name="FNanchor_801_801" id="FNanchor_801_801"></a><a href="#Footnote_801_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a> Fortunately, however, for the +reception of his system, a very ingenious and skilful +experimenter of that day, Sir James Hall, determined to +test the speculation by an appeal to facts; and as nature +did not supply the facts which he wanted, he created +them for himself. He applied heat to powdered chalk, +while, at the same time, with great delicacy of manipulation, +he subjected the chalk to a pressure about equal +to the weight of a column of water half a mile high. +The result was, that, under that pressure, the volatile +parts of the chalk were held together; the carbonic +acid gas was unable to escape; the generation of +quicklime was stopped; the ordinary operations of nature +were baffled, and the whole composition, being preserved +in its integrity, was fused, and, on subsequently +cooling, actually crystallized into solid marble.<a name="FNanchor_802_802" id="FNanchor_802_802"></a><a href="#Footnote_802_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> +Never was triumph more complete. Never did a fact +more fully confirm an idea.<a name="FNanchor_803_803" id="FNanchor_803_803"></a><a href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a> But, in the mind of +Hutton, the idea preceded the fact by a long interval; +since, before the fact was known, the theory had been +raised, and the system which was built upon it had, +indeed, been published several years. It, therefore, +appears that one of the chief parts of the Huttonian +Theory, and certainly its most successful part, was +conceived in opposition to all preceding experience; +that it pre-supposed a combination of events which no +one had ever observed, and the mere possibility of +which nothing but artificial experiment could prove; +and, finally, that Hutton was so confident of the validity +of his own method of inquiry, that he disdained +to make the experiment himself, but left to another +mind that empirical branch of the investigation which +he deemed of little moment, but which we, in England, +are taught to believe is the only safe foundation of +physical research.<a name="FNanchor_804_804" id="FNanchor_804_804"></a><a href="#Footnote_804_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a></p> + +<p>I have now given an account of all the most important +discoveries made by Scotland, in the eighteenth +century, respecting the laws of the inorganic world. I +have said nothing of Watt, because, although the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> +steam-engine, which we owe to him, is of incalculable +importance, it is not a discovery, but an invention. An +invention it may justly be termed, rather than an improvement.<a name="FNanchor_805_805" id="FNanchor_805_805"></a><a href="#Footnote_805_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> +Notwithstanding what had been effected +in the seventeenth century, by De Caus, Worcester, +Papin, and Savery, and notwithstanding the later additions +of Newcomen and others, the real originality of +Watt is unimpeachable. His engine was, essentially, a +new invention; but, under its scientific aspect, it was +merely a skilful adaptation of laws previously known; +and one of its most important points, namely, the +economy of heat, was a practical application of ideas +promulgated by Black.<a name="FNanchor_806_806" id="FNanchor_806_806"></a><a href="#Footnote_806_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> The only discovery made by +Watt, was that of the composition of water. Though his +claims are disputed by the friends of Cavendish, it would +appear that he was the first who ascertained that water, +instead of being an element, is a compound of two +gases.<a name="FNanchor_807_807" id="FNanchor_807_807"></a><a href="#Footnote_807_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> This discovery was a considerable step in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> +history of chemical analysis, but it neither involved nor +suggested any new law of nature, and has, therefore, +no claim to mark an epoch in the history of the human +mind.<a name="FNanchor_808_808" id="FNanchor_808_808"></a><a href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> There is, however, one circumstance connected +with it which is too characteristic to be passed over in +silence. The discovery was made in 1783, by Watt, the +Scotchman, and by Cavendish, the Englishman, neither +of whom seems to have been aware of what the other +was doing.<a name="FNanchor_809_809" id="FNanchor_809_809"></a><a href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> But between the two there was this +difference. Watt, for several years previously, had been +speculating on the subject of water in connexion with +air, and having, by Black's law of latent heat, associated +them together, he was prepared to believe that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> +one is convertible into the other.<a name="FNanchor_810_810" id="FNanchor_810_810"></a><a href="#Footnote_810_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a> The idea of an +intimate analogy between the two bodies having once +entered his mind, gradually ripened; and when he, at +last, completed the discovery, it was merely by reasoning +from data which others possessed besides himself. +Instead of bringing to light new facts, he drew new +conclusions from former ideas.<a name="FNanchor_811_811" id="FNanchor_811_811"></a><a href="#Footnote_811_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a> Cavendish, on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> +other hand, obtained his result by the method natural +to an Englishman. He did not venture to draw a +fresh inference, until he had first ascertained some +fresh facts. Indeed, his discovery was so completely +an induction from his own experiments, that he omitted +to take into consideration the theory of latent heat, +from which Watt had reasoned, and where that eminent +Scotchman had found the premisses of his argument.<a name="FNanchor_812_812" id="FNanchor_812_812"></a><a href="#Footnote_812_812" class="fnanchor">[812]</a> +Both of these great inquirers arrived at truth, but each +accomplished his journey by a different path. And +this antithesis is accurately expressed by one of the +most celebrated of living chemists, who, in his remarks +on the composition of water, truly says, that while +Cavendish established the facts, Watt established the +idea.<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a></p> + +<p>Thus much, as to what was effected by the Scotch +in the department of inorganic science. If we now +turn to organic science, we shall find that, there also, +their labours were very remarkable. To those who are +capable of a certain elevation and compass of thought, +it will appear, in the highest degree, probable, that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> +between the organic and inorganic world, there is no +real difference. That they are separated, as is commonly +asserted, by a sharp line of demarcation, which +indicates where one abruptly ends, and the other +abruptly begins, seems to be a supposition altogether +untenable. Nature does not pause, and break off in +this fitful and irregular manner. In her works there +is neither gap nor chasm. To a really scientific mind, +the material world presents one vast and uninterrupted +series, gradually rising from the lowest to the highest +forms, but never stopping. In one part of that series, +we find a particular structure, which, so far as our +observations have yet extended, we, in another part, +cannot find. We also observe particular functions, +which correspond to the structure, and, as we believe, +result from it. This is all we know. Yet, from these +scanty facts, we, who, at present, are still in the infancy +of knowledge, and have but skimmed the surface of +things, are expected to infer, that there must be a +point, in the chain of existence, where both structure +and function suddenly cease, and, after which, we may +vainly search for signs of life. It would be difficult to +conceive a conclusion more repugnant to the whole +march and analogy of modern thought. In every department, +the speculations of the greatest thinkers are +constantly tending to coördinate all phenomena, and to +regard them as different, indeed, in degree, but by no +means as different in kind. Formerly, men were content +to ground their conviction of this difference in +kind, on the evidence of the eye, which, on a cursory +inspection, saw an organization in some bodies, and not +in others. From the organization, they inferred the +life, and supposed that plants, for instance, had life, +but that minerals had none. This sort of argument +was long deemed satisfactory; but, in the course of +time, it broke down; more evidence was required, and, +since the middle of the seventeenth century, it has been +universally admitted, that the eye, by itself, is an untrustworthy +witness, and that we must employ the +microscope, instead of relying on the unaided testimony +of our own puny and precarious senses. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> +microscope is steadily improving, and we cannot tell +what limits there are to its capacity for improvement. +Consequently, we cannot tell what fresh secrets it may +disclose. Neither can we say, that it may not be +altogether superseded by some new artificial resource, +which shall furnish us with evidence, as superior to any +yet supplied, as our present evidence is superior to that +of the naked eye. Even already, and notwithstanding +the shortness of time during which the microscope has +been a really effective instrument, it has revealed to us +organizations, the existence of which no one had previously +suspected. It has proved, that what, for thousands +of years, had been deemed mere specks of inert +matter, are, in truth, animals possessing most of the +functions which we possess, reproducing their species +in regular and orderly succession, and endowed with +a nervous system, which shows that they must be susceptible +of pain and enjoyment. It has detected life +hidden in the glaciers of Switzerland; it has found it +embedded in the polar ice, and, if it can flourish there, +it is hard to say from what quarter it can be shut out. +So unwilling, however, are most men to relinquish old +notions, that the resources of chemistry have been +called in, to ascertain the supposed difference between +organic and inorganic matter: it being asserted, that, +in the organic world, there is a greater complexity of +molecular combination, than in the inorganic.<a name="FNanchor_814_814" id="FNanchor_814_814"></a><a href="#Footnote_814_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a> Chemists +further assert, that, in organic nature, there is a predominance +of carbon, and, in inorganic, a predominance of +silicon.<a name="FNanchor_815_815" id="FNanchor_815_815"></a><a href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> But chemical analysis, like microscopic +observation, is making such rapid strides, that each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> +generation, I had almost said each year, is unsettling +some of the conclusions previously established; so that, +now, and for a long time hence, we must regard those +conclusions as empirical, and, indeed, as merely tentative. +Surely a permanent and universal inference +cannot be drawn from shifting and precarious facts, +which are admitted to-day, and may be overthrown +to-morrow. It would, therefore, appear that, in favour +of the opinion, that some bodies are living, and that +others are dead, we have nothing, except the circumstance, +that our researches, so far as they have yet +gone, have shown that cellular structure, growth, and +reproduction, are not the invariable properties of +matter, but are excluded from a large part of the visible +world, which, on that account, we call inanimate. +This is the whole of the argument on that side of the +question. On the other side, we have the fact, that +our sight, and the artificial instruments, by whose aid +we have arrived at this conclusion, are confessedly imperfect; +and we have the further fact, that, imperfect +as they are, they have proved, that the organic kingdom +is infinitely more extensive than the boldest dreamer +had ever imagined, while they have not been able to +enlarge the boundaries of the inorganic kingdom to any +thing like the same amount. This shows, that, so far +as our opinions are concerned, the balance is steadily +inclining in one given direction; in other words, as +our knowledge advances, a belief in the organic is encroaching +upon a belief in the inorganic.<a name="FNanchor_816_816" id="FNanchor_816_816"></a><a href="#Footnote_816_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a> When we, +moreover, add, that all science is manifestly converging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> +towards one simple and general theory, which shall +cover the whole range of material phenomena, and that, +at each successive step, some irregularities are explained +away, and some inequalities are reduced, it can hardly +be doubted, that such a movement tends to weaken +those old distinctions, the reality of which has been too +hastily assumed; and that, in their place, we must, +sooner or later, substitute the more comprehensive +view, that life is a property of all matter, and that +the classification of bodies into animate and inanimate, +or into organic and inorganic, is merely a provisional +arrangement, convenient, perhaps, for our +present purposes, but which, like all similar divisions, +will eventually be merged in a higher and wider +scheme.</p> + +<p>Until, however, that step is taken, we must be content +to reason according to the evidence supplied by our +imperfect instruments, or by our still more imperfect +senses. We, therefore, recognize the difference between +organic and inorganic nature, not as a scientific truth, +but as a scientific artifice, by which we separate in idea, +what is inseparable in fact; hoping, in this way, to pursue +our course with the greater ease, and ultimately to +obtain results, which will make the artifice needless. +Assuming, then, this division, we may refer all investigations +of organic bodies to one of two objects. The first +object is, to ascertain the law of those bodies, in their +usual, healthy, or, as we somewhat erroneously phrase +it, normal course. The other object is, to ascertain +their law, in their unusual, unhealthy, or abnormal +course. When we attempt to do the first of these +things, we are physiologists. When we attempt to do +the second, we are pathologists.<a name="FNanchor_817_817" id="FNanchor_817_817"></a><a href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span></p> + +<p>Physiology and pathology are thus the two fundamental +divisions of all organic science.<a name="FNanchor_818_818" id="FNanchor_818_818"></a><a href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a> Each is intimately +connected with the other; and eventually, no +doubt, both will be fused into a single study, by discovering +laws which will prove that here, as elsewhere, +nothing is really abnormal, or irregular. Hitherto, however, +the physiologists have immeasurably outstripped +the pathologists in the comprehensiveness of their views, +and, therefore, in the value of their results. For, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> +best physiologists distinctly recognize that the basis of +their science must include, not only the animals below +man, but also the entire vegetable kingdom, and that, +without this commanding survey of the whole realm +of organic nature, we cannot possibly understand even +human physiology, still less general physiology. The +pathologists, on the other hand, are so much in arrear, +that the diseases of the lower animals rarely form part +of their plan; while the diseases of plants are almost +entirely neglected, although it is certain that, until all +these have been studied, and some steps taken to generalize +them, every pathological conclusion will be eminently +empirical, on account of the narrowness of the +field from which it is collected.</p> + +<p>The science of pathology being still so backward in +the conception as well as in the execution, that even +men of real ability believe that it can be raised from a +mere study of the human frame, it will hardly be expected +that the Scotch, notwithstanding the marvellous +boldness of their speculations, should have been able, in +the eighteenth century, to anticipate a method which +the nineteenth century has yet to employ. But they +produced two pathologists of great ability, and to whom +we owe considerable obligations. These were, Cullen +and John Hunter.<a name="FNanchor_819_819" id="FNanchor_819_819"></a><a href="#Footnote_819_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a> Cullen was eminent only as a +pathologist; but Hunter, whose fine and discursive +genius took a much wider range, was great both in +physiology and in pathology. A short account of their +generalizations respecting organic science, will be a +fitting sequel to the notices I have already given of what +was done by their countrymen for inorganic science, +during the same period. It will complete our survey +of the Scotch intellect, and will enable the reader to +form some idea of the brilliant achievements of that +most remarkable people, who, contrary to the course of +affairs in all other modern nations, have shown that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> +scientific discoveries do not necessarily weaken superstition, +and that it is possible for two hostile principles +to flourish side by side, without ever coming into actual +collision, or without sensibly impairing each other's +vigour.</p> + +<p>In 1751, Cullen was appointed professor of medicine +in the University of Glasgow;<a name="FNanchor_820_820" id="FNanchor_820_820"></a><a href="#Footnote_820_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a> from which, however, +in 1756, he was removed to the University of Edinburgh,<a name="FNanchor_821_821" id="FNanchor_821_821"></a><a href="#Footnote_821_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a> +where he delivered those celebrated lectures, +on which his fame now depends. During the early +part of his career, he paid great attention to inorganic +physics, and propounded some remarkable speculations, +which are supposed to have suggested the theory of +latent heat to Black, who was his pupil.<a name="FNanchor_822_822" id="FNanchor_822_822"></a><a href="#Footnote_822_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a> But, to +follow out those views, would have required a number +of minute experiments, which it did not suit the habit +of his mind to make. Having, therefore, put forth his +ideas, he left them to germinate, and passed on to his +arduous attempt to generalize the laws of disease as they +are exhibited in the human frame. In the study of +disease, the phenomena being more obscure and less +amenable to experiment, there was greater latitude for +speculation; hence, he could more easily indulge in that +love of theory, which was his ruling passion, and with +an extreme devotion to which he has been reproached.<a name="FNanchor_823_823" id="FNanchor_823_823"></a><a href="#Footnote_823_823" class="fnanchor">[823]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> +That the reproach is not altogether unjust, must, I think, +be admitted, since we find him laying down the doctrine, +that, inasmuch as, in the treatment of disease, theory +could not be separated from practice, it was unimportant +which came first.<a name="FNanchor_824_824" id="FNanchor_824_824"></a><a href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> This was tantamount to saying, +that a medical practitioner might allow his theories to +control his observations; for it is certain that, in an +immense majority of cases, men are so tenacious of the +opinions they imbibe, that whatever, in any pursuit, +first occupies their understanding, is likely to mould all +that comes afterwards. In ordinary minds, associations +of ideas, if firmly established, become indissoluble; and +the power of separating them, and of arranging them in +new combinations, is one of the rarest of our endowments. +An average intellect, when once possessed by +a theory, can hardly ever escape from it. Hence, in +practical matters, theory should be feared, just as, in +scientific matters, it should be cherished; because +practical pursuits are chiefly engrossed by the lower +class of minds, where associations and the force of prejudice +are extremely strong, while scientific pursuits +concern the higher class, where such prepossessions +are comparatively weak, and where close associations +are more easily severed. The most powerful intellects +are most accustomed to new arrangements of thought, +and are, therefore, most able to break up old ones. On +them, belief sits lightly, because they well know how +little evidence we have for many of even our oldest +beliefs. But the average, or, as we must say, without +meaning offence, the inferior, minds, are not disturbed +by these refinements. Theories, which they have once +heartily embraced, they can hardly ever get rid of, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> +they often dignify them with the name of essential +truths, and resent every attack upon them as a personal +injury. Having inherited such theories from their +fathers, they regard them with a sort of filial piety, and +cling to them as if they were some rich acquisition, +which no one has a right to touch.</p> + +<p>To this latter class, nearly all men belong, who are +more engaged in practical pursuits than in speculative +ones. Among them, are the ordinary practitioners, +whether in medicine or in any other department, extremely +few of whom are willing to break up trains of +thought to which they are inured.<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> Though they profess +to despise theory, they are, in reality, enslaved by it. +All that they can do, is to conceal their subjection, by +terming their theory a necessary belief. It must, therefore, +be deemed a remarkable proof of Cullen's love of +deductive reasoning, that he, sagacious and clear-sighted +as he was, should have supposed that, in so practical an +art as medicine, theory could, with impunity, precede +practice. For, it is most assuredly true, that, taking +men in the average, their minds are so constructed, that +it cannot precede it without controlling it. It is equally +true, that such control must be hurtful. Even now, and +notwithstanding the great steps which have been taken +in morbid anatomy, in animal chemistry, and in the +microscopic investigation both of the fluids and solids of +the human frame, the treatment of disease is a question +of art, far more than a question of science. What chiefly +characterizes the most eminent physicians, and gives +them their real superiority, is not so much the extent of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> +their theoretical knowledge,—though that, too, is often +considerable,—but it is that fine and delicate perception +which they owe, partly to experience, and partly to a +natural quickness in detecting analogies and differences +which escape ordinary observers. The process which +they follow, is one of rapid, and, in some degree, unconscious, +induction. And this is the reason why the +greatest physiologists and chemists, which the medical +profession possesses, are not, as a matter of course, the +best curers of disease. If medicine were a science, they +would always be the best. But medicine, being still +essentially an art, depends mainly upon qualities which +each practitioner has to acquire for himself, and which +no scientific theory can teach. The time for a general +theory has not yet come, and probably many generations +will have to elapse before it does come. To suppose, +therefore, that a theory of disease should, as a matter of +education, precede the treatment of disease, is not only +practically dangerous, but logically false. With its +practical danger I am not now concerned; but its +logical aspect is a curious illustration of that passion +for systematic and dialectic reasoning which characterized +Scotland. It shows that Cullen, in his eagerness +to argue from principles to facts, instead of from facts +to principles, could, in the most important of all arts, +recommend a method of procedure, for which even our +knowledge is not ripe, but which, in his time, was so +singularly rash and immature, that nothing can explain +its adoption by a man of such vigorous understanding, +except the circumstance of his living in a country in +which that peculiar method reigned supreme.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be admitted that Cullen wielded +the method with great ability, especially in his application +of it to the science of pathology, to which it was +far better suited than to the art of therapeutics. For, +we must always remember, that the science which investigates +the laws of disease, is quite a different thing +from the art which cures it. The science has a speculative +interest, which is irrespective of all practical +considerations, and which depends simply on the fact, +that, when it is completed, it will explain the aberrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> +of the whole organic world. Pathology aims at ascertaining +the causes which determine every departure +from the natural type, whether of form or of function. +Hence it is, that no one can take a comprehensive view +of the actual state of knowledge, without studying the +theoretic relations between pathology and other departments +of inquiry. To do this, is the business, not of +practical men, but of philosophers, properly so called. +The philosophic pathologist is as different from the +physician, as a jurist is different from an advocate, or as +an agricultural chemist is different from a farmer, or as +a political economist is different from a statesman, or as +an astronomer, who generalizes the laws of the heavenly +bodies, is different from a captain, who navigates his +ship by a practical application of those laws. The two +sets of functions may be united, and occasionally, though +very rarely, they are, but there is no necessity for their +being so. While, therefore, it would be absurdly presumptuous +for an unprofessional person to pass judgment +on the therapeutical system of Cullen, it is perfectly +legitimate for any one, who has studied the theory +of these matters, to examine his pathological system; +because that, like all scientific systems, must be amenable +to general considerations, which are to be taken, +partly from the adjoining sciences, and partly from the +universal logic of philosophic method.</p> + +<p>It is from this latter, or logical, point of view, that +Cullen's pathology is interesting for the purposes of the +present chapter. The character of his investigations +may be illustrated by saying, that his method in pathology +is analogous to that which Adam Smith adopted at +the same time, though in a very different field. Both +were deductive; and both, before arguing deductively, +suppressed some of the premisses from which they +reasoned. That this suppression is the key to Adam +Smith's method, and was an intentional part of his plan, +I have already shown; as also that, in each of his two +works, he supplied the premisses in which the other +work was deficient. In this respect, he was far superior +to Cullen. For, though Cullen, like Smith, began by +mutilating his problem in order to solve it more readily,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> +he, unlike Smith, did not see the necessity of instituting +another and parallel inquiry, which should complete +the scheme, by starting from the premisses that had +been previously omitted.</p> + +<p>What I have termed the mutilation of the problem, +was effected by Cullen in the following manner. His +object was, to generalize the phenomena of disease, as +they are exhibited in the human frame; and it was obvious +to him, as to every one else, that the human frame +consists partly of solids and partly of fluids. The peculiarity +of his pathology is, that he reasons almost entirely +from the laws of the solids, and makes so little account +of the fluids, that he will only allow them to be the +indirect causes of disease, which, in a scientific view, are +to be deemed strictly subordinate to the direct causes, +as represented by the solid constituents of our body.<a name="FNanchor_826_826" id="FNanchor_826_826"></a><a href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a> +This assumption, though false, was perfectly justifiable, +since, by curtailing the problem, he simplified its study; +just as Adam Smith, in his <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, simplified +the study of human nature, by curtailing it of all its +sympathy. But this most comprehensive thinker was +careful, in his <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, to restore to +human nature the quality of which the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> +had deprived it; and, by thus establishing two different +lines of argument, he embraced the whole subject. In +the same way, it was incumbent on Cullen, after having +constructed a theory of disease by reasoning from the +solids, to have constructed another theory by reasoning +from the fluids; so that a coördination of the two theories +might have raised a science of pathology, as complete as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> +the then state of knowledge allowed.<a name="FNanchor_827_827" id="FNanchor_827_827"></a><a href="#Footnote_827_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a> But to this, his +mind was unequal. Able though he was, he lacked the +grasp of intellect which characterized Adam Smith, and +which made that great man perceive, that every deductive +argument which is founded on a suppression of +premisses, must be compensated by a parallel argument, +which takes those premisses into account.<a name="FNanchor_828_828" id="FNanchor_828_828"></a><a href="#Footnote_828_828" class="fnanchor">[828]</a> So little +was Cullen aware of this, that, having built up that +system of pathology which is known to medical writers +as Solidism, he never took the pains to accompany it +by another system, which gave the first rank to the +fluids. On the contrary, he believed that his plan was +complete and exhaustive, and that what is termed +Humoral Pathology was a fiction, which had too long +usurped the place of truth.<a name="FNanchor_829_829" id="FNanchor_829_829"></a><a href="#Footnote_829_829" class="fnanchor">[829]</a></p> + +<p>Several of the views advocated by Cullen were taken +from Hoffmann, and several of the facts from Gaubius;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> +but that his pathology, considered as a whole, is essentially +original, is evident from a certain unity of design +which is inconsistent with extensive plagiarism, and +which proves that he had thoroughly thought out his subject +for himself. Without, however, stopping to inquire +how much he borrowed from others, I will briefly indicate +a few of the salient points of his system, in order to +enable the reader to understand its general character.</p> + +<p>According to Cullen, all the solids in the human body +are either simple or vital. The simple solids retain, +after death, the properties which they possessed during +life. But the vital solids, which form the fundamental +part of the nervous system, are marked by properties, +which disappear directly death occurs.<a name="FNanchor_830_830" id="FNanchor_830_830"></a><a href="#Footnote_830_830" class="fnanchor">[830]</a> Hence, the +simple solids, having fewer functions than the vital, +have also fewer diseases; and the maladies to which +they are liable admit of easy classification.<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> The real +difficulty lies in the vital solids, because on their peculiarities +the whole nervous system depends, and nearly +all disorders are immediately due to changes in them. +Cullen, therefore, made the nervous system the basis of +his pathology; and, in speculating on its functions, he +assigned the chief place to an occult principle, which he +termed the Animal Power, or Energy, of the brain.<a name="FNanchor_832_832" id="FNanchor_832_832"></a><a href="#Footnote_832_832" class="fnanchor">[832]</a> +This principle acted on the vital solids. When the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> +principle worked well, the body was healthy; when it +worked ill, the body was unhealthy. Since, then, the +state of the vital solids was the main cause of disorder, +and since the Energy of the brain was the main cause +of the state of the vital solids, it became important to +know what the influences were which acted on the +Energy, because in them we should find the beginning +of the series. Those influences were divided by Cullen +into physical and mental. The physical were, heat, +cold, and effluvia, the three most potent of the material +disturbers of the human frame.<a name="FNanchor_833_833" id="FNanchor_833_833"></a><a href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a> The mental influences, +which excited the brain to act on the solids, were comprised +under six different heads, namely, the will, the +emotions, the appetites, the propensities, and, finally, +the two great principles of habit and of imitation, on +which he, with good reason, laid considerable stress.<a name="FNanchor_834_834" id="FNanchor_834_834"></a><a href="#Footnote_834_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a> +In arguing from these mental causes, and in generalizing +the relations between them and the sensations of the +body, he, faithful to his favourite method, proceeded +deductively from the metaphysical principles then in +vogue, without inquiring inductively into their validity, +such an induction being, he thought, no part of his +duty.<a name="FNanchor_835_835" id="FNanchor_835_835"></a><a href="#Footnote_835_835" class="fnanchor">[835]</a> He was too anxious to get on with his dialectic, +to be interrupted by so trifling a matter as the truth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> +or falsehood of the premisses on which the reason +rested. What he did in the metaphysical part of his +pathology, he also did in its physical part. Although +the blood and the nerves are the two leading features +of the human economy, he did not search into them by +a separate induction; he subjected them neither to +chemical experiments in order to learn their composition, +nor to microscopic observations in order to learn their +structure.<a name="FNanchor_836_836" id="FNanchor_836_836"></a><a href="#Footnote_836_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a> This is the more observable, because +though we must admit that animal chemistry was then +generally neglected, and that its real meaning was +scarcely understood until the wonderful labours of +Berzelius revealed its importance, still the microscope +was ready to Cullen's hands; it having been invented +a hundred and fifty years before he completed his pathology,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> +and having been in common scientific use for about +a hundred years. But his love of synthesis overcame +him. His system is constructed by reasoning from +general principles; and of that process, he certainly +was a consummate master. Between the premisses and +the conclusion, he hardly ever lets error creep in. And, +in reference to the results of his speculations, he had one +immense merit, which will always secure to him a conspicuous +place in the history of pathology. By insisting +on the importance of the solids, he, one-sided though he +was, corrected the equal one-sidedness of his predecessors; +for, with extremely few exceptions, all the best +pathologists, from Galen downwards, had erred in ascribing +too much to the fluids, and had upheld a purely +humoral pathology. Cullen turned the minds of men in +the other direction; and though, in teaching them that +the nervous system is the sole primary seat of disease, +he committed a great mistake, it was a mistake of the +most salutary kind. By leaning on that side, he restored +the balance. Hence, I have no doubt, he indirectly encouraged +those minute researches into the nerves, which +he would not himself stop to make, but which, in the +next generation, gave rise to the capital discoveries of +Bell, Shaw, Mayo, and Marshall Hall. At the same +time, the old humoral pathology, which had prevailed +for many centuries, was practically pernicious, because, +assuming that all diseases are in the blood, it produced +that constant and indiscriminate venesection, which destroyed +innumerable lives, besides the irreparable injury +it often inflicted both on body and mind; weakening those +whom it was unable to slay. Against this merciless onslaught, +which made medicine the curse of mankind, the +Solid Pathology was the first effective barrier.<a name="FNanchor_837_837" id="FNanchor_837_837"></a><a href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a> Practically, +therefore, as well as speculatively, we must hail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> +Cullen as a great benefactor of his species; and we must +regard his appearance as an epoch in the history of human +comfort, as well as in the history of human thought.</p> + +<p>It may, perhaps, facilitate the conceptions of unprofessional +readers, if I give, in as few words as possible, +a specimen of the way in which Cullen employed his +method, in investigating the theory of some one class of +diseases. For this purpose, I will select his doctrine of +fever, which, though now generally abandoned, once +exercised more influence than any other part of his +pathology. Here, as elsewhere, he reasons from the +solids.<a name="FNanchor_838_838" id="FNanchor_838_838"></a><a href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> Disregarding the state of the blood, he says, +that the cause of all fever is a diminished energy of +the brain.<a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a><a href="#Footnote_839_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a> Such diminution may be produced by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> +various sedatives, the most common of which are +effluvia, whether marsh or human, intemperance, fear, +and cold.<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> Directly the energy of the brain is impaired, +the disease begins. Rapidly passing through +the nervous system, its first palpable effect is a chill, or +cold fit, which is accompanied by a spasm on the extremities +of the arteries, particularly where they touch +the surface of the body.<a name="FNanchor_841_841" id="FNanchor_841_841"></a><a href="#Footnote_841_841" class="fnanchor">[841]</a> This spasm on the extreme<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> +vessels, irritates the heart and arteries, and the irritation +continues till the spasm is relaxed.<a name="FNanchor_842_842" id="FNanchor_842_842"></a><a href="#Footnote_842_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a> At the same +time, the increased action of the heart restores the +energy of the brain; the system rallies; the extreme +vessels are relieved; while, as a consequence of the +whole movement, sweat is excreted, and the fever +abates.<a name="FNanchor_843_843" id="FNanchor_843_843"></a><a href="#Footnote_843_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a> Shutting out, therefore, all consideration of +the fluids of the body, the successive stages of languor, +cold fit, and hot fit, might, in Cullen's opinion, be +generalized by reasoning merely from the solids, which, +furthermore, produced his well-known distinction between +fevers, the continuance of which is owing to an +excess of spasm, and those, the continuance of which is +owing to an excess of debility.<a name="FNanchor_844_844" id="FNanchor_844_844"></a><a href="#Footnote_844_844" class="fnanchor">[844]</a></p> + +<p>A similar process of thought gave birth to his +<i>Nosology</i>, or general classification of diseases, which +some have regarded as the most valuable part of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> +labours;<a name="FNanchor_845_845" id="FNanchor_845_845"></a><a href="#Footnote_845_845" class="fnanchor">[845]</a> though, for reasons already mentioned, we +must, I think, reject all such attempts as premature, and +as likely to work more harm than good, unless they are +simply used as a contrivance to aid the memory. At +all events, the <i>Nosology</i> of Cullen, though it exhibits +clear traces of his powerful and organizing mind, is +fast falling into disrepute, and we may be sure, that, +for a long time yet, a similar fate will await its successors. +Our pathological knowledge is still too young +for so great an enterprise.<a name="FNanchor_846_846" id="FNanchor_846_846"></a><a href="#Footnote_846_846" class="fnanchor">[846]</a> We have every reason to +expect, that, with the aid of chemistry, and of the +microscope, it will continue to grow more rapidly than +it has hitherto done. Without venturing to predict the +rate of its increase, we may form some idea of it, by +considering what has been effected with resources very +inferior to those we now possess. In a work of great +authority, published in the year 1848, it is stated, that +since the appearance of Cullen's <i>Nosology</i>, our mere +enumeration of diseases has almost doubled, while our +knowledge of the facts relating to disease has more +than doubled.<a name="FNanchor_847_847" id="FNanchor_847_847"></a><a href="#Footnote_847_847" class="fnanchor">[847]</a></p> + +<p>I have now only one more name to add to this splendid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> +catalogue of the great Scotchmen of the eighteenth +century.<a name="FNanchor_848_848" id="FNanchor_848_848"></a><a href="#Footnote_848_848" class="fnanchor">[848]</a> But it is the name of a man, who, for comprehensive +and original genius, comes immediately after +Adam Smith, and must be placed far above any other +philosopher whom Scotland has produced. I mean, of +course, John Hunter, whose only fault was, an occasional +obscurity, not merely of language, but also of +thought. In this respect, and, perhaps, in this alone, +Adam Smith had the advantage; for his mind was so +flexible, and moved so freely, that even the vastest +designs were unable to oppress it. With Hunter, on +the contrary, it sometimes seemed as if the understanding +was troubled by the grandeur of his own conceptions, +and doubted what path it ought to take. He +hesitated; the utterance of his intellect was indistinct.<a name="FNanchor_849_849" id="FNanchor_849_849"></a><a href="#Footnote_849_849" class="fnanchor">[849]</a> +Still, his powers were so extraordinary, that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> +among the great masters of organic science, he belongs, +I apprehend, to the same rank as Aristotle, Harvey, and +Bichat, and is somewhat superior either to Haller or +Cuvier. As to this classification, men will differ, according +to their different ideas of the nature of science, +and, above all, according to the extent to which they +appreciate the importance of philosophic method. It is +from this latter point of view that I have, at present, to +consider the character of John Hunter; and, in tracing +the movements of his most remarkable mind, we shall +find, that, in it, deduction and induction were more +intimately united than in any other Scotch intellect, +either of the seventeenth or eighteenth century. The +causes of this unusual combination, I will now endeavour +to ascertain. When they are understood, they +will not only explain many peculiarities in his works, +but will afford materials for speculation, to those who +love to examine the development of ideas, and who are +able to discern the way in which different schemes of +national thought have given different shapes to national +character, and have thereby modified the whole course +of human affairs, to an extent of which the ordinary +compilers of history have not the slightest suspicion.</p> + +<p>Hunter remained in Scotland till the age of twenty, +when he settled in London; and, though he was abroad +for about three years, he abandoned his own country, +and became, socially and intellectually, a native of +England.<a name="FNanchor_850_850" id="FNanchor_850_850"></a><a href="#Footnote_850_850" class="fnanchor">[850]</a> Hence, the early associations of his mind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> +were formed in the midst of a deductive nation; the +later associations, in the midst of an inductive one. +For twenty years he lived among a people, who are, +perhaps, the acutest reasoners in Europe, if you concede +to them the principles from which they reason; but +who, on the other hand, owing to their proneness to +this method, are so greedy after general principles, that +they will accept them on almost any evidence, and are, +therefore, at once very credulous and very logical. In +that school, and surrounded by those habits, the intellect +of John Hunter was nurtured during the most +impressible period of his life. Then the scene suddenly +shifted. Coming to England, he passed forty years in +the heart of the most empirical nation in Europe; a +nation utterly abhorring all general principles, priding +itself on its common sense, boasting, and with good +reason too, of its practical sagacity, proclaiming aloud +the superiority of facts over ideas, and despising every +theory, unless some direct and immediate benefit could +be expected to accrue from it. The young and ardent +Scotchman found himself transplanted into a country +totally different from that which he had just quitted; +and such a difference could not fail to influence his +mind. He saw, on every side, marks of prosperity, and +of long and uninterrupted success, not only in practical, +but also in speculative, life; and he was told that these +things were effected by a system which made facts the +first consideration. He was ambitious of fame, but he +perceived that the road to fame was not the same in +England as in Scotland. In Scotland, a great logician +would be deemed a great man; in England, little account +would be made of the beauty of his logic, unless he was +careful that the premisses from which he argued, +were trustworthy, and verified by experience. A new +machine, a new experiment, the discovery of a salt, or +of a bone, would, in England, receive a wider homage, +than the most profound speculation from which no +obvious results were apprehended. That this way of +contemplating affairs has produced great good, is certain. +But it is also certain, that it is a one-sided way, +and satisfies only part of the human mind. Many of +the noblest intellects crave for something which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span> +cannot supply. In England, however, during the greater +part of the eighteenth century, it was even more +supreme than it is now, and was, indeed, so universal, +that, from the year 1727 until nearly the close of the +century, our country did not possess, in any branch of +science, a speculator who had sufficient force to raise +himself above those narrow views which were then +deemed the perfection of wisdom.<a name="FNanchor_851_851" id="FNanchor_851_851"></a><a href="#Footnote_851_851" class="fnanchor">[851]</a> Much was added +to our knowledge, but its distant boundaries were not +enlarged. Though there was an increase of curious +and valuable details, and though several of the small +and proximate laws of nature were generalized, it must +be admitted, that those lofty generalizations, which we +owe to the seventeenth century, remained stationary, +and that no attempt was made to push beyond them. +When John Hunter arrived in London, in 1748, Newton +had been dead more than twenty years, and the English +people, absorbed in practical pursuits, and now beginning, +for the first time, to enter into political life, had +become more averse than ever to inquiries which aimed +at truth without regard to utility, and had accustomed +themselves to value science chiefly for the sake of the +direct and tangible benefit which they might hope to +derive from it.</p> + +<p>That Hunter must have been influenced by these +circumstances, will be obvious to whoever considers +how impossible it is for any single mind to escape from +the pressure of contemporary opinion. But, inasmuch +as all his early associations had inclined him in another +direction, we perceive that, during his long residence +in England, he was acted on by two conflicting forces. +The country of his birth made him deductive; the +country of his adoption made him inductive. As a +Scotchman, he preferred reasoning from general principles +to particular facts; as an inhabitant of England, +he became inured to the opposite plan of reasoning +from particular facts to general principles. In every +country, men naturally give the first place to what is +most valued. The English respect facts more than +principles, and therefore begin with the facts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> +Scotch consider principles as most important, and +therefore begin with the principles. And, I make +no doubt that one of the reasons why Hunter, in +investigating a subject, is often obscure, is that, on +such occasions, his mind was divided between these +two hostile methods, and that, leaning sometimes to +one and sometimes to the other, he was unable to determine +which he should choose. The conflict darkened +his understanding. Adam Smith, on the other hand, +in common with all the great Scotchmen who remained +in Scotland, was remarkably clear. He, like Hume, +Black, and Cullen, never wavered in his method. +These eminent men were not acted on by English +influence. Of all the most illustrious Scotchmen of the +eighteenth century, Hunter alone underwent that influence, +and he alone displayed a certain hesitation and +perplexity of thought, which seems unnatural to so +great a mind, and which, as it appears to me, is best +explained by the peculiar circumstances in which he +was placed.</p> + +<p>One of the ablest of his commentators has justly +observed, that his natural inclination was, to conjecture +what the laws of nature were, and then reason from +them, instead of reasoning to them by slow and gradual +induction.<a name="FNanchor_852_852" id="FNanchor_852_852"></a><a href="#Footnote_852_852" class="fnanchor">[852]</a> This process of deduction was, as I have +shown, the favourite method of all Scotchmen, and, +therefore, was precisely the course which we should +have expected him to adopt. But, inasmuch as he +was surrounded by the followers of Bacon,<a name="FNanchor_853_853" id="FNanchor_853_853"></a><a href="#Footnote_853_853" class="fnanchor">[853]</a> this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> +natural bias was warped, and a large part of his marvellous +activity was employed in observations and +experiments, such as no Scotch thinker, living in Scotland, +would ever have engaged in. He himself declared, +that thinking was his delight;<a name="FNanchor_854_854" id="FNanchor_854_854"></a><a href="#Footnote_854_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a> and there can +be no doubt that, had he been differently situated, +thinking would have been his principal pursuit. As it +was, the industry with which he collected facts, is one +of the most conspicuous features in his career. His +researches covered the whole range of the animal kingdom, +and were conducted with such untiring zeal, that +he dissected upwards of five hundred different species, +exclusive of dissections of different individuals, and +exclusive, too, of dissections of a large number of +plants.<a name="FNanchor_855_855" id="FNanchor_855_855"></a><a href="#Footnote_855_855" class="fnanchor">[855]</a> The results were carefully arranged and +stored up in that noble collection which he formed, +and of the magnitude of which we may gain some idea +from the statement, that, at his death, it contained +upwards of ten thousand preparations illustrative of +the phenomena of nature.<a name="FNanchor_856_856" id="FNanchor_856_856"></a><a href="#Footnote_856_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a> By this means, he became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> +so intimately acquainted with the animal kingdom, +that he made a vast number of discoveries, which, considered +singly, are curious, but which, when put +together, constitute an invaluable body of new truths. +Of these, the most important are, the true nature of +the circulation in crustacea and insects;<a name="FNanchor_857_857" id="FNanchor_857_857"></a><a href="#Footnote_857_857" class="fnanchor">[857]</a> the organ +of hearing in cephalopods;<a name="FNanchor_858_858" id="FNanchor_858_858"></a><a href="#Footnote_858_858" class="fnanchor">[858]</a> the power possessed by +mollusks of absorbing their shells;<a name="FNanchor_859_859" id="FNanchor_859_859"></a><a href="#Footnote_859_859" class="fnanchor">[859]</a> the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> +bees do not collect wax, but secrete it;<a name="FNanchor_860_860" id="FNanchor_860_860"></a><a href="#Footnote_860_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a> the semicircular +canals of the cetacea;<a name="FNanchor_861_861" id="FNanchor_861_861"></a><a href="#Footnote_861_861" class="fnanchor">[861]</a> the lymphatics of +birds;<a name="FNanchor_862_862" id="FNanchor_862_862"></a><a href="#Footnote_862_862" class="fnanchor">[862]</a> and the air-cells in the bones of birds.<a name="FNanchor_863_863" id="FNanchor_863_863"></a><a href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> +We are also assured, that he anticipated the recent discoveries +respecting the embryo of the kangaroo;<a name="FNanchor_864_864" id="FNanchor_864_864"></a><a href="#Footnote_864_864" class="fnanchor">[864]</a> +and his published works prove, that, in the human +subject, he discovered the muscularity of the arteries,<a name="FNanchor_865_865" id="FNanchor_865_865"></a><a href="#Footnote_865_865" class="fnanchor">[865]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> +the muscularity of the iris,<a name="FNanchor_866_866" id="FNanchor_866_866"></a><a href="#Footnote_866_866" class="fnanchor">[866]</a> and the digestion of the +stomach after death by its own juice.<a name="FNanchor_867_867" id="FNanchor_867_867"></a><a href="#Footnote_867_867" class="fnanchor">[867]</a> Although, in +his time, animal chemistry was not yet raised to a +system, and was consequently little heeded by physiologists, +Hunter endeavoured, by its aid, to search out +the qualities of the blood, so as to ascertain the properties +of its constituents.<a name="FNanchor_868_868" id="FNanchor_868_868"></a><a href="#Footnote_868_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a> He also examined it in +different stages of embryonic life, and by minutely +tracking it through its periods of development, he made +the capital discovery, that the red globules of the blood +are formed later than its other components. His contemporaries, +however, were so little alive to the importance +of this great physiological truth, that it fell dead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> +upon them, and, being forgotten, it was, about fifty +years afterwards, rediscovered, and was announced, in +1832, as a law of nature which had just been brought +to light.<a name="FNanchor_869_869" id="FNanchor_869_869"></a><a href="#Footnote_869_869" class="fnanchor">[869]</a> This is one of many instances in the +history of our knowledge, which proves how useless it +is for a man to advance too far beyond the age in +which he lives.<a name="FNanchor_870_870" id="FNanchor_870_870"></a><a href="#Footnote_870_870" class="fnanchor">[870]</a> But Hunter, besides making the +discovery, also saw its meaning. From it, he inferred +that the function of the red globules is to minister to +the strength of the system, rather than to its repair.<a name="FNanchor_871_871" id="FNanchor_871_871"></a><a href="#Footnote_871_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a> +This is now universally admitted; but it was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span> +admitted till long after his death. Its recognition is +chiefly owing to the rapid advance of animal chemistry, +and to improvements in the microscope. For, by the +employment of these resources, it has become manifest, +that the red globules, the respiratory process, the production +of animal heat, and the energy of the locomotive +organs, are but different parts of a single +scheme.<a name="FNanchor_872_872" id="FNanchor_872_872"></a><a href="#Footnote_872_872" class="fnanchor">[872]</a> Their connexion with each other is established, +not only by a comparison of different species, +but also by a comparison of different members of +the same species. In human beings, for example, +the locomotive and other animal functions are more +active in persons of a sanguine temperament than +in those of a lymphatic temperament; while, in sanguine +temperaments, the globules are more numerous +than in lymphatic ones. The knowledge of this +fact we owe to Lecanu;<a name="FNanchor_873_873" id="FNanchor_873_873"></a><a href="#Footnote_873_873" class="fnanchor">[873]</a> and to him we are also +indebted for an analogous fact, corroborating the same +view. He has shown, that the blood of women contains +more water and fewer red globules than the +blood of men;<a name="FNanchor_874_874" id="FNanchor_874_874"></a><a href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> so that here again we discern the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> +relation between these globules and the energy of +animal life. Inasmuch, however, as these researches +were not made until many years after the death of +Hunter, the coincidence between them and his speculative +conclusions is a striking instance of his power +of generalization, and of that unrivalled knowledge of +comparative anatomy, which supplied him with materials +from which, in spite of the backwardness of +animal chemistry, he was able to draw an inference, +which later and minuter researches have decisively +verified.<a name="FNanchor_875_875" id="FNanchor_875_875"></a><a href="#Footnote_875_875" class="fnanchor">[875]</a></p> + +<p>Having thus, by a comprehensive survey of the +animal world, associated its remarkable faculty of +movement with the state of its blood, Hunter turned +his attention to another aspect of the question, and took +into consideration the movements of the vegetable +world, in the hope that, by comparing these two divisions +of nature, he might detect some law, which, being +common to both, should unite into one study all the +principles of organic motion. Though he failed in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> +great undertaking, some of his generalizations are very +suggestive, and well illustrate the power and grasp of +his mind. Looking at the organic kingdom as a whole, +he supposed that its capacity of action, both in animals +and in vegetables, was of three kinds. The first kind, +was the action of the individual upon the materials it +already possessed; and this gave rise to growth, secretion, +and other functions, in which the juice of the +plant was equivalent to the blood of the animal.<a name="FNanchor_876_876" id="FNanchor_876_876"></a><a href="#Footnote_876_876" class="fnanchor">[876]</a> +The second kind of action had for its object to increase +these materials; it was always excited by want, and +its result was, to nourish and preserve the individual.<a name="FNanchor_877_877" id="FNanchor_877_877"></a><a href="#Footnote_877_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a> +The third kind was entirely due to external causes, +including the whole material world, all the phenomena +of which were a stimulus to some kind of action.<a name="FNanchor_878_878" id="FNanchor_878_878"></a><a href="#Footnote_878_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> +By combining, in different ways, these different sources of +motion, and by studying every incitement to action, first, +in reference to one of the three great divisions just indicated, +and, secondly, in reference to the <i>power</i> of action, +as distinguished from the <i>quantity</i> of action,<a name="FNanchor_879_879" id="FNanchor_879_879"></a><a href="#Footnote_879_879" class="fnanchor">[879]</a> Hunter +believed that some fundamental truths might be obtained, +if not by himself, at all events by his successors. +For, he thought that, though animals can do many +things which plants cannot, still, the immediate cause +of action is in both cases the same.<a name="FNanchor_880_880" id="FNanchor_880_880"></a><a href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a> In animals, there +is more variety of motion, but in plants there is more +real power. A horse is certainly far stronger than a +man. Yet a small vine cannot only support, but can +raise, a column of fluid five times higher than a horse +can. Indeed, the power which a plant exercises of +holding a leaf erect during an entire day, without pause +and without fatigue, is an effort of astonishing vigour, +and is one of many proofs, that a principle of compensation +is at work, so that the same energy which, in +the animal world, is weakened by being directed to +many objects, is, in the vegetable world, strengthened +by being concentrated on a few.<a name="FNanchor_881_881" id="FNanchor_881_881"></a><a href="#Footnote_881_881" class="fnanchor">[881]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span></p> + +<p>In pursuing these speculations, which, amid much +that is uncertain, contain, I firmly believe, a large +amount of important, though neglected, truth, Hunter +was led to consider how motion is produced by various +forces, such as magnetism, electricity, gravitation, and +chemical attraction.<a name="FNanchor_882_882" id="FNanchor_882_882"></a><a href="#Footnote_882_882" class="fnanchor">[882]</a> This carried him into inorganic +science, where, as he clearly saw, the foundation of all +organic science must be laid. Just as, on the one hand, +the human frame could never be successfully studied, +except by the aid of principles which had been collected +from an investigation of animals below man,<a name="FNanchor_883_883" id="FNanchor_883_883"></a><a href="#Footnote_883_883" class="fnanchor">[883]</a> so, on +the other hand, the laws of those very animals must, +he said, be approached through the laws of common or +inorganic matter.<a name="FNanchor_884_884" id="FNanchor_884_884"></a><a href="#Footnote_884_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a> He, therefore, aimed at nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> +less than to unite all the branches of physical science, +taking them in the order of their relative complexity, +and proceeding from the simplest to the most intricate. +With this view, he examined the structure of the +mineral kingdom, and, by an extensive comparison of +crystals, he sought to generalize the principles of form, +in the same way as, by a comparison of animals, he +sought to generalize the principles of function. And, in +doing this, he took into account, not only regular crystals, +but also irregular ones.<a name="FNanchor_885_885" id="FNanchor_885_885"></a><a href="#Footnote_885_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a> For, he knew that, in +nature, nothing is really irregular or disorderly; though +our imperfect apprehension, or rather the backwardness +of our knowledge, prevents us from discerning the +symmetry of the universal scheme. The beauty of the +plan, and the necessity of the sequence, are not always +perceptible. Hence, we are too apt to fancy that the +chain is broken, because we cannot see every link in it. +From this serious error, Hunter was saved by his +genius, even more than by his knowledge. Being +satisfied that every thing which happens in the material +world, is so connected and bound up with its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> +antecedents, as to be the inevitable result of what had +previously occurred, he looked with a true philosophical +eye at the strangest and most capricious shapes, because +to him they had a meaning and a necessary purpose. +To him, they were neither strange nor capricious. +They were deviations from the natural course; but it +was a fundamental tenet of his philosophy, that nature, +even in the midst of her deviations, still retains her +regularity.<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> Or, as he elsewhere expresses it, deviation +is, under certain circumstances, part of the law of +nature.<a name="FNanchor_887_887" id="FNanchor_887_887"></a><a href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a></p> + +<p>To generalize such irregularities, or, in other words, +to show that they are not irregularities at all, was the +main object of Hunter's life, and was the noblest part of +his mission. Hence, notwithstanding his vast achievements +in physiology, his favourite pursuit was pathology,<a name="FNanchor_888_888" id="FNanchor_888_888"></a><a href="#Footnote_888_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a> +where, the phenomena being more complex, the +intellect has more play. In this great field, he studied +the aberrations of structure and of function, in the +vegetable, as well as in the animal, world;<a name="FNanchor_889_889" id="FNanchor_889_889"></a><a href="#Footnote_889_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> while,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> +for the aberrations of form, which are the external +manifestations of disturbed structure, he took into consideration +the appearances presented by the mineral +kingdom. There, the power of crystallization is the +leading feature, and there, violations of symmetry constitute +the essential disorder, whether the deformity of +the crystal is subsequent to its production, or whether, +being the result of what happened before its production, +it is an original, and, if we may so say, congenital, +defect. In either case, it is a deviation from the normal +type, and, as such, is analogous to the monstrosities, +both of animals and of vegetables.<a name="FNanchor_890_890" id="FNanchor_890_890"></a><a href="#Footnote_890_890" class="fnanchor">[890]</a> The mind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span> +Hunter, by sweeping through this immense range of +thought, attained to such commanding views of the +philosophy of disease, that, in that department, he is +certainly without a rival. As a physiologist, he was +equalled, or perhaps excelled, by Aristotle; but as a +pathologist, he stands alone, if we consider what pathology +was when he found it, and what it was when he +left it.<a name="FNanchor_891_891" id="FNanchor_891_891"></a><a href="#Footnote_891_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a> Since his death, the rapid advance of morbid +anatomy and of chemistry has caused some of his doctrines +to be modified, and some of them to be overturned. +This has been the work of inferior men, +wielding superior chemical and microscopical resources. +To say that the successors of John Hunter are inferior +to him, is no disparagement to their abilities, since he +was one of those extremely rare characters who only +appear at very long intervals, and who, when they do +appear, remodel the fabric of knowledge. They revolutionize +our modes of thought; they stir up the intellect +to insurrection; they are the rebels and demagogues +of science. And though the pathologists of the nineteenth +century have chosen a humbler path, this must +not blind us to their merits, or prevent us from being +grateful for what they have done. We cannot, however, +be too often reminded, that the really great men, +and those who are the sole permanent benefactors of +their species, are not the great experimenters, nor the +great observers, nor the great readers, nor the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span> +scholars, but the great thinkers. Thought is the creator +and vivifier of all human affairs. Actions, facts, and +external manifestations of every kind, often triumph +for a while; but it is the progress of ideas which ultimately +determines the progress of the world. Unless +these are changed, every other change is superficial, +and every improvement is precarious. It is, however, +evident that, in the present state of our knowledge, all +ideas respecting nature must refer either to the normal +or to the abnormal; that is to say, they must be concerned +either with what is regular, uniform, and obedient +to recognized principles, or else with what is +irregular, perturbed, and disobedient. Of these two +divisions, the first belongs to science; the second, to superstition. +John Hunter formed the superb conception +of merging both classes of ideas into one, by showing +that nothing is irregular, that nothing is perturbed, that +nothing is disobedient. Centuries, perhaps, may elapse +before that conception will be consummated. But what +Hunter effected towards it, places him at the head of +all pathologists, ancient or modern. For, with him, +the science of pathology did not mean the laws of disease +in man alone, or even in all animals, or even in +the whole organic kingdom; but it meant the laws of +disease and of malformation in the entire material +world, organic and inorganic. His great object was, +to raise a science of the abnormal. He determined to +contemplate nature as a vast and united whole, exhibiting, +indeed, at different times different appearances, +but preserving, amidst every change, a principle of +uniform and uninterrupted order, admitting of no deviation, +undergoing no disturbance, and presenting no +real irregularity, albeit to the common eye, irregularities +abound on every side.</p> + +<p>As pathology was the science to which Hunter was +most devoted, so also was it that in which his natural +love of deduction was most apparent. Here, far more +than in his physiological inquiries, do we find a desire +to multiply original principles from which he could +reason; in opposition to the inductive method, which +always aims at diminishing these principles by gradual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> +and successive analysis. Thus, for instance, in his +animal pathology, he attempted to introduce, as an +ultimate principle from which he could argue, the idea +that all diseases move more rapidly towards the skin +than towards internal parts, by virtue of some hidden +force, which also obliges vegetables to approach the +surface of the earth.<a name="FNanchor_892_892" id="FNanchor_892_892"></a><a href="#Footnote_892_892" class="fnanchor">[892]</a> Another favourite proposition, +which he often used as a major premiss, and by its aid +constructed deductively a pathological argument, was, +that in no substance, be it what it may, can two processes +go on in the same part at the same time.<a name="FNanchor_893_893" id="FNanchor_893_893"></a><a href="#Footnote_893_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a> By +applying this universal proposition to the more limited +phenomena of animal life, he inferred that two general +diseases cannot co-exist in the same individual; and he +relied so much on this ratiocination, that he refused to +credit any testimony by which it was impugned.<a name="FNanchor_894_894" id="FNanchor_894_894"></a><a href="#Footnote_894_894" class="fnanchor">[894]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> +There is reason to believe that his conclusion is erroneous, +and that different diseases can so accompany +each other, as to be united in the same individual, at +the same time, and in the same part.<a name="FNanchor_895_895" id="FNanchor_895_895"></a><a href="#Footnote_895_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a> Whether or not +this be the case, it is equally interesting to notice the +process of thought which led Hunter to bestow infinitely +more pains in arguing from the general theory, than in +arguing to it. Indeed, he can hardly be said to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> +argued to it at all, since he obtained it by a rough and +hasty generalization from what seemed to be the obvious +properties of inorganic matter. Having thus obtained +it, he applied it to the pathological phenomena of the +organic world, and especially of the animal world. +That he should have adopted this course, is a curious +proof of the energy of his deductive habits, and of the +force of mind which enabled him so to set at naught +the traditions of his English contemporaries, as to +follow a method which, in the opinion of every one +who surrounded him, was not only full of danger, but +could never lead to truth.</p> + +<p>Other parts of his pathology abound with similar +instances, which show how anxious he was to assume +principles on which he could build arguments. Of this +kind were his ideas respecting sympathy, as connected +with action. He suggested, that the simplest forms of +sympathy would probably be found in the vegetable +world, because there, the general arrangements are less +intricate than in the animal world.<a name="FNanchor_896_896" id="FNanchor_896_896"></a><a href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a> On this supposition, +he constructed a series of curious and refined +speculations, of which, however, I must confine myself +to giving a very short summary. As animals sympathize +more than vegetables, this helps us to understand +why it is that their movements are more numerous. +For, sympathy, being a susceptibility to impression, is +also a principle of action.<a name="FNanchor_897_897" id="FNanchor_897_897"></a><a href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> Like other principles of +action, it may be either natural or diseased.<a name="FNanchor_898_898" id="FNanchor_898_898"></a><a href="#Footnote_898_898" class="fnanchor">[898]</a> But, +whichever it be, it can, in plants, have only one mode +of development, because, in them, it can only be influenced +by stimulus; while in animals, which have +sensation, it has necessarily three modes, one from +stimulus, one from sensation, and a third compounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> +of the other two.<a name="FNanchor_899_899" id="FNanchor_899_899"></a><a href="#Footnote_899_899" class="fnanchor">[899]</a> These are the largest divisions of +sympathy, if we consider the organic world as a whole. +In single cases, however, sympathy admits of still +further subdivision. We may reason from it, in reference +to the age of the individual;<a name="FNanchor_900_900" id="FNanchor_900_900"></a><a href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> we may also reason +from it in reference to temperament, since, in point +of fact, temperament is nothing but susceptibility to +action.<a name="FNanchor_901_901" id="FNanchor_901_901"></a><a href="#Footnote_901_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a> And when sympathy is in action, we may, +by analyzing our idea of it, reduce it to five different +heads, and may classify it as continued, or contiguous, +or remote, or similar, or dissimilar.<a name="FNanchor_902_902" id="FNanchor_902_902"></a><a href="#Footnote_902_902" class="fnanchor">[902]</a> All these supplied +Hunter with principles from which, by reasoning +deductively, he attempted to explain the facts of +disease; for, according to him, disease merely consists +in a want of combination of actions.<a name="FNanchor_903_903" id="FNanchor_903_903"></a><a href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a> By this process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> +of thought, he was induced to neglect those predisposing +causes, to which inductive pathologists pay +great attention, and with which the works of his +English contemporaries were much occupied. Such +causes could only be generalized from observation, and +Hunter made no account of them. Indeed, he even +denies their real existence, and asserts that a predisposing +cause is simply an increased susceptibility to +form disposition to action.<a name="FNanchor_904_904" id="FNanchor_904_904"></a><a href="#Footnote_904_904" class="fnanchor">[904]</a></p> + +<p>By reasoning from the twofold ideas of action and of +sympathy, Hunter constructed the deductive or synthetic +part of his pathology. This he did as a Scotchman, +and to this, had he always lived in Scotland, he would +probably have confined himself. But being for forty +years surrounded by Englishmen, and having his mind +impregnated by English habits, he contracted something +of their mode of thought. We, accordingly, find that a +considerable portion of his pathology is as inductive as +the most eager disciple of Bacon could desire; forming, +in this respect, a striking contrast to the purely synthetic +method of Cullen, the other great pathologist of +Scotland. In the attempt, however, which Hunter +made to mix these two methods, he perplexed both +himself and his readers. Hence that obscurity, which +even his warmest admirers have noticed, though they +have not perceived its cause. Vast as his powers were,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span> +he was unable to effect a complete union between +induction and deduction. That this should have happened, +will not surprise any one, who considers how +some of the greatest thinkers have failed in this, the +most difficult of all enterprises. Among the ancients, +Plato failed in induction, and all his followers failed +with him; since none of them have placed sufficient +confidence in facts, and in the process of reasoning +from particulars to generals. Among the moderns, +Bacon was deficient in deduction, and every Baconian +has been similarly deficient; it being the essential vice +of that school to despise reasoning from general propositions, +and to underrate the value of the syllogism. +It may, indeed, be doubted if the history of the world +supplies more than two instances of physical philosophers +being as great in one form of investigation as in +the other. They are Aristotle and Newton, who wielded +each method with equal ease, combining the skill and +boldness of deduction with the caution and perseverance +of induction, masters alike of synthesis and of analysis, +as capable of proceeding from generals to particulars, +as from particulars to generals, sometimes making +ideas precede facts, and sometimes making facts precede +ideas, but never faltering, never doubting which +course to take, and never allowing either scheme unduly +to encroach on its opposite. That Hunter should +be unable to perform this, merely proves that he was +inferior to these two men, whose almost incredible +achievements entitle them to be termed the prodigies of +the human race. But what he did was wonderful, and, +in his own department, has never been rivalled. Of the +character and extent of his inquiries, I have given a +sketch, which, notwithstanding its imperfections, may +serve to illustrate the antagonism of the Scotch and +English intellects, by showing how the methods peculiar +to each nation struggled for mastery in that great +mind, which was exposed to the action of both. Which +method predominated in Hunter, it would be hard to +say. But it is certain, that his understanding was +troubled by their conflict. It is also certain, that, +owing to his love of deduction, or of reasoning from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> +general ideas, he exercised much less sway over his +English contemporaries, than he would have done if he +had exclusively followed their favourite method of +reasoning from particular facts. Hence, the disproportion +between his influence and his merits. As to +his merits, it is now admitted that, in addition to his +physiological discoveries, and the great pathological +views which he propounded, we may trace to him +nearly all the surgical improvements which were introduced +within about forty years after his death.<a name="FNanchor_905_905" id="FNanchor_905_905"></a><a href="#Footnote_905_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> +He was the first who explained, and, indeed, the first +who recognized, the disease of inflammation of the +veins, which is of frequent occurrence, and, under the +name of phlebitis, has latterly been much studied, but +which, before his time, had been ascribed to the most +erroneous causes.<a name="FNanchor_906_906" id="FNanchor_906_906"></a><a href="#Footnote_906_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a> On general inflammation, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> +threw so much light, that the doctrines which he +advocated, and which were then ridiculed as whimsical +novelties, are now taught in the schools, and have +become part of the common traditions of the medical +profession.<a name="FNanchor_907_907" id="FNanchor_907_907"></a><a href="#Footnote_907_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a> He, moreover, introduced what is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span> +probably the most capital improvement in surgery ever +effected by a single man; namely, the practice in +aneurism of tying the artery at a distance from the seat +of disease. This one suggestion has saved thousands of +lives; and both the suggestion, and the first successful +execution of it, are entirely owing to John Hunter, who, +if he had done nothing else, would, on this account +alone, have a right to be classed among the principal +benefactors of mankind.<a name="FNanchor_908_908" id="FNanchor_908_908"></a><a href="#Footnote_908_908" class="fnanchor">[908]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, so far as his own immediate reputation was +concerned, all was in vain. He was in the midst of +a people who had no sympathy with that mode of +thought which was most natural to him. They cared +nothing for ideas, except with a few to direct and +tangible results; he valued ideas for themselves, and +for the sake of their truth, independently of all other +considerations. His English contemporaries, prudent, +sagacious, but short-sighted, seeing few things at a +time, but seeing those things with admirable clearness, +were unable to appreciate his comprehensive +speculations. Hence, in their opinion, he was little +else than an innovator and an enthusiast.<a name="FNanchor_909_909" id="FNanchor_909_909"></a><a href="#Footnote_909_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a> Hence, +too, even the practical improvements which he introduced +were coldly received, because they proceeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> +from so suspicious a source. The great Scotchman, +thrown among a nation whose habits of mind were +uncongenial to his own, stood, says one of the most +celebrated of his disciples, in a position of solitary and +comfortless superiority.<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id="FNanchor_910_910"></a><a href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> Indeed, so little was he +regarded by that very profession of which he was the +chiefest ornament, that, during the many years in +which he delivered lectures in London on anatomy and +on surgery, his audience never amounted to twenty +persons.<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>I have now completed my examination of the Scotch +intellect as it unfolded itself in the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries. The difference between those +two periods must strike every reader. In the seventeenth +century, the ablest Scotchmen wasted their +energies on theological subjects, respecting which we +have no trustworthy information, and no means of +obtaining any. On these topics, different persons and +different nations, equally honest, equally enlightened, +and equally competent, have entertained, and still entertain, +the most different opinions, which they advocate +with the greatest confidence, and support by +arguments, perfectly satisfactory to themselves, but +contemptuously rejected by their opponents. Each +side deeming itself in possession of the truth, the impartial +inquirer, that is, he who really loves truth, and +knows how difficult it is to obtain it, seeks for some +means by which he may fairly adjudicate between +these conflicting pretensions, and determine which is +right and which is wrong. The further he searches,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span> +the more he becomes convinced that no such means +are to be found, and that these questions, if they do +not transcend the limits of the human understanding, +do, certainly, transcend its present resources, and have +no chance of being answered, while other and much +simpler problems are still unsolved. It would be +strange, indeed, if we, ignorant of so many lower and +subordinate matters, should be able to reach and penetrate +these remote and complicated mysteries. It +would be strange if we, who, notwithstanding the +advances we have made, are still in the infancy of our +career, and who, like infants, can only walk with unsteady +gait, and are scarce able to move without +stumbling, even on plain and level ground, should, +nathless, succeed in scaling those dizzy heights, which, +overhanging our path, lure us on where we are sure to +fall. Unfortunately, however, men are, in every age, +so little conscious of their deficiencies, that they not +only attempt this impossible task, but believe they have +achieved it. Of those who are a prey to this delusion, +there are always a certain number, who, seated on +their imaginary eminence, are so inflated by the fancied +superiority, as to undertake to instruct, to warn, and +to rebuke the rest of mankind. Giving themselves out +as spiritual advisers, and professing to teach what they +have not yet learned, they exhibit in their own persons +that most consistent of all combinations, a combination +of great ignorance with great arrogance. From this, +other evils inevitably follow. The ignorance produces +superstition; the arrogance produces tyranny. Hence +it is, that, in a country like Scotland, where the pressure +of long-continued and adverse circumstances has +consolidated the power of these pretenders to wisdom, +such sad results become conspicuous in every direction. +Not only the national character, but also the national +literature, feel their influence, and are coloured by +them. It was, therefore, natural that, in Scotland, in +the seventeenth century, when the authority of the +clergy was most uncontrolled, the consequences of that +authority should be most apparent. It was natural +that a literature should be created such as that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> +which I have given some account; a literature which +encouraged superstition, intolerance, and bigotry; a +literature full of dark misgivings, and of still darker +threats; a literature which taught men that it was +wrong to enjoy the present, and that it was right to +tremble at the future; a literature, in a word, which, +spreading gloom on every side, soured the temper, +corrupted the affections, numbed the intellect, and +brought into complete discredit those bold and original +inquiries, without which there can be no advance in +human knowledge, and consequently no increase of +human happiness.</p> + +<p>To this, the literature of the eighteenth century offered +a striking and most exhilarating contrast. It seemed +as if, in a moment, all was changed. The Baillies, the +Binnings, the Dicksons, the Durhams, the Flemings, +the Frasers, the Gillespies, the Guthries, the Halyburtons, +the Hendersons, the Rutherfords, and the rest of +that monkish rabble, were succeeded by eminent and +enterprising thinkers, whose genius lighted up every +department of knowledge, and whose minds, fresh and +vigorous as the morning, opened for themselves a new +career, and secured for their country a high place in +the annals of European intellect. Something of what +they effected, I have endeavoured to narrate; much, +however, has been left untold. But I have brought +forward sufficient evidence to convince even the most +sceptical reader of the splendour of their achievements, +and of the difference between the noble literature +which they produced, and those wretched compositions +which disfigured the preceding century.</p> + +<p>Still, great as the difference was, the two literatures +had, as I have shown, one important point in common. +Both were essentially deductive; and the proof of +this I have given at considerable length, because, +though it has, so far as I am aware, escaped the attention +of all previous inquirers, its consequences were +of the utmost moment to the fortunes of Scotland, +and are, moreover, full of interest to those who, in +their investigations of human affairs, desire to penetrate +below the mere surface and symptoms of things.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span></p> + +<p>If we take a general view of those countries where +science has been cultivated, we shall find that, +wherever the deductive method of inquiry has predominated, +knowledge, though often increased and +accumulated, has never been widely diffused. On the +other hand, we shall find that, when the inductive +method has predominated, the diffusion of knowledge +has always been considerable, or, at all events, has been +beyond comparison greater than when deduction was +prevalent. This holds good, not only of different +countries, but also of different periods in the same +country. It even holds good of different individuals +in the same period, and in the same country. If, in +any civilized nation, two men, equally gifted, were to +propound some new and startling conclusion, and one +of these men were to defend his conclusion by reasoning +from ideas or general principles, while the other man +were to defend his by reasoning from particular and +visible facts, there can be no doubt that, supposing all +other things the same, the latter man would gain most +adherents. His conclusion would be more easily diffused, +simply because a direct appeal, in the first +instance, to palpable facts, strikes the vulgar with +immediate effect; while an appeal to principles is +beyond their ken, and as they do not sympathize with +it, they are apt to ridicule it. Facts seem to come +home to every one, and are undeniable. Principles are +not so obvious, and, being often disputed, they have, to +those who do not grasp them, an unreal and illusory +appearance, which weakens their influence. Hence it +is that inductive science, which always gives the first +place to facts, is essentially popular, and has on its +side those innumerable persons, who will not listen to +the more refined and subtle teachings of deductive +science. Hence, too, we find historically that the +establishment of the modern inductive philosophy, with +its varied and attractive experiments, its material appliances, +and its constant appeal to the senses, has been +intimately connected with the awakening of the public +mind, and coincides with that spirit of inquiry, and +with that love of liberty, which have been constantly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span> +advancing since the sixteenth century. We may assuredly +say, that scepticism and democracy are the two +leading features of this great scientific movement. The +seventeenth century, which ushered in the Baconian +philosophy, was remarkable for its insubordinate spirit, +especially in the country where that philosophy originated, +and where it most flourished. In the next age, +it was transplanted into France, and there, too, it +worked upon the popular mind, and, was, as I have +already pointed out, one of the principal causes of the +French Revolution.</p> + +<p>If we look still closer into this interesting question, +we shall find further corroboration of the view, that the +inferences of an inductive philosophy are more likely to +be diffused than those of a deductive one. Inductive +science rests immediately upon experience, or, at all +events, upon experiment, which is merely experience +artificially modified. Now, an immense majority of +mankind, even in the most advanced countries, are, by +the constitution of their minds, incapable of seizing +general principles and applying them to daily affairs, +without doing serious mischief, either to themselves, or +to others. Such an application requires not only great +dexterity, but also a knowledge of those disturbing +causes which affect the operation of all general theorems. +The task, being so difficult to perform, is rarely attempted; +and average men, possessed of a tolerably +sound judgment, do, with good reason, rely mainly on +experience, which is to them a safer and more useful +guide than any principle, however accurate and scientific +it might be. This begets in their minds a prejudice +on behalf of experimental inquiries, and a corresponding +dislike of the opposite and more speculative method. +And it can, I think, hardly be doubted, that one of the +causes of the triumph of the Baconian philosophy, is the +growth of the industrious classes, whose business-like +and methodical habits are eminently favourable to empirical +observations of the uniformities of sequence, +since, indeed, on the accuracy of such observations the +success of all practical affairs depends. Certainly, we +find that the overthrow of the purely deductive scholasticism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span> +of the Middle Ages has been everywhere accompanied +by the spread of trade; and whoever will carefully +study the history of Europe, will discern many +traces of a connexion between the two movements, both +of which are marked by an increasing respect for material +and empirical interests, and a disregard of ideal and +speculative pursuits.</p> + +<p>The relation between all this and the popular tendency +of induction is obvious. For one person who can +think, there are at least a hundred persons who can +observe. An accurate observer is, no doubt, rare; but +an accurate thinker is far rarer. Of this the proofs are +too abundant to be disputed. Indeed, no one can mix +with his fellow-creatures, without seeing how much +more natural it is for them to notice than to reflect; +and how extremely unusual it is to meet with any one +whose conversation, or whose writings, bear marks of +patient and original thought. And, inasmuch as thinkers +are more prone to accumulate ideas, while observers are +more prone to accumulate facts, the overwhelming predominance +of the observing class is a decisive reason +why induction, which begins with facts, is always more +popular than deduction, which begins with ideas. It is +often said, and probably with truth, that all deduction +is preceded by induction; so that, in every syllogism, +the major premiss, however obvious and necessary it +may appear, is merely a generalization of facts, or +record of what the senses had already observed. But +this opinion, whether true or false, does not affect what +I have just stated, because it concerns the origin of our +knowledge, and not its subsequent treatment; that is +to say, it is a metaphysical opinion, rather than a logical +one. For, even supposing that all deduction rests ultimately +on induction, it is, nevertheless, certain that +there are innumerable cases in which the induction +takes place at so early a period of life that we are +unconscious of it, and can by no effort recall the process. +The axioms of geometry afford a good specimen +of this. No one can tell when or how he first believed +that the whole is greater than its part, or that things +which are equal to the same thing are equal to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> +another. All these preliminary steps are concealed +from us, and the strength and dexterity of deduction +are displayed in the subsequent steps by which the +major premiss is adjusted, and, as it were, fitted to the +minor. This often requires great subtlety of thought, +and, in every instance, the external world is put aside, +and lost sight of. The process, being ideal, has no +concern, either with observations or experiments. The +suggestions of the senses are shut out, while the mind +passes through a long train of successive syllogisms, in +which each conclusion is turned into the premiss of a +new argument, until, at length, an inference is deductively +obtained, which, to those who merely hear it +enunciated, seems to have no connexion with the first +premisses, though, in reality, it is the necessary consequence +of them.</p> + +<p>A method, so recondite, and so hidden from the public +gaze, can never command the public sympathy. Unless, +therefore, the human mind should undergo some remarkable +change in its nature as well as in its resources, +the sensuous process of working upwards from particular +facts to general principles, will always be more +attractive than the ideal process of working downwards +from principles to facts. In both cases, there is, no +doubt, a line of argument essentially ideal; just as, in +both cases, there is an assemblage of facts essentially +sensuous. No method is pure, or stands entirely by itself. +But, inasmuch as, in induction, the facts are more prominent +than the ideas, while, in deduction, the ideas are +more prominent than the facts, it is evident that conclusions +arrived at by the former plan will, as a general +rule, obtain a wider assent than conclusions arrived at +by the latter plan. Obtaining a wider assent, they will +produce more decisive results, and will be more likely +to shape the national character and influence the course +of national affairs.</p> + +<p>The only exception to this, is theology. There, the +inductive method, as I have already observed, is inapplicable, +and nothing remains but deduction, which is +quite sufficient for the purposes of the theologian. For, +he has a peculiar resource which supplies him with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> +general principles, from which he can argue; and the +possession of this resource forms the fundamental difference +between him and the man of science. Science +is the result of inquiry; theology is the result of faith. +In the one, the spirit of doubt; in the other, the spirit +of belief. In science, originality is the parent of discovery, +and is, therefore, a merit; in theology, it is the +parent of heresy, and is, therefore, a crime. Every +system of religion the world has yet seen, recognizes +faith as an indispensable duty; but to every system of +science it is a hindrance, instead of a duty, inasmuch +as it discourages those inquisitive and innovating habits +on which all intellectual progress depends. The theologian, +thus turning credulity into an honour, and +valuing men in proportion as they are simple-minded +and easy of belief, has little need to trouble himself +with facts, which, indeed, he sets at open defiance, in +his eagerness to narrate portentous, and often miraculous, +events. To the inductive philosopher such a license +is forbidden. He is obliged to ground his inferences on +facts which no one disputes, or which, at all events, +any one can either verify for himself, or see verified by +others. And if he does not adopt this course, his inferences, +be they ever so true, will have the greatest +difficulty in working themselves into the popular mind, +because they will savour of a subtlety and refinement +of thought, which, more than any thing else, predisposes +common understandings to reject the conclusions at +which philosophers arrive.</p> + +<p>From the facts and arguments contained in this and +the preceding chapter, the reader will, I trust, be able +to see why it was that the Scotch intellect, during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was preëminently +deductive; and also why it was that, in the eighteenth +century, the Scotch literature, notwithstanding its brilliancy, +its power, and the splendid discoveries of which +it was the vehicle, produced little or no effect on the +nation at large. That literature, by its bold and innovating +character, seemed peculiarly fitted to disturb +ancient prejudices, and to rouse up a spirit of inquiry. +But its method, both of investigation and of proof, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> +too refined to suit ordinary understandings. Therefore, +upon ordinary understandings it was inoperative. In +Scotland, as in ancient Greece, and in modern Germany, +the intellectual classes, being essentially deductive, have +been unable to influence the main body of the people. +They have considered things at too great an altitude, +and at too great a remove. In Greece, Aristotle alone +had a true idea of what induction really was. But +even he knew nothing of crucial instances and the +theory of averages, the two capital resources of that +inductive philosophy which we now possess. Neither +did he, nor any of the great German philosophers, nor +any of the great Scotch philosophers, attach sufficient +importance to the slow and cautious method of gradually +rising from each generalization to the one immediately +above it, without omitting any intermediate +generalizations. On this method, Bacon, indeed, insists +too strongly, since many most important discoveries +have been made independently of it, or, I should rather +say, in contradiction to it. But it is a wonderful weapon, +and none except men of real genius can dispense with +its use. And when they do dispense with it, they cut +themselves off from the general sympathies of their +age and country. For, these small and proximate generalizations, +which they neglect, are precisely those parts +of philosophy which, being least removed from the +region of visible facts, are best understood by the +people, and, therefore, form the only common ground +between thinkers and practitioners. They are a sort +of middle term, which, being comprehended by both +classes, is accessible to either. In all deductive reasoning, +this intermediate, and, if I may so say, neutral, +territory disappears, and the two classes have no +meeting-place. Hence it is, that the Scotch philosophy, +like the German philosophy, and like the Greek +philosophy, has had no national influence. But in +England, since the seventeenth century, and in France, +since the eighteenth century, the prevailing philosophy +has been inductive, and has, therefore, not only affected +the intellectual classes, but also moved the public mind. +The German philosophers are far superior, both in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> +depth and in comprehensiveness, to the philosophers +either of France or of England. Their profound researches +have, however, done so little for their country, +that the German people are every way inferior to the +French and English people. So, too, in the philosophy +of ancient Greece, we find a vast body of massive and +original thought, and, what is infinitely better, we find +a boldness of inquiry and a passionate love of truth, +such as no modern nation has surpassed, and few modern +nations have equalled. But the method of that philosophy +was an insuperable barrier to its propagation. +The people were untouched, and went grovelling on in +their old folly, a prey to superstitions, most of which +the great thinkers despised, and often attacked, but +could by no means root out. Bad, however, as those +superstitions were, we may confidently say that they +were less noxious, that is, less detrimental to the happiness +of man, than the repulsive and horrible notions +advocated by the Scotch clergy, and sanctioned by the +Scotch people. And on those notions the Scotch philosophy +could make no impression. In Scotland, during +the eighteenth century, superstition and science, the +most irreconcilable of all enemies, flourished side by +side, unable to weaken each other, and unable, indeed, +to come into collision with each other. There was co-existence +without contact. The two forces kept apart, +and the result was, that, while the Scotch thinkers +were creating a noble and most enlightened literature, +the Scotch people, refusing to listen to those great +masters of wisdom which their country possessed, +remained in darkness, leaving the blind to follow the +blind, and no one there to help them.</p> + +<p>It is, indeed, curious to observe how little effect was +produced by the many great works written by Scotchmen +in the eighteenth century. If we except the +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, I can hardly call to mind one which +has perceptibly influenced public opinion. The reason +of this exception may be easily explained. The <i>Wealth +of Nations</i> restricted the action of government within +narrower limits than had ever been assigned to it by +any other book of great merit. No previous political<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> +writer of admitted genius, had left so much to the +people, and had demanded for them so much liberty in +managing their own affairs, as Adam Smith did. The +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, being thus eminently a democratic +book, was sure to find favour in Scotland, which was +eminently a democratic country. Directly men heard +its conclusions, they were prejudiced in favour of its +arguments. So, too, in England, that love of liberty, +which for many centuries has been our leading characteristic, +and which does us more real honour than all +our conquests, all our literature, and all our philosophy +put together, invariably causes a popular bias on behalf +of any claim to freedom. We, therefore, notwithstanding +the activity of interested parties, were predisposed +to the side of free trade, as one of the means of letting +each man do what he liked with his own. But to +imagine that ordinary minds are capable of mastering +such a work as the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, and of following +without confusion its long and intricate arguments, is +simply absurd. It has been read by tens of thousands +of persons, who accept its conclusions because they like +them; which is merely saying, because the movement of +the age tends that way. The other great work of Adam +Smith, namely, the <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, has had +no influence except on a very small class of metaphysicians, +although its style is, as some think, superior +to the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, and it is certainly easier to +understand. It is, moreover, much shorter, which, to +most readers, is no small recommendation; and it deals +with subjects of great interest, which come home to +the feelings of all. But the age, not caring for its conclusions, +neglected its arguments. On the other hand, +the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> harmonized with the general +tendency, and its success was supreme. It quickly +moved, not only philosophers, but even statesmen and +politicians, who eventually put into force its leading recommendations, +though, as their laws and their speeches +abundantly prove, they have never succeeded in +mastering those great principles which underlie it, +and of which the freedom of trade is but a minor +accessory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span></p> + +<p>Putting aside the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, we shall find +that the Scotch literature of the eighteenth century did +scarcely any thing for Scotland, considered as a whole. +How it has failed in its great aim of weakening superstition, +is but too apparent to whoever has travelled in +that country, and observed the habits and turn of mind +still predominant. Many able and enlightened men who +lived there, are so cowed by the general spirit, that, for +their own comfort, and for the peace of their families, +they make no resistance, but tacitly comply with what +they heartily despise. That they err in doing so, I, at +least, firmly believe; though I know that many honest, +and in every respect competent, judges are of opinion, +that no man is bound to be a martyr, or to jeopardize +his personal interests, unless he clearly sees his way to +some immediate public good. To me, however, it appears +that this is a narrow view, and that the first duty +of every one is to set his face in direct opposition to +what he believes to be false, and, having done that, +leave the results of his conduct to take care of themselves. +Still, the temptation to a contrary course is +always very strong, and, in a country like Scotland, is +by many deemed irresistible. In no other Protestant +nation, and, indeed, in no Catholic nation except Spain, +will a man who is known to hold unorthodox opinions, +find his life equally uncomfortable. In a few of the +large towns, he may possibly escape animadversion, if +his sentiments are not too bold, and are not too openly +expressed. If he is timid and taciturn, his heresy may, +perchance, be overlooked. But even in large towns, impunity +is the exception, and not the rule. Even in the +capital of Scotland, in that centre of intelligence which +once boasted of being the Modern Athens, a whisper +will quickly circulate that such an one is to be avoided, +for that he is a free-thinker; as if free-thinking were a +crime, or as if it were not better to be a free-thinker +than a slavish thinker. In other parts, that is, in +Scotland generally, the state of things is far worse. I +speak, not on vague rumour, but from what I know +as existing at the present time, and for the accuracy +of which I vouch and hold myself responsible. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span> +challenge any one to contradict my assertion, when I +say that, at this moment, nearly all over Scotland, the +finger of scorn is pointed at every man, who, in the +exercise of his sacred and inalienable right of free +judgment, refuses to acquiesce in those religious notions, +and to practise those religious customs, which +time, indeed, has consecrated, but many of which are +repulsive to the eye of reason, though to all of them, +however irrational they maybe, the people adhere with +sullen and inflexible obstinacy. Knowing that these +words will be widely read and circulated in Scotland, +and averse as I naturally am to bring on myself the +hostility of a nation, for whose many sterling and valuable +qualities I entertain sincere respect, I do, nevertheless, +deliberately affirm, that in no civilized country is +toleration so little understood, and that in none is the +spirit of bigotry and of persecution so extensively diffused. +Nor can any one wonder that such should be +the case, who observes what is going on there. The +churches are as crowded as they were in the Middle +Ages, and are filled with devout and ignorant worshippers, +who flock together to listen to opinions of which +the Middle Ages alone were worthy. Those opinions +they treasure up, and, when they return to their homes, +or enter into the daily business of life, they put them in +force. And the result is, that there runs through the +entire country a sour and fanatical spirit, an aversion +to innocent gaiety, a disposition to limit the enjoyments +of others, and a love of inquiring into the opinions of +others, and of interfering with them, such as is hardly +anywhere else to be found; while, in the midst of +all this, there flourishes a national creed, gloomy and +austere to the last degree, a creed which is full of forebodings +and threats and horrors of every sort, and +which rejoices in proclaiming to mankind how wretched +and miserable they are, how small a portion of them +can be saved, and what an overwhelming majority is +necessarily reserved for excruciating, unspeakable, and +eternal agony.</p> + +<p>Before bringing this volume to a close, it may be +fitting that I should narrate an event, which, notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> +its recent occurrence, and the great attention it +excited at the time, has, amid the pressure of weightier +matters, fallen into comparative oblivion, although it is +full of interest to those who study the various forms of +national character, while it, moreover, supplies an admirable +illustration of the essential antagonism which +still exists between the Scotch and English minds; an +antagonism extremely remarkable, when found among +nations, both of whom, besides being contiguous, and +constantly mixing together, speak the same language, +read the same books, belong to the same empire, and +possess the same interests, and yet are, in many important +respects, as different as if there had never been +any means of their influencing each other, and as if +they had never had any thing in common.</p> + +<p>In the year 1853, the cholera, after having committed +serious ravages in many parts of Europe, visited +Scotland. There, it was sure to find numerous victims +among a badly fed, badly housed, and not over-cleanly +people. For, if there is one thing better established +than another respecting this disease, it is that it invariably +attacks, with the greatest effect, those classes +who, from poverty or from sloth, are imperfectly +nourished, neglect their persons, and live in dirty, +ill-drained, or ill-ventilated dwellings. In Scotland, +such classes are very numerous. In Scotland, therefore, +the cholera must needs be very fatal. In this, +there was nothing mysterious. On the contrary, the +mystery would have been if an epidemic, like the +Asiatic cholera, had spared a country like Scotland, +where all the materials were collected on which pestilence +feeds, and where filth, penury, and disorder, +abound on every side.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, it must have been evident, +not merely to men of science, but to all men of +plain, sound understanding, who would apply their +minds to the matter without prejudice, that the Scotch +had only one way of successfully grappling with their +terrible enemy. It behoved them to feed their poor, +to cleanse their cesspools, and to ventilate their houses. +If they had done this, and done it quickly, thousands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> +of lives would have been spared. But they neglected +it, and the country was thrown into mourning. Nay, +they not only neglected it, but, moved by the dire +superstition which sits like an incubus upon them, +they adopted a course which, if it had been carried +into full operation, would have aggravated the calamity +to a frightful extent. It is well known that, whenever +an epidemic is raging, physical exhaustion and mental +depression make the human frame more liable to it, +and are, therefore, especially to be guarded against. +But, though this is a matter of common notoriety, the +Scotch clergy, backed, sad to say, by the general voice +of the Scotch people, wished the public authorities to +take a step which was certain to cause physical exhaustion, +and to encourage mental depression. In the +name of religion, whose offices they thus abused and +perverted to the detriment of man, instead of employing +them for his benefit, they insisted on the propriety +of ordering a national fast, which, in so superstitious a +country, was sure to be rigidly kept, and, being rigidly +kept, was equally sure to enfeeble thousands of delicate +persons, and, before twenty-four hours were passed, +prepare them to receive that deadly poison which was +already lurking around them, and which, hitherto, they +had just strength enough to resist. The public fast +was also to be accompanied by a public humiliation, +in order that nothing might be wanting to appal the +mind and fill it with terror. On the same occasion, +the preachers were to thunder from their pulpits and +proclaim aloud the sins of the land; while the poor +benighted people, panic-struck, were to sit in awe, were +to remain the whole day without proper nourishment, +and retire to their beds, weeping and starved. Then it +was hoped that the Deity would be propitiated, and the +plague be stayed. As soon as the entire nation had +taken the course, which, of all others, was most certain +to increase the mortality, it was believed that man +having done his worst, the Almighty would interpose, +would violate the laws of nature, and, by working a +miracle, would preserve his creatures from what, without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> +a miracle, would be the inevitable consequence of +their own deliberate act.</p> + +<p>This was the scheme projected by the Scotch clergy, +and they were determined to put it into execution. To +give greater effect to it, they called upon England to +help them, and, in the autumn of 1853, the Presbytery +of Edinburgh, thinking that from their position they +were bound to take the lead, caused their Moderator to +address a letter, ostensibly to the English Minister, but +in reality to the English nation. In this choice production, +a copy of which is now lying before me, the +Home Secretary is assured that the members of the +Presbytery had delayed appointing a day for fasting +and humiliation on their own ecclesiastical authority, +because they thought it likely that one would be appointed +by the royal authority. But as this had not +been done, the Presbytery respectfully requested to be +informed if it was intended to be done. They apologized +for the liberty they were taking; they had no +desire unduly to intrude themselves; neither did they +wish the Home Secretary to answer their question unless +he felt himself justified in doing so. Still, if he +were able to answer it, they would be glad. For, there +was no doubt that Asiatic cholera was in the country; +and such being the case, the Presbytery of Edinburgh +were interested in knowing if the appointment by the +Queen of a national fast was in contemplation.<a name="FNanchor_912_912" id="FNanchor_912_912"></a><a href="#Footnote_912_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a></p> + +<p>This letter, which, through the medium of the press, +was sure to become well known and to be widely read, +was evidently intended to act on public opinion in +England. It was, in fact, a covert reproach on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> +English Government for having neglected its spiritual +duties, and for not having perceived that fasting was +the most effectual way of stopping an epidemic. In +Scotland, generally, it received great praise, and was +regarded as a dignified rebuke addressed to the irreligious +habits of the English people, who, seeing the +cholera at their doors, merely occupied themselves with +sanatory measures, and carnal devices to improve the +public health, showing thereby that they trusted too +much to the arms of the flesh. In England, on the +other hand, this manifesto of the Scotch Church was +met with almost universal ridicule, and, indeed, found +no favourers except among the most ignorant and credulous +part of the nation. The minister to whom it +was addressed, was Lord Palmerston, a man of vast +experience, and perhaps better acquainted with public +opinion than any politician of his time. He, being +well aware of the difference between Scotland and +England, knew that what was suitable for one country +was not suitable for the other, and that notions which +the Scotch deemed religious, the English deemed fanatical. +On a former occasion, the imperial government, +yielding to the clamour which a few active and interested +men succeeded in raising, had been foolish +enough to set themselves in this matter in opposition +to the temper of the age, and to enjoin public observances +which, happily, were not strictly obeyed, but +which, in so far as they were obeyed, heightened the +general terror by reinforcing natural fears with supernatural +ones, and thus, depressing the nervous system, +increased the chance of mortality from the pestilence. +To have the plague in our country is bad enough, +since, do what we may, many victims will be struck +down by it. But a fearful responsibility is entailed +upon those who, at such a period, instead of exerting +themselves to check its ravages, either by precautionary +measures, or by soothing and re-assuring the people, do +every thing in their power to aggravate the calamity, +by encouraging that superstitious dread which weakens +the popular energy at the very moment when energy +is most requisite, and troubles the coolness, the self-reliance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> +and self-possession, without which no crisis of +national danger can ever be averted.</p> + +<p>This time, however, there was no risk of the government +committing so serious a blunder. Lord Palmerston, +who knew that the sound sense of the English +people would support him in what he was doing, +directed a letter to be sent to the Presbytery of Edinburgh, +which, unless I am greatly mistaken, will, in +future ages, be quoted as an interesting document for +illustrating the history of the progress of public opinion. +A century ago, any statesman who had written such a +letter, would have been driven from office by a storm +of general indignation. Two centuries ago, the consequences +to him would have been still more disastrous, +and would, indeed, have ruined him socially, as well as +politically. For, in it, he sets at defiance those superstitious +fancies respecting the origin of disease, which +were once universally cherished as an essential part of +every religious creed. Traditions, the memory of which +is preserved in the theological literature of all Pagan +countries, of all Catholic countries, and of all Protestant +countries, are quietly put aside, as if they were +matters of no moment, and as if it were not worth +while to discuss them. The Scotch clergy, occupying +the old ground on which the members of their profession +had always been accustomed to stand, took for +granted that the cholera was the result of the divine +anger, and was intended to chastise our sins. In the +reply which they now received from the English +Government, a doctrine was enunciated, which to +Englishmen seems right enough, but which to Scotchmen +sounded very profane. The Presbytery were informed, +that the affairs of this world are regulated by +natural laws, on the observance or neglect of which +the weal or woe of mankind depends.<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> One of those +laws connects disease with the exhalations of bodies; +and it is by virtue of this law that contagion spreads, +either in crowded cities, or in places where vegetable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> +decomposition is going on. Man, by exerting himself, +can disperse or neutralize these noxious influences. +The appearance of the cholera proves that he has not +exerted himself. The towns have not been purified; +hence the root of the evil. The Home Secretary, therefore, +advised the Presbytery of Edinburgh, that it was +better to cleanse than to fast. He thought that the +plague being upon them, activity was preferable to +humiliation. It was now autumn, and before the hot +weather would return, a considerable period must +elapse. That period should be employed in destroying +the causes of disease, by improving the abodes of the +poor. If this were done, all would go well. Otherwise, +pestilence would be sure to revisit them, ‘in +spite’—I quote the words of the English minister—‘in +spite of all the prayers and fastings of a united, but +inactive nation.’<a name="FNanchor_914_914" id="FNanchor_914_914"></a><a href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a></p> + +<p>This correspondence between the Scotch clergy and +the English statesman, is not to be regarded as a mere +passing episode of light or temporary interest. On the +contrary, it represents that terrible struggle between +theology and science, which, having begun in the persecution +of science, and in the martyrdom of scientific +men, has, in these later days, taken a happier turn, and +is now manifestly destroying that old theological spirit, +which has brought so much misery and ruin upon the +world. The ancient superstition, which was once universal, +but is now slowly though surely dying away, represented +the Deity as being constantly moved to anger, +delighting in seeing His creatures abase and mortify<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> +themselves, taking pleasure in their sacrifices and their +austerities, and, notwithstanding all they could do, +constantly inflicting on them the most grievous punishments, +among which the different forms of pestilence +were conspicuous. It is by science, and by science +alone, that these horrible delusions are being dissipated. +Events, which formerly were deemed supernatural +visitations, are now shown to depend upon natural +causes, and to be amenable to natural remedies. Man +can predict them, and man can deal with them. Being +the inevitable result of their own antecedents, no room +is left for the notion of their being special inflictions. +This great change in our opinions is fatal to theology, +but is serviceable to religion. For, by it, science, instead +of being the enemy of religion, becomes its ally. +Religion is to each individual according to the inward +light with which he is endowed. In different characters, +therefore, it assumes different forms, and can +never be reduced to one common and arbitrary rule. +Theology, on the other hand, claiming authority over +all minds, and refusing to recognize their essential +divergence, seeks to compel them to a single creed, and +sets up one standard of absolute truth, by which it +tests every one's opinions; presumptuously condemning +those who disagree with that standard. Such +arrogant pretensions need means of support. Those +means are threats, which, in ignorant times, are universally +believed, and which, by causing fear, produce +submission. Hence it is, that the books of every theological +system narrate acts of the grossest cruelty, +which, without the least hesitation, are ascribed to the +direct interposition of God. Humane and gentle natures +revolt at such cruelties, even while they try to +believe them. It is the business of science to purify +theology, by showing that there has been no cruelty, +because there has been no interposition. Science +ascribes to natural causes, what theology ascribes to +supernatural ones. According to this view the calamities +with which the world is afflicted, are the result of +the ignorance of man, and not of the interference of +God. We must not, therefore, ascribe to Him what is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span> +due to our own folly, or to our own vice. We must +not calumniate an all-wise and all-merciful Being, by +imputing to Him those little passions which move ourselves, +as if He were capable of rage, of jealousy, and +of revenge, and as if He, with outstretched arm, were +constantly employed in aggravating the sufferings of +mankind, and making the miseries of the human race +more poignant than they would otherwise be.</p> + +<p>That this remarkable improvement in religious ideas +is due to the progress of physical science, is apparent, +not only from general arguments which would lead us +to anticipate that such must be the case, but also from +the historical fact, that the gradual destruction of the +old theology is everywhere preceded by the growth +and diffusion of physical truths. The more we know +of the laws of nature, the more clearly do we understand +that every thing which happens in the material +world, pestilence, earthquake, famine, or whatever it +may be, is the necessary result of something which had +previously happened. Cause produces effect, and the +effect becomes, in its turn, a cause of other effects. In +that operation, we see no gap, and we admit of no +pause. To us, the chain is unbroken; the constancy +of nature is unviolated. Our minds become habituated +to contemplate all physical phenomena as presenting an +orderly, uniform, and spontaneous march, and running +on in one regular and uninterrupted sequence. This is +the scientific view. It is also the religious view. +Against it, we have the theological view; but that +which has already lost its hold over the intellect of men +is now losing its hold over their affections, and is so +manifestly perishing, that at present no educated person +ventures to defend it, without so limiting and +guarding his meaning, as to concede to its opponents +nearly every point which is really at issue.</p> + +<p>While, however, in regard to the material world, the +narrow notions formerly entertained, are, in the most +enlightened countries, almost extinct, it must be confessed +that, in regard to the moral world, the progress +of opinion is less rapid. The same men who believe +that Nature is undisturbed by miraculous interposition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span> +refuse to believe that man is equally undisturbed. In +the one case, they assert the scientific doctrine of +regularity; in the other, they assert the theological +doctrine of irregularity. The reason of this difference +of opinion is, that the movements of nature are less +complex than the movements of man. Being less +complex, they are more easily studied, and more quickly +understood. Hence we find, that while natural science +has long been cultivated, historical science hardly yet +exists. Our knowledge of the circumstances which +determine the course of mankind, is still so imperfect, +and has been so badly digested, that it has produced +scarcely any effect on popular ideas. Philosophers, indeed, +are aware, that here, as elsewhere, there must be +a necessary connexion between even the most remote +and dissimilar events. They know that every discrepancy +is capable of being reconciled, though we, in +the present state of knowledge, may be unequal to the +task. This is their faith, and nothing can wean them +from it. But the great majority of people have a different +faith. They believe that what is unexplained is +inexplicable, and that what is inexplicable is supernatural. +Science has explained an immense number +of physical phenomena, and therefore, even to the +vulgar, those phenomena no longer seem supernatural, +but are ascribed to natural causes. On the other hand, +science has not yet explained the phenomena of history; +consequently, the theological spirit lays hold of them, +and presses them into its own service. In this way +there has arisen that famous and ancient theory, which +has received the name of the moral government of the +world. It is a high-sounding title, and imposes on +many, who, if they examined its pretensions, would +never be duped by them. For, like that other notion +which we have just considered, it is not only unscientific, +but it is eminently irreligious. It is, in fact, +an impeachment of one of the noblest attributes of the +Deity. It is a slur on the Omniscience of God. It +assumes that the fate of nations, instead of being the +result of preceding and surrounding events, is specially +subject to the control and interference of Providence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span> +It assumes that there are great public emergencies, in +which such interference is needed. It assumes, that, +without the interference, the course of affairs could not +run smoothly; that they would be jangled and out of +tune; that the play and harmony of the whole would +be incomplete. And thus it is, that the very men who, +at one moment, proclaim the Divine Omniscience, do, +at the next moment, advocate a theory which reduces +that Omniscience to nothing, since it imputes to an +All-wise Being, that the scheme of human affairs, of +which He must, from the beginning, have foreseen every +issue and every consequence, is so weakly contrived as +to be liable to be frustrated; that it has not turned out +as He could have wished; that it has been baffled by +His own creatures, and that, to preserve its integrity, +its operations must be tampered with, and its disorders +redressed. The great Architect of the universe, the +Creator and Designer of all existing things, is likened +to some clumsy mechanic, who knows his trade so ill, +that he has to be called in to alter the working of his +own machine, to supply its deficiencies, to fill up its +flaws, and to rectify its errors.</p> + +<p>It is time that such unworthy notions should come +to an end. It is time that what has long been known +to philosophers, should also be known to historians, and +that the history of mankind should cease to be troubled +by what, to those who are imbued with the scientific +spirit, must seem little better than arrant trifling. Of +two things, choose one. Either deny the Omniscience of +the Creator, or else admit it. If you deny it, you deny +what, to my mind at least, is a fundamental truth, and, +on these matters, there can be no sympathy between us. +But if you admit the Omniscience of God, beware of +libelling what you profess to defend. For when you +assert what is termed the moral government of the +world, you slander Omniscience, inasmuch as you declare +that the mechanism of the entire universe, including +the actions both of Nature and of Man, planned as it is +by Infinite Wisdom, is unequal to its duties, unless that +same Wisdom does from time to time interfere with it. +You assert, in fact, either that Omniscience has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span> +deceived, or that Omnipotence has been defeated. Surely, +they who believe, and whose pride and happiness it is to +believe, that there is a Power above all and before all, +knowing all and creating all, ought not to fall into such +a snare as this. They who, dissatisfied with this little +world of sense, seek to raise their minds to something +which the senses are unable to grasp, can hardly fail, on +deeper reflection, to perceive how coarse and material +is that theological prejudice, which ascribes to such a +Power the vulgar functions of a temporal ruler, arrays +him in the garb of an earthly potentate, and represents +him as meddling here and meddling there, uttering +threats, inflicting punishments, bestowing rewards. +These are base and grovelling conceptions, the offspring +of ignorance and of darkness. Such gross and sordid +notions are but one remove from actual idolatry. They +are the draff and offal of a bygone age, and we will +not have them obtruded here. Well suited they were +to those old and barbarous times, when men, being +unable to refine their ideas, were, therefore, unable to +purify their creed. Now, however, they jar upon us; +they do not assimilate with other parts of our knowledge; +they are incongruous; their concord is gone. Every +thing is against them. They stand alone; there is +nothing left with which they harmonize. The whole +scope and tendency of modern thought force upon our +minds conceptions of regularity and of law, to which they +are diametrically opposed. Even those who cling to +them, do so from the influence of tradition, rather than +from complete and unswerving belief. That child-like +and unhesitating faith, with which the doctrine of interposition +was once received, is succeeded by a cold and +lifeless assent, very different from the enthusiasm of +former times. Soon, too, this will vanish, and men +will cease to be terrified by phantoms which their own +ignorance has reared. This age, haply, may not witness +the emancipation; but, so surely as the human +mind advances, so surely will that emancipation come. +It may come quicker than any one expects. For, we +are stepping on far and fast. The signs of the time +are all around, and they who list may read. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span> +handwriting is on the wall; the fiat has gone forth; +the ancient empire shall be subverted; the dominion +of superstition, already decaying, shall break away, +and crumble into dust; and new life being breathed +into the confused and chaotic mass, it shall be clearly +seen, that, from the beginning, there has been no discrepancy, +no incongruity, no disorder, no interruption, +no interference; but that all the events which surround +us, even to the furthest limits of the material creation, +are but different parts of a single scheme, which is +permeated by one glorious principle of universal and +undeviating regularity.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p><div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> Of course, I say this merely in reference to their +theological bearings. Some of the Bridgewater Treatises, such as Bell's, +Buckland's, and Prout's, had great scientific merit at the time of their +appearance, and may even now be studied with advantage; but the +religious portion of them is pitiable, and shows either that their heart +was not in their work, or else that the subject was too wide for them. +At all events, it is to be hoped that we shall never again see men of +equal eminence hiring themselves out as paid advocates, and receiving +fees to support particular opinions. It is truly disgraceful that such +great speculative questions, instead of being subjected to fair and +disinterested argument, with a view of eliciting the truth, should be +turned into a pecuniary transaction, in which any one of much money and +little wit, can bribe as many persons as he likes, to prejudice the +public ear in favour of his own theories.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_614_614" id="Footnote_614_614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_614_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a> ‘It is humiliating to have to remark, that the notices of +comets which we derive from Scotch writers down to this time (1682) +contain nothing but accounts of the popular fancies regarding them. +Practical astronomy seems to have then been unknown in our country; and +hence, while in other lands, men were carefully observing, computing, +and approaching to just conclusions regarding these illustrious +strangers of the sky, our diarists could only tell us how many <i>yards</i> +long they seemed to be, what <i>effects</i> were apprehended from them in the +way of war and pestilence, and how certain pious divines “improved” them +for spiritual edification. Early in this century Scotland had produced +one great philosopher, who had supplied his craft with the mathematical +instruments by which complex problems, such as the movement of comets, +were alone to be solved. It might have been expected that the country of +Napier, seventy years after his time, would have had many sons capable +of applying his key to such mysteries of nature. But no one had +arisen—nor did any rise for fifty years onward, when at length Colin +Maclaurin unfolded in the Edinburgh University the sublime philosophy of +Newton. There could not be a more expressive signification of the +character of the seventeenth century in Scotland. Our unhappy +contentions about external religious matters had absorbed the whole +genius of the people, rendering to us the age of Cowley, of Waller, and +of Milton, as barren of elegant literature, as that of Horrocks, of +Halley, and of Newton, was of science.’ <i>Chambers' Domestic Annals of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 444, 445.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_615_615" id="Footnote_615_615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_615_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a> ‘Thus, during the whole seventeenth century, the English +were gradually refining their language and their taste; in Scotland, the +former was much debased, and the latter almost entirely lost.’ <i>History +of Scotland</i>, book viii., in <i>Robertson's Works</i>, p. 260.</p> + +<p>‘But the taste and science, the genius and the learning of the age, were +absorbed in the gulph of religious controversy. At a time when the +learning of Selden, and the genius of Milton, conspired to adorn +England, the Scots were reduced to such writers as Baillie, Rutherford, +Guthrie, and the two Gillespies.’ <i>Laing's History of Scotland</i>, vol. +iii. p. 510. ‘From the Restoration down to the Union, the only author of +eminence whom Scotland produced was Burnet.’ <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. iv. p. 406. +</p> +<p> +‘The seventeenth century, fatal to the good taste of Italy, threw a +total night over Scotland.’ … ‘Not one writer who does the least credit +to the nation flourished during the century from 1615 to 1715, excepting +Burnet, whose name would, indeed, honour the brightest period. In +particular, no poet whose works merit preservation arose. By a singular +fatality, the century which stands highest in English history and +genius, is one of the darkest in those of Scotland.’ <i>Ancient Scotish +Poems, edited by John Pinkerton</i>, vol. i. pp. iii. iv., London, 1786.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> Ray, who visited Scotland in 1661, could not suppress a +little professional envy, when he saw how much higher ecclesiastics were +rated there than in England. He says, ‘the people here frequent their +churches much better than in England, and have their ministers in more +esteem and veneration.’ <i>Ray's Memorials, edited by Dr. Lankester for +the Ray Society</i>, p. 161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_617_617" id="Footnote_617_617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_617_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a> ‘Believing ignorance is much better than rash and +presumptuous knowledge. Ask not a reason of these things, but rather +adore and tremble at the mystery and majesty of them.’ <i>Binning's +Sermons</i>, vol. i. p. 143. Even Biblical criticism was prohibited; and +Dickson says of the different books of the Bible, ‘We are not to trouble +ourselves about the name of the writer, or time of writing of any part +thereof, especially because God of set purpose concealeth the name +sundry times of the writer, and the time when it was written.’ +<i>Dickson's Explication of the Psalms</i>, p. 291.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> ‘Christ from heaven proposeth a syllogism to Saul's fury.’ +<i>Rutherford's Christ Dying</i>, p. 180. ‘The conclusion of a practical +syllogism, whereby the believer concluded from the Gospel that he shall +be saved.’ <i>Durham's Law Unsealed</i>, p. 97. ‘All assurance is by +practical syllogism, the first whereof must needs be a Scripture truth.’ +<i>Gray's Precious Promises</i>, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_619_619" id="Footnote_619_619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_619_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> Bower (<i>History of the University of Edinburgh</i>, +vol. i. p. 217) says, ‘The history of the universities and of the church +is, in modern Europe, and perhaps in every other civilized portion of +the globe, very nearly connected. They are more nearly connected in +Scotland than in any other civilized country called Protestant; because +the General Assembly have the legal power of inquiring into the economy +of the institutions, both as it respects the mode of teaching, and the +doctrines, whether religious, moral, or physical, which are taught.’ +Spalding, under the year 1639, gives an instance of the power of the +General Assembly in ‘the College of Old Aberdeen.’ <i>Spalding's History +of the Troubles</i>, vol. i. p. 178. See also, on the authority exercised +by the General Assembly over the universities, a curious little book, +called <i>The Government and Order of the Church of Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, +1690, p. 25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> In 1632, the ‘ministers’ of Perth were greatly displeased +because John Row was made master of the grammar-school without their +consent. <i>The Chronicle of Perth</i>, p. 33, where it is stated that, +consequently, ‘thair wes much outcrying in the pulpett.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_621_621" id="Footnote_621_621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_621_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> See, for instance, <i>Minutes of the Presbyteries of St. +Andrews and Cupar</i>, pp. 66, 83, 84, 118. One of the entries is, that in +January 1648, ‘The Presbyterie ordained that all young students, who +waittes on noblemen or gentlemen within thir bounds, aither to teach +ther children, or catechise and pray in ther families, to frequent the +Presbyterie, that the brether may cognosce what they ar reading, and +what proficiencie they make in ther studies, and to know also ther +behaviour in the said families, and of their affectione to the Covenant +and present religione.’ p. 118. Compare <i>Selections from the Registers +of the Presbytery of Lanark</i>, pp. 56, 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> This I have already touched upon in the first volume, pp. +808, 809. Hereafter, and in my special history of the English mind, I +shall examine it carefully and in detail. The revival of the old logic +is a great symptom of it. Works like those of Whately, De Morgan, and +Mansel, could not have been produced in tho eighteenth century, or, at +all events, if by some extraordinary combination of events they had been +produced, they would have found no readers. As it is, they have +exercised a very extensive and very salutary influence; and, although +Archbishop Whately was not well acquainted with the history of formal +logic, his exposition of its ordinary processes is so admirably clear, +that he has probably contributed more than any other man towards +impressing his contemporaries with a sense of the value of deductive +reasoning. He has, however, not done sufficient justice to the opposite +school, and has, indeed, fallen into the old academical error of +supposing that all reasoning is by syllogism. We might just as well say +that all movement is by descent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_623_623" id="Footnote_623_623"></a><a href="#FNanchor_623_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a> See a letter from Sir James Mackintosh to Parr, in +<i>Mackintosh's Memoirs</i>, London, 1835, vol. i. p. 334. ‘To Hutcheson the +taste for speculation in Scotland, and all the philosophical opinions +(except the Berkleian Humism) may be traced.’ M. Cousin (<i>Histoire de la +Philosophie</i>, première série, vol. iv. p. 35, Paris, 1846) observes, +that before Hutcheson ‘il n'avait paru en Ecosse ni un écrivain ni un +professeur de philosophie un peu remarquable.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> <i>Tytler's Memoirs of Kames</i>, Edinburgh, 1814, vol. i. p. +223. <i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. iii. London, 1755, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_625_625" id="Footnote_625_625"></a><a href="#FNanchor_625_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a> ‘The intention of Moral Philosophy is to direct men to +that course of action which tends most effectually to promote their +greatest happiness and perfection; as far as it can be done by +observations and conclusions discoverable from the constitution of +nature, without any aids of supernatural revelation: these maxims or +rules of conduct are therefore reputed as laws of nature, and the system +or collection of them is called the <span class="smcap">Law of Nature</span>.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral +Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> ‘The natural understanding is the most whorish thing in +the world.’ … ‘The understanding, even in the search of truth amongst +the creatures, is a rash, precipitate, and unquiet thing.’ <i>Rutherford's +Christ Dying</i>, p. 181. ‘Innocent Adam,’ indeed, says Boston, ‘Innocent +Adam had a stock of gracious abilities, whereby he might have, by the +force of moral considerations, brought himself to perform duty aright. +But where is that with us?’ <i>Boston's Sermons</i>, p. 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> ‘A like natural right every intelligent being has about +his own opinions, speculative or practical, to judge according to the +evidence that appears to him. This right appears from the very +constitution of the rational mind, which can assent or dissent solely +according to the evidence presented, and naturally desires knowledge. +The same considerations show this right to be unalienable: it +cannot be subjected to the will of another: though where there is +a previous judgment formed concerning the superior wisdom of another, or +his infallibility, the opinion of this other, to a weak mind, may become +sufficient evidence. As to opinions about the Deity, religion, and +virtue, this right is further confirmed by all the noblest desires of +the soul; as there can be no virtue, but rather impiety in not adhering +to the opinions we think just, and in professing the contrary.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. pp. 295, 296. See also vol. ii. +p. 311. ‘Every rational creature has a right to judge for itself in +these matters: and as men must assent according to the evidence that +appears to them, and cannot command their own assent in opposition to +it, this right is plainly unalienable.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> ‘Thus no man can really change his sentiments, judgments, +and inward affections, at the pleasure of another, nor can it tend to +any good to make him profess what is contrary to his heart.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. pp. 261, 262.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> ‘Arians and Socinians are idolaters and denyers of God, +say the orthodox. They retort upon the orthodox, that they are +Tritheists; and so do other sects; and thus they spirit up magistrates +to persecute. While yet it is plain that in all these sects there are +all the same motives to all social virtues from a belief of a moral +providence, the same acknowledgments that the goodness of God is the +source of all the good we enjoy or hope for, and the same gratitude and +resignation to him recommended. Nor do any of their schemes excite men +to vices, except that horrid tenet, too common to most of them, the +right of persecuting.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. ii. p. 316. +See also vol. i. p. 160; and <i>Hutcheson's Inquiry into our Ideas of +Beauty and Virtue</i>, London, 1738, p. 283.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> ‘We all know the notions entertained by the vulgar +concerning all hereticks; we know the pride of schoolmen and many +ecclesiasticks; how it galls their insolent vanity that any man should +assume to himself to be wiser than they in tenets of religion by +differing from them.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 167.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a> ‘As he had occasion every year in the course of his +lectures to explain the origin of government, and compare the different +forms of it, he took peculiar care, while on that subject, to inculcate +the importance of civil and religious liberty to the happiness of +mankind.’ <i>Leechman's Life of Hutcheson</i>, p. xxxv., prefixed to +Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a> ‘The ideas of beauty and harmony, like other sensible +ideas, are necessarily pleasant to us, as well as immediately so.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Inquiry into our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue</i>, p. 11. ‘Our +sense of beauty seems designed to give us positive pleasure.’ p. 71. +‘Beauty gives a favourable presumption of good moral dispositions.’ p. +257. ‘But it is plain we have not in our power the modelling of our +senses or desires, to form them for a private interest; they are fixed +for us by the Author of our nature, subservient to the interest of the +system; so that each individual is made, previously to his own choice, a +member of a great body, and affected with the fortunes of the whole; or +at least of many parts of it; nor can he break himself off at pleasure.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Essay on the Passions</i>, pp. 105, 106.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> ‘Fille de la scholastique, la philosophie moderne est +demeurée longtemps étrangère aux grâces, et les <i>Recherches</i> d'Hutcheson +présentent, je crois, le premier traité spécial sur le beau, écrit par +un moderne. Elles ont paru en 1725. Cette date est presque celle de +l'avénement de l'esthétique dans la philosophie européenne. L'ouvrage du +père André, en France, est de 1741, celui de Baumgarten, en Allemagne, +est de 1750. Ce n'est pas un petit honneur à Hutcheson d'avoir le +premier soumis l'idée du beau à une analyse méthodique et régulière.’ +<i>Cousin, Histoire de la Philosophie</i>, première série, vol. iv. p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a> In his <i>Inquiry into Beauty and Virtue</i>, p. 107, he so +completely opposed the prevailing notions, as to assert that ‘our +perception of pleasure is necessary, and nothing is advantageous or +naturally good to us, but what is apt to raise pleasure, mediately, or +immediately.’ Compare what he says at p. 91 respecting ‘superstitious +prejudices against actions apprehended as offensive to the Deity.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_635_635" id="Footnote_635_635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_635_635"><span class="label">[635]</span></a> ‘Hence a taste for the ingenious arts of musick, +sculpture, painting, and even for the manly diversions, is reputable.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 83. At p. 129 he says, that +in them ‘our time is agreeably and honourably employed.’ See also vol. +ii. p. 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a> ‘Wealth and power are truly useful, not only for the +natural conveniences or pleasures of life, but as a fund for good +offices.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 104. Compare +<i>Hutcheson on Beauty and Virtue</i>, pp. 93–95; and his <i>Essay on the +Passions and Affections</i>, pp. 8, 9, 99. ‘How weak also are the +reasonings of some recluse moralists, who condemn in general all +pursuits of wealth or power, as below a perfectly virtuous character; +since wealth and power are the most effectual means, and the most +powerful instruments, even of the greatest virtues, and most generous +actions.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_637_637" id="Footnote_637_637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_637_637"><span class="label">[637]</span></a> ‘The chief happiness of any being must consist in the full +enjoyment of all the gratifications its nature desires and is capable +of.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 100. ‘The highest +sensual enjoyments may be experienced by those who employ both mind and +body vigorously in social virtuous offices, and allow all the natural +appetites to recur in their due seasons.’ p. 121. ‘Nay, as in fact it is +for the good of the system that every desire and sense natural to us, +even those of the lowest kinds, should be gratified as far as their +gratification is consistent with the nobler enjoyments, and in a just +subordination to them; there seems a natural notion of <i>right</i> to attend +them all.’ pp. 254, 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_638_638" id="Footnote_638_638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_638_638"><span class="label">[638]</span></a> ‘’Tis pleasant to observe how those authors who paint out +our nature as a compound of sensuality, selfishness, and cunning, forget +themselves on this subject in their descriptions of youth, when the +natural temper is less disguised than in the subsequent parts of life. +’Tis made up of many keen, inconstant passions, many of them generous; +’tis fond of present pleasure, but ’tis also profusely kind and liberal +to favourites; careless about distant interests of its own; full of +confidence in others; studious of praise for kindness and generosity; +prone to friendships, and void of suspicion.’ <i>Hutcheson's Moral +Philosophy</i>, vol. ii. p. 11. ‘Men are often subject to anger, and upon +sudden provocations do injuries to each other, and that only from self +love without malice; but the greatest part of their lives is employed in +offices of natural affection, friendship, innocent self love, or love of +a country.’ <i>Hutcheson's Essay on the Passions</i>, pp. 97, 98. And at p. +165: ‘There are no doubt many furious starts of passion, in which malice +may seem to have place in our constitution; but how seldom and how +short, in comparison of years spent in fixed kind pursuits of the good +of a family, a party, a country?’ … ‘Here men are apt to let their +imaginations run out upon all the robberies, piracies, murders, +perjuries, frauds, massacres, assassinations, they have ever either +heard of, or read in history; thence concluding all mankind to be very +wicked; as if a court of justice were the proper place for making an +estimate of the morals of mankind, or an hospital of the healthfulness +of a climate. Ought they not to consider that the number of honest +citizens and farmers far surpasses that of all sorts of criminals in any +state; and that the innocent or kind actions of even criminals +themselves, surpass their crimes in numbers? That it is the rarity of +crimes, in comparison of innocent or good actions, which engages our +attention to them, and makes them be recorded in history; while +incomparably more honest, generous, domestic actions are overlooked, +only because they are so common; as one great danger, or one month's +sickness, shall become a frequently repeated story, during a long life +of health and safety.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a> In 1731, Wodrow, who was the last really great specimen of +the old Presbyterian divines, and who was not a little shocked at the +changes he saw going on around him, writes: ‘When Dr. Calamy heard of +Mr. Hutcheson's being called to Glasgow, he smiled, and said, I think to +Thomas Randy, that he was not for Scotland, as he thought from his book; +and that he would be reckoned there as unorthodox as Mr. Simson. The +Doctor has a strange way of fishing out privat storyes and things that +pass in Scotland.’ <i>Wodrow's Analecta</i>, vol. iv. p. 227. It is +interesting to compare with this, the remarks which that worldly-minded +clergyman, the Rev. Alexander Carlyle, has made upon Hutcheson. See +<i>Carlyle's Autobiography</i>, Edinburgh, 1860, 2d edit. pp. 82–85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> In his <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 52, he calls it ‘an +original determination or sense in our nature, not capable of being +referred to other powers of perception.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a> ‘This moral sense from its very nature appears to be +designed for regulating and controlling all our powers.’ <i>Hutcheson's +Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> See, in his <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 79, his +complaint against those who ‘would reduce all our perceptive powers to a +very small number, by one artful reference or another.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> ‘’Tis in vain here to alledge instruction, education, +custom, or association of ideas, as the original of moral approbation.’ +<i>Hutcheson's Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. p. 57. Compare his work on +<i>Beauty and Virtue</i>, p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a> ‘To him may also be ascribed that proneness to multiply +ultimate and original principles in human nature, which characterised +the Scottish School till the second extinction of a passion for +metaphysical speculation in Scotland.’ <i>Mackintosh's Dissertation on +Ethical Philosophy</i>, edit. Whewell, Edinburgh, 1837, p. 208.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a> See his ingenious chapter, +entitled ‘A deduction of the +more special laws of nature and +duties of life, previous to civil +government, and other adventitious +states.’ <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, +vol. i. p. 227; and compare vol. +ii. pp. 294–309, ‘How civil power +is acquired.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> See, for example, his remarks +on ‘the right of possession.’ +<i>Moral Philosophy</i>, vol. i. +p. 344; on ‘rights by mortgage,’ +p. 350; and on inheritance, p. +356.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_647_647" id="Footnote_647_647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_647_647"><span class="label">[647]</span></a> In his <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 346, 347, he sums up +a long argument on ‘the nature +of civil laws,’ by saying: ‘Thus +the general duties of magistrates +and subjects are discoverable +from the nature of the trust committed +to them, and the end of +all civil power.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a> That is, so far as the facts are concerned. Geometry, +considered in the most elevated manner, rests on ideas, and from that +point of view is impregnable, unless the axioms can be overthrown. But +if geometricians will insist on having definitions as well as axioms, +they gain, no doubt, increased clearness, but they lose something in +accuracy. I apprehend that, without definitions, geometry could not be a +science of space, but would be a science of magnitudes, ideally +conceived and consequently as pure as ratiocination could make it. This +does not touch the question as to the empirical origin of the axioms.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> ‘Our continual observations upon the conduct of others, +insensibly lead us to form to ourselves certain general rules concerning +what is fit and proper either to be done or to be avoided.’ … ‘It is +thus that the general rules of morality are formed. They are ultimately +founded upon experience of what, in particular instances, our moral +faculties, our natural sense of merit and propriety, approve or +disapprove of. We do not originally approve or condemn particular +actions; because, upon examination, they appear to be agreeable or +inconsistent with a certain general rule. The general rule, on the +contrary, is formed by finding from experience that all actions of a +certain kind, or circumstanced in a certain manner, are approved of or +disapproved of.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. pp. 219, +220. At p. 153: ‘We either approve or disapprove of our own conduct +according as we feel that, when we place ourselves in the situation of +another man, and view it, as it were, with his eyes and from his +station, we either can or cannot entirely enter into and sympathize with +the sentiments and motives which influenced it.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_650_650" id="Footnote_650_650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_650_650"><span class="label">[650]</span></a> ‘Were it possible that a human creature could grow up to +manhood in some solitary place, without any communication with his own +species, he could no more think of his own character, of the propriety +or demerit of his own sentiments and conduct, of the beauty or deformity +of his own mind, than of the beauty and deformity of his own face.’ +<i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 154. ‘Our first moral +criticisms are exercised upon the characters and conduct of other +people.’ p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> ‘As we have no immediate experience of what other men +feel, we can form no idea of the manner in which they are affected, but +by conceiving what we ourselves should feel in the like situation.’ +<i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a> ‘That imaginary change of situation, upon which their +sympathy is founded, is but momentary.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral +Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 21. Compare vol. ii. p. 206.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> ‘I will venture to affirm that, when there is no envy in +the case, our propensity to sympathize with joy is much stronger than +our propensity to sympathize with sorrow.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral +Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 58. ‘It is because mankind are disposed to +sympathize more entirely with our joy than with our sorrow, that we make +parade of our riches, and conceal our poverty.’ p. 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a> ‘Upon this disposition of mankind to go along with all the +passions of the rich and the powerful, is founded the distinction of +ranks, and the order of society. Our obsequiousness to our superiors +more frequently arises from our admiration for the advantages of their +situation, than from any private expectations of benefit from their good +will.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 69. See also +vol. ii. p. 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_655_655" id="Footnote_655_655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_655_655"><span class="label">[655]</span></a> See the striking remarks in <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, +vol. i. p. 70–72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_656_656" id="Footnote_656_656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_656_656"><span class="label">[656]</span></a> <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. ii. pp. 23 seq.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. ii. pp. 131–244. This +sketch of the different systems of philosophy is perhaps the ablest part +of the book, notwithstanding two or three errors which it contains.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> <i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. pp. 89, 92, +115, 116. The utmost which he will concede to the notion of social +convenience, is that ‘we frequently have occasion to confirm our natural +sense of the propriety and fitness of punishment, by reflecting how +necessary it is for preserving the order of society.’ p. 122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_659_659" id="Footnote_659_659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_659_659"><span class="label">[659]</span></a> <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. pp. 172–174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a> ‘Humanity is the virtue of a woman, generosity of a man. +The fair sex, who have commonly much more tenderness than ours, have +seldom so much generosity.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. +ii. p. 19. Sufficient facts have not yet been collected to enable us to +test the truth of this remark, and the loose experience of individual +observers is worth very little on so wide a subject. Still, I venture to +doubt the truth of Adam Smith's distinction. I suspect that women are, +on the whole, more generous than men, as well as more tender. But to +establish a proposition of this sort, would require the most extensive +research, made by a careful and analytic mind; and, at present, there is +not even any tolerably good work on the mental characteristics which +distinguish the sexes, and there never will be one until physiology is +united with biography.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a> <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. ii. pp. 115–122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> ‘Sympathy, therefore, does not arise so much from the view +of the passion, as from that of the situation which excites it.’ +<i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a> ‘What is called affection, is, in reality, nothing but +habitual sympathy.’ <i>Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. ii. p. +63. ‘In some tragedies and romances, we meet with many beautiful and +interesting scenes, founded upon what is called the force of blood, or +upon the wonderful affection which near relations are supposed to +conceive for one another, even before they know that they have any such +connection. This force of blood, however, I am afraid, exists nowhere +but in tragedies and romances.’ p. 66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_664_664" id="Footnote_664_664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_664_664"><span class="label">[664]</span></a> ‘Sympathy, however, cannot, in any sense, be regarded as a +selfish principle.’ <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. ii. p. +206. In vol. i. p. 9, he complains of ‘those who are fond +of deducing all our sentiments from certain refinements of self-love.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_665_665" id="Footnote_665_665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_665_665"><span class="label">[665]</span></a> This is noticed by Sir James Mackintosh, whose sketch of +Adam Smith is hasty, and somewhat superficial, but who, nevertheless, +truly observes, that Smith ‘has exposed himself to objections founded on +experience, to which it is impossible to attempt any answer.’ +<i>Mackintosh's Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy</i>, pp. 239, 240. See +also a letter from Hume to Adam Smith, in <i>Burton's Life and +Correspondence of Hume</i>, vol. ii. p. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a> ‘Mr. Smith's political lectures, comprehending the +fundamental principles of his “Inquiry,” were delivered at Glasgow as +early as the year 1752 or 1753.’ <i>Dugald Stewart's Life of Adam Smith</i>, +p. lxxviii., prefixed to <i>Smith's Posthumous Essays</i>, London, 4to, +1795.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a> <i>History of Civilization</i>, vol. i. p. 214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_668_668" id="Footnote_668_668"></a><a href="#FNanchor_668_668"><span class="label">[668]</span></a> ‘Perhaps the only book which produced an immediate, +general, and irrevocable change in some of the most important parts of +the legislation of all civilized states.’ <i>Mackintosh's Ethical +Philosophy</i>, p. 232. But this is too strongly expressed, as the +economical history of France and Germany decisively proves.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_669_669" id="Footnote_669_669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_669_669"><span class="label">[669]</span></a> ‘Parsimony, and not industry, is the immediate cause of +the increase of capital. Industry, indeed, provides the subject which +parsimony accumulates; but whatever industry might acquire, if parsimony +did not save and store up, the capital would never be the greater.’ … +‘But the principle which prompts to save, is the desire of bettering our +condition; a desire which, though generally calm and dispassionate, +comes with us from the womb, and never leaves us till we go into the +grave.’ <i>Smith's Wealth of Nations</i>, book ii. chap. iii. pp. 138, 140, +edit. Edinb. 1839.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_670_670" id="Footnote_670_670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_670_670"><span class="label">[670]</span></a> ‘The uniform, constant, and uninterrupted effort of every +man to better his condition, the principle from which public and +national, as well as private, opulence is originally derived, is +frequently powerful enough to maintain the natural progress of things +towards improvement, in spite both of the extravagance of government and +of the greatest errors of administration. Like the unknown principle of +animal life, it frequently restores health and vigour to the +constitution, in spite not only of the disease, but of the absurd +prescriptions of the doctor.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book ii. chap. iii. +p. 141. ‘The natural effort of every individual to better his own +condition, when suffered to exert itself with freedom and security, is +so powerful a principle, that it is alone, and without any assistance, +not only capable of carrying on the society to wealth and prosperity, +but of surmounting a hundred impertinent obstructions with which the +folly of human laws too often encumbers its operations.’ Book iv. chap. +v. p. 221.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_671_671" id="Footnote_671_671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_671_671"><span class="label">[671]</span></a> See an admirable passage, p. 156, too long to quote, +beginning, ‘If human institutions had never thwarted those natural +inclinations,’ &c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_672_672" id="Footnote_672_672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_672_672"><span class="label">[672]</span></a> ‘That insidious and crafty animal, vulgarly called a +statesman or politician, whose councils are directed by the momentary +fluctuations of affairs.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book iv. chap. ii. p. +190.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_673_673" id="Footnote_673_673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_673_673"><span class="label">[673]</span></a> ‘That security which the laws in Great Britain give to +every man, that he shall enjoy the fruits of his own labour, is alone +sufficient to make any country flourish, notwithstanding these and +twenty other absurd regulations of commerce.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book +iv. chap. v. p. 221.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a> ‘In all countries where there is a tolerable security, +every man of common understanding will endeavour to employ whatever +stock he can command, in procuring either present enjoyment or future +profit.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book ii. chap. i. p. 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_675_675" id="Footnote_675_675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_675_675"><span class="label">[675]</span></a> ‘The consideration of his own private profit is the sole +motive which determines the owner of any capital to employ it either in +agriculture, in manufactures, or in some particular branch of the +wholesale or retail trade.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book ii. chap. v. p. +154.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a> ‘By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that +of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote +it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for +the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among +merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from +it.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book iv. chap. ii. p. 184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_677_677" id="Footnote_677_677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_677_677"><span class="label">[677]</span></a> In his <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 21, he +says that mankind are ‘naturally sympathetic.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_678_678" id="Footnote_678_678"></a><a href="#FNanchor_678_678"><span class="label">[678]</span></a> ‘Nay, it is chiefly for this regard to the sentiments of +mankind, that we pursue riches and avoid poverty.’ <i>Theory of Moral +Sentiments</i>, vol. i. p. 66. ‘To become the natural object of the joyous +congratulations and sympathetic attentions of mankind, is, in this +manner, the circumstance which gives to prosperity all its dazzling +splendour.’ p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_679_679" id="Footnote_679_679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_679_679"><span class="label">[679]</span></a> ‘The late resolution of the Quakers in Pennsylvania, to +set at liberty all their negro slaves, may satisfy us that their number +cannot be very great. Had they made any considerable part of their +property, such a resolution could never have been agreed to.’ <i>Wealth of +Nations</i>, book iii. chap. ii. p. 159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_680_680" id="Footnote_680_680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_680_680"><span class="label">[680]</span></a> ‘In every civilized society, in every society where the +distinction of ranks has once been completely established, there have +been always two different schemes or systems of morality current at the +same time; of which the one may be called the strict or austere; the +other the liberal, or, if you will, the loose system. The former is +generally revered and admired by the common people; the latter is +commonly more esteemed and adopted by what are called the people of +fashion. The degree of disapprobation with which we ought to mark the +vices of levity, the vices which are apt to arise from great prosperity, +and from the excess of gaiety and good humour, seems to constitute the +principal distinction between those two opposite schemes or systems. In +the liberal, or loose system, luxury, wanton, and even disorderly mirth, +the pursuit of pleasure to some degree of intemperance, the breach of +chastity, at least in one of the two sexes, provided they are not +accompanied with gross indecency, and do not lead to falsehood and +injustice, are generally treated with a good deal of indulgence, and are +easily either excused or pardoned altogether. In the austere system, on +the contrary, these excesses are regarded with the utmost abhorrence and +detestation. The vices of levity are always ruinous to the common +people, and a single week's thoughtlessness and dissipation is often +sufficient to undo a poor workman for ever, and to drive him, through +despair, upon committing the most enormous crimes. The wiser and better +sort of the common people, therefore, have always the utmost abhorrence +and detestation of such excesses, which their experience tells them are +so immediately fatal to people of their condition. The disorder and +extravagance of several years, on the contrary, will not always ruin a +man of fashion; and people of that rank are very apt to consider the +power of indulging in some degree of excess, as one of the advantages of +their fortune; and the liberty of doing so without censure or reproach, +as one of the privileges which belong to their station. In people of +their own station, therefore, they regard such excesses with but a small +degree of disapprobation, and censure them either very slightly or not +at all.</p> + +<p>‘Almost all religious sects have begun among the common people, from +whom they have generally drawn their earliest as well as their most +numerous proselytes. The austere system of morality has, accordingly, +been adopted by those sects almost constantly, or with very few +exceptions; for there have been some. It was the system by which they +could best recommend themselves to that order of people, to whom they +first proposed their plan of reformation upon what had been before +established. Many of them, perhaps the greater part of them, have even +endeavoured to gain credit by refining upon this austere system, and by +carrying it to some degree of folly and extravagance; and this excessive +rigour has frequently recommended them, more than any thing else, to the +respect and veneration of the common people.’ … ‘In little religious +sects, accordingly, the morals of the common people have been almost +always remarkably regular and orderly; generally much more so than in +the established church. The morals of those little sects, indeed, have +frequently been rather disagreeably rigorous and unsocial.’ <i>Wealth of +Nations</i>, book v. chap. i. pp. 332, 333.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_681_681" id="Footnote_681_681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_681_681"><span class="label">[681]</span></a> ‘Where the church benefices are all nearly equal, none of +them can be very great; and this mediocrity of benefice, though it may, +no doubt, be carried too far, has, however, some very agreeable effects. +Nothing but exemplary morals can give dignity to a man of small fortune. +The vices of levity and vanity necessarily render him ridiculous, and +are, besides, almost as ruinous to him as they are to the common people. +In his own conduct, therefore, he is obliged to follow that system of +morals which the common people respect the most. He gains their esteem +and affection, by that plan of life which his own interest and situation +would lead him to follow.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book v. chap. i. p. +340.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_682_682" id="Footnote_682_682"></a><a href="#FNanchor_682_682"><span class="label">[682]</span></a> Besides the evidence supplied by economical treatises, the +laws in our statute-book, respecting wages, show the general conviction, +that their rate could be fixed by the upper classes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_683_683" id="Footnote_683_683"></a><a href="#FNanchor_683_683"><span class="label">[683]</span></a> ‘We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combinations of +masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, +upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the +world as of the subject. Masters are always and every where in a sort of +tacit, but constant and uniform, combination, not to raise the wages of +labour above their actual rate. To violate this combination is every +where a most unpopular action, and a sort of reproach to a master among +his neighbours and equals. We seldom, indeed, hear of this combination, +because it is the usual, and, one may say, the natural state of things +which nobody ever hears of. Masters, too, sometimes enter into +particular combinations to sink the wages of labour even below this +rate.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book i. chap. viii. p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a> ‘First, in almost every part of Great Britain, there is a +distinction, even in the lowest species of labour, between summer and +winter wages. Summer wages are always highest. But, on account of the +extraordinary expense of fuel, the maintenance of a family is most +expensive in winter. Wages, therefore, being highest when this expense +is lowest, it seems evident that they are not regulated by what is +necessary for this expense, but by the quantity and supposed value of +the work.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book i. chap. viii. p. 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a> ‘In years of scarcity, the difficulty and uncertainty of +subsistence make all such people eager to return to service. But the +high price of provisions, by diminishing the funds destined for the +maintenance of servants, disposes masters rather to diminish than to +increase the number of those they have.’ … ‘Masters of all sorts, +therefore, frequently make better bargains with their servants in dear +than in cheap years, and find them more humble and dependent in the +former than in the latter. They naturally, therefore, commend the former +as more favourable to industry.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book i. chap. +viii. p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a> ‘The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as +little, as possible. The former are disposed to combine in order to +raise, the latter in order to lower, the wages of labour.’ +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, b. i. c. viii. p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a> ‘It seems absurd at first sight, that we should despise +their persons, and yet reward their talents with the most profuse +liberality. While we do the one, however, we must of necessity do the +other. Should the public opinion, or prejudice, ever alter with regard +to such occupation, their pecuniary recompense would quickly diminish. +More people would apply to them, and the competition would quickly +reduce the price of their labour. Such talents, though far from being +common, are by no means so rare as imagined. Many people possess them in +great perfection, who disdain to make this use of them; and many more +are capable of acquiring them, if any thing could be made honourably by +them.’ <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book i. ch. x. p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a> ‘Over and above the rents of those estates, the clergy +possessed in the tithes a very large portion of the rents of all the +other estates in every kingdom of Europe. The revenues arising from both +those species of rents were, the greater part of them, paid in kind, in +corn, wine, cattle, poultry, &c. The quantity exceeded greatly what the +clergy could themselves consume; and there were neither arts nor +manufactures, for the produce of which they could exchange the surplus. +The clergy could derive advantage from this immense surplus in no other +way than by employing it, as the great barons employed the like surplus +of their revenues, in the most profuse hospitality, and in the most +extensive charity. Both the hospitality and the charity of the ancient +clergy, accordingly, are said to have been very great.’ … ‘The +hospitality and charity of the clergy, too, not only gave them the +command of a great temporal force, but increased very much the weight of +their spiritual weapons. Those virtues procured them the highest respect +and veneration among all the inferior ranks of people, of whom many were +constantly, and almost all occasionally, fed by them.’ <i>Wealth of +Nations</i>, book v. chap. i. p. 336.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a> <i>Burton's Life of Hume</i>, vol. i. p. 354.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a> See Mr. Burton's valuable <i>Life of Hume</i>, Edinburgh, 1846, +vol. i. pp. 58, 267, vol. ii. pp. 14, 134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_691_691" id="Footnote_691_691"></a><a href="#FNanchor_691_691"><span class="label">[691]</span></a> What confirms me in this view, is the fact, that the older +Hume grew, and the more he read on history, the more he became imbued +with these errors; which would not have been the case if the errors had, +as many of his critics say, been the result of an insufficient +acquaintance with the evidence. Mr. Burton, by comparing the different +editions of his <i>History of England</i>, has shown that he gradually became +less favourable to popular liberty; softening, or erasing, in later +editions, those expressions which seemed favourable to freedom. +<i>Burton's Life of Hume</i>, vol. ii. pp. 74–77. See also pp. 144, 434. In +his <i>Own Life</i>, p. xi (in vol. i. of <i>Hume's Works</i> Edinb. 1826), he +says: ‘In a hundred alterations, which farther study, reading, +or reflection engaged me to make in the reigns of the two first Stuarts, +I have made all of them invariably the Tory side.’ In one of his +essays, he observes (<i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 172) that ‘there +is no enthusiasm among philosophers;’ a remark perfectly true, so far as +he was concerned, but very unjust towards the class of men to whom it +refers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_692_692" id="Footnote_692_692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_692_692"><span class="label">[692]</span></a> Brown, in his great work,—one of the greatest which this +century has produced,—candidly confesses that his own book is ‘chiefly +reflective of the lights, which he’ (Hume) ‘has given.’ <i>Brown's Inquiry +into the Relation of Cause and Effect</i>, London, 1835, p. 253. See also +p. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_693_693" id="Footnote_693_693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_693_693"><span class="label">[693]</span></a> While the politicians of his own time despised his views, +the politicians of our time seem inclined to overrate them. Lord +Brougham, for instance, in his Life of Hume, says, of his political +economy, ‘Mr. Hume is, beyond all doubt, the author of the modern +doctrines which now rule the world of science.’ <i>Brougham's Works</i>, +Glasgow, 1856, vol. ii. p. 176. But so far from this being +the case, the science of political economy has, since the time of Hume, +received such additions, that if that illustrious philosopher were to +rise from the dead, he would hardly be able to recognize it. To him, +many of its largest and most fundamental principles were entirely +unknown. Hume knew nothing of the causes which govern the accumulation +of wealth, and compel that accumulation to proceed with different speed +in different states of society; a fruitful and important study almost +entirely neglected until entered upon by Rae. Neither did Hume know +anything of the law of the ratio between population and wages; nor of +the ratio between wages and profits. He even supposes (<i>Philosophical +Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 299, Edinburgh, 1826) that it is possible for the +labouring classes by combination ‘to heighten their wages;’ and again +(p. 319) that the richer a nation is, and the more trade it has, the +easier it will be for a poor country to undersell its manufactures, +because the poor nation enjoys the advantage of a ‘low price of labour.’ +Elsewhere, he asserts that coin can be depreciated without raising +prices, and that a country, by taxing a foreign commodity, could +increase its own population. ‘Were all our money, for instance, +recoined, and a penny's worth of silver taken from every shilling, the +new shilling would probably purchase every thing that could have been +bought by the old; the prices of every thing would thereby be insensibly +diminished; foreign trade enlivened; and domestic industry, by the +circulation of a great number of pounds and shillings, would receive +some increase and encouragement.’ <i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. p. +324. ‘A tax on German linen encourages home manufactures, and thereby +multiplies our people and industry.’ p. 365. These are cardinal errors, +which go to the very root of political economy; and when we fairly +estimate what has been done by Malthus and Ricardo, it will be evident +that Hume's doctrines do not ‘rule the world of science.’ This is no +disparagement of Hume, who, on the contrary, effected wonderful things, +considering the then state of knowledge. The mistake is, in imagining +that such a rapidly advancing science as political economy can be +governed by doctrines propounded more than a century ago.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a> ‘Every thing in the world is purchased by labour, and our +passions are the only causes of labour.’ <i>Essay I. on Commerce, in +Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 294. Hence, he saw the fallacy +of the assertion of the French economists, ‘that all taxes fall +ultimately upon land.’ p. 388.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a> ‘Money is not, properly speaking, one of the subjects of +commerce, but only the instrument which men have agreed upon to +facilitate the exchange of one commodity for another.’ <i>Essay on Money +in Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 317. ‘It is, indeed, evident that +money is nothing but the representation of labour and commodities, and +serves only as a method of rating or estimating them.’ p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> See <i>Essay V. on the Balance of Trade</i>, in <i>Hume's +Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. pp. 348–367.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_697_697" id="Footnote_697_697"></a><a href="#FNanchor_697_697"><span class="label">[697]</span></a> <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. pp. 333–335. Even +now, a knowledge of this truth is so little diffused, that, lately, when +Australia and California began to yield immense quantities of gold, a +notion was widely circulated that the interest of money would +consequently fall; although nothing can be more certain than that if +gold were to become as plentiful as iron, the interest of money would be +unaffected. The whole effect would fall upon price. The remarks on this +subject in <i>Ritchie's Life of Hume</i>, London, 1807, pp. 332, 333, are +interesting, as illustrating the slow progress of opinion, and the +difficulty which minds, not specially trained, experience when they +attempt to investigate these subjects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_698_698" id="Footnote_698_698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_698_698"><span class="label">[698]</span></a> ‘Nothing is more usual, among states which have made some +advance in commerce, than to look on the progress of their neighbours +with a suspicious eye, to consider all trading states as their rivals, +and to suppose that it is impossible for any of them to flourish, but at +their expense. In opposition to this narrow and malignant opinion, I +will venture to assert, that the increase of riches and commerce in any +one nation, instead of hurting, commonly promotes the riches and +commerce of all its neighbours.’ … ‘I go farther, and observe, that +where an open communication is preserved among nations, it is impossible +but the domestic industry of every one must receive an increase from the +improvements of the others.’ <i>Essay on the Jealousy of Trade</i>, in +<i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. pp. 368, 369.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> This letter, which I have referred to in my first volume, +p. 229, was published, for, I believe, the first time, in 1846, in +<i>Burton's Life and Correspondence of Hume</i>, vol. ii. p. 486. It is, +however, very difficult to determine what Adam Smith's +opinion really was upon this subject, and how far he was aware that rent +did not enter into price. In one passage in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> +(book i. chap. vi. p. 21) he says of wages, profit, and rent, ‘in every +society, the price of every commodity finally resolves itself into some +one or other, or all of those three parts; and <i>in every improved +society, all the three enter, more or less, as component parts, into the +price of the far greater part of commodities</i>.’ But in book i. chap. xi. +p. 61, he says, ‘High or low wages and profit are the causes of high or +low price; high or low rent is the effect of it.’ This latter opinion we +now know to be the true one; it is, however, incompatible with that +expressed in the first passage. For, if rent is the effect of price, it +cannot be a component of it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a> Hence, when the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> appeared, one of our +wise men gravely said that ‘Dr. Smith, who had never been in trade, +could not be expected to write well on that subject, any more than a +lawyer upon physic.’ See <i>Boswell's Life of Johnson</i>, edit. Croker, +1848, p. 478, where this remark is ascribed to Sir John Pringle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_701_701" id="Footnote_701_701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_701_701"><span class="label">[701]</span></a> ‘He was sent to a mercantile house at Bristol in 1734; but +he found the drudgery of this employment intolerable, and he retired to +Rheims.’ <i>Brougham's Life of Hume</i>, Glasgow, 1856, p. 169. See also +<i>Ritchie's Life of Hume</i>, p. 6. In <i>Roberts' Memoirs of Hannah More</i>, 2d +ed. 1834, vol. i. p. 16, it is said that ‘two years of his life were +spent in a merchant's counting-house in Bristol, whence he was dismissed +on account of the promptitude of his pen in the correction of the +letters intrusted to him to copy.’ The latter part of this story is +improbable; the former part is certainly incorrect; since Hume himself +says, ‘In 1734, I went to Bristol, with some recommendations to eminent +merchants, but <i>in a few months</i> found that scene totally unsuitable to +me. I went over to France, with a view of prosecuting my studies in a +country retreat.’ <i>Own Life</i>, p. v.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a> What Sir James Mackintosh says of him is only a faint echo +of the general voice of his contemporaries. ‘His temper was calm, not to +say cold; but though none of his feelings were ardent, all were engaged +on the side of virtue. He was free from the slightest tincture of +malignity or meanness; his conduct was uniformly excellent.’ +<i>Mackintosh's Memoirs</i>, vol. ii. p. 162. A greater than Mackintosh, and +a man who knew Hume intimately, expresses himself in much warmer terms. +‘Upon the whole,’ writes Adam Smith,—‘Upon the whole, I have always +considered him, both in his lifetime and since his death, as approaching +as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps +the nature of human frailty will permit.’ <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, +vol. i. p. xxv. Some notices of Hume will be found in an interesting +work just published. <i>Autobiography of Alexander Carlyle</i>, Edinburgh, +1860, pp. 272–278. But Carlyle, though a man of considerable practical +skill, was incapable of large views, and was, therefore, unable, I will +not say to measure, but even to conceive, the size of such an +understanding as that possessed by David Hume. Of his want of +speculative power, a decisive instance appears in his remarks on Adam +Smith. He gravely says (<i>Autobiography</i>, p. 281), ‘Smith's fine writing +is chiefly displayed in his book on <i>Moral Sentiments</i>, which is the +pleasantest and most eloquent book on the subject. His <i>Wealth of +Nations</i>, from which he was judged to be an inventive genius of the +first order, is tedious and full of repetition. His separate essays in +the second volume have the air of being occasional pamphlets, without +much force or determination. On political subjects, his opinions were +not very sound.’ It is rather too much when a village-preacher writes in +this strain of the greatest man his country has ever produced.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a> He speaks of him in the following extraordinary terms. ‘If +we consider the variety of talents displayed by this man; as a public +speaker, a man of business, a wit, a courtier, a companion, an author, a +philosopher; he is justly the object of great admiration. If we consider +him merely as an author and philosopher, the light in which we view him +at present, though very estimable, <i>he was yet inferior to his +contemporary Galileo, perhaps even to Kepler</i>.’ … ‘The national spirit +which prevails among the English, and which forms their great happiness, +is the cause why they bestow on all their eminent writers, and on Bacon +among the rest, such praises and acclamations as may often appear +partial and excessive.’ <i>Hume's History of England</i>, vol. vi. pp. 194, +195, London, 1789.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_704_704" id="Footnote_704_704"></a><a href="#FNanchor_704_704"><span class="label">[704]</span></a> See the note in vol. i. p. 250, of <i>Buckle's History of +Civilization</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_705_705" id="Footnote_705_705"></a><a href="#FNanchor_705_705"><span class="label">[705]</span></a> Thus, for instance, in his remarkable <i>Essay on the +Balance of Trade</i>, he says (<i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 349), +‘Every man who has ever reasoned on this subject, has always <i>proved his +theory, whatever it was, by facts and calculations</i>, and by an +enumeration of all the commodities sent to all foreign kingdoms;’ +therefore (p. 350), ‘It may here be proper to form a general argument to +prove the impossibility of this event, so long as we preserve our people +and our industry.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a> ‘I have no great faith in political arithmetic.’ <i>Wealth +of Nations</i>, book iv. chap. v. p. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_707_707" id="Footnote_707_707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_707_707"><span class="label">[707]</span></a> Indeed, the only possible objection to them is that the +language of their collectors is sometimes ambiguous; so that, by the +same return, one statistician may mean one thing, and another +statistician may mean something quite different. This is well +exemplified in medical statistics; whence several writers, unacquainted +with the philosophy of scientific proof, have supposed that medicine is +incapable of mathematical treatment. In point of fact, however, the only +real impediment is the shameful state of clinical and pathological +terminology, which is in such confusion as to throw doubt upon all +extensive numerical statements respecting disease.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_708_708" id="Footnote_708_708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_708_708"><span class="label">[708]</span></a> ‘Upon his return to England in the autumn of 1766, he went +to reside with his mother at his native town of Kirkaldy, and remained +there for ten years. All the attempts of his friends in Edinburgh to +draw him thither were vain; and from a kind and lively letter of Mr. +Hume upon the subject, complaining that, though within sight of him on +the opposite side of the Frith of Forth, he could not have speech of +him, it appears that no one was aware of the occupations in which those +years were passed.’ <i>Brougham's Life of Adam Smith</i>, p. 189. +Occasionally, however, he saw his literary friends. See <i>Dugald +Stewart's Biographical Memoirs</i>, p. 73, Edinb. 1811, 4to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a> ‘He was certainly not fitted for the general commerce of +the world, or for the business of active life. The comprehensive +speculations with which he had been occupied from his youth, and the +variety of materials which his own invention constantly supplied to his +thoughts, rendered him habitually inattentive to familiar objects and to +common occurrences; and he frequently exhibited instances of absence, +which have scarcely been surpassed by the fancy of La Bruyère.’ +<i>Stewart's Biographical Memoirs</i>, p. 113. See also <i>Ramsay's +Reminiscences</i>, 5th edit. Edinb. 1859, p. 236. Carlyle, who knew him +well, says, ‘he was the most absent man in company that I ever saw, +moving his lips, and talking to himself, and smiling, in the midst of +large companies.’ <i>Autobiography of the Rev. Alexander Carlyle</i>, 2nd +edit. Edinb. 1860, p. 279.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> A Scotch philosopher of great repute, but, as it appears +to me, of ability not quite equal to his repute, has stated very clearly +and accurately this favourite method of his countrymen. ‘In examining +the history of mankind, as well as in examining the phenomena of the +material world, when we cannot trace the process by which an event <i>has +been</i> produced, it is often of importance to be able to show how it <i>may +have been</i> produced by natural causes.’ … ‘To this species of +philosophical investigation, which has no appropriated name in our +language, I shall take the liberty of giving the title of <i>Theoretical</i> +or <i>Conjectural History</i>; an expression which coincides pretty nearly in +its meaning with that of <i>Natural History</i> as employed by Mr. Hume, and +with what some French writers have called Histoire Raisonnée.’ <i>Dugald +Stewart's Biographical Memoirs</i>, pp. 48, 49. Hence (p. 53), ‘in most +cases, it is of more importance to ascertain the progress that is most +simple, than the progress that is most agreeable to fact; for, +paradoxical as the proposition may appear, it is certainly true, that +<i>the real progress is not always the most natural</i>. It may have been +determined by particular accidents, which are not likely again to occur, +and which cannot be considered as forming any part of that general +provision which nature has made for the improvement of the race.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> Part of this view is well expressed in <i>Hume's Treatise of +Human Nature</i>, book iii. part ii. ‘This, however, hinders not but that +philosophers may, if they please, extend their reasoning to the supposed +<i>state of nature</i>; provided they allow it to be a mere philosophical +fiction, which never had, and never could have, any reality.’ … ‘The +same liberty may be permitted to moral, which is allowed to natural +philosophers; and ’tis very usual with the latter to consider any motion +as compounded and consisting of two parts separate from each other, +though, at the same time, they acknowledge it to be in itself +uncompounded and inseparable.’ <i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. ii. p. 263.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> And, conversely, that whatever was ‘demonstratively +false,’ could ‘never be distinctly conceived by the mind.’ +<i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 33. Here, and sometimes in other +passages, Hume, though by no means a Cartesian, reminds us of +Descartes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a> ‘Here, then, is the only expedient from which we can hope +for success in our philosophical researches, <i>to leave the tedious, +lingering method</i>, which we have hitherto followed, and instead of +taking now and then a castle or a village on the frontier, to march up +directly to the capital, or centre of these sciences, to human nature +itself; which, being once masters of, we may every where else hope for +an easy victory. From this station we may extend our conquests over all +those sciences which more immediately concern human life, and may +afterwards proceed, at leisure, to discover more fully those which are +the objects of pure curiosity.’ <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. i. p. +8. See also, in vol. ii. pp. 73, 74, his remarks on the way ‘to consider +the matter <i>à priori</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> ‘No kind of reasoning can give rise to a new idea, such +as this of power is; but wherever we reason, we must antecedently be +possessed of clear ideas, which may be the objects of our reasoning.’ +<i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. i. p. 217. Compare vol. ii. p. 276, +on our arriving at a knowledge of causes ‘by a kind of taste or fancy.’ +Hence, the larger view preceding the smaller, and being essentially +independent of it, will constantly contradict it; and he complains, for +instance, that ‘difficulties, which seem unsurmountable in theory, are +easily got over in practice.’ vol. ii. p. 357; and again, in vol. iii. +p. 326, on the effort needed to ‘reconcile reason to experience.’ But, +after all, it is rather by a careful study of his works, than by quoting +particular passages, that his method can be understood. In the two +sentences, however, just cited, the reader will see that theory and +reason represent the larger view; while practice and experience +represent the smaller.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> ‘’Tis certainly a kind of indignity to philosophy, whose +sovereign authority ought every where to be acknowledged, to oblige her +on every occasion to make apologies for her conclusions, and justify +herself to every particular art and science, which may be offended at +her. This puts one in mind of a king arraigned for high treason against +his subjects.’ <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 318, 319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_716_716" id="Footnote_716_716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_716_716"><span class="label">[716]</span></a> ‘A barbarous, necessitous animal (such as a man is on the +first origin of society), pressed by such numerous wants and passions, +has no leisure to admire the regular face of nature, or make inquiries +concerning the cause of those objects to which, from his infancy, he has +been gradually accustomed. On the contrary, the more regular and +uniform, that is the more perfect, nature appears, the more is he +familiarized to it, and the less inclined to scrutinize and examine it. +A monstrous birth excites his curiosity, and is deemed a prodigy. It +alarms him from its novelty, and immediately sets him a trembling, and +sacrificing, and praying. But an animal complete in all its limbs and +organs is to him an ordinary spectacle, and produces no religious +opinion or affection. Ask him whence that animal arose? He will tell +you, from the copulation of its parents. And these, whence? From the +copulation of theirs. A few removes satisfy his curiosity, and set the +objects at such a distance that he entirely loses sight of them. Imagine +not that he will so much as start the question, whence the first animal, +much less whence the whole system, or united fabric of the universe +arose. Or, if you start such a question to him, expect not that he will +employ his mind with any anxiety about a subject so remote, so +uninteresting, and which so much exceeds the bounds of his capacity.’ +<i>Natural History of Religion</i>, in <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iv. +p. 439. See also pp. 463–465.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_717_717" id="Footnote_717_717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_717_717"><span class="label">[717]</span></a> ‘By degrees, the active imagination of men, uneasy in +this abstract conception of objects, about which it is incessantly +employed, begins to render them more particular, and to clothe them in +shapes more suitable to its natural comprehension. It represents them to +be sensible, intelligent beings like mankind; actuated by love and +hatred, and flexible by gifts and entreaties, by prayers and sacrifices. +Hence the origin of religion. And hence the origin of idolatry, or +polytheism.’ <i>Hume's Philosophical Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 472. ‘The primary +religion of mankind arises chiefly from an anxious fear of future +events,’ p. 498.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_718_718" id="Footnote_718_718"></a><a href="#FNanchor_718_718"><span class="label">[718]</span></a> ‘<i>It seems certain, that, according to the natural +progress of human thought</i>, the ignorant multitude must first entertain +some grovelling and familiar notion of superior powers, before they +stretch their conception to that perfect Being who bestowed order on the +whole frame of nature. <i>We may as reasonably imagine, that men inhabited +palaces before huts and cottages</i>, or studied geometry before +agriculture, as assert that the Deity appeared to them a pure spirit, +omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent, before he was apprehended to be +a powerful though limited being, with human passions and appetites, +limbs and organs. The mind rises gradually from inferior to superior. By +abstracting from what is imperfect, it forms an idea of perfection; and +slowly distinguishing the nobler parts of its own frame from the +grosser, it learns to transform only the former, much elevated and +refined, to its divinity. Nothing could disturb this <i>natural progress +of thought</i>, but some obvious and invincible argument, which might +immediately lead the mind into the pure principles of theism, and make +it overleap, at one bound, the vast interval which is interposed between +the human and the Divine nature. But though I allow, that the order and +frame of the universe, when accurately examined, affords such an +argument, yet <i>I can never think</i> that this consideration could have an +influence on mankind, when they formed their first rude notions of +religion.’ <i>Natural History of Religion</i>, in <i>Philosophical Works</i>, vol. +iv. p. 438.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a> Not that he was by any means devoid of genius, though he +holds a rank far below so great and original a thinker as Hume. He had, +however, collected more materials than he was able to wield; and his +work on the <i>Intellectual System of the Universe</i>, which is a treasure +of ancient philosophy, is badly arranged, and, in many parts, feebly +argued. There is more real power in his posthumous treatise on <i>Eternal +and Immutable Morality</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a> ‘I once believed this doctrine of ideas so firmly, as to +embrace the whole of Berkeley's system in consequence of it; till, +finding other consequences to follow from it, which gave me more +uneasiness than the want of a material world, it came into my mind more +than 40 years ago, to put the question, What evidence have I for this +doctrine that all the objects of my knowledge are ideas in my own mind? +From that time to the present, I have been candidly and impartially, as +I think, seeking for the evidence of this principle but can find none, +excepting the authority of philosophers.’ <i>Reid's Essays on the Powers +of the Human Mind</i>, edit. Edinburgh, 1808, vol. i. p. 172. And, in a +letter which he wrote to Hume in 1763, he, with a simple candour which +must have highly amused that eminent philosopher, confesses that ‘your +system appears to me not only coherent in all its parts, but likewise +justly deduced from principles commonly received among philosophers; +principles which I never thought of calling in question, until the +conclusions you draw from them in the “Treatise on Human Nature” made me +suspect them.’ <i>Burton's Life and Correspondence of Hume</i>, vol. ii. p. +155.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_721_721" id="Footnote_721_721"></a><a href="#FNanchor_721_721"><span class="label">[721]</span></a> ‘Suppose a man to be found dead on the high-way, his +skull fractured, his body pierced with deadly wounds, his watch and +money carried off. The coroner's jury sits upon the body, and the +question is put, What was the cause of this man's death, was it +accident, or <i>felo de se</i>, or murder by persons unknown? Let us suppose +an adept in Mr. Hume's philosophy to make one of the jury, and that he +insists upon the previous question, whether there was any cause of the +event, or whether it happened without a cause.’ <i>Reid's Essays on the +Powers of the Mind</i>, vol. ii. p. 286. Compare vol. iii. p. 33: ‘This +would put an end to all speculation, as well as to all the business of +life.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_722_722" id="Footnote_722_722"></a><a href="#FNanchor_722_722"><span class="label">[722]</span></a> ‘The obligation of contracts and promises is a matter so +sacred, and of such consequence to human society, that speculations +which have a <i>tendency to weaken that obligation</i>, and to perplex men's +notions on a subject so plain and so important, ought to <i>meet with the +disapprobation of all honest men</i>. Some such speculations, I think, we +have in the third volume of Mr. Hume's “Treatise of Human Nature,” and +in his “Enquiry into the Principles of Morals;” and my design in this +chapter is, to offer some observations on the nature of a contract or +promise, and on two passages of that author on this subject. I am far +from saying or thinking, that Mr. Hume meant to weaken men's obligations +to honesty and fair dealing, or that he had not a sense of these +obligations himself. It is not the man I impeach, but his writings. Let +us think of the first as charitably as we can, while we freely examine +the import and <i>tendency</i> of the last.’ <i>Reid's Essays on the Powers of +the Mind</i>, vol. iii. p. 444. In this, as in most passages, the italics +are my own.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a> ‘Without repeating what I have before said of causes in +the first of these Essays, and in the second and third chapters of this, +I shall here mention some of the consequences that may be justly deduced +from this definition of a cause, that we may judge of it by its fruits.’ +<i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. iii. p. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a> ‘Bishop Berkeley surely did not duly consider that it is +by means of the material world that we have any correspondence with +thinking beings, or any knowledge of their existence, and that by +depriving us of the material world, he deprived us at the same time of +family, friends, country, and every human creature; of every object of +affection, esteem or concern, except ourselves. The good bishop surely +never intended this. He was too warm a friend, too zealous a patriot, +and too good a Christian to be capable of such a thought. <i>He was not +aware of the consequences of his system</i>’ (poor, ignorant Berkeley), +‘and therefore they ought not to be imputed to him; but we must impute +them to the system itself. It stifles every generous and social +principle.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. pp. 251, 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> In his <i>Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 179, he says of Berkeley, one +of the deepest and most unanswerable of all speculators, ‘But there is +one <i>uncomfortable consequence</i> of his system which he seems not to have +attended to, and from which it will be found difficult, if at all +possible, to guard it.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a> ‘This doctrine is dishonourable to our Maker, and lays a +foundation for universal scepticism. It supposes the Author of our being +to have given us one faculty on purpose to deceive us, and another by +which we may detect the fallacy, and find that he imposed upon us.’ … +‘The genuine dictate of our natural faculties is the voice of God, no +less than what he reveals from heaven; and to say that it is fallacious, +is to impute a lie to the God of truth.’ … ‘Shall we impute to the +Almighty what we cannot impute to a man without a heinous affront? +Passing this opinion, therefore, as shocking to an ingenuous mind, and, +in its consequences, subversive of all religion, all morals, and all +knowledge,’ &c. <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. iii. p. 310. See also vol. i. p. +313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_727_727" id="Footnote_727_727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_727_727"><span class="label">[727]</span></a> ‘His reasoning appeared to me to be just; there was, +therefore, a necessity to call in question the principles upon which it +was founded, or to admit the conclusion.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry into the Human +Mind</i>, p. v. ‘The received doctrine of ideas is the principle from which +it is deduced, and of which, indeed, it seems to be a just and natural +consequence.’ p. 53. See also <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. pp. 199, 200, +vol. ii. p. 211.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a> ‘The laws of nature are the most general facts we can +discover in the operations of nature. Like other facts, they are not to +be hit upon by a happy conjecture, but justly deduced from observation. +Like other general facts, they are not to be drawn from a few +particulars, but from a copious, patient, and cautious induction.’ +<i>Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind</i>, pp. 262, 263.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_729_729" id="Footnote_729_729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_729_729"><span class="label">[729]</span></a> ‘Such discoveries have always been made by patient +observation, by accurate experiments, or by conclusions drawn by strict +reasoning from observations and experiments; and such discoveries have +always tended to refute, but not to confirm, the theories and hypotheses +which ingenious men had invented.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_730_730" id="Footnote_730_730"></a><a href="#FNanchor_730_730"><span class="label">[730]</span></a> ‘This is Mr. Hume's notion of a cause.’ … ‘But theory +ought to stoop to fact, and not fact to theory.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. +iii. p. 276.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_731_731" id="Footnote_731_731"></a><a href="#FNanchor_731_731"><span class="label">[731]</span></a> ‘But yet there seems to be great difference of opinions +among philosophers about first principles. What one takes to be +self-evident, another labours to prove by arguments, and a third denies +altogether.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 218. ‘Mr. Locke seems to think +first principles of very small use.’ p. 219.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_732_732" id="Footnote_732_732"></a><a href="#FNanchor_732_732"><span class="label">[732]</span></a> ‘All reasoning must be from first principles; and for +first principles no other reason can be given but this, that, by the +constitution of our nature, we are under a necessity of assenting to +them.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, p. 140. ‘All reasoning is from principles.’ … +‘Most justly, therefore, do such principles disdain to be tried by +reason, and laugh at all the artillery of the logician when it is +directed against them.’ p. 372. ‘All knowledge got by reasoning must be +built upon first principles.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 220. ‘In +every branch of real knowledge there must be first principles, whose +truth is known intuitively, without reasoning, either probable or +demonstrative. They are not grounded on reasoning, but all reasoning is +grounded on them.’ p. 360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_733_733" id="Footnote_733_733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_733_733"><span class="label">[733]</span></a> ‘For, when any system is grounded upon first principles, +and deduced regularly from them, we have a thread to lead us through the +labyrinth.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_734_734" id="Footnote_734_734"></a><a href="#FNanchor_734_734"><span class="label">[734]</span></a> ‘I call these “first principles,” because they <i>appear to +me</i> to have in themselves an intuitive evidence which <i>I cannot +resist</i>.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. iii. p. 375.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a> ‘If any man should think fit to deny that these things +are qualities, or that they require any subject, <i>I leave him to enjoy +his opinion, as a man who denies first principles, and is not fit to be +reasoned with</i>.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_736_736" id="Footnote_736_736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_736_736"><span class="label">[736]</span></a> ‘No other account can be given of the constitution of +things, but the will of Him that made them.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. p. +115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_737_737" id="Footnote_737_737"></a><a href="#FNanchor_737_737"><span class="label">[737]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. pp. 36, 37, 340, 343, vol. ii. +p. 245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_738_738" id="Footnote_738_738"></a><a href="#FNanchor_738_738"><span class="label">[738]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. pp. 115, 116, 288–299, vol. ii. +p. 251.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_739_739" id="Footnote_739_739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_739_739"><span class="label">[739]</span></a> Or, as he expresses it, ‘our belief of the continuance of +the laws of nature.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, pp. 426–435; also his <i>Essays</i>, +vol. i. p. 305, vol. ii. p. 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, p. 422; and his <i>Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. +266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a> ‘Another first principle is, “That the natural faculties +by which we distinguish truth from error are not fallacious.”’ <i>Reid's +Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_743_743" id="Footnote_743_743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_743_743"><span class="label">[743]</span></a> ‘Another first principle I take to be, “That certain +features of the countenance, sounds of the voice, and gestures of the +body, indicate certain thoughts and dispositions of mind.”’ <i>Reid's +Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 261. Compare his <i>Inquiry</i>, p. 416.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_744_744" id="Footnote_744_744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_744_744"><span class="label">[744]</span></a> ‘We have taken notice of several original principles of +belief in the course of this inquiry; and when other faculties of the +mind are examined, we shall find more, which have not occurred in the +examination of the five senses.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, p. 471.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_745_745" id="Footnote_745_745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_745_745"><span class="label">[745]</span></a> ‘And if no philosopher had attempted to define and +explain belief, some paradoxes in philosophy, more incredible than ever +were brought forth by the most abject superstition, or the most frantic +enthusiasm, had never seen the light.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_746_746" id="Footnote_746_746"></a><a href="#FNanchor_746_746"><span class="label">[746]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 329, 334, vol. ii. p. 247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_747_747" id="Footnote_747_747"></a><a href="#FNanchor_747_747"><span class="label">[747]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. pp. 9, 71, 303, 304.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_748_748" id="Footnote_748_748"></a><a href="#FNanchor_748_748"><span class="label">[748]</span></a> <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a> ‘I see no reason to think, that we shall ever be able to +assign the physical cause, either of instinct, or of the power of habit. +Both seem to be parts of our original constitution. Their end and use is +evident; but we can assign no cause of them, but the will of Him who +made us.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. iii. p. 119.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a> ‘I know of no ideas or notions that have a better claim +to be accounted simple and original, than those of space and time.’ +<i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 354.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_751_751" id="Footnote_751_751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_751_751"><span class="label">[751]</span></a> ‘I do not at all affirm that those I have mentioned are +all the first principles from which we may reason concerning contingent +truths. Such enumerations, even when made after much reflection, are +seldom perfect.’ <i>Reid's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. 270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_752_752" id="Footnote_752_752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_752_752"><span class="label">[752]</span></a> ‘Why sensation should compel our belief of the present +existence of the thing, memory a belief of its past existence, and +imagination no belief at all, <i>I believe no philosopher can give a +shadow of reason</i>, but that such is the nature of these operations. They +are all simple and original, and <i>therefore inexplicable</i> acts of the +mind.’ <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, p. 40. ‘We can <i>give no reason</i> why the retina +is, of all parts of the body, the only one on which pictures made by the +rays of light cause vision; and <i>therefore we must resolve this solely +into a law of our constitution</i>’ p. 258.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_753_753" id="Footnote_753_753"></a><a href="#FNanchor_753_753"><span class="label">[753]</span></a> In a recent work of distinguished merit, an instance is +given of the loose manner in which he took for granted that certain +phenomena were ultimate, in order that, instead of analyzing them, he +might reason from them. ‘Dr. Reid has no hesitation in classing the +voluntary command of our organs, that is, the sequence of feeling and +action implied in all acts of will, among instincts. The power of +lifting a morsel of food to the mouth, is, according to him, an +instinctive or pre-established conjunction of the wish and the deed; +that is to say, the emotional state of hunger, coupled with the sight of +a piece of bread, is associated, through a primitive link of the mental +constitution, with the several movements of the hand, arm, and mouth, +concerned in the act of eating. <i>This assertion of Dr. Reid's may be +simply met by appealing to the facts.</i> It is not true that human beings +possess, at birth, any voluntary command of their limbs whatsoever. A +babe of two months old cannot use its hands in obedience to its desires. +The infant can grasp nothing, hold nothing, can scarcely fix its eyes on +anything.’ … ‘If the more perfect command of our voluntary movements +implied in every art be an acquisition, so is the less perfect command +of these movements that grows upon a child during the first year of +life.’ <i>Bain on the Senses and the Intellect</i>, London, 1855, pp. 292, +293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_754_754" id="Footnote_754_754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_754_754"><span class="label">[754]</span></a> See <i>Reid's Inquiry</i>, pp. 436, 446, as well as other +parts of his works: see also an extract from one of his letters to Dr. +Gregory, in <i>Stewart's Biographical Memoirs</i>, p. 432.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a> ‘The idea of prosecuting the study of the human mind on a +plan analogous to that which had been so successfully adopted in physics +by the followers of Lord Bacon, if not first conceived by Dr. Reid, was, +at least, first carried successfully into execution in his writings.’ +<i>Stewart's Biographical Memoirs</i>, p. 419. ‘The influence of the general +views opened in the <i>Novum Organon</i>, may be traced in almost every page +of his writings; and, indeed, the circumstance by which they are so +strongly and characteristically distinguished, is that they exhibit the +first systematical attempt to exemplify, in the study of human nature, +the same plan of investigation which conducted Newton to the properties +of light, and to the law of gravitation.’ p. 421. From this passage one +might hazard a supposition that Dugald Stewart did not understand Bacon +much better than he did Aristotle or Kant. Of the two last most profound +thinkers, he certainly knew little or nothing, except what he gathered +secondhand. Consequently, he underrates them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_756_756" id="Footnote_756_756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_756_756"><span class="label">[756]</span></a> The theory of the indestructibility of force has been +applied to the law of gravitation by Professor Faraday, in his +<i>Discourse on the Conservation of Force</i>, 1857; an essay full of thought +and power, and which should be carefully studied by every one who wishes +to understand the direction which the highest speculations of physical +science are now taking. I will quote only one passage from the opening, +to give the reader an idea of its general scope, irrespective of the +more special question of gravitation. ‘The progress of the strict +science of modern times has tended more and more to produce the +conviction that force can neither be created nor destroyed; and to +render daily more manifest the value of the knowledge of that truth in +experimental research.’ … ‘Agreeing with those who admit the +conservation of force to be a principle in physics, as large and sure as +that of the indestructibility of matter, or the invariability of +gravity, I think that no particular idea of force has a right to +unlimited or unqualified acceptance, that does not include assent to +it.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_757_757" id="Footnote_757_757"></a><a href="#FNanchor_757_757"><span class="label">[757]</span></a> As an illustration of this doctrine, I cannot do better +than quote the following passage from one of the most suggestive and +clearly reasoned books which has been written in this century by an +English physicist: ‘Wave your hand; the motion which has apparently +ceased, is taken up by the air, from the air by the walls of the room, +&c., and so by direct and reacting waves, continually comminuted, but +never destroyed. It is true that, at a certain point, we lose all means +of detecting the motion, from its minute subdivision, which defies our +most delicate means of appreciation, but we can indefinitely extend our +power of detecting it accordingly as we confine its direction, or +increase the delicacy of our examination. Thus, if the hand be moved in +unconfined air, the motion of the air would not be sensible to a person +at a few feet distant; but if a piston of the same extent of surface as +the hand be moved with the same rapidity in a tube, the blast of air may +be distinctly felt at several yards' distance. There is no greater +absolute amount of motion in the air in the second than in the first +case, but its direction is restrained, so as to make its means of +detection more facile. By carrying on this restraint, as in the air-gun, +we get a power of detecting the motion, and of moving other bodies at +far greater distances. The puff of air which would in the air-gun +project a bullet a quarter of a mile, if allowed to escape without its +direction being restrained, as by the bursting of a bladder, would not +be perceptible at a yard's distance, though the same absolute amount of +motion be impressed on the surrounding air.’ <i>Grove's Correlation of +Physical Forces</i>, London, 1855, pp. 24, 25. In a work now issuing from +the press, and still unfinished, it is suggested, with considerable +plausibility, that Persistence of Force would be a more accurate +expression than Conservation of Force. See Mr. Herbert Spencer's <i>First +Principles</i>, London, 1861, p. 251. The title of this book gives an +inadequate notion of the importance of the subjects with which it deals, +and of the reach and subtlety of thought which characterize it. Though +some of the generalizations appear to me rather premature, no +well-instructed and disciplined intellect can consider them without +admiration of the remarkable powers displayed by their author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> He was appointed professor in 1756; and ‘it was during +his residence in Glasgow, between the years 1759 and 1763, that he +brought to maturity those speculations concerning the combination of +heat with matter, which had frequently occupied a portion of his +thoughts.’ <i>Thomson's History of Chemistry</i>, vol. i. pp. 319, 320.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_759_759" id="Footnote_759_759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_759_759"><span class="label">[759]</span></a> <i>Black's Lectures on Chemistry</i>, vol. i. pp. 116, 117; +and in various places. Dr. Robison, the editor of these Lectures, says, +p. 513, ‘Nothing could be more simple than his doctrines of latent heat. +The experience of more than a century had made us consider the +thermometer as a sure and accurate indicator of heat, and of all its +variations. We had learned to distrust all others. Yet, in the +liquefaction and vaporization of bodies, we had proofs uncontrovertible +of the entrance of heat into the bodies. And we could, by suitable +processes, get it out of them again. Dr. Black said that it was +concealed in them,—<i>latent</i>,—it was as much +concealed as carbonic acid is in marble, or water in zeolite,—it was +concealed till Dr. Black detected it. He called it Latent Heat. He did +not mean by this term that it was a different kind of heat from the heat +which expanded bodies, but merely that it was concealed from our sense +of heat, and from the thermometer.’ See also p. xxxvii.: ‘Philosophers +had long been accustomed to consider the thermometer as the surest means +for detecting the presence of heat or fire in bodies, and they +distrusted all others.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> ‘Fluidity is the consequence of a certain combination of +calorific matter with the substance of solid bodies,’ &c. <i>Black's +Lectures</i>, vol. i. p. 133. Compare p. 192, and the remarks in <i>Turner's +Chemistry</i>, 1847, vol. i. p. 31, on Black's views of the ‘chemical +combination’ of heat. Among the backward chemists, we still find traces +of the idea of heat obeying chemical laws.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_761_761" id="Footnote_761_761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_761_761"><span class="label">[761]</span></a> ‘So much was he convinced of this, that he taught the +doctrine in his lectures in 1761, before he had made a single experiment +on the subject.’ … ‘The requisite experiments were first attempted by +Dr. Black in 1764.’ <i>Thomson's History of Chemistry</i>, vol. i. p. 324. +See also pp. 319, 320; and on the history of the idea in Black's mind as +early as the year 1754, see the interesting extracts from his note-books +in Robison's appendix to <i>Black's Lectures</i>, vol. i pp. 525, 526.</p> + +<p>The statement of Dr. Thomson refers to the completion, or last stage, of +the discovery, namely the vaporific combination of heat. But from a +letter which Black wrote to Watt in 1780 (<i>Muirhead's Life of Watt</i>, +London, 1859, p. 303), it appears that Thomson has even understated the +question, and that Black, instead of first teaching his theory in 1761, +taught it three years earlier, that is, <i>six</i> years before the decisive +experiments were made. ‘I began,’ writes Black, ‘to give the doctrine of +latent heat in my lectures at Glasgow in the winter 1757–58, which, I +believe, was the first winter of my lecturing there; or if I did not +give it that winter, I certainly gave it in the 1758–59; and I have +delivered it every year since that time in my winter lectures, which I +continued to give at Glasgow until winter 1766–67, when I began to +lecture in Edinburgh.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> And he distinctly states that, even in other matters, +when he did make experiments, their object was to confirm theory, and +not to suggest it. Thus, to give one of many instances, in his +<i>Lectures</i>, vol. i. p. 354, he says, respecting salts, ‘When we examine +the solidity of this reasoning by an experiment, <i>we have the pleasure +to find facts agree exactly with the theory</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> See a good summary of this idea in <i>Black's Lectures on +Chemistry</i>, vol. i. p. 118. Contrasting his theory of heat with that +previously received, he says, ‘But, were the ice and snow to melt as +suddenly as they must necessarily do, were the former opinion of the +action of heat in melting them well founded, the torrents and +inundations would be incomparably more irresistible and dreadful. They +would tear up and sweep away every thing, and that so suddenly, that +mankind should have great difficulty to escape from their ravages.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a> ‘Dr. Black quickly perceived the vast importance of this +discovery; and took a pleasure in laying before his students a view of +the extensive and beneficial effects of this habitude of heat in the +economy of nature. He made them remark how, by this means, there was +accumulated, during the summer season, a vast magazine of heat, which, +by gradually emerging, during congelation, from the water which covers +the face of the earth, serves to temper the deadly cold of winter. Were +it not for this quantity of heat, amounting to 145 degrees, which +emerges from every particle of water as it freezes, and which diffuses +itself through the atmosphere, the sun would no sooner go a few degrees +to the south of the equator, than we should feel all the horrors of +winter.’ <i>Robison's Preface to Black's Lectures</i>, vol. i. p. xxxviii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_765_765" id="Footnote_765_765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_765_765"><span class="label">[765]</span></a> As I am writing an account of Black's views, and not a +criticism of them, I shall give them, without comment, in his own words, +and in the words of one of his pupils. ‘Here we can also trace another +magnificent train of changes, which are nicely accommodated to the wants +of the inhabitants of this globe. In the equatorial regions, the +oppressive heat of the sun is prevented from a destructive accumulation +by copious evaporation. The waters, stored with their vaporific heat, +are thus carried aloft into the atmosphere, till the rarest of the +vapour reaches the very cold regions of the air, which immediately forms +a small portion of it into a fleecy cloud. This also further tempers the +scorching heat by its opacity, performing the acceptable office of a +screen. From thence the clouds are carried to the inland countries, to +form the sources in the mountains, which are to supply the numberless +streams that water the fields. And, by the steady operation of causes, +which are tolerably uniform, the greater part of the vapours pass on to +the circumpolar regions, there to descend in rains and dews; and in this +beneficent conversion into rain, by the cold of those regions, each +particle of steam gives up the 700 or 800 degrees of heat which were +latent in it. These are immediately diffused, and soften the rigour of +those less comfortable climates.’ … ‘I am persuaded that the heat +absorbed in spontaneous evaporation greatly contributes to enable +animals to bear the heat of the tropical climates, where the thermometer +frequently continues to show the temperature of the human body. Such +heats, indeed, are barely supportable, and enervate the animal, making +it lazy and indolent, indulging in the most relaxed postures, and +avoiding every exertion of body or mind. The inhabitants are induced to +drink large draughts of diluting liquors, which transude through their +pores most copiously, carrying off with them a vast deal of this +troublesome and exhausting heat. There is in the body itself a continual +laboratory, or manufacture of heat, and, were the surrounding air of +such a temperature as not to carry it off, it would soon accumulate so +as to destroy life. The excessive perspiration, supplied by diluting +draughts, performs the same office as the cold air without the tropics, +in guarding us from this fatal accumulation.’ <i>Black's Lectures</i>, vol. +i. pp. xlvi. 214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_766_766" id="Footnote_766_766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_766_766"><span class="label">[766]</span></a> See his strong protest against the notion that heat is +ever destroyed, in his <i>Lectures</i>, vol. i. pp. 125, 126, 164, 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_767_767" id="Footnote_767_767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_767_767"><span class="label">[767]</span></a> They were published after his death from such scanty +materials, that their editor, Dr. Robison, says (<i>Preface to Black's +Lectures</i>, vol. i. p. x.): ‘When I then entered seriously on the task, I +found that the notes were (with the exception of perhaps a score of +lectures) in the same imperfect condition that they had been in from the +beginning, consisting entirely of single leaves of paper, in octavo, +full of erasions, interlinings, and alterations of every kind; so that, +in many places, it was not very certain which of several notes was to be +chosen.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a> ‘On the other hand, were the heat which at present +cherishes and enlivens this globe, allowed to increase beyond the bounds +at present prescribed to it; beside the destruction of all animal and +vegetable life, which would be the immediate and inevitable consequence, +the water would lose its present form, and assume that of an elastic +vapour like air; the solid parts of the globe would be melted and +confounded together, or mixed with the air and water in smoke and +vapour; and nature would return to the original chaos.’ <i>Black's +Lectures</i>, vol. i. pp. 246, 247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a> Mr. Napier, in his <i>Memoirs of Leslie</i>, pp. 16, 17 +(prefixed to <i>Leslie's Treatises on Philosophy</i>, Edinb. 1838), says, +that he ‘composed the bulk of his celebrated work on Heat in the years +1801 and 1802;’ but that, in 1793, he propounded ‘some of its +theoretical opinions, as well as the germs of its discoveries.’ It +appears, however, from his own statement, that he was making experiments +on heat, at all events, as early as 1791. See <i>Leslie's Experimental +Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat</i>, London, 1804, p. 409.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_770_770" id="Footnote_770_770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_770_770"><span class="label">[770]</span></a> For specimens of some of his most indefensible +speculations, see <i>Leslie's Treatises on Philosophy</i>, pp. 38, 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> Though he clearly distinguishes between the two. ‘It is +almost superfluous to remark, that the term heat is of ambiguous import, +denoting either a certain sensation, or the external cause which excites +it.’ <i>Leslie on Heat</i>, p. 137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> ‘Heat is an elastic fluid extremely subtle and active.’ +<i>Leslie on Heat</i>, p. 150. At p. 31, ‘calorific and frigorific fluid.’ +See also pp. 143, 144; and the attempt to measure its elasticity, in pp. +177, 178.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_773_773" id="Footnote_773_773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_773_773"><span class="label">[773]</span></a> ‘Heat is only light in the state of combination.’ <i>Leslie +on Heat</i>, p. 162. ‘Heat in the state of emission constitutes light.’ p. +174. ‘It is, therefore, the same subtle matter, that, according to its +different modes of existence, constitutes either heat or light. +Projected with rapid celerity, it forms light; in the state of +combination with bodies it acts as heat.’ p. 188. See also p. 403, +‘different states of the same identical substance.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> In 1814, that is ten years after his great work was +published, and about twenty years after it was begun, he writes from +Paris: ‘My book on heat is better known’ here ‘than in England. I was +even reminded of some passages in it which in England were considered as +fanciful, but which the recent discoveries on the polarity of light have +confirmed.’ <i>Napier's Memoirs of Leslie</i>, p. 28, prefixed to <i>Leslie's +Philosophical Treatises</i>, edit. Edinb. 1838. Leslie died in 1832 (p. +40); and the decisive experiments of Forbes and Melloni were made +between 1834 and 1836.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> ‘The easiest mode of conceiving the subject, is to +consider the heat that permeates all bodies, and unites with them in +various proportions, as merely the subtle fluid of light in a state of +combination. When forcibly discharged, or suddenly elicited from any +substance, it again resumes its radiant splendour.’ … ‘The same notion +was embraced by the poets, and gives sublimity to their finest odes.’ … +‘Those poetical images which have descended to our own times, were hence +founded on a close observation of nature. Modern philosophy need not +disdain to adopt them, and has only to expand and reduce to precision +the original conceptions.’ <i>Leslie's Treatises on Philosophy</i>, pp. 308, +309. Again, at p. 416: ‘This is not the first occasion in which we have +to admire, through the veil of poetical imagery, the sagacity and +penetration of those early sages. It would be weakness to expect nice +conclusions in the infancy of science; but it is arrogant presumption to +regard all the efforts of unaided genius with disdain.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> ‘We should recollect that, in all her productions, Nature +exhibits a chain of perpetual gradation, and that the systematic +divisions and limitations are entirely artificial, and designed merely +to assist the memory and facilitate our conceptions.’ <i>Leslie on Heat</i>, +p. 506.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_777_777" id="Footnote_777_777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_777_777"><span class="label">[777]</span></a> ‘All forces are radically of the same kind, and the +distinction of them into <i>living</i> and <i>dead</i> is not grounded on just +principles.’ <i>Leslie on Heat</i>, p. 133. Compare p. 299: ‘We shall perhaps +find, that this prejudice, like many others, has some semblance of +truth; and that even dead or inorganic substances must, in their +recondite arrangements, exert such varying energies, and <i>so like +sensation itself</i>, as if fully unveiled to our eyes, could not fail to +strike us with wonder and surprise.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> Mr. Napier, in his <i>Life of Leslie</i>, p. 17, says of it, +very gravely, ‘Its hypotheses are not warranted by +the sober maxims of inductive logic.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a> ‘Notwithstanding the contrary testimony, explicitly +recorded by the founders of the English experimental school, he denied +all merit and influence to the immortal delineator of the inductive +logic.’ <i>Napier's Life of Leslie</i>, p. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_780_780" id="Footnote_780_780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_780_780"><span class="label">[780]</span></a> The supposition, that volcanic agencies were formerly +more potent than they are now, is by no means inconsistent with the +scientific doctrine of uniformity, though it is generally considered to +be so. It is one thing to assert the uniformity of natural laws; it is +quite another thing to assert the uniformity of natural causes. Heat may +once have produced far greater effects than it can do at present, and +yet the laws of nature be unchanged, and the order and sequence of +events unbroken. What I would venture to suggest to geologists is, that +they have not taken sufficiently into account the theory of the +interchange of forces, which seems to offer a solution of at least part +of the problem. For, by that theory, a large portion of the heat which +formerly existed may have been metamorphosed into other forces, such as +light, chemical affinity, and gravitation. The increase of these forces +consequent on the diminution of heat, would have facilitated the +consolidation of matter; and until such forces possessed a certain +energy, water, which afterwards became so prominent, could not have been +formed. If the power of chemical affinity, for instance, were much +weaker than it is, water would assuredly resolve itself into its +component gases. Without wishing to lay too much stress on this +speculation, I submit it to the consideration of competent judges, +because I am convinced that any hypothesis, not absolutely inconsistent +with the known laws of nature, is preferable to that dogma of +interference, which what may be called the miraculous school of +geologists wish to foist upon us, in utter ignorance of its +incompatibility with the conclusions of the most advanced minds in other +departments of thought.</p> + +<p>The remarks in Sir Roderick Murchison's great work (<i>Siluria</i>, London, +1854, pp. 475, 476) on the ‘grander intensity of former causation,’ and +on the difficulty this opposes to the ‘uniformitarians,’ apply merely to +those who take for granted that <i>each</i> force has always been equally +powerful: they do not affect those who suppose that it is only the +<i>aggregate</i> of force which remains unimpaired. Though the distribution +of forces may be altered, their gross amount is not susceptible of +change, so far as the highest conceptions of our actual science extend. +Consequently, there is no need for us to believe that, in different +periods, the intensity of causation varies; though we may believe that +some one agent, such as heat, had at one time more energy than it has +ever had since.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_781_781" id="Footnote_781_781"></a><a href="#FNanchor_781_781"><span class="label">[781]</span></a> ‘The great agents of change in the inorganic world may be +divided into two principal classes, the aqueous and the igneous. To the +aqueous belong rain, rivers, torrents, springs, currents, and tides; to +the igneous, volcanos and earthquakes. Both these classes are +instruments of decay as well as of reproduction; but they may also be +regarded as antagonist forces. For the aqueous agents are incessantly +labouring to reduce the inequalities of the earth's surface to a level; +while the igneous are equally active in restoring the unevenness of the +external crust, partly by heaping up new matter in certain localities, +and partly by depressing one portion, and forcing out another, of the +earth's envelope.’ <i>Lyell's Principles of Geology</i>, 9th edit., London, +1853, p. 198.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_782_782" id="Footnote_782_782"></a><a href="#FNanchor_782_782"><span class="label">[782]</span></a> Dr. Whewell, comparing him with his great German +contemporary, Werner, says, ‘In the German, considering him as a +geologist, the ideal element predominated.’ … ‘Of a very different +temper and character was William Smith. No literary cultivation of his +youth awoke in him the <i>speculative love of symmetry and system</i>; but a +singular clearness and precision of the classifying power, which he +possessed as a native talent, was exercised and developed by exactly +those geological facts among which his philosophical task lay.’ … ‘We +see great vividness of thought and activity of mind, <i>unfolding itself +exactly in proportion to the facts with which it had to deal</i>.’ … ‘He +dates his attempts to discriminate and connect strata from the year +1790.’ <i>Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences</i>, London, 1847, vol. +iii. pp. 562–564.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_783_783" id="Footnote_783_783"></a><a href="#FNanchor_783_783"><span class="label">[783]</span></a> ‘The execution of his map was completed in 1815, and +remains a lasting monument of original talent and extraordinary +perseverance; for he had explored the whole country on foot without the +guidance of previous observers, or the aid of fellow-labourers, and had +succeeded in throwing into natural divisions the whole complicated +series of British rocks.’ <i>Lyell's Principles of Geology</i>, p. 58. +Geological maps of parts of England had, however, been published before +1815. See <i>Conybeare on Geology</i>, in <i>Second Report of the +British Association</i>, p. 373.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_784_784" id="Footnote_784_784"></a><a href="#FNanchor_784_784"><span class="label">[784]</span></a> ‘A great body of new data were required; and the +Geological Society of London, founded in 1807, conduced greatly to the +attainment of this desirable end. To multiply and record observations, +and patiently to await the result at some future period, was the object +proposed by them; and it was their favourite maxim, that the time was +not yet come for a general system of geology, but that all must be +content for many years to be exclusively engaged in furnishing materials +for future generalizations.’ <i>Lyell's Principles of Geology</i>, p. 59. +Compare <i>Richardson's Geology</i>, 1851, p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_785_785" id="Footnote_785_785"></a><a href="#FNanchor_785_785"><span class="label">[785]</span></a> Cuvier, in his Life of Werner, says (<i>Biographie +Universelle</i>, vol. i. pp. 376, 377), ‘La connaissance des positions +respectives des minéraux dans la croûte du globe, et ce que l'on peut en +conclure relativement aux époques de leur origine, forment une autre +branche de la science qu'il appelle Géognosie. Il en présenta les +premières bases en 1787, dans un petit écrit intitulé “Classification et +description des Montagnes.”’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_786_786" id="Footnote_786_786"></a><a href="#FNanchor_786_786"><span class="label">[786]</span></a> <i>Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences</i>, vol. iii. +p. 567.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a> ‘Une mer universelle et tranquille dépose en grandes +masses les roches primitives, roches nettement cristallisées, où domine +d'abord la silice. Le granit fait la base de tout; au granit succède le +gneiss, qui n'est qu'un granit commençant à se feuilleter.’ … ‘Des +agitations intestines du liquide détruisent une partie de ces premiers +dépôts; de nouvelles roches se forment de leurs débris réunis par des +cimens. C'est parmi ces tempêtes que naît la vie.’ … ‘Les eaux, de +nouveau tranquillisées, mais dont le contenu a changé, déposent des +couches moins épaisses et plus variées, où les débris des corps vivans +s'accumulent successivement dans un ordre non moins fixe que celui des +roches qui les contiennent. Enfin, la dernière retraite des eaux répand +sur le continent d'immenses alluvions de matières meubles, premiers +sièges de la végétation, de la culture et de la sociabilité.’ <i>Eloge de +Werner</i>, in <i>Cuvier</i>, <i>Recueil des Elogés Historiques</i>, vol. ii. pp. +321–323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_788_788" id="Footnote_788_788"></a><a href="#FNanchor_788_788"><span class="label">[788]</span></a> ‘If it be true that delivery be the first, second, and +third requisite in a popular orator, it is no less certain that to +travel is of first, second, and third importance to those who desire to +originate just and comprehensive views concerning the structure of our +globe. Now, Werner had not travelled to distant countries: he had merely +explored a small portion of Germany, and conceived, and persuaded others +to believe, that the whole surface of our planet, and all the mountain +chains in the world, were made after the model of his own province.’ … +‘It now appears that he had misinterpreted many of the most important +appearances even in the immediate neighbourhood of Freyberg. Thus, for +example, within a day's journey of his school, the porphyry, called by +him primitive, has been found not only to send forth veins, or dykes, +through strata of the coal formation, but to overlie them in mass.’ +<i>Lyell's Principles of Geology</i>, p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_789_789" id="Footnote_789_789"></a><a href="#FNanchor_789_789"><span class="label">[789]</span></a> Though Hutton's <i>Theory of the Earth</i> was first published +in 1788, the edition of 1795, which is the one I have used, contains a +great number of additional illustrations of his views, and was evidently +re-written. But the main features are the same; and we learn from his +friend, Playfair, that ‘the great outline of his system’ was completed +‘several years’ before 1788. <i>Life of Hutton</i>, in <i>Playfair's Works</i>, +vol. iv. p. 50, Edinburgh, 1822.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_790_790" id="Footnote_790_790"></a><a href="#FNanchor_790_790"><span class="label">[790]</span></a> Kirwan appears to have been the first who called Hutton's +theory ‘the Plutonic System.’ See <i>Illustrations of the Huttonian +Theory</i>, in <i>Playfair's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 145. On the distinction +between Neptunists and Plutonists, see the same work, pp. 504, 505.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_791_791" id="Footnote_791_791"></a><a href="#FNanchor_791_791"><span class="label">[791]</span></a> ‘Has not only supplanted that of Werner, but has formed +the foundation of the researches and writings of our most enlightened +observers, and is justly regarded as the basis of all sound geology at +the present day.’ <i>Richardson's Geology</i>, London, 1851, p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_792_792" id="Footnote_792_792"></a><a href="#FNanchor_792_792"><span class="label">[792]</span></a> <i>Hutton's Theory of the Earth</i>, Edinb. 1795, vol. i. pp. +34, 41, 192, 290, 291, 593, vol. ii. pp. 236, 369, 378, 555.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_793_793" id="Footnote_793_793"></a><a href="#FNanchor_793_793"><span class="label">[793]</span></a> ‘In his writings, and in those of his illustrator, +Playfair, we find the germ of the metamorphic theory.’ <i>Lyell's Manual +of Geology</i>, London, 1851, p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_794_794" id="Footnote_794_794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_794_794"><span class="label">[794]</span></a> The shortest summary of this view is in his <i>Theory of +the Earth</i>, Edin. 1795, vol. ii. pp. 556. ‘The doctrine, therefore, of +our Theory is briefly this; that whatever may have been the operation of +dissolving water, and the chemical action of it upon the materials +accumulated at the bottom of the sea, the general solidity of that mass +of earth, and the placing of it in the atmosphere above the surface of +the sea, has been the immediate operation of fire or heat melting and +expanding bodies.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a> ‘Although Hutton had never explored any region of active +volcanos, he had convinced himself that basalt and many other trap rocks +were of igneous origin.’ <i>Lyell's Principles of Geology</i>, London, 1853, +p. 51. To this I may add, that he wrote his work without having examined +granite. He says (<i>Theory of the Earth</i>, vol. i. p. 214), ‘It is true, I +met with it on my return by the east coast, when I just saw it, and no +more, at Peterhead and Aberdeen; but that was all the granite I had ever +seen when I wrote my <i>Theory of the Earth</i>. I have, since that time, +seen it in different places; because I went on purpose to examine it, as +I shall have occasion to describe in the course of this work.’ Hutton's +theory of granite is noticed in <i>Bakewell's Geology</i>, London, 1838, p. +101: but Mr. Bakewell does not seem to be +aware that the theory was formed before the observations were made.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a> <i>Huttonian Theory</i>, in <i>Playfair</i>, vol. i. pp. 38–40, +509, 510. Compare <i>Playfair's Life of Hutton</i>, p. 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_797_797" id="Footnote_797_797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_797_797"><span class="label">[797]</span></a> Hence, the objections of Kirwan were invalid; because his +argument against Hutton was ‘grounded on experiments, where that very +separation of the volatile and fixed parts takes place, which it +excluded in that hypothesis of subterraneous heat.’ <span class="smcap">Huttonian Theory</span>, in +<i>Playfair</i>, vol. i. p. 193, Edinb. 1822.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> Hutton says (<i>Theory of the Earth</i>, Edinb. 1795, vol. i. +p. 94), ‘The place of mineral operations is not on the surface of the +earth; and we are not to limit nature with our imbecility, or estimate +the powers of nature by the measure of our own.’ See also p. 159, +‘mineral operations proper to the lower regions of the earth.’ And p. +527, ‘The mineral operations of nature lie in a part of the globe which +is necessarily inaccessible to man, and where the powers of nature act +under very different conditions from those which we find take place in +the only situation where we can live.’ Again, in vol. ii. p. 97, ‘The +present Theory of the Earth holds for principle that the strata are +consolidated in the mineral regions far beyond the reach of human +observation.’ Similarly, vol. ii. p. 484, ‘we judge not of the progress +of things from the actual operations of the surface.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_799_799" id="Footnote_799_799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_799_799"><span class="label">[799]</span></a> Hutton, however, did not believe that this could be done. +‘In the Theory of the Earth which was published, I was anxious to warn +the reader against the notion that subterraneous heat and fusion could +be compared with that which we induce by our chemical operations on +mineral substances here upon the surface of the earth.’ <i>Hutton's Theory +of the Earth</i>, vol. i. p. 251.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_800_800" id="Footnote_800_800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_800_800"><span class="label">[800]</span></a> See, in the <i>Life of Hutton</i>, in <i>Playfair's Works</i>, vol. +iv. p. 62 note, a curious remark on his indifference to experimental +verification. Innumerable passages in his work indicate this tendency, +and show his desire to reason immediately from general principles. Thus, +in vol. i. p. 17, ‘Let us strictly examine our principles in order to +avoid fallacy in our reasoning.’ … ‘We are now, in reasoning from +principles, come to a point decisive of the question.’ vol. i. p. 177. +‘Let us now reason from our principles.’ vol. ii. p. 308. Hence, his +constantly expressed contempt for experience; as in vol. ii. p. 367, +where he says that we must ‘overcome those prejudices which contracted +views of nature and <i>magnified opinions of the experience of man</i> may +have begotten.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_801_801" id="Footnote_801_801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_801_801"><span class="label">[801]</span></a> Playfair (<i>Life of Hutton</i>, p. 64) says that it drew +‘their attention’ (<i>i.e.</i> the attention of ‘men of science’), ‘very +slowly, so that several years elapsed before any one showed himself +publicly concerned about it, either as an enemy or a friend.’ He adds, +as one of the reasons of this, that it contained ‘too little detail of +facts for a system which involved so much that was new, and opposite to +the opinions generally received.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> The account of these experiments was read before the +Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1805, and is printed in their +<i>Transactions</i>, vol. vi. pp. 71–185, Edinb. 1812, 4to. The general +result was (pp. 148, 149), ‘That a pressure of 52 atmospheres, or 1700 +feet of sea, is capable of forming a limestone in a proper heat; That +under 86 atmospheres, answering nearly to 3000 feet, or about half a +mile, a complete marble may be formed; and lastly, That, with a pressure +of 173 atmospheres, or 5700 feet, that is little more than one mile of +sea, the carbonate of lime is made to undergo complete fusion, and to +act powerfully on other earths.’ See also p. 160: ‘The carbonic acid of +limestone cannot be constrained in heat by a pressure less than that of +1708 feet of sea.’ There is a short, and not very accurate, notice of +these instructive experiments in <i>Bakewell's Geology</i>, London, 1838, pp. +249, 250.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> As Sir James Hall says, ‘The truth of the most doubtful +principle which Dr. Hutton has assumed, has thus been established by +direct experiment.’ <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>, +vol. vi. p. 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_804_804" id="Footnote_804_804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_804_804"><span class="label">[804]</span></a> See the remarks of Sir James Hall, in <i>Transactions</i>, +vol. vi. pp. 74, 75. He observes that Hutton's ‘system, however, +involves so many suppositions, apparently in contradiction to common +experience, which meet us on the very threshold, that most men have +hitherto been deterred from an investigation of its principles, and only +a few individuals have justly appreciated its merits.’ … ‘I conceived +that the chemical effects ascribed by him to compression, ought, in the +first place, to be investigated.’ … ‘It occurred to me that this +principle was susceptible of being established in a direct manner by +experiment, and <i>I urged him to make the attempt; but he always rejected +this proposal</i>, on account of the immensity of the natural agents, whose +operation he supposed to lie far beyond the reach of our imitation; and +he seemed to imagine that any such attempt must undoubtedly fail, and +thus <i>throw discredit on opinions, already sufficiently established, as +he conceived, on other principles</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_805_805" id="Footnote_805_805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_805_805"><span class="label">[805]</span></a> It may be traced back, certainly to the beginning of the +seventeenth century, and probably still higher. Yet the popular opinion +seems to be correct, that Watt was its real inventor; though, of course, +he could not have done what he did, without his predecessors. This, +however, may be said of all the most eminent and successful men, as well +as of the most ordinary men.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_806_806" id="Footnote_806_806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_806_806"><span class="label">[806]</span></a> On the obligations of Watt to Black, compare <i>Brougham's +Life of Watt</i> (<i>Brougham's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 25, 36–38, edit. Glasgow, +1855), with <i>Muirhead's Life of Watt</i>, second edit. London, 1859, pp. +66, 83. At p. 301, Mr. Muirhead says of Watt, that ‘his principal +inventions connected with the steam-engine, with all their prodigious +results, were founded, as we have seen, on the attentive observation of +great philosophical truths; and the economy of fuel, increase of +productive power, and saving of animal labour, which gradually ensued, +all originated in the sagacious and careful thought with which he +investigated the nature and properties of heat.’ But whatever +investigations Watt made into heat, he discovered no new law respecting +it, or, at all events, no new law which is large enough to be noted in +the history of thermotics, considered purely as a science, and apart +from practical application. Mr. Muirhead, in his interesting work which +I have just quoted, has published (pp. 484–486) some remarks made on the +subject by Watt, several years after the death of Black, which, though +perfectly fair and candid, show that Watt had a rather confused notion +of the real difference between an invention and a discovery.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_807_807" id="Footnote_807_807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_807_807"><span class="label">[807]</span></a> Mr. Muirhead, in his <i>Life of Watt</i>, pp. 301–370, seems +to have put the priority of Watt beyond further doubt; though he is +somewhat hard upon Cavendish, who, there can be little question, made +the discovery for himself.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a> I would not wish to diminish one jot of the veneration in +which the great name of Watt is justly held. But when I find the opinion +of Dr. Withering, the botanist, quoted, to the effect that his +‘abilities and acquirements placed him next, if not superior, to +Newton.’ (<i>Muirhead's Life of Watt</i>, p. 302), I cannot but protest against +such indiscriminate eulogy, which would rank Watt in the same class as +one of those godlike intellects of which the whole world has not +produced a score, and which are entitled to be termed inspired, if ever +human being was so. Another instance of this injudicious panegyric will +be found in the same otherwise excellent work (<i>Muirhead</i>, pp. 324, +325), where we read that Watt's discovery that water consists of oxygen +and hydrogen, was ‘the commencement of a new era, the dawn of a new day +in physical inquiry, the real foundation of the new system of chemistry; +nay, even a discovery “perhaps of greater importance than any single +fact which human ingenuity has ascertained either before or since.”’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> That there was no plagiarism on the part of Watt, we know +from positive evidence; that there was none on the part of Cavendish, +may be fairly presumed, both from the character of the man, and also +from the fact that in the then state of chemical knowledge the discovery +was imminent, and could not have been long delayed. It was antecedently +probable that the composition of water would be ascertained by different +persons at the same time, as we have seen in many other discoveries +which have been simultaneously made, when the human mind, in that +particular department of inquiry, had reached a certain point. We are +too apt to suspect philosophers of stealing from each other, what their +own abilities are sufficient to work out for themselves. It is, however, +certain that Watt thought himself ill-treated by Cavendish. See <i>Watt's +Correspondence on the Composition of Water</i>, London, 1846, pp. 48, 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a> On 26th November 1783, he writes: ‘For many years I have +entertained an opinion that air was a modification of water; which was +originally founded on the facts, that in most cases where air was +actually made, which should be distinguished from those wherein it is +only extricated from substances containing it in their pores, or +otherwise united to them in the state of air, the substances were such +as were known to contain water as one of their constituent parts, yet no +water was obtained in the processes, except what was known to be only +loosely connected with them, such as the water of the crystallization of +salts. <i>This opinion arose from a discovery that the latent heat +contained in steam diminished, in proportion as the sensible heat of the +water from which it was produced, increased</i>; or, in other words, that +the latent heat of steam was less when it was produced under a greater +pressure, or in a more dense state, and greater when it was produced +under a less pressure, or in a less dense state; which led me to +conclude, that when a very great degree of heat was necessary for the +production of the steam, the latent heat would be wholly changed into +sensible heat; and that, in such cases, the steam itself might suffer +some remarkable change. I now abandon this opinion, in so far as relates +to the change of water into air, as I think that may be accounted for on +better principles.’ See this remarkable passage, which is quite decisive +as to the real history of Watt's discovery, in <i>Correspondence of James +Watt on the Composition of Water</i>, London, 1846, pp. 84, 85. Compare p. +cxxiv. and p. 248 note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a> In the paper which he communicated to the Royal Society, +announcing his discovery, he, well knowing the empirical character of +the English mind, apologizes for this; and says, ‘I feel much reluctance +to lay my thoughts on these subjects before the public in their present +indigested state, and <i>without having been able to bring them to the +test of such experiments as would confirm or refute them</i>.’ <i>Watt's +Correspondence on the Discovery of the Composition of Water</i>, pp. 77, +78. Eleven months earlier, that is in December 1782, he writes (<i>Ibid.</i> +p. 4): ‘Dr. Priestley has made a most surprising discovery, which <i>seems +to confirm my theory</i> of water's undergoing some very remarkable change +at the point where all its latent heat would be changed into sensible +heat.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> ‘He’ (<i>i.e.</i> Cavendish) ‘here omits entirely the +consideration of latent heat; an omission which he even attempts to +justify, in one of the passages interpolated by Blagden. But it is well +known to every one acquainted with the first principles of chemical +science, even as it was taught in the days of Black, and it was +indisputably familiar to Mr. Watt, that no aëriform fluid can be +converted into a liquid, nor any liquid into a solid, without tho +evolution of heat, previously latent. This essential part of the +process, Mr. Cavendish's theory does not embrace; but without it, no +theory on the subject can be complete; and it will presently be seen, +that Mr. Watt took it fully into account.’ <i>Muirhead's Life of Watt</i>, p. +315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a> ‘Cavendish and Watt both discovered the composition of +water. Cavendish established the facts; Watt the idea.’ … ‘<i>The +attaching too high a value to the mere facts, is often a sign of a want +of ideas.</i>’ <i>Liebig's Letters on Chemistry</i>, London, 1851, p. 48. The +last sentence of this illustrious philosopher, which I have put in +italics, should be well pondered in England. If I had my way, it should +be engraved in letters of gold over the portals of the Royal Society and +of the Royal Institution.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a> ‘Organic substances, whether directly derived from the +vegetable or animal kingdom, or produced by the subsequent modification +of bodies which thus originate, are remarkable as a class for a degree +of complexity of constitution far exceeding that observed in any of the +compounds yet described.’ <i>Fownes' Chemistry</i>, 3rd edit., London, 1850, +p. 353. I quote this, as the first authority at hand, for a doctrine +which is universally admitted by chemists, and which is indubitably +true, <i>so far as our experiments have at present extended</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_815_815" id="Footnote_815_815"></a><a href="#FNanchor_815_815"><span class="label">[815]</span></a> ‘As the organic world is characterized by the +predominance, in quantity, of carbon, so the mineral or inorganic world +is marked by a similar predominance of silicon.’ <i>Turner's Chemistry</i>, +edited by Liebig and Gregory, vol. ii. p. 678, London, 1847.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_816_816" id="Footnote_816_816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_816_816"><span class="label">[816]</span></a> I mean, of course, to apply this remark only to the globe +we inhabit, and not to extra-terrestrial phenomena. Respecting the +organization or non-organization of what exists out of this earth, we +have no evidence, and can hardly expect to have any for centuries. +Inferences have, indeed, been drawn from telescopic observations; and +attempts are now being made, abroad, to determine, by a still more +refined process, the physical composition of some of the heavenly +bodies. But without venturing, in this note, to enter into such +discussions, or even to state their purport, I may say, that the +difficulty of <i>verification</i> will long prove an insuperable barrier to +our knowledge of the truth or falsehood of any results which may be +obtained.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a> Mr. Simon, in his thoughtful and suggestive Lectures, +says, ‘We may describe Pathology to consist in the Science of Life under +other conditions than those of ideal perfection.’ <i>Simon's Lectures on +Pathology</i>, London, 1850, p. 14. This is by far the best description I +have met with; though, as it involves a negative, it cannot be accepted +as a definition. Indeed, the context shows that Mr. Simon does not +suppose it to be one.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_818_818" id="Footnote_818_818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_818_818"><span class="label">[818]</span></a> I formerly adopted the commonly received division of +organic statics, and organic dynamics; the statics being anatomy, and +the dynamics being physiology. But, I now think that our knowledge is +not sufficiently advanced to make this so convenient as the division +into physiological and pathological, or into normal and abnormal, +provided we remember that in reality nothing is abnormal. The +practically useful, but eminently unscientific, doctrine, that there can +be alteration of function without alteration of structure, has effaced +some of the most essential distinctions between anatomy and physiology, +and especially between morbid anatomy and morbid physiology. Until those +distinctions are recognized, the scientific conceptions of professional +writers must be confused, however valuable their practical suggestions +may be. While men are capable of believing that it is <i>possible</i> for +variations of function to proceed from any cause except variations of +structure, the philosophic importance of anatomy will be imperfectly +appreciated, and its true relation to physiology will remain undefined. +Inasmuch, however, as, with our actual resources, the most careful +dissection is often unable to detect (in insanity, for instance) those +changes of structure which produce changes of function, superficial +thinkers are placed under a strong temptation to deny their invariable +connexion; and while the microscope is so imperfect, and chemistry so +backward, it is impossible that experiments should always convince them +of their mistake. Hence, I believe that until our means of empirical +research are greatly improved, all such investigations, notwithstanding +their immense value in other respects, will tend to lead mere inductive +minds into error, by making them rely too much on what they call the +facts of the case, to the prejudice of the reason. This is what I mean +by saying, that our knowledge is not sufficiently advanced to make it +advisable to divide the sciences of organic bodies into physiological +and anatomical. At present, and probably for some time yet, the humbler +division into physiological and pathological, may be deemed safer, and +more likely to produce solid results.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a> Hunter, as we shall presently see, did take an +extraordinarily comprehensive view of pathology, including the whole of +the organic world and even the aberrations of form in the inorganic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_820_820" id="Footnote_820_820"></a><a href="#FNanchor_820_820"><span class="label">[820]</span></a> <i>Thomson's Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 70, Edinburgh, +1832.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a> <i>Thomson's Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 96. Bower states +that Cullen ‘was appointed to the chair in 1755.’ <i>Bower's History of +the University of Edinburgh</i>, vol. ii. p. 216, Edinburgh, 1817.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a> ‘It seems impossible to peruse the passages I have quoted +from Dr. Cullen's manuscript lectures and papers, and from his Essay on +Evaporation, without perceiving that his investigations with regard to +the heat and cold occasioned by the combination, liquefaction, and +evaporation of bodies, must not only have assisted to direct the +attention of his pupil Dr. Black to similar inquiries, but must also +have furnished him with several of the data from which his simple and +comprehensive theory of Latent Heat was afterwards so philosophically +deduced.’ <i>Thomson's Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> ‘It is allowed by the admirers of this great man, that he +was perhaps too fond of theory.’ <i>Bower's History of the University of +Edinburgh</i>, vol. iii. p. 273</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a> In 1759, he wrote to Dr. Balfour Russell, one of his +favourite pupils: ‘You will not find it possible to separate practice +from theory altogether; and therefore, if you have a mind to begin with +the theory, I have no objection.’ <i>Thomson's Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. +130. Compare his <i>Introductory Lectures to the Practice of Physic</i>, +where, asserting truly, ‘that reasoning in physic is unavoidable’ +(<i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 417), he boldly infers, ‘that to render it +safe, it is <i>necessary to cultivate theory in its full extent</i>.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a> Even Cullen himself says, rather roughly, ‘The great +horde of physicians are always servile imitators, who can neither +perceive nor correct the faults of their system, and are always ready to +growl at, and even to worry, the ingenious person that could attempt it. +Thus was the system of Galen secured in the possession of the schools of +physic, till soon after the irruption of the Goths and Vandals destroyed +every vestige of literature in the western parts of Europe, and drove +all that remained of it to seek a feeble protection at Constantinople.’ +<i>Lectures Introductory to the Practice of Physic</i>, in <i>Cullen's Works</i>, +vol. i. p. 386, Edinburgh, 1827.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_826_826" id="Footnote_826_826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_826_826"><span class="label">[826]</span></a> This idea runs through the whole of his writings. In the +following passage, it is more succinctly stated than in any other: ‘In +pathology, and in the prognosis of particular diseases, it is absolutely +necessary to enter into the distinction of these causes. I call the one +<i>direct</i> causes, those which act upon the nervous system directly; and +the other <i>indirect</i> causes, those which produce the same effect, but by +destroying those organs which are necessary to the support of the +excitement, viz. the whole system of circulation.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, +vol. i. p. 135. Even this passage, clear as it seems, can only be +rightly interpreted by taking the context into consideration.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_827_827" id="Footnote_827_827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_827_827"><span class="label">[827]</span></a> For, as is truly observed by probably the greatest +pathologist of our time, ‘Humoral pathology is simply a requirement of +common practical sense; and it has always held a place in medical +science, although the limits of its domain have, no doubt, been +variously circumscribed or interpreted at different times. Of late +years, it has met with a new basis and support in morbid anatomy, which, +in the inadequacy of its discoveries in the solids to account for +disease and death, has been compelled to seek for an extension of its +boundary through a direct examination of the blood itself.’ +<i>Rokitansky's Pathological Anatomy</i>, vol. i. p. 362, London, 1854.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_828_828" id="Footnote_828_828"></a><a href="#FNanchor_828_828"><span class="label">[828]</span></a> Unless, as is the case in geometry, the premisses, which +are suppressed, are so slight as to be scarcely perceptible.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_829_829" id="Footnote_829_829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_829_829"><span class="label">[829]</span></a> He was so indignant at the bare idea of a humoral +pathology, that even Hoffmann, who before himself was the most eminent +advocate of solidism, fell under his displeasure for allowing some +little weight to the humoral doctrines. He says that Hoffmann ‘has not +applied his fundamental doctrine so extensively as he might have done; +and he has everywhere intermixed an humoral pathology, as incorrect and +hypothetical as any other.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 410. At p. 470, +‘I have, therefore, assumed the general principles of Hoffmann. And, if +I have rendered them more correct, and more extensive in their +application, and, <i>more particularly, if I have avoided introducing the +many hypothetical doctrines of the Humoral Pathology which disfigured +both his and all the other systems that have hitherto prevailed</i>, I hope +I shall be excused for attempting a system, which, upon the whole, may +appear new.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_830_830" id="Footnote_830_830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_830_830"><span class="label">[830]</span></a> ‘The solid parts of the body seem to be of two kinds: one +whose properties are the same in the dead as in the living, and the same +in the animate as in many inanimate bodies; the other, whose properties +appear only in living bodies. In the last, a peculiar organization, or +addition, is supposed to take place; in opposition to which the first +are called the simple solids. Of these only, we shall treat here; and of +the others, which may be called vital solids, being the fundamental part +of the nervous system, we shall treat under that title in the following +section.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_831_831" id="Footnote_831_831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_831_831"><span class="label">[831]</span></a> These diseases are laxity, flaccidity, &c. See the +enumeration of ‘the diseases of the simple solids,’ in <i>Cullen's Works</i>, +vol. i. p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 65, 600, vol. ii. p. 364. +Dr. Thomson, who had access to papers and lectures of Cullen's, which +have never been published, says (<i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 265), ‘His +speculations with regard to the different functions of the nervous +system, but more particularly with regard to that of the Animal Power or +Energy of the brain, were incorporated with every opinion which he +taught concerning the phenomena of the animal economy, the causes of +diseases, and the operation of medicines; and they may be said to +constitute a most important part, if not the sole basis, of that system +of the Practice of Physic, which he made the subject of prelection, as +well as of study, for a period of nearly forty years, before he ventured +to give it to the public.’ I should mention, that Cullen, under the term +‘brain,’ included the contents of the vertebral column as well as of the +cranium.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 40, 546, 558, 648, vol. ii. +p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a> <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 86, 91, 100, 101, 108, 115, +116, 553, 592, vol. ii. pp. 35, 366. Compare the summary of causes in +<i>Thomson's Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 289.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a> He says (<i>Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 31, 32), ‘Whoever has the +smallest tincture of metaphysics will know the distinction pointed at +here between the qualities of bodies as primary and secondary.’ … +‘<i>Whether these distinctions be well or ill founded, it is not my +business to inquire.</i>’ But though he did not deem it his business to +inquire into the accuracy of these and similar distinctions, he thought +himself justified in assuming them, and reasoning from them as if they +could explain the working of those sensations, whose perversion formed +the point of contact between metaphysics and pathology. See, for +instance, in his <i>Works</i>, vol. i. p. 46, the long series of unproved and +improvable assertions respecting the combination and comparison of +sensations giving rise to memory, imagination, and the like.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a> Cullen, with that admirable candour which was one of the +most attractive peculiarities of his fine intellect, confesses his want +of acquaintance with the microscope: ‘It leaves me, who am not +conversant in such observations, altogether uncertain with respect to +the precise nature of this part of the blood.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. +p. 195. A pathologist without a microscope is an unarmed man, indeed. In +regard to his animal chemistry, one passage may be quoted as a specimen +of the manner in which he arrived at conclusions speculatively, instead +of subjecting the phenomena to experimental investigation. ‘We may +remark it to be highly probable, that all animal matter is originally +formed of vegetable; because all animals either feed directly and +entirely on vegetables, or upon other animals that do so. From hence it +is probable, that all animal substances may be traced to a vegetable +origin; and <i>therefore</i>, if we would inquire into the production of +animal matter, we <i>must first inquire</i> in what manner vegetable matter +may be converted into animal?’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 177, 178. +The <i>therefore</i> and the <i>must</i>, resulting merely from an antecedent +probability, are characteristic of that over-boldness, into which +deduction is apt to degenerate, and which is strongly contrasted with +the opposite vice of over-timidity, by which inductive reasoners are +tainted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> Dr. Watson (<i>Principles and Practice of Physic</i>, 4th +edit. London, 1857, vol. i. p. 41) says of the humoral pathology, that, +‘the absurdity of the hypothesis, and <i>still more the dangerous practice +which this doctrine generated</i>, began to be manifest, and led to its +total abandonment.’ But, with every respect for this eminent authority, +I venture to observe, that this supposition of Dr. Watson's is +contradicted by the whole history of the human mind. There is no +well-attested case on record of any theory having been abandoned, +because it produced dangerous results. As long as a theory is believed, +men will ascribe its evil consequences to any cause except the right +one. And a theory which is once established, will always be believed, +until there is some change in knowledge which shakes its foundation. +Every practical change may, by careful analysis, be shown to depend, in +the first instance, on some change of speculative opinions. Even at the +present day, many doctrines are generally held in the most civilized +countries, which are producing dangerous practical consequences, and +have produced those consequences for centuries. But the mischief which +the doctrine engenders does not weaken the doctrine itself. Nothing can +do that, but the general progress of knowledge, which, by altering +former opinions, modifies future conduct.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_838_838" id="Footnote_838_838"></a><a href="#FNanchor_838_838"><span class="label">[838]</span></a> Some writers, who have taken notice of Cullen, have been +deceived in this respect by his occasional use of the expression +‘nervous fluid,’ as if he were willing to let in the idea of humorism. +But, in one place, he distinctly guards himself against such +misconstruction. ‘Now, to avoid determining any thing with regard to +these opinions, I have used the term of <i>nervous power</i>; but as this is +a little ambiguous, I choose to express it by <i>nervous fluid</i>; not that +I suppose, with Dr. Boerhaave, that the brain is an excretory, and that +a fluid is secreted from it: <i>I mean nothing more than that there is a +condition of the nerves which fits them for the communication of +motion</i>. But I defer the consideration of these opinions for the +present, and perhaps <i>ad Græcas calendas</i>; but nothing shall be rested +upon the nervous fluid, it shall be considered merely as <i>a power</i> +fitted for communicating motions.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 17. +Without this passage, his remarks on ‘the nervous fluid in the brain’ +(<i>Works</i>, vol. i. p. 129), might easily be misunderstood.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> ‘Together with this, the languor, inactivity, and +debility of the animal motions, the imperfect sensations, the feeling of +cold, while the body is truly warm, and some other symptoms, all show +that the energy of the brain is, on this occasion, greatly weakened; and +I presume that, as the weakness of the action of the heart can hardly be +imputed to any other cause, this weakness also is a proof of the +diminished energy of the brain. So I conclude, that a debility of the +nervous power forms the beginning of the cold fit, and lays the +foundation of all the other phenomena.’ <i>Practice of Physic</i>, in +<i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 492.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_840_840" id="Footnote_840_840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_840_840"><span class="label">[840]</span></a> ‘To render our doctrine of fever consistent and complete, +it is necessary to add here, that these remote causes of fever, human +and marsh effluvia, seem to be of a debilitating or sedative +quality.’ … ‘Though we have endeavoured to show that fevers generally +arise from marsh or human effluvia, we cannot, with any certainty, +exclude some other remote causes, which are commonly supposed to have at +least a share in producing those diseases. And I proceed, therefore, to +inquire concerning these causes; the first of which that merits +attention, is the power of cold applied to the human body.’ … ‘Besides +cold, there are other powers that seem to be remote causes of fever; +such as fear, intemperance in drinking, excess in venery, and other +circumstances, which evidently weaken the system. But whether any of +these sedative powers be alone the remote cause of fever, or if they +only operate either as concurring with the operation of marsh or human +effluvia, or as giving an opportunity to the operation of cold, are +questions not to be positively answered.’ <i>Practice of Physic</i>, in +<i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 546, 552. One part of this view has been +corroborated, since the time of Cullen. ‘The experiments of Chossat and +others clearly prove cold to be a direct sedative.’ <i>Williams' +Principles of Medicine</i>, 2nd edit. London, 1848, p. 11. Compare +<i>Watson's Principles and Practice of Physic</i>, 4th edit. London, 1857, +vol. i. pp. 87–92, 249. Hence, perhaps, the ‘irresistible tendency to +sleep caused by exposure to severe or long-continued cold.’ <i>Erichsen's +Surgery</i>, 2nd edit. London, 1857, p. 336; but as to this, Dr. Watson +(<i>Principles of Physic</i>, vol. i. p. 89) is sceptical, and thinks that, +in those cases which are recorded, the drowsiness ascribed to cold, is, +in a great measure, the result of fatigue.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 493. Compare, respecting his +general theory of spasm, p. 84, and vol. ii. p. 400.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a> ‘The idea of fever, then, may be, that a spasm of the +extreme vessels, however induced, proves an irritation to the heart and +arteries; and that this continues till the spasm is relaxed or +overcome.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 494.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a> ‘Such, however, is, at the same time, the nature of the +animal economy, that this debility proves an indirect stimulus to the +sanguiferous system; whence, by the intervention of the cold stage and +spasm connected with it, the action of the heart and larger arteries is +increased, and continues so till it has had the effect of restoring the +energy of the brain, of extending this energy to the extreme vessels, of +restoring, therefore, their action, and thereby especially overcoming +the spasm affecting them; upon the removing of which, the excretion of +sweat, and other marks of the relaxation of excretories, take place.’ +<i>Practice of Physic</i>, in <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. pp. 501, 502. See +also p. 636, § cciii. Or, as he elsewhere expresses himself (vol. i. p. +561): ‘With regard to the event of fevers, this is the fundamental +principle: <i>in fevers, nature cures the disease</i>; that is, certain +motions tending to death continue the disease, but, in consequence of +the laws of the animal economy, other motions are excited by these which +have a tendency to remove it.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> ‘If we may trust to our conclusions with respect to the +proximate cause, it follows, most naturally, from the view there given, +that the continued fever is always owing to an excess of spasm, or to an +excess of debility: as the one or other of these prevails, it will give +one or other of the two forms, either the Synocha or inflammatory fever, +or the Typhus or nervous fever.’ <i>Cullen's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 518.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_845_845" id="Footnote_845_845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_845_845"><span class="label">[845]</span></a> ‘Cullen's most esteemed work is his <i>Nosology</i>.’ +<i>Hamilton's History of Medicine</i>, London, 1831, vol. ii. p. 279. ‘His +<i>Nosology</i> will probably survive all his other works; it is indisputably +the best system which has yet appeared.’ <i>Lives of British Physicians</i>, +London, 1830, p. 213. ‘Celle de Cullen, qui parut en 1772, et qui +constitue un véritable progrès.’ <i>Renouard</i>, <i>Histoire de la Médecine</i>, +Paris, 1846, vol. ii. p. 231. See also <i>Hooper's Medical Dictionary</i>, +edited by Dr. Grant, London, 1848, p. 937. But, in the most celebrated +medical works which have appeared in England during the last twelve or +fifteen years, I doubt if there is any instance of the adoption of +Cullen's nosological arrangement. Abroad, and particularly in +Italy, it is more valued.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_846_846" id="Footnote_846_846"></a><a href="#FNanchor_846_846"><span class="label">[846]</span></a> ‘I had rather not be cramped and hampered by attempting +what abler heads than mine have failed to achieve, and what, in truth, I +believe, in the present state of our science, to be impossible, a +complete methodical system of nosology.’ <i>Watson's Principles and +Practice of Physic</i>, London, 1857, vol. i. p. 9. This is the wisdom of a +powerful understanding.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_847_847" id="Footnote_847_847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_847_847"><span class="label">[847]</span></a> ‘Now, when the diseases of Cullen's nosology have been +almost doubled, and the facts relating to them have been more than +doubled.’ <i>Williams' Principles of Medicine</i>, London, 1848, p. 522.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a> I had intended giving some account of the once celebrated +Brunonian system, which was founded by Dr. John Brown, who was first the +pupil of Cullen, and afterwards his rival. But a careful perusal of his +works has convinced me that the real basis of his doctrine, or the point +from which he started, was not pathology, but therapeutics. His hasty +division of all diseases into sthenic and asthenic, has no claim to be +deemed a scientific generalization, but was a mere artificial +arrangement, resulting from a desire to substitute a stimulating +treatment in the place of the old lowering one. He, no doubt, went to +the opposite extreme; but that being a purely practical subject, this +Introduction has no concern with it. For the same reason, I omit all +mention of Currie, who, though an eminent therapeutician, was a +commonplace pathologist. That so poor and thinly-peopled a country as +Scotland, should, in so short a period, have produced so many remarkable +men, is extremely curious.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_849_849" id="Footnote_849_849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_849_849"><span class="label">[849]</span></a> Mr. Ottley (<i>Life of Hunter</i>, p. 186) says, ‘In his +writings we occasionally find an obscurity in the expression of his +thoughts, a want of logical accuracy in his reasonings, and an +incorrectness in his language, resulting from a deficient education.’ +But, a deficient education will never make a man obscure. Neither will a +good education make him lucid. The only cause of clearness of expression +is clearness of thought; and clearness of thought is a natural gift, +which the most finished and systematic culture can but slightly improve. +Uneducated men, without a thousandth part of John Hunter's intellect, +are often clear enough. On the other hand, it as frequently happens that +men, who have received an excellent education, cannot speak or write ten +consecutive sentences which do not contain some troublesome ambiguity. +In Hunter's works such ambiguities are abundant; and this is probably +one of the reasons why no one has yet given a connected view of his +philosophy. On his obscurity, compare <i>Cooper's Life of Sir Astley +Cooper</i>, London, 1843, vol. i. pp. 151, 152; <i>Paget's Lectures on +Surgical Pathology</i>, London, 1853, vol. i. p. 419; and the remarks of +his enemy, Foot, in <i>Foot's Life of Hunter</i>, London, 1794, p. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_850_850" id="Footnote_850_850"></a><a href="#FNanchor_850_850"><span class="label">[850]</span></a> He was born in 1728, and came to London in 1748. <i>Adams' +Life of John Hunter</i>, 2nd edit. London, 1818, pp. 20, 203. According to +Adams (pp. 30–35), he was abroad as surgeon in the English army from +1761 to 1763; though, in <i>Foot's Life of Hunter</i>, London, 1794, p. 78, +he is said to have returned to England in 1762. Mr. Ottley says that he +returned in 1763. <i>Ottley's Life of Hunter</i>, p. 22, in vol. i. of +<i>Hunter's Works</i>, edited by Palmer, London, 1835.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> See <i>Buckle's History of Civilization</i>, vol. ii. pp. 374, +375.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> ‘He followed his natural inclination. He preferred the +more delusive, apparently the more direct, road, which has seduced so +many philosophers. He sought to arrive at the general laws of nature at +once by conjecture: rather than, by a close and detailed study of her +inferior operations, to ascend, step by step, through a slow and gradual +induction to those laws which govern her general procedure.’ Babington's +Preface to Hunter's <i>Treatise on the Venereal Disease</i>, in <i>Hunter's +Works</i>, vol. ii. p. 129. Compare the narrow and carping criticism in +<i>Foot's Life of Hunter</i>, p. 163.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> That I may not be suspected of exaggeration, I will quote +what by far the greatest of all the historians of medicine has said upon +this subject. ‘La majorité des médecins qui prétendaient s'être formés +d'après Bâcon, n'avaient hérité de lui qu'une répugnance invincible pour +les hypothèses et les systèmes, une grande vénération pour l'expérience, +et un désir extrême de multiplier le nombre des observations. Ce fut +chez les Anglais que la méthode empirique en médecine trouva le plus de +partisans, et c'est principalement aussi chez eux qu'elle s'est répandue +jusqu'aux temps les plus rapprochés de nous. Sa propagation y fut +favorisée, non-seulement par le profond respect que les Anglais +continuent toujours de porter à l'immortel chancelier, mais encore par +la haute importance que la nation entière attache au sens commun, +<i>common sense</i>, et elle y demeura l'ennemie irréconciliable de tous les +systèmes que ne reposent pas sur l'observation.’ <i>Sprengel, Histoire de +la Médecine</i>, vol. v. p. 411, Paris, 1815.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a> Clive says, ‘Much as Mr. Hunter did, he thought still +more. He has often told me, his delight was, to think.’ <i>Abernethy's +Hunterian Oration</i>, London, 1819, p. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_855_855" id="Footnote_855_855"></a><a href="#FNanchor_855_855"><span class="label">[855]</span></a> Mr. Owen, in his interesting Preface to the fourth volume +of <i>Hunter's Works</i>, says (p. vii.), ‘There is proof that Hunter +anatomized at least five hundred different species of animals, exclusive +of repeated dissections of different individuals of the same species, +besides the dissections of plants to a considerable amount.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a> ‘Some idea may be formed of Hunter's extraordinary +diligence, by the fact, that his museum contained, at the time of his +death, upwards of 10,000 preparations, illustrative of human and +comparative anatomy, physiology, and pathology, and natural history.’ +<i>Weld's History of the Royal Society</i>, London, 1848, vol. ii. p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_857_857" id="Footnote_857_857"></a><a href="#FNanchor_857_857"><span class="label">[857]</span></a> ‘I have tested the conflicting evidence of these +observers by dissection of the heart in the lobster; and you will +perceive by this preparation that it is more complicated than even the +Danish naturalist supposed, and fully bears out the opinion of Hunter in +regard to the mixed nature of the circulation in the crustacea.’ <i>Owen's +Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate +Animals</i>, 2nd edit. London, 1855, p. 318. ‘Cuvier, misled by the +anomalous diffused condition of the venous system, supposed that there +was no circulation of the blood in insects; yet the dorsal vessel was +too conspicuous a structure to be overlooked. Such, however, was the +authority of the great anatomist, that the nature of the heart began to +be doubted, and the strangest functions to be attributed to it. Hunter, +however, who was prepared to appreciate the true state of the +circulating system in insects, by his discovery of the approximately +diffused and irregular structure of the veins in the crustacea, has +described, in his work on the blood, all the leading characters of the +circulation in insects as it is recognized by comparative physiologists +of the present day.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 383. Compare <i>Hunter's Essays and +Observations on Natural History</i>, London, 1861, vol. i. p. 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_858_858" id="Footnote_858_858"></a><a href="#FNanchor_858_858"><span class="label">[858]</span></a> ‘The class called Sepia has the organ of hearing, though +somewhat differently constructed from what it is in fishes.’ <i>An Account +of the Organ of Hearing in Fishes</i>, in <i>Hunter‘s Works</i>, vol. iv. p. +294. At the bottom of the page Mr. Owen observes, in a note, ‘This is +the first announcement of the existence of an organ of hearing in the +Cephalopoda.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_859_859" id="Footnote_859_859"></a><a href="#FNanchor_859_859"><span class="label">[859]</span></a> ‘Hunter discovered that the molluscous inhabitant of a +shell had the power of absorbing part of its dwelling.’ <i>Owen's Lectures +on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals</i>, +London, 1855, p. 544. ‘Every shell-fish has the power of removing a part +of its shell, so as to adapt the new and the old together, which is not +done by any mechanical power, but by absorption.’ <i>Anatomical Remarks on +a New Marine Animal</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 469, edit. +Palmer. In a note to this passage, it is said, that ‘the doctrine of the +absorption of shell has been lately’ (<i>i.e.</i> in 1833) ‘adduced as a new +discovery.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> ‘His keen observation did not fail to detect several +errors which preceding naturalists had fallen into, especially with +regard to the formation of the wax, which he proved to be secreted, not +collected, by the animal.’ <i>Ottley's Life of Hunter</i>, p. 122. ‘The wax +is formed by the bees themselves; it may be called an external secretion +of oil, and I have found that it is formed between each scale of the +under side of the belly.’ <i>Observations on Bees</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, +vol. iv. p. 433.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a> ‘In the terminating part there are a number of +perforations into the cochlea, and one into the semicircular canals, +which afford a passage to the different divisions of the auditory +nerve.’ <i>Observations on the Structure and Œconomy of Whales</i>, in +<i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. pp. 383, 384. ‘The semicircular canals of the +cetacea, described by Hunter in the paper on Whales, a structure which +Cuvier rightly states that Camper overlooked, but incorrectly claims the +discovery as his own.’ Preface to vol. iv. of <i>Hunter's Works</i>, p. xxi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_862_862" id="Footnote_862_862"></a><a href="#FNanchor_862_862"><span class="label">[862]</span></a> Dr. Adams, in his somewhat hasty <i>Life of Hunter</i>, says +(pp. 27, 28), ‘Mr. Hewson always claimed the discovery of lymphatics in +birds.’ But the truth is, that Hewson never claimed it. He says, ‘It may +be necessary to mention here, that the dispute between Dr. Monro and me +is, who first discovered the lacteals of birds? for as to the lymphatics +in their necks (mentioned in this gentleman's note), these we both allow +were discovered by Mr. John Hunter, about ten years ago.’ And, again, +‘These lymphatics in the necks of fowls were first discovered by Mr. +John Hunter.’ <i>Hewson's Works</i>, edit. Gulliver (Sydenham Soc.), pp. 102, +145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_863_863" id="Footnote_863_863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_863_863"><span class="label">[863]</span></a> <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. pp. xxi. 176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a> ‘See Nos. 3731, 3734, 3735, in the Physiological series +of the Hunterian Museum, in which there are evidences that Mr. Hunter +had anticipated most of the anatomical discoveries which have +subsequently been made upon the embryo of the Kangaroo.’ <i>Rymer Jones' +Organization of the Animal Kingdom</i>, London, 1855, pp. 829, 830.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_865_865" id="Footnote_865_865"></a><a href="#FNanchor_865_865"><span class="label">[865]</span></a> ‘The muscularity of arteries, of which John Hunter made +physiological proof, is now a matter of eyesight.’ <i>Simon's Pathology</i>, +London, 1850, p. 69. ‘To prove the muscularity of an artery, it is only +necessary to compare its action with that of elastic substances.’ … +‘When the various uses of arteries are considered, such as their forming +different parts of the body out of the blood, their performing the +different secretions, their allowing at one time the blood to pass +readily into the smaller branches, as in blushing, and at another, +preventing it altogether, as in paleness from fear: and if to these we +add the power of producing a diseased increase of any or every part of +the body, we cannot but conclude that they are possessed of muscular +powers.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 157. See also vol. iv. p. 254. +Mr. Gulliver, in his edition of <i>Hewson's Works</i>, London, 1846, says (p. +125), that Hunter's ‘experiments on the functions of the arteries are +supported by the latest and best observations on their structure.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_866_866" id="Footnote_866_866"></a><a href="#FNanchor_866_866"><span class="label">[866]</span></a> ‘The fact of the muscularity of the iris, which is here +presumed from analogy by Mr. Hunter, has been since directly proved by +the observations of Bauer and Jacob (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1822), and +indirectly by Berzelius, who found that the iris possesses all the +chemical properties of muscle.’ Palmer's note in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. +iii. p. 146, London, 1837.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_867_867" id="Footnote_867_867"></a><a href="#FNanchor_867_867"><span class="label">[867]</span></a> <i>Adams' Life of Hunter</i>, pp. 59, 60, 245. <i>Hunter's +Works</i>, vol. i. p. 43, vol. iv. pp. 116–121. <i>Watson's Principles of +Physic</i>, vol. ii. p. 440.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_868_868" id="Footnote_868_868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_868_868"><span class="label">[868]</span></a> ‘Hunter subjects the blood to both mechanical and +chemical analysis, and endeavours to determine the characteristic +properties of its different constituents.’ Owen's Preface to vol. iv. of +<i>Hunter's Works</i>, p. xii. But this gives, perhaps, rather too high an +idea of his animal chemistry; for such was then the miserable state of +this extremely important branch of knowledge, that he arrived at the +conclusion that ‘blood gives no analysis excepting that of common animal +matter.’ <i>Principles of Surgery</i>, chap. iii. in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. +i. p. 229.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_869_869" id="Footnote_869_869"></a><a href="#FNanchor_869_869"><span class="label">[869]</span></a> ‘In seeking to determine the respective importance of the +different constituents of the blood, by the philosophical and most +difficult inquiry into their respective periods of formation in the +development of the embryo, Hunter made the interesting discovery that +the vessels of the embryo of a red-blooded animal circulated in the +first instance colourless blood, as in the invertebrate animals. ‘The +red globules,’ he observes, ‘seemed to be formed later in life than the +other two constituents, for we see while the chick is in the egg the +heart beating, and it then contains a transparent fluid before any red +globules are formed, which fluid we may suppose to be the serum and the +lymph.’ I well remember the feelings of surprise with which I listened, +while at Paris in 1832, to a memoir read before the Academy of Science, +by MM. Delpech and Coste, the object of which was the announcement of +the same fact as a novel and important discovery. The statement of the +French observers was received with all the consideration which its +importance justly merited, without its being suspected that our great +physiologist had, half a century before, embraced it, with all its +legitimate deductions, in the extended circle of his investigations.’ +Owen's Preface to vol. iv. of <i>Hunter's Works</i>, p. xiii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_870_870" id="Footnote_870_870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_870_870"><span class="label">[870]</span></a> Indeed, if we may rely on the references recently given +by Mr. Gulliver, which, from his great general accuracy, there seems no +reason to question, the fact that the pale blood precedes the red, was +known even in the time of Glisson. See Gulliver's learned edition of +<i>Hewson's Works</i>, London, 1846, p. 222. But, to the contemporaries of +Glisson, such a fact was isolated, and consequently useless. Nothing is +valuable while it appears to stand alone.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_871_871" id="Footnote_871_871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_871_871"><span class="label">[871]</span></a> ‘From the above account, it appears that whatever may be +their utility in the machine, the red globules certainly are not of such +universal use as the coagulating lymph, since they are not to be found +in all animals, <i>nor so early in those that have them</i>; nor are they +pushed into the extreme arteries, where we must suppose the coagulating +lymph reaches; neither do they appear to be so readily formed. This +being the case, <i>we must conclude them not to be the important part of +the blood in contributing to growth, repair, &c. Their use would seem to +be connected with strength.</i>’ <i>A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, +and Gunshot Wounds</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 68. In another +remarkable passage, he touches on the possibility of an increase in the +amount of red globules being connected with an increase in the amount of +heat. ‘I will not pretend to determine how far this may assist in +keeping up the animal heat.’ <i>Observations on the Structure and +Œconomy of Whales</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a> The evidence of this is collected in the notes to +<i>Buckle's History of Civilization</i>, vol. i. pp. 58–61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_873_873" id="Footnote_873_873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_873_873"><span class="label">[873]</span></a> ‘According to Lecanu, temperament has an influence upon +the composition of the blood. He infers from his analyses that the blood +of lymphatic persons is poorer in solid constituents, and especially in +blood corpuscules, than that of persons of sanguineous temperament, +while the quantity of albumen is much the same in both.’ <i>Simon's Animal +Chemistry with reference to the Physiology and Pathology of Man</i>, +London, 1845, vol. i. p. 236. Compare <i>Thomson's Chemistry of Animal +Bodies</i>, Edinburgh, 1843, p. 370.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_874_874" id="Footnote_874_874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_874_874"><span class="label">[874]</span></a> <i>Simon's Animal Chemistry</i>, vol. i. pp. 234, 235. +Subsequent experiments have confirmed this. ‘The proportion of red +globules <i>dried</i> to 1000 parts of blood, is in healthy males estimated +at 127 parts by Andral and Gavarret; lower and higher figures have been +given by other analysts, but this probably is the result of somewhat +different modes of proceeding. <i>In females the proportion of globules is +lower.</i> Becquerel and Rodier make the difference to be about 15 parts +per 1000.’ <i>Jones and Sieveking's Pathological Anatomy</i>, London, 1854, +p. 23. Hence, the greater specific gravity of male blood. See the +interesting results of Dr. Davy's experiments in <i>Davy's Physiological +and Anatomical Researches</i>, London, 1839, vol. ii. p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a> Hunter died in 1793. The researches of Lecanu were +published in 1831.</p> + +<p>Another, and still more remarkable proof of the extent to which Hunter +outstripped his own age, appears in the following passage, which has +just been published in his posthumous works, and in which he anticipates +the grandest and most suggestive of all the ideas belonging to the +physiology of the nineteenth century. ‘If we were capable of following +the progress of increase of the number of the parts of the most perfect +animal, as they first formed in succession, from the very first to its +state of full perfection, we should probably be able to compare it with +some one of the incomplete animals themselves, of every order of animals +in the Creation, being at no stage different from some of the inferior +orders. Or, in other words, if we were to take a series of animals, from +the more imperfect to the perfect, we should probably find an imperfect +animal, corresponding with some stage of the most perfect.’ <i>Essays and +Observations by John Hunter, being his Posthumous Papers</i>, London, 1861, +vol. i. p. 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_876_876" id="Footnote_876_876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_876_876"><span class="label">[876]</span></a> ‘The natural salutary actions, arising from stimuli, take +place both in animals and vegetables, and may be divided into three +kinds. The first kind of action, or self-motion, is employed simply in +the economical operations, by which means the immediate functions are +carried on, and the necessary operations performed, with the materials +the animal or vegetable is in possession of, such as growth, support, +secretion, &c. The blood is disposed of by the actions of the vessels, +according to their specific stimulus, producing all the above effects. +The juices of a plant are disposed of according to the different actions +of the sap-vessels, arising also from their specific stimulus, which is +different from that of blood-vessels, but equally produces growth; but a +vine will grow twenty feet in one summer, while a whale, probably, does +not grow so much in as many years.’ <i>Croonian Lectures on Muscular +Motion</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_877_877" id="Footnote_877_877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_877_877"><span class="label">[877]</span></a> ‘The second kind of action is in pursuit of external +influence, and arises from a compound of internal and external stimulus; +it is excited by the state of the animal or vegetable, which gives the +stimulus of want, and being completed by external stimulus, produces the +proper supplies of nourishment. It produces motions of whole parts: thus +we see the <i>Hedysarum gyrans</i> moving its lesser foliola. This is an +action apparently similar to breathing in animals, though, perhaps, it +does not answer the same purpose; yet there is an alternate motion in +both.’ <i>Croonian Lectures</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_878_878" id="Footnote_878_878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_878_878"><span class="label">[878]</span></a> ‘The third kind of motion is from external stimulus, and +consists principally of the motion of whole parts, which is not +inconsiderable in vegetables, as in the <i>Dionæa muscipula</i> and <i>Mimosa +pudica</i> is very evident.’ … ‘These actions are similar to what arise in +many animals from external stimulus.’ <i>Ibid.</i> vol. iv. p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_879_879" id="Footnote_879_879"></a><a href="#FNanchor_879_879"><span class="label">[879]</span></a> ‘I make a material difference between the power and the +quantity of action. Some motions may be very small, yet act with great +force; while others are of considerable extent, although very weak.’ +<i>Ibid.</i> vol. iv. p. 204.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a> ‘The immediate cause of motion in all vegetables is most +probably the same, and it is probably the same in all animals; but how +far they are the same in both classes, has not yet been determined. But +I think it will appear, in the investigation of this subject, that +vegetables and animals have actions evidently common to both, and that +the causes of these actions are apparently the same in both; and most +probably there is not an action in the vegetable, which does not +correspond or belong to the animal, although the mode of action in the +parts may not be the same, or muscular, in both.’ <i>Croonian Lectures</i>, +in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 196. Compare the section ‘Of Motion in +Vegetables,’ in <i>Hunter's Essays</i>, London, 1861, vol. i. p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_881_881" id="Footnote_881_881"></a><a href="#FNanchor_881_881"><span class="label">[881]</span></a> ‘The variety of motions is greater in animals, and more +purposes are answered by them.’ … ‘The first kind of action appears to +be stronger in its power, although less in quantity, in vegetables than +in animals; for a small vine was capable of sustaining, and even of +raising, a column of sap 43 feet high, while a horse's heart was only +capable of supporting a column of blood 8 feet 9 inches high; both of +which columns must have been supported by the action of the internal +parts, for we must suppose the heart equal, or nearly so, to the +strength or action of the other parts of the vascular system; and when +we consider that the sap of the tallest tree must be supported, and even +raised from the root to the most distant branches, it must appear that +the power of such vegetables far exceeds the power of any animal, and, +indeed, it is such as the texture of a vegetable only can support. The +power of supporting a leaf erect for a whole day is as great an effort +of action as that of the elevator palpebrarum muscle of the eye of an +animal.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. pp. 203, 204. See also <i>Hunter's +Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 342: ‘It is probable that the vegetable which can +the least bear a suspension of its actions, can do so more than the +animal which can bear it longest.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_882_882" id="Footnote_882_882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_882_882"><span class="label">[882]</span></a> <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a> In his <i>Principles of Surgery</i>, he says (<i>Hunter's +Works</i>, vol. i. p. 220), ‘The human body is what I mean chiefly to treat +of; but I shall often find it necessary to illustrate some of the +propositions which I shall lay down from animals of an inferior order, +in whom the principles may be more distinct and less blended with +others, or where the parts are differently constructed, in order to +show, from many varieties of structure, and from many different +considerations, what are the uses of the same parts in man; or, at +least, to show that they are not for the uses which have been commonly +assigned to them; and, as man is the most complicated part of the whole +animal creation, it will be proper, in the first place, to point out +general principles, common to all this species of matter, that I may be +better understood when I come to the more complicated machine, namely, +the human.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_884_884" id="Footnote_884_884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_884_884"><span class="label">[884]</span></a> ‘Before we endeavour to give an idea of an animal, it is +necessary to understand the properties of that matter of which an animal +is composed; but the better to understand animal matter, it is necessary +to understand the properties of common matter; else we shall be often +applying our ideas of common matter, which are familiar to us, to animal +matter, an error hitherto too common, but which we should carefully +avoid.’ <i>Principles of Surgery</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 211. +‘In the natural history of vegetables and animals, therefore, it will be +necessary to go back to the first or common matter of this globe, and +give its general properties; then see how far these properties are +introduced into the vegetable and animal operations; or rather, perhaps, +how far they are of use or subservient to their actions.’ <i>Hunter's +Essays</i>, vol. i. p. 4. ‘Every property in man is similar to some +property, either in another animal, or probably in a vegetable, or even +in inanimate matter. Thereby (man) becomes classible with those in some +of his parts.’ <i>Ibid.</i> p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a> He made ‘a valuable collection of crystallizations, both +of regular and irregular forms, which he was accustomed to use in his +lectures to exemplify the difference between the laws which regulate the +growth of organic and the increase of inorganic bodies.’ <i>Ottley's Life +of Hunter</i>, p. 138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> ‘Nature is always uniform in her operations, and when she +deviates is still regular in her deviations.’ <i>Principles of Surgery</i>, +in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 485; see also vol. iv. pp. 44, 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> ‘It certainly may be laid down, as one of the principles +or laws of nature, to deviate under certain circumstances.’ <i>Hunter's +Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a> Dr. Adams, who knew him personally, says that he studied +‘physiology, more particularly as connected with pathology.’ <i>Adams' +Life of Hunter</i>, p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_889_889" id="Footnote_889_889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_889_889"><span class="label">[889]</span></a> His <i>Principles of Surgery</i> contain some curious evidence +of his desire to establish a connexion between animal and vegetable +pathology. See, for instance, his remarks on ‘local diseases’ (<i>Works</i>, +vol. i. p. 341); on the influence of the seasons in producing diseases +(vol. i. pp. 345, 346); and on the theory of inflammation exhibited in +an oak-leaf (vol. i. p. 391). But even now, too little is known of the +diseases of the vegetable world to enable their study to be incorporated +with the science of the diseases of the animal world; and, in the time +of Hunter, the attempt was still less promising. Still, the effort shows +the grandeur and range of the man's mind; and though little was +effected, the method was right. So, too, in one of his essays on the +<i>Power of Producing Heat</i>, he says, ‘In the course of a variety of +experiments on animals and vegetables, I have frequently observed that +the result of experiments in the one has explained the economy of the +other, and pointed out some principle common to both.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, +vol. iv. p. 136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a> ‘Nature being pretty constant in the kind and number of +the different parts peculiar to each species of animal, as also in the +situation, formation, and construction of such parts, we call every +thing that deviates from that uniformity a “monster,” whether (it occur +in) crystallization, vegetation, or animalization. There must be some +principle for those deviations from the regular course of nature, in the +economy of such species as they occur in. In the present inquiry it is +the animal creation I mean to consider. Yet, as there may be in some +degree an analogy between all the three (kingdoms of nature), I shall +consider the other two, so far as this analogy seems to take place.’ … +‘Monsters are not peculiar to animals: they are less so in them, +perhaps, than in any species of matter. The vegetable (kingdom) abounds +with monsters; and perhaps the uncommon formation of many crystals may +be brought within the same species of production, and accounted for upon +the same principle, viz. some influence interfering with the established +law of regular formation. Monsters in crystals may arise from the same +cause, as mentioned in the “Introduction;” viz. either a wrong +arrangement of the parts of which the crystal is to be composed, or a +defect in the formation, from the first setting out being wrong, and +(the formation) going on in the same (wrong) line. The principle of +crystallization is in the solution; yet it requires more to set it +agoing, or into action, such, <i>e.g.</i>, as a solid surface. The +deficiency in the production of a true crystal may be in the solution +itself; or, I can conceive, that a very slight circumstance might alter +the form of a crystal, and even give the disposition for one (crystal) +to form upon another. Quickness in the progress of crystallization +produces irregularity and diminution in size.’ <i>Hunter's Essays</i>, +London, 1861, vol. i. pp. 239–241. The reader must remember, that, when +these remarks were written, the phenomena of crystallization had not +been subjected to that exact mathematical treatment which subsequently +revealed so many of their laws. Indeed, the goniometer was then so +coarse an instrument, that it was impossible to measure the angles of +crystals with accuracy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a> Abernethy says, ‘He appears to me as a new character in +our profession; and, briefly to express his peculiar merit, I may call +him the first and great physionosologist, or expositor of the nature of +disease.’ <i>Abernethy's Hunterian Oration</i>, p. 29, London, 1819. ‘He may +be regarded as the first who applied the great truths of anatomical and +physiological science to these most important subjects, by tracing the +processes which nature employs in the construction of organic changes, +in building up new formations, and in repairing the effects of injury or +disease.’ <i>Hodgson's Hunterian Oration</i>, 1855, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a> ‘The specific qualities in diseases also tend more +rapidly to the skin than to the deeper-seated parts, except the cancer; +although, even in this disease, the progress towards the superficies is +more quick than its progress towards the centre.’ … ‘In short, this is +a law of nature, and it probably is upon the same principle by which +vegetables always approach the surface of the earth.’ <i>A Treatise on the +Blood, Inflammation, and Gunshot Wounds</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. +iii. p. 285. ‘Granulations always tend to the skin, which is exactly +similar to vegetation, for plants always grow from the centre of the +earth towards the surface; and this principle was taken notice of when +we were treating of abscesses coming towards the skin.’ <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 489, +490.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a> ‘It may be admitted as an axiom, that two processes +cannot go on at the same time in the same part of any substance.’ +<i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 96. Compare <i>Hunter's Essays</i>, vol. ii. p. +333: ‘As it appears, in general, that Nature can hardly make one part +perform two actions with advantage.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_894_894" id="Footnote_894_894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_894_894"><span class="label">[894]</span></a> ‘Thus, we hear of pocky itch and of scurvy and the +venereal disease combined; but this supposition appears to me to be +founded in error. I have never seen any such cases, <i>nor do they seem to +be consistent with the principles of morbid action</i> in the animal +economy. It appears to me beyond a doubt that no two actions can take +place in the same constitution, or in the same part, at one and the same +time.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. ii. p. 132. ‘As I reckon every operation +in the body an action, whether universal or partial, <i>it appears to me +beyond a doubt</i> that no two actions can take place in the same +constitution, nor in the same part, at one and the same time; the +operations of the body are similar in this respect to actions or motions +in common matter. <i>It naturally results from this principle</i>, that no +two different fevers can exist in the same constitution, nor two local +diseases in the same part, at the same time. There are many local +diseases which have dispositions totally different, but having very +similar appearances, have been supposed by some to be one sort of +disease, by others to be a different kind, and by others again a +compound of two diseases.’ … ‘These, therefore, are often supposed to +be mixed, and to exist in the same part. Thus we hear of a pocky-scurvy, +a pocky-itch, rheumatic-gout, &c. &c., which names, <i>according to my +principle</i>, imply a union that cannot possibly exist.’ <i>Ibid.</i> vol. iii. +pp. 3, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_895_895" id="Footnote_895_895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_895_895"><span class="label">[895]</span></a> Dr. Robert Williams (<i>Encyclopædia of the Medical +Sciences</i>, London, 1847, 4to, p. 688) says, ‘The diagnosis between gout +and rheumatism is often exceedingly difficult, so much so that +nosologists have given a mixed class, or rheumatic gout. Mr. Hunter +warmly opposed this compound appellation, for, in his opinion, no two +distinct diseases, or even distinct diatheses, can co-exist in the same +constitution; a law, it must be admitted, to have many exceptions.’ +Compare <i>Watson's Principles and Practice of Physic</i>, London, 1857, vol. +i. p. 312; ‘acting upon the aphorism of John Hunter (an aphorism, +however, which requires some qualification), that two diseases or +actions cannot go on in a part at the same time.’ According to another +authority, ‘There can be little doubt that two or more zymotic processes +do often go on simultaneously in the blood and body; a fact of profound +interest to the pathologist, and worthy of attentive investigation.’ +<i>Report on the Public Health for 1847</i>, in <i>Journal of the Statistical +Society</i>, vol. xi. p. 168, London, 1848. See also, on the co-existence +of specific poisons, <i>Erichsen's Surgery</i>, 2nd edit., London, 1857, p. +430. Mr. Paget, in his striking and eminently suggestive <i>Lectures on +Pathology</i>, London, 1853, vol. ii. pp. 537, 538, has made some +interesting remarks on one part of the theory of co-existence; and his +observations, so far as they go, tend to corroborate Hunter's view. He +has put very forcibly the antagonism between cancer and other specific +diseases; and especially between the cancerous diathesis and the +tuberculous.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_896_896" id="Footnote_896_896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_896_896"><span class="label">[896]</span></a> ‘The most simple sympathy is perhaps to be found in +vegetables, these being much more simple than the most simple animal.’ +<i>Principles of Surgery</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_897_897" id="Footnote_897_897"></a><a href="#FNanchor_897_897"><span class="label">[897]</span></a> ‘This principle of action, called sympathy,’ &c. <i>Ibid.</i> +vol. i. p. 318.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_898_898" id="Footnote_898_898"></a><a href="#FNanchor_898_898"><span class="label">[898]</span></a> ‘Sympathy may be divided into two kinds, the natural and +the diseased.’ <i>Principles of Surgery</i>, in <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. +320; see also <i>A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c.</i>, in <i>Works</i>, +vol. iii. p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_899_899" id="Footnote_899_899"></a><a href="#FNanchor_899_899"><span class="label">[899]</span></a> <i>Croonian Lectures on Muscular Motion</i>, in <i>Hunter's +Works</i>, vol. iv. p. 207; and exactly the same words in his <i>Phytology</i>, +in <i>Hunter's Essays</i>, London, 1861, vol. i. p. 361.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_900_900" id="Footnote_900_900"></a><a href="#FNanchor_900_900"><span class="label">[900]</span></a> ‘Local or partial sympathy is found more in old than in +young; whereas universal sympathy is more in young than in old. Sympathy +is less determined in young persons, every part being then ready to +sympathize with other parts under disease.’ … ‘As the child advances, +the power of sympathy becomes partial, there not being now, in the +constitution, that universal consent of parts, but some part, which has +greater sympathy than the rest, falls into the whole irritation; +therefore the whole disposition to sympathy is directed to some +particular part. The different organs acquire more and more of their own +independent actions as the child grows older.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. +pp. 322, 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_901_901" id="Footnote_901_901"></a><a href="#FNanchor_901_901"><span class="label">[901]</span></a> ‘Susceptibilities for dispositions and actions appear to +me to be the same with what are usually understood by temperament. +Temperament is the state of the body fitting it for the disposition or +action it is then in.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 307.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a> <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 393.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_903_903" id="Footnote_903_903"></a><a href="#FNanchor_903_903"><span class="label">[903]</span></a> ‘As every natural action of the body depends, for its +perfection, on a number of circumstances, we are led to conclude, that +all the various combining actions are established while the body is in +health, and well disposed; but this does not take place in diseased +actions, for disease, on the contrary, consists in the want of this very +combination.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. iii. p. 10. Compare vol. i. p. 310: +‘I have explained that a disease is a disposition for a wrong action, +and that the action is the immediate effect of the disposition, and that +either the actions or the effects of those actions, <i>produce the +symptoms which are generally called the disease</i>; such as sensations, +which are commonly pain of all kinds, sickness, alteration visible or +invisible in the structure of the part or parts that act, and +sympathy.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_904_904" id="Footnote_904_904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_904_904"><span class="label">[904]</span></a> ‘There is no such thing, strictly speaking, as a +predisposing cause. What is commonly understood by a predisposing cause +is an increased susceptibility to form disposition to action. When I say +I am predisposed for such and such actions, it is only that I am very +susceptible of such and such impressions.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. +303. See also p. 301: ‘The most simple idea I can form of an animal +being capable of disease is, that every animal is endued with a power of +action, and a susceptibility of impression, which impression forms a +disposition, which disposition may produce action, which action becomes +the immediate sign of the disease; all of which will be according to the +nature of the impression and of the part impressed.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a> Hunter died in 1793. In 1835, Mr. Palmer writes: ‘Those +who have traced the progress of modern surgery to its true source, will +not fail to have discerned, in the principles which Hunter established, +the germs of almost all the improvements which have been since +introduced.’ <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. vii. Eighteen years later, Mr. +Paget says of Hunter's views respecting the healing of injuries: ‘In +these sentences, Mr. Hunter has embodied the principle on which is +founded the whole practice of subcutaneous surgery; a principle of +which, indeed, it seems hardly possible to exaggerate the importance.’ +<i>Paget's Lectures on Surgical Pathology</i>, London, 1853, vol. i. p. 170. +At pp. 197, 198: ‘After what I have said respecting the process of +immediate union, it may appear that Mr. Hunter was more nearly right +than his successors.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a> ‘Inflammation of the veins, originally studied by Hunter, +has of late years attracted the attention of many distinguished +Continental and British pathologists.’ <i>Erichsen's Surgery</i>, London, +1857, p. 475. ‘No subject more amply illustrates the essential services +which the science and art of medicine have derived from pathological +anatomy than that of phlebitis. By this study many a dark point in the +phenomena of disease has been either thoroughly elucidated, or, at all +events, rendered more comprehensible. We need only refer to the +so-termed malignant intermittents, consequent upon wounds and surgical +operations,—to certain typhoid conditions, puerperal diseases, and the +like, John Hunter, the elder Meckel, and Peter Frank, were the first to +commence the investigation.’ <i>Hasse's Anatomical Description of the +Diseases of the Organs of Circulation and Respiration</i>, London, 1846, p. +10. ‘Hunter was the first to open the way, and since that period the +scalpel has shown that many previously unintelligible malignant +conditions are attributable to phlebitis.’ <i>Jones and Sieveking's +Pathological Anatomy</i>, London, 1854, p. 362. On the application of this +discovery to the theory of inflammation of the spleen, see <i>Rokitansky's +Pathological Anatomy</i>, vol. ii. p. 173, London, 1849; compare vol. iv. +p. 335.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_907_907" id="Footnote_907_907"></a><a href="#FNanchor_907_907"><span class="label">[907]</span></a> Sir Benjamin Brodie says: ‘It is true that the essential +parts of John Hunter's doctrines as to inflammation and its consequences +are now so incorporated with what is taught in the schools, that to be +acquainted with them you need not seek them in his works; but I +recommend you, nevertheless, to make these your especial study, for the +sake of the other valuable information which they contain, and the +important views in physiology and pathology which, in almost every page, +are offered to your contemplation.’ <i>Brodie's Lectures on Pathology and +Surgery</i>, London, 1846, p. 25. ‘John Hunter, whose treatise on +Inflammation is a mine in which all succeeding writers have dug.’ +<i>Watson's Principles and Practice of Physic</i>, London, 1857, vol. i. p. +146. ‘The appeal to philosophical principles in Hunter's works was, +indeed, the cause of their being a closed volume to his less enlightened +contemporaries; but, though the principles implied or expressed, +subjected them to the scorn and neglect of those less imbued with the +spirit of philosophy, the results of those principles, verified as they +were by facts, have gradually and insensibly forced themselves on the +conviction of the profession; and though adopted silently, and without +acknowledgment, as if the authors themselves had forgotten or were +ignorant from whence they were derived, they now form the very +groundwork of all books, treatises, and lectures on professional +subjects.’ <i>Green's Vital Dynamics</i>, London, 1840, p. 81. Finally, I +will quote the very recent testimony of Mr. Simon, who, in his masterly, +and singularly beautiful, essay on Inflammation, has not only brought +together nearly every thing which is known on that interesting subject, +but has shown himself to be possessed of powers of generalization rare +in the medical profession, or, indeed, in any other profession. ‘Without +undue partiality, an Englishman may be glad to say that the special +study of Inflammation dates from the labours of John Hunter. An +indefatigable observer of nature, untrammelled by educational forms, and +thoroughly a sceptic in his method of study, this large-minded surgeon +of ours went to work at inflammation with a full estimate of the +physiological vastness of his subject. He saw that, in order to +understand inflammation, he must regard it, not as one solitary fact of +disease, but in connexion with kindred phenomena—some of them truly +morbid in their nature, but many of them within the limits of health. He +saw that, for any one who would explain inflammation, all inequalities +of blood supply, all periodicities of growth, all actions of sympathy, +were part of the problem to be solved.’ … ‘He cannot be understood +without more reflection than average readers will give; and only they +who are content to struggle through a veil of obscure language, up to +the very reality of his intent, can learn with how great a master they +are communing.’ … ‘Doubtless, he was a great discoverer. But it is for +the spirit of his labours, even more than for the establishment of new +doctrine, that English surgery is for ever indebted to him. Of facts in +pathology, he may, perhaps, be no permanent teacher; but to the student +of medicine he must always be a noble pattern. Emphatically, it may be +said of him, that he was the physiological surgeon. Others, before him +(Galen, for instance, eminently), had been at once physiologists and +practitioners; but science, in +their case, had come little into contact with practice. Never had +physiology been so incorporated with surgery, never been so applied to +the investigation of disease and the suggestion of treatment, as it was +by this master-workman of ours. And to him, so far as such obligations +can be personal, we assuredly owe it that, for the last half-century, +the foundations of English surgery have, at least professedly, been +changing from a basis of empiricism to a basis of science.’ <i>Simon on +Inflammation</i>, in <i>A System of Surgery</i>, edited by T. Holmes, London, +1860, vol. i. pp. 134–136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a> Mr. Bowman, in his <i>Principles of Surgery</i> (<i>Encyclopædia +of the Medical Sciences</i>, London, 4to, 1847) says (p. 831): ‘Before the +time of Hunter, the operation was performed by cutting into the sac of +the aneurism, and tying the vessel above and below. So formidable was +this proceeding in its consequences, that amputation of the limb was +frequently preferred, as a less dangerous and fatal measure. The genius +of Hunter led him to tie the femoral artery, in a case of popliteal +aneurism, leaving the tumour untouched. The safety and efficacy of this +mode of operating have now been fully established, and the principle has +been extended to all operations for the cure of this formidable +disease.’ See also p. 873; <i>Paget's Surgical Pathology</i>, vol. i. pp. 36, +37; and <i>Erichsen's Surgery</i>, pp. 141, 142, 508, 509.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> ‘The majority of Hunter's contemporaries considered his +pursuits to have little connexion with practice, charged him with +attending to physiology more than surgery, and looked on him as little +better than an innovator and an enthusiast.’ <i>Ottley's Life of Hunter</i>, +p. 126. In a work, which was written by a surgeon only the year after +Hunter died, the reader is told, in regard to his remarkable inquiries +respecting animal heat, that ‘his experiments, if they be true, carry +with them no manner of information:—if they be true, no effect for the +benefit of man can possibly be derived from them.’ <i>Foot's Life of +Hunter</i>, London, 1794, p. 116. At p. 225, the same practitioner +reproaches the great philosopher with propounding ‘purely a piece of +theory, without any practical purpose whatever.’ Foot, indeed, wrote +under the influence of personal feelings, but he rightly judged that +these were the sort of charges which would be most likely to prejudice +the English public against Hunter. It never occurred to Foot, any more +than it would occur to his readers, that the quest of truth, as truth, +is a magnificent object, even if its practical benefit is imperceptible. +One other testimony is worth quoting. Sir Astley Cooper writes of Cline: +‘His high opinion of Mr. Hunter shows his judgment; for almost all +others of Mr. Hunter's contemporaries, although they praise him now, +abused him while he lived.’ <i>The Life of Sir Astley Cooper, by Bransby +Blake Cooper</i>, London, 1843, vol. ii. p. 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> ‘Those who far precede others, must necessarily remain +alone; and their actions often appear unaccountable, nay, even +extravagant, to their distant followers, who know not the causes that +give rise to them, nor the effects which they are designed to produce. +In such a situation stood Mr. Hunter, with relation to his +contemporaries. It was a comfortless precedence, for it deprived him of +sympathy and social co-operation.’ <i>Abernathy's Hunterian Oration</i>, p. +49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a> ‘These he continued for several years; but so far were +his talents, and his enlightened views, from exciting the attention they +merited, that his hearers never amounted to twenty,’ <i>Ottley's Life of +Hunter</i>, p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a> ‘The members were of opinion,’ writes the Moderator, +‘The that it was likely, in the circumstances, that a +national fast would be appointed on royal authority. For this reason, +they delayed making an appointment for this locality, and directed me, +in the meantime, respectfully to request that you would be pleased to +say—if you feel yourself at liberty to do so—whether the appointment +of a national fast by the Queen is in contemplation. The Presbytery hope +to be excused for the liberty they use in preferring this request.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a> ‘The weal or woe of mankind depends upon the observance +or neglect of those laws.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_914_914" id="Footnote_914_914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_914_914"><span class="label">[914]</span></a> ‘Lord Palmerston would, therefore, suggest that the best +course which the people of this country can pursue to deserve that the +further progress of the cholera should be stayed, will be to employ the +interval that will elapse between the present time and the beginning of +next spring in planning and executing measures by which those portions +of their towns and cities which are inhabited by the poorest classes, +and which, from the nature of things, must most need purification and +improvement, may be freed from those causes and sources of contagion +which, if allowed to remain, will infallibly breed pestilence, and be +fruitful in death, in spite of all the prayers and fastings of a united, +but inactive nation.’</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<ul> +<li>Aberdeen, burnt by the Highlanders, iii. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>. Population of, in the +sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. Linen manufacturers of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>. The first county bank +in Scotland established in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>. Tyranny of the Kirk session of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li>Abyssinians, their superstition as to the hyæna, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i>. Causes of +the corruptions of the Christianity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_265">265</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Academies, why favoured in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_127">127</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Achenwall, considered to be the first writer on systematic statistics, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>33 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Acoustics, creation of the science of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Adam of Bremen, cause of his error as to Turks in Finland, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a>. His +authority in Northern geography, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Adanson, his botanical discoveries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Addison, Joseph, his establishment of the easy and democratic style of +writing, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Advocates, Faculty of, great part of the, expelled from Edinburgh, iii. +145</li> +<li>Africa, condition of, in the desert of Sahara, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>. Causes of its +stationary condition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Agassiz, his classification of fossil ichthyology, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_384">384</a></li> +<li>Ages, the Dark, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. Supremacy of the clergy at this period, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Agricola, Roman invasion of Scotland under, iii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> +<li>Agriculture, system of, of the Arabs of Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_497">497</a></li> +<li>Agriculturists, causes of the superstitions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_379">379</a></li> +<li>Air, Boyle's discovery of the law of the elasticity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +Marriott's confirmation of this law, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_368">368</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Albany, Regent of Scotland, his vigorous measures against the nobles, +iii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>. Leaves Scotland, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Alberoni, his services to Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_523">523</a></li> +<li>Alexander IV., Pope, his the first formal call to the secular power to +punish heretics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Alexandrian doctrine of development in religion, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_21">21</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Alfred of Beverley, his abridgment of the history of Geoffrey of +Monmouth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Alfred, King, causes of our admiration of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a> <i>note</i>. The +institutions popularly ascribed to him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Alison, Sir A., his eulogy of William III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_403">403</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Almansa, battle of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_516">516</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span></li> +<li>Alva, number of persons put to death by, in the Netherlands, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_451">451</a></li> +<li>Amazon river, extent of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. Area drained by the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> +<i>note</i>. Origin of the name, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Amazons, origin in the North of Europe of the fable of the nation of, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Amboise, conspiracy of, predominance of the theological spirit shown in +the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Ambrose, St., his statement of the doctrine of predestination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>America, policy of the Spaniards in, in the eighteenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_557">557</a></li> +<li>America, Central, ancient civilization of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>. Ruins and statues +extant in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_93">93</a> <i>note</i>. Evidences of the unequal distribution of wealth in, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. Question as to the races which formerly inhabited it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. Character +of the national religion of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>America, North, rivers of importance to be found almost wholly on the +eastern side of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>. Causes of this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. Extent of the Amazon +alone, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. Area drained by the Mississippi, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>. The Oregon the +boundary of the Californian flora, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. One of the main causes of +the fertility of America, heat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. Difference between the heat of the +eastern and western coasts, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. Early state of the North American tribes, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_99">99</a> <i>note</i>. Intercourse between the north-east of Asia and the north-west +of America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_99">99</a> <i>note</i>. Another main cause of fertility of, irrigation, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>. Calvinism the popular creed of the republics of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>America, South, no great river on the western side of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. +Difference between the heat and moisture of the eastern and western +coasts of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. Way in which the trade-wind is connected with the +civilization of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>. Physical condition of Brazil, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103–107</a>. And of Peru, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_107">107</a> <i>et seq.</i> Exuberance of the maize plant in Mexico and Peru, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. And +of the banana, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. The Mexican and Peruvian kingdoms, and the effect of +the physical laws under which they existed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_113">113–117</a></li> +<li>America, United States of. See <a href="#United_States">United States</a></li> +<li>Anabaptists, number of, put to death in Holland, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_189">189</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Anatomy, experiments of Descartes in, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. State of the study of, in +the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a> <i>note</i>. Daubenton's union of comparative +anatomy with geology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. Cuvier's system, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>. Bichat's labours, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>. Results of the study of the tissues, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>. Value of the examination +of the teeth of animals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_384">384</a></li> +<li>Andrews, St., burnt by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. The University of, founded, +<a href="#Page_40">40</a>40 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Aneurism, Hunter's improvement in the practice of, iii. <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li> +<li>Anglo-Saxons, free men of the, all trained to the use of arms, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> +<i>note</i>. War and religion the absorbing subjects among the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Animal life, examination of Bichat's work on, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_390">390</a></li> +<li>Anne, Queen, effects of her love for the clergy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>. Her want of +abilities, as shown in her letters, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Antichrist, Audigier's statement respecting, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_281">281</a></li> +<li>Antinomianism, principles of Calvin leading to, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a></li> +<li>Antiquities, study of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_2">2</a></li> +<li>Antiquity, harm worked by veneration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. Marvellous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span> +feats of the ancients as recorded in Sanscrit works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. The Hindu +poets' statements as to the duration of life in the early age of the +world, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. Undue reverence for antiquity, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>. Voltaire's attack on +the admiration entertained for old writers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>Antonio, Spanish bibliographer, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Apostates, number of, produced by religious persecution, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Aquinas, Thomas, on the doctrine of providential interference, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Arabs, causes of their permanent barbarism in Arabia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. Their +foundation of empires in Europe and Asia, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>. Their cultivation of +astronomy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_47">47</a> <i>note</i>. Their conquests in Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>. The struggles +which ensued between the Spaniards and Arabians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>. Re-establishment of +the Spanish Christian monarchy, and extinction of the Arab power, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_440">440</a>. +Their expulsion from Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_485">485</a> <i>et seq.</i> Number expelled, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_494">494</a>. Their +manufactures and system of husbandry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_497">497</a></li> +<li>Aranda, his attacks on the Inquisition, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_547">547</a></li> +<li>Archery, attempts to revive, in the reign of Elizabeth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_205">205</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Architecture, condition of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Argensola, Spanish poet, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Arian controversy, the, at the beginning of the last century, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>Arianism established in Spain by the Visigoths, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_434">434</a></li> +<li><a name="Aristocracy" id="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a>, commencement of hereditary, in Europe, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. Reason why +the aristocracy possessed more power in France than in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>. +Policy of William the Conqueror and of Henry II. in reducing the power of +the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> and <i>note</i>. Right of the nobles in France to wage private +war, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. But in England they were glad to ally themselves with the +people against the Crown, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. Instances of the power of the French +nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. Effect of the Wars of the Roses upon the English nobles, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. Aversion of the aristocracy to innovation, and reverence for +antiquity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>. Causes of the alliance between the nobles and clergy, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. The noble class weakened in the reign of Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>. +Aristocratic characters of the rebellion of 1569, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. Abeyance of the +ducal order, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>. Attempts made by James I. and Charles I. to revive the +power of the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. Conduct of the nobles in the Great English +Rebellion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. Determination of the rebels as to the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. The +House of Peers abolished, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. Vanity and imbecility of the French +nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>. Instances of this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i> Arminianism always +connected with aristocracy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. Reasons for this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. Causes of the +power of the nobles of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. Coalition of the Crown and +clergy in Scotland against the nobles,<a href="#Page_34">34</a>. Ignorance of the Scotch +nobles, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>. Causes of the decline of the power of the Scotch nobles, +<a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Aristotle, authority of, overthrown by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Ark, the, of Auriol, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>Armada, the Spanish, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_453">453</a></li> +<li>Armies, origin of standing, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. And of the custom of +employing mercenaries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. Computation of the proportion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> +of soldiers to civilians which a country can bear, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_208">208</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Arminianism, connexion of free will with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Its feud with Calvinism, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. Arminianism always aristocratic, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. Arminianism the popular +creed in England at the beginning of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +This doctrine one for the rich, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. Causes of this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +Arminianism more favourable to the arts than to the sciences, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Armorial bearings, origin of, in Europe, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li>Arran, Earl of, regent of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Art, condition of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_206">206–208</a></li> +<li>Arthur, King, history of, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li>Aselli, his discovery of the lacteals, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Asia, region of, in which wealth and progress can alone exist, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. +The birthplace of almost all the cruel diseases now prevalent in Europe, +130</li> +<li>Asser, question of the genuineness of his Life of Alfred, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a></li> +<li>Astronomy, the only branch of knowledge raised to a science by the Arabs, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_47">47</a> <i>note</i>. Success with which it was cultivated by the ancient +Mexicans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. Encouraged by Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. His eminent astronomers +not French but foreigners, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. Newton's discoveries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. Practical +astronomy unknown in Scotland in the seventeenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Atomic theory, importance of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_364">364</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Atheism, rise and progress of, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Publication of the +‘Encyclopædia,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. The ‘System of Nature,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. French atheists in +1623, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Atmosphere, consequences resulting from the weight of the, pointed out by +Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Atomic doctrine, the natural precursor of Platonism, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>. The doctrine +of Chance of the atomists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Atterbury, Bishop, his remarks on the condition of the Church in the time +of Anne and George I., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Audigier, examination of his ‘Origin of the French,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_279">279</a></li> +<li>Audra, his ‘Abridgment of General History,’ suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. His +death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li>Augustin, St., the doctrine of predestination first systematically +methodized by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Aurelius, Marcus, the Emperor, causes of his violent persecution of the +Christians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li>Averages, doctrine of, its importance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Avocats-généraux, of the eighteenth century, their functions, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_245">245</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Bacon, Lord, effect of his secular philosophy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Translation of his +works into French, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li>Baikal, dangers of the Lake of, and their effect on the Baikal sailors, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Baillou, his advancement of pathology, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Bali, Javanese traditions preserved in the island of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>Ballads the form and groundwork of early history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. National bards, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i>. Antiquity of rhyme, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_293">293</a> <i>note</i>. General accuracy of the early +ballads, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_295">295</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Balls forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Banana, extraordinary reproductive powers of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Its nutritive +powers as compared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span> +with those of potatoes and wheat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li>Bangorian controversy, effect of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>Bank, the first County, in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li>Bannockburn, battle of, iii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Bards known in almost all nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>. Those of Gaul, Scotland, +and Ireland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i>. Cause of the extinction of the class of bards, +296</li> +<li>Bargeton, suppression of the ‘Letters’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Bark, its discredit in France as a ‘remède anglais,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Baron, different meanings attached to the word, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Barrow, Isaac, his virtues and abilities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. Neglect with which he +was treated by Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_393">393</a></li> +<li>Barter, misconception of the true nature of barter in early times, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_210">210–212</a></li> +<li>Bartholomew, St., massacre of, predominance of the theological spirit +shown in the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Basilides, his views of predestination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Baxter, Richard, persecution of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_398">398</a></li> +<li>Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, compelled to resign his office of +Chancellor, iii. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. His conspiracy, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li>Beaton, Cardinal, his persecution of the Protestants, iii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. Arrested, +<a href="#Page_70">70</a>. Conspiracy to assassinate him, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Beaumarchais, his ‘Memoirs’ burned, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Beauvais, Bishop of, his proposal to the Dutch, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Bedford, Earl of, joins the Parliamentary forces, but deserts them, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Being, obscurities of our, solved by the doctrines of free will and +predestination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Benares, cases of suicide by drowning at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_26">26</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Bentham, Jeremy, his demolition of the usury laws, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i>. His +method of investigating speculative jurisprudence, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a></li> +<li>Bentley, Richard, his corrupt English style, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a></li> +<li>Berkeley, Bishop, his erroneous notions of trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Berthault, his method of writing history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li>Berwick, Duke of, appointed Generalissimo of the Spanish army, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_515">515</a>. +Gains the battle of Almansa, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_516">516</a></li> +<li>Berwick destroyed by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Berwick, treaty of, iii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Berzelius, his attempts to reduce mineralogical phenomena, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a></li> +<li>Bichat, impetus given to the study of zoology by, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. Sketch of his +method of investigation of the human frame, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. His views respecting the +tissues, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. Publication of his great work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. Connexion between his +views and subsequent discoveries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_380">380–388</a>. Immense importance of his +method of investigation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. Examination of his work on life, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_390">390</a></li> +<li>Birmingham, establishment of the first circulating library in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a> +<i>note</i>. Not a bookseller in the town in the reign of Anne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_422">422</a> <i>note</i>. +First printing office in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Bishops, precarious tenure with which they hold their seats in the House +of Lords, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>Black, David, his violent sermon against James VI., iii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. Thrown into +prison, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Black, Joseph, examination of his theory of latent heat, iii. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. And of +his method of physical philosophy, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span></li> +<li>Blackburne on ‘The Confessional’ ferment caused by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>Blackstone, Sir W., his ‘Commentaries’ translated into French, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Blanca, Florida, prime minister of Spain, his reforms, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_548">548</a>. Concludes +a treaty with Turkey, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_549">549</a></li> +<li>Blood, discovery of the circulation of the, by Harvey, neglected by his +contemporaries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. But recognized by Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>. Hunter's +discovery as to the red globules of the, iii. <a href="#Page_436">436</a>. Corroboration of his +views after his death, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li> +<li>Bodin, John, his character as a historian, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Boileau, pensioned to write a History of France for Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Bombs, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Boncerf, his treatise on ‘Feudal Law’ burned, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Book Clubs and Book Societies, establishment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a></li> +<li>Books, only use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a></li> +<li>Boots, the torture of the, iii. <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, character of his ‘Universal History,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. +Connexion between his opinions and the despotism of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +Character of his writings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>. His singular arrogance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>. His works +compared with those of Voltaire, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Botany, importance of the study of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>. First steps in the +study of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>. Discoveries of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>. Nothing done +in France in botanical discovery during the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. +Labours of the French in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. Göthe's discoveries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Number of known +species, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_396">396</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Botany. The natural method superseding the artificial one of Linnæus, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. Jussieu's generalizations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. Phyllotaxis, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Boucquet, suppression of the ‘Letters’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_208">208</a></li> +<li>Boyle, Robert, his doubts as to the theological and scientific theories +of diseases, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>note</i>. Influence of the spirit of opposition to +unsupported authority on, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. His great discoveries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. His view of +the importance of individual experiments, and disregard of ancient +authority, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. His doubts and caution as shown in his works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_370">370</a></li> +<li>Brahmanism, remote period of its establishment in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +Introduction of a form of, into China, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a></li> +<li>Brain, amount of phosphorus in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> <i>note</i>. Excretion of the +phosphorus under certain circumstances, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> <i>note</i>. Doctrines of the +improvement of the human brain by transmission, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Brazil, causes of the gorgeousness of the fauna and flora of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_104">104</a> <i>note</i>. Description of the rainy season of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a> <i>note</i>. Inveterate barbarism +of the natives of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_105">105</a> <i>note</i>. Smallness of the population of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li>Brissot, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +His admiration for the English Constitution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>Bristol, Earl of, his notions of political economy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Brougham, Lord, his life of Robert Simson, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Browne, Sir Thomas, influence of the spirit of opposition to unsupported +authority on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. His ‘Vulgar and Common Errors’ and ‘Religio +Medici,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. His love of botany, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Brunfels, his investigations in the vegetable kingdom, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>note</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span></li> +<li>Buchanan, George, character of his works, iii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Buffier, the only Jesuit whose name has a place in abstract philosophy, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Buffon, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +His translations of Newton and Hales, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. Compelled to publish a +recantation of some of his views on geology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. His geological theory, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a></li> +<li>Burgos, decay of, in the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_503">503</a></li> +<li>Burke's, Edmund, his remarks on the decline of the abilities of official +men under George III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>. His great ability and accomplishments, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_456">456</a>. His practical political principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_458">458</a>. His view of the true +end of legislation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_459">459</a> <i>note</i>. Effect which his profound views produced +in the House of Commons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_460">460</a> <i>note</i>. His attack on the delusions of his +time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_461">461</a>. His opposition to the views of George III., and consequent +neglect, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_461">461</a>. His anticipation and defence of most of the great measures +of the present generation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a>. His subsequent hallucinations and +violence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_467">467</a>. His rupture with Fox, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_469">469</a>. His hostility to Condorcet and +La Fayette, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_471">471</a>. Favoured in his degeneracy by George III., <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> +<li>Burnet, Bishop, offer to him of a pension for a history of France, ii. +<a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Caithness seized by the Norwegians, iii. <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Calderon, his fanaticism for the Inquisition, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_481">481</a></li> +<li>Californian flora, the Oregon or Columbia river the boundary of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Calonne, M., his attack on the church property, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a></li> +<li>Calvin, John, his doctrine of predestination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Calvinism, its feud with Arminianism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. Calvinism always +democratic, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. This doctrine one for the poor, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. Animosity of the +Church of Rome against it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. Reasons why it is the doctrine of the +poor, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. More favourable to the sciences than to the arts, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +Reasons why the professors of this religion are likely to acquire habits +of independent thinking, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. The doctrine of necessity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +Alliance of Jansenism with Calvinism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_343">343</a></li> +<li>Campbell, Lord, character of his ‘Lives of the Chancellors,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_441">441</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Camus, his Jansenism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Cannibalism in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>Canons, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Capital, Adam Smith's views as to, iii. <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Carbon, in food, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Carolan, the last Irish bard, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Carra, his familiarity with the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Carrillo, Martin, Spanish jurisconsult and historian, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Cartaud, suppression of his ‘Essay on Taste,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Cartwright, Dr., the nonjuring bishop, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_412">412</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Cashmere, rent paid by the cultivator to the sovereign in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_76">76</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Casualties, diminution of, one cause of the increased duration of life, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Catholics, Roman, their doctrines compared with those of Protestants, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>. Importance of the Toleration Act to them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a> <i>note</i>. Causes which +led to the feeling in favour of Catholic Emancipation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>. Burke's advocacy of Roman Catholic claims, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_462">462</a>. Importance of the +Emancipation Bill, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_502">502</a>. Obligations Europe is under to the Catholic +clergy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> <i>note</i>. Intolerance of Roman Catholics compared with that +of Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. Pliancy of the Roman Church against morals, and its +inflexibility in regard to dogmas, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_52">52</a> <i>note</i>. Theory of indulgences, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +Animosity of the Church of Rome against Calvinism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Causes, final, the study of, abandoned by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>. And by Bacon +and Auguste Comte, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a> <i>note</i>. Authorities for the injury it has wrought, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>91 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Caussin, ‘le petit père,’ exiled by Richelieu, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Cavaliers, the name and the English civil war, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li>Cavendish, Henry, method employed by him in the discovery of the +composition of water, iii. <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li> +<li>Celibacy of the clergy, opposed by the principle of hereditary rank, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>. Period of the first general and decisive movement in its favour, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Centralization, in France, the natural successor of feudality, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. +Its baneful effects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. How the system actually works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_123">123</a> <i>note</i>. Its +results in France compared with the freedom of England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li>Certainty contrasted with precision in writing history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Cervantes, becomes a monk, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a>. His joy at the expulsion of the Moors +from Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_496">496</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Chance, doctrine of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_8">8</a>. Causes of its displacement by the doctrine of +Necessary Connection, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. The doctrine of Chance of the atomists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Chancery, Court of, early exertion of its powers against persecution, i. +345 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Chantilly, the actress, story of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li>Character, knowledge of, a key to results and action, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Charlemagne. His droves of pigs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i>. His history as related by +Archbishop Turpin, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_318">318</a></li> +<li>Charles I., character of the opposition to ecclesiastical authority in +the reign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. This king's attempts to revive the power of the +aristocracy, and adopt the superannuated theories of protection, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +How treated by his Scottish subjects, iii. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. Sold by the Scotch to +the English, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. His execution, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. Character of the war against him in +England compared with that of the Scotch, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li>Charles II., frivolous form of the opposition to ecclesiastical authority +in the reign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. His deism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_362">362</a> <i>note</i>. His last refuge in +superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_362">362</a> <i>note</i>. Antagonism in his reign between the physical +sciences and the theological spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. Legislative improvements of +this reign in spite of political degradation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. Character of Charles +II., and condition of the kingdom in his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. Aid given by +his vices to the comprehensive reforms of his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. And by his +dislike of the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. Character of this king's ecclesiastical +appointments, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>. His inability to do permanent harm to English +institutions, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_466">466</a>. Compelled by the Scotch to sign a public +declaration, iii. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. His oppressions of the Scotch, <a href="#Page_137">137–139</a>. His +attempted despotism baffled by the Scotch, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li>Charles II. of Spain, his character,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_468">468–470</a>. Misery of Spain during his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_501">501–510</a>. His +death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_513">513</a></li> +<li>Charles III. of Spain, vigour and success of his rule, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_552">552</a> <i>et seq.</i> +His death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_571">571</a></li> +<li>Charles IV. of Spain, his accession, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_571">571</a>. Reaction begun by him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_571">571</a></li> +<li>Charles V. the Emperor, his domestic and foreign policy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. His +humiliation of the Protestant princes in Germany, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. His repulse of the +Turks before Vienna, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. Number of heretics put to death in the +Netherlands during his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>. His codicil to his will as to dealing +with heretics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>. Causes of his barbarous policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_449">449</a></li> +<li>Charles IX., his massacre of St. Bartholomew, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>‘Charles XII., History of,’ Voltaire's, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. Charles's only merits, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>. Voltaire's admiration of him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>. His murder of Patkul, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_293">293</a></li> +<li>Charles the Bald, initiates a hereditary aristocracy in Europe, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li>Charron, Pierre, reputation of his ‘De la Sagesse,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. Its purity +and systematic completeness, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. Analysis of the work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Charta, Magna, peculiar beauty of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Chateaubriand, his method, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Chatillon, Marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Chauvelin, his Jansenism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Chemistry, the law of definite proportions in as laid down by Turner, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i>. Boyle's discoveries in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. His ‘Sceptical Chemist,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +Study of, forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>. State of the +science of, in the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>. Causes of its great progress +in modern times, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. The existence of chemistry as a science due to +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. Discoveries of Lavoisier, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. Formation of a chemical +nomenclature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. Inability of chemistry to reduce mineralogical +phenomena, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. Popularity of Fourcroy's lectures, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_407">407</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Childebert, King of the Franks, attacks the Arian Visigoths, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Chillingworth, William, his ‘Religion of Protestants,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. His +connexion and correspondence with Laud, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. His work compared with those +of Hooker and Jewel, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. The right of private judgment held sacred by +him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. Popularity of his work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_352">352</a> <i>note</i>. His scepticism +compared with that of Hooker, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>China, gunpowder said to have been used at an early period in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> +<i>note</i>. Causes of the trustworthiness of the early annals of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +Antiquity of the history of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a> <i>note</i>. Early knowledge of printing in, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Chivalry, origin of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>. Influence of, on the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>. Results +of the institution of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>. Origin of the orders of chivalry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. Merits +ascribed to chivalry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_133">133</a> <i>note</i>. Small influence of chivalry in England, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>134. The ballad of the ‘Turnament of Tottenham,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>note</i>. Extinct in +England in the fifteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. Relation between chivalry and +duelling, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Choiseul, De, his anti-ecclesiastical policy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Openly protects +the Jansenists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Cholera, attempts made to revive the theological theory of disease on the +first outbreak of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>note</i>. And again in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> +<li>Christianity, influence of religion on the progress of society<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span> +illustrated by the early history of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. And by the history of +Catholicism and Protestantism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>. Baneful effects of the interference +of governments with the opinions of the people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>. Causes of the +corruptions of the Christianity of the Abyssinians and of the Oguiché +Indians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_265">265</a> <i>note</i>. The crusade against Christianity one of the +antecedents of the French Revolution, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247–257</a>. Causes of the Roman +persecutions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li>Church property, Vattel's opinions respecting, quoted, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Church, the revenues of the, seized and appropriated by the contracting +parties to the peace of Westphalia, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Church of England. See <a href="#Clergy_English">Clergy, English</a></li> +<li>Chyle, discovery of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Circular progression, doctrine of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_377">377</a></li> +<li>Clanship, in Scotland, causes of the abolition of, iii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Clarke, Adam, the last scholar of European repute amongst the Dissenters, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_422">422</a></li> +<li>Classes, the two, in France, before the Revolution, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i> The +Great Rebellion of England a war of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>. Opposite character of the +Fronde in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Classical scholars and commentators, Locke and Voltaire's attacks on, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_306">306–308</a></li> +<li>Clergy, the influence of the, the cause of the corruption of early +history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. Their meddling, inquisitive, and vexatious spirit, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>. Supremacy of the clergy in the Dark Ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. Period when the spirit +of inquiry began to weaken the church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. And when the clergy +began to punish men for thinking for themselves, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. The first +constitution addressed ‘inquisitoribus hæreticæ pravitatis,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a> <i>note</i>. +Connection between the feudal system and the ecclesiastical spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Causes of the alliance between the clergy and the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. The +clergy weakened in the reign of Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_143">143</a></li> +<li><a name="Clergy_English" id="Clergy_English">Clergy_English</a>, attempts of the, in the reign of Charles II. to oppose +the spread of physical science, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. Reasons for their hostility, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>. +Destruction of the privileges of the clergy to burn heretics and tax +themselves, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>. The tender of the ex-officio oath prevented by law, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +Dislike of Charles II. of the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. Causes of this dislike, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +Character of his ecclesiastical appointments, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>. Efforts of the clergy +in this reign to revive the doctrines of passive obedience and divine +right, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>. Good churchmen always bad citizens, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a> <i>note</i>. Alliance +between the Protestant clergy and the Roman Catholic king James II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. +Dissolution of this compact, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. And union of the clergy with the +Dissenters, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. Which union produces the Revolution of 1688, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. Sudden +repentance of the clergy of their own act, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>. Hostility between them +and William III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>. Their growing unpopularity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. King William's +deprivation of six of the prelates, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_410">410</a>. The consequent schism in the +church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>. Origin of the term ‘high church’ and ‘low church’ parties, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_412">412</a> <i>note</i>. Adoption of the theory of the sovereign <i>de facto</i> and <i>de +jure</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>. Encouragement which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> +the clergy thus give to scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. The church avoided by the ablest +men, who prefer secular professions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>. The most honourable and +lucrative posts formerly occupied by ecclesiastics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>. Loss of the +clergy of all offices out of the church, and diminution of their number +in both Houses of Parliament, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>. The last ecclesiastic who held +any of the high offices of state, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_417">417</a> <i>note</i>. Final expulsion of the +clergy from the House of Commons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_418">418</a>. Temporary rally of the church in +the reign of Anne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>. The clergy weakened by the Dissenters, headed by +Wesley and Whitefield, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419–424</a>. Effects of the separation of +theology from morals and from politics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424–427</a>. Rapid succession +of sceptical controversies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a>. Diffusion of knowledge, and the popular +form taken by it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>. Opposition of the clergy to the establishment of +Sunday schools, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Their factious and disloyal conduct during the reign +of the first two Georges, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a>. Joy of the clergy at the attachment of +George III. to the church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a>. Their support of the policy of George +III. against, and bitterness towards, the Americans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_479">479</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Clergy, the French, greater power possessed by them than by the English +clergy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. Their endeavours to suppress the progress of secular +enquiry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>. Their alarm at the protection given to the Protestants by +Henry IV., Catherine de Medici, and Louis XIII., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>. Richelieu's +treatment of the Clergy, and of the Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_28">28–31</a>. Animosity between +the clergy and the secular tribunals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. Archbishop Sourdis +ignominiously beaten, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. Reasons why French literary men attacked the +Church and not the Government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. And therefore to assail Christianity, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Personal character of the hierarchy during the reign of Louis XIV., +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>. And during the reign of his successor, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>. Attack of the Government +on the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. Machault's edict against mortmain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +Anti-ecclesiastical policy of Machault's successors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Machault hated +by the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a> <i>note</i>. The power of the clergy weakened by the two +hostile parties among themselves, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. Decline of the respect entertained +for the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. Reasons why their fall was averted for a time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>350</li> +<li>Clergy, Scottish, causes of the union of the Crown and the, iii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. +Causes of the flourishing state of the clergy in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>. And of their great influence, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. The Church +favoured by James I., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. Struggle between the Crown and clergy on one +side and the nobles on the other, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i> Destruction of the Church, +and supremacy of the nobles, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. Abolition of episcopacy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. Struggle +between the upper classes and the clergy as to episcopacy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. Violence +of the clergy, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i> Boons conferred by them upon their country, +112<a href="#Page_112">112</a>. Attempts of the King to subjugate the clergy, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. His cruel +treatment of them, <a href="#Page_117">117–123</a>. Tyrannical conduct of the bishops, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. The +bishops overthrown, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. But again forced upon the people, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. Alliance +between the Crown and the clergy, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span> +its consequences, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. The struggle of the clergy with Cromwell, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. And +with Charles I., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>. Causes which produced the Solemn League and +Covenant, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. Character of the sermons and zeal of the people in hearing +them in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i> The consequent extension +and consolidation of the authority of the clergy, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. Their great engine +of power, the Kirk-session, and its tyranny, <a href="#Page_206">206–210</a>. Cases in +which it was believed that their pretensions were upheld and vindicated +by miracles, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>. Their consequent arrogance, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. Effect of their +advocacy of horrible notions concerning evil spirits and future +punishments, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>. And concerning the Deity, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. Harmless and +praiseworthy actions declared to be sinful, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>. Specimens of the sins +invented by them, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>. Their arbitrary regulations for punishing +disobedience, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>. Their deductive method in philosophy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> +<li>Clergy, Spanish, rise of the influence of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_436">436–444</a>. Proofs of +their power, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. Consequences of the reverence for them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_461">461</a> <i>et +seq.</i> Causes of their increasing influence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_472">472</a>. Hold of the Church over +all, high or low, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_478">478–481</a>. Use made by the clergy of their power in +obtaining the expulsion of the whole of the Spanish Moors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_483">483</a>. Forced to +contribute to the support of the state, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_523">523</a>. Deprived of their +wealth by Mendizabal, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_590">590</a>. But re-endowed soon after, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_591">591</a>. The Concordat +of 1851, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_591">591</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_592">592</a></li> +<li>Climate, its influence on the condition of the human race, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. Its +effect on the regularity and energy with which labour is conducted, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>. Tartary, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. Arabia, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. The civilization of Europe governed by +climate, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>. Influence of climate on the kind of food necessary for man, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>. And on his ease or difficulty in procuring it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. Modes in which the +average temperature of a country affects its civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. Difference +between the eastern and western coasts of North America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>. Character of +the climate of Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>Clotaire, his attacks of the Visigoth Arians, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Clovis, King of the Franks, his attack of the Visigoths, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a></li> +<li>Clubs, establishment of, in France, at the end of the last century, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_414">414</a></li> +<li>Cobbett, William, his racy and idiomatic English, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Codification, causes of the French love of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_127">127</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Coffee, its discredit in France as an English drink, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Colours, Boyle's experiments in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_368">368</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Comedies of Racine, character of the period in which they appeared, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_208">208</a></li> +<li>Comets, feelings of terror inspired by the presence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_377">377</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Comines, Philip de, credulity shown in his history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>; ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_265">265</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Commerce. See <a href="#Trade">Trade</a></li> +<li>Commerce; Rise of trading interests in Scotland in the eighteenth +century, iii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>. See <a href="#Trade">Trade</a>; <a href="#Trade_Free">Trade, Free</a></li> +<li>Commission, High Court of, established in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. Cruelty of +the, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Commons, House of, origin of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span> +the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. Causes of the increase of the authority of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Comte, M., remarks on his ‘Philosophie Positive,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Condillac, his metaphysical work, the ‘Traité des Sensations,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>. +Essential positions upon which the work is based, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_358">358</a></li> +<li>Condorcet, his character and abilities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_470">470</a>. Burke's remarks on, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_471">471</a>. +His proposal of English criminal jurisprudence as a model for France, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>226. His professed atheism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Conjurors, tricks of, forbidden to be seen by the French Protestants, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Conquest, Norman, Sir F. Palgrave on the results produced by the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Consciousness, faculty or state of the mind so called, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Different +opinions respecting, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> <i>note</i>. Its fallibility, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. Authorities as to +the preservation of consciousness in dreams and in insanity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_17">17</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Constant, M., his adoption of a remark of Voltaire, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_303">303</a></li> +<li>Converts, fickleness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_256">256</a></li> +<li>Convocation, falls into general contempt, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. Final prorogation of, +by an act of the Crown, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>. Permitted recently to re-assemble, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_415">415</a></li> +<li>Copyhold rights in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Not recognised by the French laws, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Coquereau, suppression of his ‘Memoirs of Terrai,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Corn, free trade in, proposed by Stafford in 1581, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_213">213</a> <i>note</i>. The +real cause of the abolition of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. Merits of the Anti-Corn-Law +League, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>. Importance of the repeal of the Corn-laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>Corneille, period in which his tragedies appeared, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Cornwall, hardly a bookseller in, in 1780, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Corporation Act, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Suspended by James II., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Corvée, the, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. Authorities respecting the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Coulumb, his experiments on electrical phenomena, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Councils, authority of, despised by Chillingworth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_349">349</a></li> +<li>Courrayeur, suppression of the ‘Dissertations’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Cousin, M., on free will, quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Covenant, Solemn League and, framed, iii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. Causes which produced the, +<a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +<li>Coyer, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Credulity of Asiatics as compared with that of Europeans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +Instances of the credulity of the sixteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. This credulity +the natural result of the state of the age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_333">333</a></li> +<li>Crime, uniform reproduction of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>notes</i>. Crime the result +of the state of society into which the criminal is thrown, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. Rawson on +the possibility of arriving at certain constants with regard to crime, +quoted, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>note</i>. Mode of preventing crime in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>Criminals, mode of examining, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Cromwell, Oliver, his alliance with Cardinal Mazarin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. Irritation +of the orthodox with their union, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. His hostility to the Church not +theological, but political, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_361">361</a> <i>note</i>. His plebeian origin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. +Capacity of his lieutenants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>. His chain of fortresses in +Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. His treatment of the Scotch people, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Crusades, theological feeling of the English as to the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_6">6</a> <i>note</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span></li> +<li>Crystallography, discoveries of De Lisle and Haüy in, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>. Power +of crystals, in common with animals, of repairing their own injuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_403">403</a> +<i>note</i>. Hunter's inquiries into the malformation of crystals, iii. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li> +<li>Cudworth, comparison of the method employed by Hume in his ‘Natural +History of Religion’ compared with that of Cudworth's ‘Intellectual +System,’ iii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> +<li>Cullen, William, account of his generalizations respecting pathology, +iii. <a href="#Page_413">413</a>. His love of theory, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>. His method of studying pathology +compared with that of Adam Smith, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>. His theory of the solids, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>. +Character of his premisses and conclusions, <a href="#Page_414">418–421</a>. His theory of fever, +<a href="#Page_424">424</a>. His nosology, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li> +<li>Culloden, results of the battle of, to the Highland Chieftains, iii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Cumberland, Dr., Bishop of Peterborough, his system of morals without the +aid of theology, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425</a>. Relation between Hume and Cumberland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Cuvier, Baron, his labours in geology, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. Impetus given by him to +the study of zoology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. His overthrow of the Linnæan system, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_377">377</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>D'Alembert, his professed atheism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>D'Alibard, his experiments on electricity, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Damiens, his attempted assassination of Louis XV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Dancing forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. And by the +Scotch clergy, iii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li>Darigrand, suppression of his work on ‘Finance,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Dates, effect of the cheapness and abundance of, in Egypt, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>David IV. of Scotland, his imprisonment by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Daubenton, his application of the principles of comparative anatomy to +the study of fossil bones, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a></li> +<li>Dead, adoration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_145">145</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Death, influence of the fear of, on the imagination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li>Debating clubs, establishment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. Authorities as to, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Deccan, bards of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Dedications, servility of the, in books of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. Abolition of mean and crouching, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a></li> +<li>Defender of the Faith, title of the, conferred on James V. of Scotland, +iii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> +<li>De Grana, entrusted by the King of Spain with the defence of the +Netherlands, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_515">515</a></li> +<li>De Lisles, Romé, his studies in crystallography, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_400">400</a></li> +<li>Deluge, the predicted, of Stœffler, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li>De Maistre, his method, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Democracy, Calvinism always connected with, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. Physical science +essentially democratic, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. Democratic tendency, observable in France in +the change of dress just before the Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_410">410</a>. And in the +establishment of clubs, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_412">412</a></li> +<li>Denmark, Mallet's ‘History’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Desaguliers, Dr., his success in popularizing physical truths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Descartes, Réné, his military genius and learning, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. Effect of his +secular philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span> +His profundity, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. His physical discoveries and speculations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>. Recognizes Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood and +Aselli's discovery of the lacteals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>. His origination of the modern +method of philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. Reasons why he deserves the gratitude of +posterity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. Account of his philosophy as showing its analogy with the +anti-theological policy of Richelieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>. His words of wisdom +addressed to his countrymen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>. Compared with Montaigne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>. Eminent +characteristic of his philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>. Analysis of his principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +Mischief done by his principles to the old theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. And to the +inordinate respect with which antiquity was regarded, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>. Period in which +he flourished, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Desfontaines, his botanical discoveries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Desforges, imprisoned for his work respecting the Pretender, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Desmarest, his geological labours, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a></li> +<li>Desmoulins, Camille, his knowledge of the English language and +literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>De Thou, raised to the presidency of parliament in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>. His +great French historical work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>Devil, horrible notions of the Scotch clergy concerning, iii. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>Dhourra of Upper Egypt, its cheapness and abundance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Diderot, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +His talents, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>. His imprisonment in Vincennes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. His professed +atheism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Diogenes Laertius, on the physical which preceded metaphysical inquiries, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a> <i>note</i>. On the preservation of consciousness in dreams and in +insanity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_17">17</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Diplomacy, commencement of a purely secular era in the history of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Disease, theological theory of, in the middle ages and in our own times, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>note</i>. Authorities as to the nature and treatment of a +disease and the belief that such disease is caused by supernatural power, +and is to be cured by it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_129">129</a> <i>note</i>. The origin of almost all the cruel +diseases of Europe to be found in Asia, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. Hunter's theories of +diseases, iii. <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li> +<li><a name="Dissenters" id="Dissenters">Dissenters</a>, persecution of the, in England, in the reign of James II., i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. Union of the clergy and dissenters and its result, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. +Authorities for the cruelties inflicted upon them in the reign of Charles +II. and James II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>. Principles avowed by the clergy in justification +of the persecution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a> <i>note</i>. Persecutions in the reign of Anne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_419">419</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_420">420</a>. Repeal of the laws against them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_420">420</a>. The Toleration Act regarded by +the Dissenters as their Magna Charta, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a> <i>note</i>. Favour shown to them by +William III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>. Their struggle with the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_420">420</a>. Wesley and +Whitefield, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_421">421</a>. Loss of their intellectual vigour, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_422">422</a>. Causes of their +recent mental penury, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_422">422</a>. Nonconformist statistics, from the reign of +William III. to the present time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_423">423</a> <i>note</i>. Treatment which the +Wesleyans received from the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_423">423</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a> <i>note</i>. Combination +of the Dissenters with the Government against the clergy and the +Pretender, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_443">443</a> <i>note</i>. Passing of the Schism Bill, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a>. Burke's support +of measures for the relief of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a></li> +<li>Divine right of Kings, results of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span> +the abandonment of the theological fiction of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>Dolben, John, his character as Archbishop of York, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a></li> +<li>Dolomieu, his geological labours, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a></li> +<li>‘Domat, Life of,’ by Prévost de la Jannes, suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Douglas, Earls of, treacherously murdered by James II., iii. <a href="#Page_49">49–52</a>. +Subsequent power of the family, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. Driven into exile, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. Harboured by +Henry VIII. in England, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. Return home, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Dramas, French, of the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_208">208</a></li> +<li>Dreams, Plato's conclusion as to the truth or falsehood of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Dress, interference of the French Protestants with, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>. Dress of +the French during the reign of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and just before the +Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_411">411</a></li> +<li>Droughts, frequency of, in Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>Dryburgh Abbey, burnt by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Dryden, John, little effect of the intellect of France on his works, i. +<a href="#Page_235">235</a>. His satires, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Duclos, his ‘History of Louis XI.’ suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. His method of +writing history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Duellings, causes of the greater popularity of, in France than in +England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>. Relation between chivalry and duelling, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_137">137</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Duhamel de Monceau, his botanical discoveries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Dukes, the order of, in abeyance in England for fifty years, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li>Dumouriez, his familiarity with the English language and literature, ii. +224</li> +<li>Dunbar, town of, iii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>note</i>. Scotch presbyterian view of the battle +of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Dundee burnt by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>Dunfermline burnt by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. Scanty population of the town +up to the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Dupleix, Scipio, his new method of writing history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. His system +of philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>Dury, John, opposes episcopacy in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. Banished from +Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>. Brought back in triumph, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>. Preaches in favour of the +Ruthven conspiracy, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li>Duvernet, his punishment for having written a history of the Sorbonnes, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Earthquakes, tendency of the fear of, to inflame the imagination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. +Effect of the atmospherical changes preceding earthquakes upon the +nervous system of man, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. Physiological effects of the fear of +earthquakes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Effect of earthquakes in encouraging superstition, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. The great earthquake at Sumbawa in 1815, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i>. Frequency of +earthquakes in Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>Eclipses, feelings with which our fathers regarded, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. Authorities +as to the superstition excited by, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_377">377</a></li> +<li>Edda, compilation of the elder and younger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a></li> +<li>Edinburgh burnt by Richard II., iii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. Population of, in the sixteenth +century, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. Houses of the poorer classes at this time, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>note</i>. Riot +of 1637, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. Foundation of the ‘Edinburgh Society’ for the improvement +of manufactures, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Edward I. of England, his invasion of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Edward III. of England, his attacks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span> +on Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. His cruelty there, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>Egypt, causes of its wealth and civilization, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. Area of the +cultivable land of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a> <i>note</i>. Science unknown to the Egyptians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. +Causes of their civilization as compared with the condition of the other +races in Africa, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. Fertility of the soil, and abundance of the national +food, dates, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_83">83–86</a>. Cheapness of the dhourra of Upper Egypt, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>. Lotos +bread, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>. The κὑαμος of Herodotus, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> <i>note</i>. Encouragement +given to the increase of Egyptian population by the fertility of the +Nile, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> <i>note</i>. Evidence of Diodorus Siculus and Herodotus, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +Testimony of the condition of the people afforded by the existing costly +and stupendous ruins, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>. The two ranks of society in Egypt, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>. +Tenacity with which old manners and customs were adhered to by them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +Forms of the incarnation of the Deity presented by their artists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> +<i>note</i>. Fifty-three cities of Egypt bearing the same name, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Election, doctrine of. See <a href="#Predestination">Predestination</a></li> +<li>Electricity, experiments of Œpinus, D'Alibard, and Coulumb, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +Popularity of electricity in France at the latter part of the last +century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_407">407</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Elizabeth, Queen, feelings of the nobility in the reign of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>. Her +conduct towards the nobility and clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>. Character of her +government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li>Emilius, Paulus, his ‘Actions of the French,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_264">264</a></li> +<li>‘Encylopædia,’ publication of the, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a></li> +<li>Encylopædias, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. Harris's ‘Dictionary’ the first, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>England, rent paid by the cultivator in proportion to the gross produce +in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. Causes of the extinction of the love of war in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>. The +military classes in the twelfth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_205">205</a> <i>note</i>. And in the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_205">205</a> <i>note</i>. Reasons why the present history is +confined to that of England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>. Characteristics of the history of +England compared with those of France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_232">232–236</a>. With those of Germany, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. And with those of America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>. Reasons why the history of England +is more valuable than any other to the philosopher, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>. England +less interfered with by Government, and therefore more prosperous than +other nations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>. Popular belief in the Trojan descent of the English +Kings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309</a> <i>note</i>. Secular philosophy of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. +Legislative improvements in the reign of Charles II. in spite of the +political degradation of the age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_381">381–386</a>. These improvements due to the +sceptical and inquiring spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. And to the vices and prejudices of +Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. Proximate causes of the Revolution of 1688, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. Importance of this Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. War between England and the +American Colonies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_477">477–481</a>. Importance of the success of the Americans to +the preservation of the liberties of England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_483">483</a>. The unjust war +against France in 1793, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_486">486</a>. And its effect in England in producing +arbitrary laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_487">487</a>. Obligations England is under to the Roman Catholic +clergy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> <i>note</i>. Feeling of the English people as to theological +disputes in the twelfth as compared with the sixteenth centuries <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span> +Secular character of the civil wars in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. Indifference of the +people to the rapid changes in the national faith under Henry VIII., +Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. Contempt into which excommunication +fell in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i>. Importance of the press in England in the +middle of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. Analogy between the great Civil +war and the war of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. Summary of the progress of +toleration in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>. Point at which a marked divergence between +England and France begins, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>. Causes of this difference, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>. +Comparison of the protective spirit in France and England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a> <i>et seq.</i> +The first instance in England of the execution of an apostate, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a> +<i>note</i>. Reasons why the aristocracy in France were more powerful than in +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>. Period of the union of Normans and Saxons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. Union of +the nobles and people in forcing the Crown to concede popular privileges, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. Origin of the House of Commons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. Sources whence the people +imbibed their tone of independence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. Consequences of the social +divergence between France and England in the fourteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. The +three most important guarantees for the liberties of England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. +The state of France under centralization contrasted with that of England +under municipal government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. Extinction of villenage in England, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. Illustration of the early and radical difference between France and +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>. Feeble influence of chivalry in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. The +Reformation encouraged by the pride of Englishmen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. Effect of the +Wars of the Roses upon the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. The clergy and nobles both +weakened by Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>. Aristocratic character of the rebellion of +1569, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. Character of the reign of Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>. Attempts of James I. +and Charles I. to revive the power of the nobles and the old protective +spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. Difference between the great English Rebellion and the +Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>. Abolition of the house of Peers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. The self-denying +ordinance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. The leaders of the Rebellion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>. Barbarism and +ferocity of the English people of the seventeenth century, according to +the French writers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. The results of the suppression of religious +scepticism in England and France compared, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>. Prejudice existing in +England against Voltaire, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. Arminianism the popular creed at the +beginning of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. But it gives way to Calvinism +at the death of Charles I., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. Singular dearth of great thinkers in +England during the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>. Progress of England, +notwithstanding the unskilfulness of her rulers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_466">466</a>. Amazement of +Frenchmen at the liberty enjoyed by Englishmen at the beginning of the +eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Enlistment for life, Burke's opposition to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a>. Enlistment for a term +of years first authorized, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Ensenada, his endeavours to improve the state of Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_535">535</a></li> +<li>Episcopacy, abolition of, in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i> Andrew Melville +called ἑπισκοπομαστιξ, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. Struggle between the upper +classes and clergy as to episcopacy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li>Erskine, Lord, his idiomatic English, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a> <i>note</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span></li> +<li>Essex, Earl of, joins the parliamentary forces, but suspected by the +democrats, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Europe, the civilization of, governed by climates, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>. Social and +political consequences of the high rate of wages in Europe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Influence +of physical causes in accelerating the progress of man in Europe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. +Differences between the civilizations in and out of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. The energies of +nature tamed by man in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>. The country outstripped by the populations +of the towns in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. Mental laws more important than physical for the +history of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. Contrast between ancient and modern military genius in, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_199">199–202</a></li> +<li>Europe, remarks on the origin of the ecclesiastical establishments of, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_259">259–263</a>. Benefits conferred by literature on, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. Condition of the mind +of, from the sixth to the tenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>Excommunication, a French Protestant, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>. Notions of theologians +respecting, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i>. Contempt into which excommunication fell in +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Expediency, doctrine of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>. Its gradual diffusion amongst us, +426 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Eye, discoveries of Descartes respecting the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Fables, Voltaire's demolition of the belief in national, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>Falkirk, first printing office in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Famines, impossibility of the return of, in Europe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>. List of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_155">155</a> +<i>note</i>. Frequency of, in Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>Fathers, authority of the, according to Jewel and Hooker, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +Chillingworth's contempt for their authority, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. Exposure of the gross +absurdities of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>Favart, Madame, story of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li>Fear, special tendency of, to inflame the imagination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Fenacute, story of the giant, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_320">320</a></li> +<li>Fénelon, treatment of, by Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. His ‘Telemachus,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_276">276</a></li> +<li>Ferdousi, his ‘Shah Nameh,’ and its authority in Persian history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_303">303</a></li> +<li>Fermat, his services to geometry, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Fernel, his eminence in medicine, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Ferrier, excommunicated by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. Result of this +measure, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Fetichism, the predecessor of monotheism, according to Comte, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Feud, feudum, first use of the words, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Feudal incidents, destruction of, in England, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>Feudal system, origin of the, in Europe, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>. Connexion between it +and the ecclesiastical spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Does not destroy the spirit of +protection, but only compels it to assume a new form, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Commencement +of the European hereditary aristocracy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. The power of the English and +French aristocracy compared, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113</a> <i>et seq.</i> Sub-infeudation in France and +in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Boncerf's treatise on feudal law, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. Voltaire's, the +first historical endeavour to explain the origin of feudality, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_302">302</a></li> +<li>Fever, Cullen's theory of, iii. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li> +<li>Finance, suppression of the works of Darigrand and Le Trosne on, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. +Sudden eagerness in France in the eighteenth century for inquiries +relating to, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span> +Necker's celebrated Report, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Burke's the first financial reforms, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>Fire-arms, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Flanders, exports from, into Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Food, effect of the supply of, among wandering and agricultural tribes, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_8">8</a>. Moral consequences of diminishing the precariousness of food, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. +Influence of food on the human race, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. The two effects of food +necessary to existence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>. Influence of climate on the necessary kind of +food, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>. Connexion between food and the laws of population, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>. Carbon and oxygen in food, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_60">60–62</a>. Amount of carbon required in food +in summer and in winter, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>. The potato, the principal food of the +labouring class in Ireland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Countries asserted to be more populous +when the ordinary food is vegetable than when it is animal, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>note</i>. +Character of the general food of the people of India, rice, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. And of +that of Egypt, dates, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>. Extraordinary fecundity of the maize and banana +plants in America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109–111</a>. Instances from the animal kingdom, proving +the connexion between carbonized food and the respiratory functions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +French and German discoveries as to the functions of food, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_367">367</a></li> +<li>Forbes, James, the Presbyterian preacher, iii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Force, indestructibility of, iii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li> +<li>Forces, theory of the parallelogram of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Forestalling and regrating, Burke's attack of the laws against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_462">462</a></li> +<li>Forgetfulness, laws regulating, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Fornication made a felony by the English Commonwealth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_361">361</a> <i>note</i>. +Repeal of the law by Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_362">362</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Fossils, Daubenton's labours respecting fossil bones, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. Previous +opinions as to, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a> <i>note</i>. Researches of Agassiz in fossil ichthyology, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_383">383</a></li> +<li>Fourcroy, popularity of his lectures on chemistry, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_407">407</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Fourier, his views as to the laws of the conduction of heat, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. His +mathematical theory, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Fox, Charles James, his remark on good churchmen, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a> <i>note</i>. His +declaration in the House of Commons against the arbitrary laws proposed +for extinguishing the liberties of the country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_493">493</a></li> +<li>Fox, Henry his eminent statesmanship, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. Causes of George III.'s +dislike of him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. Burke's character of Fox, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a> <i>note</i>. Burke's +rupture with him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_469">469</a></li> +<li>France, rent paid by the cultivator, in proportion to the gross produce +of the land, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. French notions of the English people previous to the +application of steam to purposes of travelling, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. The history of +England compared with that of France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. Debt which French owes to +English civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. Effects of the interference of the government +with the people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. The results of the suppression of scepticism in +France compared with the exercise of individual judgment in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>. +How and when the political institutions of France might have been saved, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. Condition of historical literature in France in the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_261">261–273</a>. Proximate causes of the French Revolution +after the middle of the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a> <i>et seq.</i> The social +changes of the French people immediately preceding the Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>. +Instances of this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_406">406–412</a>. Tolerance and freedom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span> +from superstition of the French, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>. Great numbers of smugglers in +France in the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>. The bards of ancient Gaul, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i>. +Corruption of Druidical traditions in Gaul by Christian priests, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>. +Popular belief in the middle ages of the Trojan descent of the French +kings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>. Pork a common food in France in the time of Charlemagne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> +<i>note</i>. Effects of the writings of Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Detestation of George +III. of the French people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>. Burke's epithets applied to France and +the French at the time of the Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_472">472</a>. Effects produced by the +French Revolution upon the policy of the English government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_484">484</a>. First +step towards an open rupture between England and France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_485">485</a>. Effects of +the execution of Louis XVI., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_485">485</a></li> +<li>France, Causes which gave rise to the civil wars of the seventeenth +century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> <i>et seq.</i> Condé's rebellion in 1615, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. Rebellion of the +Protestants in Béarn, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. And at La Rochelle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63–66</a>. Results which +would have happened if the Protestants had gained the upper hand, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_67">67–72</a>. +Breaking out of the war of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. Importance of the press in the +middle of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. Analogy between the great civil +war of England and the war of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. Summary of the +progress of toleration in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>. Point at which a marked divergence +between England and France begins, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>. Causes of this difference, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>. +Comparison of the protective spirit in France and England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a> <i>et seq.</i> +Reasons why the feudal aristocracy were more powerful in France than in +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_113">113–118</a>. In France every man either a tyrant or a slave, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +System of subinfeudation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Consequences of the early social +divergence between England and France in the fourteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119–121</a>. +Futility of French municipal institutions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. Feebleness of the +States-General, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. Beginning of the tendency to centralization in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. Its baneful effects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Machinery by which it is +worked, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Number of civil functionaries in the country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_123">123</a> <i>note</i>. +Mode of examining criminals in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. And of preventing crime, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>. +The education of the people controlled by the government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>. The worst +kind of monopoly established by the government, and its effects on the +people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. The great power and tyranny of the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. Slavery in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. The inequality of taxation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. Privileges reserved to +themselves by the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. Illustration of the early and radical +difference between France and England, from the history of chivalry, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_131">131–134</a>. From the vanity of the French, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>. And from the practice of +duelling, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>. Difference between the Fronde and the great English +rebellion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>. Objects of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>. Causes why a war of +classes was impossible, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>. Results of the energy of the protective +spirit and power of the nobles on the issue of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>. Vanity +and imbecility of the French nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>. Examination of the +consequences of the protective spirit being carried into literature by +Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>. Servility of the people at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span> +period, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>. The +subsequent dragonnades, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. And their disastrous effects on the +prosperity of France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. Universal decline of France during the latter +part of the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>. Joy of the people at his death, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. Indignities to which French literary men were subject in the +eighteenth century, one of the precursors of the revolution, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_230">230–242</a>. Outrages committed by the upper classes in the same +period, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. Stringent cruelty of the French laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>. Proposal of the +French avocat-general in 1780 respecting new books, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. The crusade +against Christianity in the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Causes of the excessive +loyalty of the French people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>. War of opinion between France and +Spain in the fifth and sixth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a></li> +<li>Francis I. of France, his zeal against heresy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Franks, their conversion to Christianity and attack of their Visigoth +neighbours, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a></li> +<li>Frauds and Perjuries, security to private property effected by the +Statute of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_385">385</a></li> +<li>Frederick the Great, contrast between his warlike and domestic policy, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>201</li> +<li><a name="Trade_Free" id="Trade_Free">Free Trade</a>. See <a href="#Trade">Trade</a>.</li> +<li>Free will, probable origin of the dogma of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. Foundation of the +theory of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. Connexion of free will with Arminianism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li>Féret, causes of his imprisonment in the Bastille, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>Fresnel, his researches into the laws of light, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Frewen, Dr., Archbishop of York, his character, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a></li> +<li>Froissart, his the earliest instance in the Middle Ages of an improvement +in writing history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Fronde, war of the, analogy between it and the civil war in England, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. Difference between the Fronde and the great English Rebellion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>. +Character and position of the leaders of the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>. And consequent +failure of the rebellion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_168">168–173</a></li> +<li>Fruit, amount of carbon in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Fuch's, his investigations in the vegetable kingdom, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Gaimar, his translation into Anglo-Norman of Geoffrey Monmouth's history, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Garlon, suppression of the ‘Therapeutics’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Garrows, cause of their superstitions respecting the tiger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Gascoigne, his invention of the micrometer, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li>Gassion, raised to the dignity of French marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. Authorities +respecting him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Gaul, origin of the name of, according to the historians of the Middle +Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Génard, suppression of his ‘School of Man,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Geoffrey, Archdeacon of Monmouth, his history of King Arthur, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +Translations of the work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Geography, physical, study of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_2">2</a></li> +<li>Geology, first exhibition of the sceptical character of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a> <i>note</i>. +Views of Dr. Arnold and Mr. Baden Powell, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a> <i>note</i>. Buffon's +recantation of some of his views on, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. Causes of its great +progress in modern times, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. Labours of French geologists at the latter +part of the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. Cuvier's foundation of palæontological +science, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_369">369</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span> +<i>note</i>. Remains of organic and inorganic life in the +secondary and tertiary strata, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. The doctrine of universal changes, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. Daubenton's union of comparative anatomy with geology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. +Character of Hutton's geological speculations, iii. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>. Causes +which have altered and are still altering the crust of the earth, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>. +The deductive and inductive methods of studying geology, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>. William +Smith's foundation of English geology, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>. Werner's foundation of the +German school, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>. Hall's verification of Hutton's views, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li> +<li>Geometry, algebra first successfully applied to, by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. +Who is regarded as the first geometrician of the age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. Ages of +Descartes and Fermat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. Hypothetical arguments as exhibited by, +iii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>George I., his utter ignorance of the English language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_441">441</a></li> +<li>George II., his indifferent knowledge of the English language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>. +His ignorance of English politics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a>. His highest ambition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>George III., fortunate circumstances which surrounded his accession, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_444">444</a>. +Revival of the doctrine of divine right, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a>. The king's respect for +church ceremonies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a> <i>note</i>. Alliance between the Crown and the clergy, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a>. The king's ignorance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. And hatred of great statesmen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>. +Favour with which he regarded slavery, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>. His hatred of the French, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>. The ‘King's Friends,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>. Notorious incapacity of his +ministers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>. His hatred of the elder Pitt and of Fox, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. Mode +in which he brought the House of Lords into disrepute, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_453">453</a>. His hatred of +the Americans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_466">466</a>. Favours Burke in his violent old age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_477">477</a>477. His +policy respecting the American colonies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_479">479</a>. Reaction of this +policy upon England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_482">482</a>. His policy towards the French republic, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_484">484</a> <i>et seq.</i> His monstrous principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_466">466</a>. His inability however, to do +harm to English institutions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_466">466</a></li> +<li>George IV., his character, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_466">466</a></li> +<li>Germany, Comparison of the history of England and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. Interference +of the German governments with the people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. Origin of German +literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. Character of German intellect among the highest and +lowest minds, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. Process through which the esoteric literature of +Germany is passing at the present time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. Cultivation of metaphysics +in Germany in the latter part of the last century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_373">373</a></li> +<li>Gervaise, suppression of the ‘Letters’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Gibbon, Edward, fame of his ‘Decline and Fall,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a> <i>note</i>. His +fifteenth and sixteenth chapters, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a></li> +<li>Gipsies, origin of the, according to the writers of the middle ages, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>Glasgow in the fifteenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. Rise and progress of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. +The first bank at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li>Gloves, Spanish manufacture of, in the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>Goblets, game of, forbidden to be seen by French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>God, Cartesian method of the ultimate proof of the existence of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +Horrible notions of the Scotch clergy respecting, iii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li>Gomberville, his refutation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span> +idle stories as to the extreme antiquity of the French, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li>Gongora, the Spanish poet, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Göthe, his obligations to Mallet's ‘History of Denmark,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Gordon, Dr., the nonjuring bishop, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_412">412</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li><a name="Government" id="Government">Government</a>, inquiry into the influence of, on the progress of society, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>. Illustrated by the abolition of the corn laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. The most +important measures of modern British legislation the result of pressure +from without, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. The best legislation the result of the abrogation of +former legislation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. Injuries caused to trade by the interference of +politicians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. Smuggling, with all its attendant crimes, caused by +legislation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>. Baneful effects of legislative attempts to encourage +religious truth, and discourage religious error, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>. Consequent increase +of hypocrisy and perjury, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. And of usury by the laws against +usury, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>. Effects of legislation in hindering the advance of knowledge, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. England less interfered with by government than other nations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>. +True duties of legislators, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>. Attempts to make politics a mere branch +of theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_326">326–328</a>. Legislative improvements in the reign of Charles +II. in spite of political degradation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_381">381</a></li> +<li>Gowrie conspiracy, the, iii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>Gracian, the Spanish Jesuit and prose writer, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Granada, capture of, from the Arabs, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_440">440</a></li> +<li>Gravitation, Newton's discovery of the law of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. Tardy reception +of the law in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li>Greece, condition of, contrasted with that of India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. Its area, +138. Its material phenomena, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>. Comparison of the Greek and Hindu +divinities, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. The hero-worship of the Greeks, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. Statesmen, orators, +and authors of ancient, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>. Reason of the evanescence of the +civilization of ancient Greece, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a></li> +<li>Greek language forbidden by the French Protestants to be taught, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Greek Church, cause of the small amount of authority possessed by the +head of the, compared with that of the Latin Church, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_303">303</a></li> +<li>Greenock, state of, in the seventeenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. Rise and +progress of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Grenobles, insolence of the Protestant assembly of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Grew, Dr. Nathaniel, his botanical discoveries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Grey, Mr. (afterwards Earl), his remarks in the House on the subservient +conduct of Pitt, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Grimaldi, prime minister of Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_545">545</a></li> +<li>Grosley, his admiration for England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. Suppression of his ‘Memoirs +on Troyes,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Grotius, his principles of foreign policy compared with those of Vattel, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Guibert, suppression of his work on ‘Military Tactics,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Guise, the murder of, predominance of the theological spirit shown in +the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Guises, their influence in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Guizot, his republication of Mably's ‘Observations,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li>Gunpowder, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>. And of fire-arms, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. Gunpowder first +used in mining towns, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i>. Influence of the invention of, in +lessening the warlike spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206–209</a></li> +<li>Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span> +his domestic and warlike policy contrasted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Guthrie, the Scotch preacher, iii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Habeas Corpus Act, passing of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>. Effect of the suspension of +the, in 1794, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_496">496</a></li> +<li>Haco, his invasion of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Haillan, Du, his the first history of France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>. Character of his +work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Hajin tribe, cause of their worship of the tiger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hall, Chief Baron, his charge to the jury in a case of witchcraft in +1665, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hall, Sir James, his verification of the geological speculations of +Hutton, iii. <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li> +<li>Hardwicke, Lord, his notions of political economy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_211">211</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Harris, his account of the extinction of feudalism, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>Harriss's ‘Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,’ the origin of Encyclopædias, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Harvey, his discovery of the circulation of the blood, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. Denies the +existence of the lacteals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Haüy, his studies in crystallography, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_401">401</a></li> +<li>Heat, together with moisture, the causes which regulate the fertility of +every country, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. Difference between the heat of the eastern and +western coasts of North America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>; and of South America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. French +researches on the phenomena of heat in the last century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. The +laws of heat, iii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. The indestructibility of force and interchange of +forces, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. Black's theory of latent heat, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. Leslie's philosophy, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li> +<li>Heat, animal food necessary for keeping up the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. The +blood-corpuscles and animal heat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> <i>note</i>. Heat disengaged by the union +of carbon and oxygen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Heavenly witnesses, controversy on the text of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a></li> +<li>Helvétius, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +His admiration for England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. Persecuted by the government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. His +professed atheism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. Analysis of his essay ‘On the Mind,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_353">353</a></li> +<li>Hénault, his method of writing history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Henrion, his views as to fossil bones, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Henry II. of England, his destruction of the baronial castles, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Henry II. of France, his zeal against heresy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Henry III. of England, his inability to do permanent harm to English +institutions, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_466">466</a></li> +<li>Henry III. of France, murder of, predominance of the theological spirit +shown in the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. His zeal against heresy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. His affection for +monks, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_29">29</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Henry IV. of France, his accession, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. His character as a ruler, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +His apostasies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Publishes the Edict of Nantes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Refuses to +accede to the pope's request to punish the Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. His +measures for their protection, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>. His death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>. Henry the first +French sovereign stained with the imputation of heresy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_267">267</a></li> +<li>Henry IV. of England, his invasion of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Henry VII. of England, his establishment of the Yeomen of the Guard, ii. +7 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Henry VIII. of England, indifference of the people to his arrangement of +the formularies of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span> +the Church, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. His bodyguard, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>note</i>. Character of his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li>Henshaw, his discoveries in the vegetable world, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Herculaes, origin of the story of the exploits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li>Hereditary descent connected with the formation of character, question +of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> <i>note</i>. Hereditary talents, vices, and virtues, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_177">177</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Heresies, the great religious, founded on previous philosophies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_11">11</a> +<i>note</i>. Destruction by the legislature of the writ ‘De Hæretico +Comburendo,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>. The first papal call on the secular power to punish, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a> <i>note</i>. Harshness of the early Spanish laws for the punishment of +heresy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_438">438</a></li> +<li>Hero-worship, ancient Greek, causes of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_144">144</a></li> +<li>‘High-church’ and ‘low-church,’ origin of the terms, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_412">412</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Highlanders, their ferocity, iii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>. Let loose upon the Lowlanders +in 1678, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>. The only powerful friends of James II., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>. Their love of +war and rapine, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. Reasons which induced them to rebel in favour +of the exiled Stuarts, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. Their rebellions of 1715 and 1745 not the +result of loyalty, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>. Their veneration for their chieftains, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> +<i>note</i>. Their insignificance after 1745, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Hill, Sir John, his the first publication of popular scientific works in +numbers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i>. His great success, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hilton, Laird of, story of the, and the minister, iii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> +<li>Hindostan, Persian origin of the word, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>History, statement of the resources for investigating, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>. Confidence +in the value of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>. Use made of the materials for investigating, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>. +Instances of endeavours to remedy the backwardness of history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. Present +prospects of historical literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>. Inferiority of the most celebrated +historians to the most successful cultivators of physical science, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. +Materials from which a philosophic history can alone be composed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>. +Reasons why historians have not yet collected materials for writing +history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. Reasons why the present history is restricted to that of +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. Hume's method of treating history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a> <i>note</i>. Why the +history of England is eminently valuable, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>. Origin of history, and +state of historical literature during the Middle Ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. Value of +historical inquiries in throwing light on the changes in society, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. The ballad form of the earliest histories, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. Error in history +caused by the invention of writing, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>. Corruptions in early history +caused by changes in religion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>. Illustration of this from +Scandinavian history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. Trustworthiness of histories where there has +been no change in religion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301–304</a>. The influence of the clergy the most +active cause of the corruption of early history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. Absurdities +believed in consequence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309–325</a>. Beginning of the first improvement in +writing modern history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. Prevalence of credulity in the time of +Comines, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. Character of Bodin's historical work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +Intellectual regeneration of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Instances of +the credulity of the sixteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. This absurd way of writing +history the natural result of the spirit of the age, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. The history of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span> +every civilized country the history of its intellectual development, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>. +Importance to history of the question whether normal phenomena should or +should not precede the study of abnormal ones, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> <i>note</i>. Condition +of historical literature in France before the end of the sixteenth +century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>. The Middle Age historians of France merely annalists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>. +Du Haillan's the first French history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>. De Thou's work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>. Sully's +history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>. Serres' view of the importance of correct dates in history, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>267. Dupleix's ‘History of France,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. La Popelinière's ‘History of +Histories,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. Improvement in the method of writing history in the +seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. De Rubis's work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. Gomberville's, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. +Berthault's, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. Mezeray's great work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>. The retrograde movement +under Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. As illustrated in the works of Audigier and +Bossuet, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>. Reasons why history is superior to theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. Bossuet's +method of writing history compared with that of Voltaire, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. Other +historians by whom Voltaire's views were adopted, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_299">299</a> <i>et seq.</i> His +opinions as to feudality, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. As to free trade, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. As to political +economy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. His demolition of the admiration entertained for classical +works, and for the fables of early history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_306">306–312</a>. Value of +Montesquieu's method, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. History separated from biography by him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. Turgot's views of the duties of a historian, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. Difference between +certainty and precision in writing history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. The first and most +essential quality of an historian, iii. <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li>Hobbes, Thomas, his works, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>. Animosity of the clergy against him, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>. Encouraged by Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>. Popularity of his works at this +time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hogg, Thomas, story of, and the ‘factour,’ iii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> +<li>Holbach, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Holcus arundinaceus, use of, as food by the Egyptians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li>Holland, rescued by man from the grasp of the sea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>. Number of +Anabaptists put to death in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>note</i>. The Dutch fleet in the Thames +and Medway, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. Proposal of the Bishop of Beauvais, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>note</i>. +Calvinism the popular creed of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. The war carried on by Philip II. +against the Dutch Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_451">451</a>. Number of heretics put to death by +Alva, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_451">451</a></li> +<li>Holyrood robbed by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Homer, his investigations of the human mind, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hooke, his discoveries in the vegetable world, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Hooker, Richard, his ‘Ecclesiastical Polity’ compared with Jewel's +‘Apology for the Church of England,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. And with +Chillingworth's ‘Religion of Protestants,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. Connexion between the +Reformation and the views advocated by Hooker, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Locke's opinion of +his philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Compared with Chillingworth, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>. His scepticism, +86</li> +<li>Horst, Dr., his work on the Golden tooth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_332">332</a></li> +<li>Howe, John, his exile, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_398">398</a></li> +<li>Huguenots. See <a href="#Protestants_French">Protestants, French</a></li> +<li>Humber, origin of the name of the, according to the historians of the +Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Hume, David, his method of metaphysical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span> +investigation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a> <i>note</i>. His ‘Natural History of +Religion’ and ‘History of England,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>. His views as +to monotheism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a> <i>note</i>. His ‘Political Discourses’ +translated into French by Le Blanc, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. Examination of his +philosophy, iii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. His want of imagination, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. Importance and +novelty of his doctrines, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. His disregard of facts, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>. His method, +<a href="#Page_338">338</a>. His injustice to Bacon, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>. His ‘Natural History of +Religion,’ <a href="#Page_343">343</a>. Comparison between his method and that employed by +Cudworth, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> +<li>Humidity, together with heat, the causes which regulate fertility, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. +Difference between the humidity of the eastern and western coasts of +North America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. And of South America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. Relation between the amount +of rain and the extent of coast, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. The heavy rains of Brazil, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Hungary, disease in, from eating pork, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hunter, John, account of his generalizations, iii. <a href="#Page_428">428</a>. His grandeur and +obscurity of language, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>. Conflict of the methods employed by him, and +the consequent result, <a href="#Page_429">429–432</a>. His industry in collecting facts, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>. +His discovery as to the red globules of the blood, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>. His inquiries as +to the movements of animals and vegetables, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>. His idea of uniting all +the physical sciences, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>. His inquiry into the malformation of +crystals, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>. His physiological and pathological inquiries, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>. His +pathological speculations respecting the principles of action and the +principles of sympathy, <a href="#Page_450">450</a> <i>et seq.</i> Causes of the little influence +which he exercised over his English contemporaries, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> +<li>Hutcheson, Francis, his method of metaphysical investigation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +Remarks of Sir J. Mackintosh and M. Cousin, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>note</i>. Notice of him, +iii. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>. Examination of his philosophy, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>. Its results, tendency, and +method, <a href="#Page_295">295–300</a></li> +<li>Hutton, James, his attempts to explain the former changes of the earth's +crust by reference solely to natural causes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a> <i>note</i>. Establishes +the first library in Birmingham, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a> <i>note</i>. Character of his geological +speculations, iii. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>. Verification of his views, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li> +<li>Hyænas regarded by the Abyssinians as enchanters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hydrostatics, Boyle's discoveries in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_368">368</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Hypocrisy, cause of the increase of, due to evil legislation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_281">281</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Idolatry, the natural fruit of ignorance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li>Ichthyology, fossil, researches of Agassiz in, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_383">383</a></li> +<li>Ignorance and idolatry, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. The ‘learned ignorance’ for which many +men are remarkable, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>Imagination, special tendency of fear to inflame the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. Triumph of +the imagination in the tropics, from this cause, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. Instances in the +case of earthquakes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. And in disease, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. Imaginative character of +the literature of ancient India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>. The imagination controlled by the +understanding in Greece <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_138">138–146</a></li> +<li>Imbert, his French translation of Clarke's ‘Letters on Spain’ suppressed, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>Impeachments, general effect of the abolition of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>Independence, personal, idea of, takes root, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. First occurrence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span> +of the word ‘independence,’ in the modern acceptation of the +word, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>India, fertility and civilization of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>. Character of the food of the +people of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>. Causes of the unequal distribution of wealth in India +in all ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>. Amount of rent paid by the cultivator in India in +proportion to the gross produce of the land, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>. Testimony of Bishop +Heber to the poverty of the labouring classes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> <i>note</i>. Provisions of +the native laws respecting the caste of the Sudras, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>. And of the +Brahmins, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. Character of the ancient Indian literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>. And of +the religion and art of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. Contrasted with Greece in these conditions, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. Absence of harbours in India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. Antiquity of the worship of Siva +in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>. The bards of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i>. Causes of trustworthiness in the early +history of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a> <i>note</i>. Antiquity of the history of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a> <i>note</i>. Cause of +the existence of this history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_303">303</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>‘Individualisme,’ De Tocqueville on the word, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Indulgence, Declaration of, of James II., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. Refusal of the clergy +to read it in their churches, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_399">399</a></li> +<li>Indulgences, theory of, of the Church of Rome, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>Innovation, aversion of the aristocracy for, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li>Inquisition in Spain, character of the founders of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>. +Establishment of the, in Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. The different punishments for +heresy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>. Attacked by Aranda, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_547">547</a>. The last heretic burned by the +Inquisition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_548">548</a></li> +<li>‘Inquisitoribus hæreticæ pravitatis,’ the first constitution addressed, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Insanity, former notions respecting, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_404">404</a>. Pinel's views of the +aberrations of the human mind, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_404">404</a></li> +<li>Insects, incredible number of, in Brazil, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li>Insolvents, Burke's opposition to the cruel laws against, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a></li> +<li><a name="Intellect" id="Intellect">Intellect</a>, English; English literature unknown in France in the reign of +Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. Causes of the junction of English and French intellects +after this king's death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>. Essential difference between the +civilization of England and Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_465">465</a>. Outline of the history of the +English intellect from the middle of the sixteenth to the end of the +eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Origin of religious toleration in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +Hooker contrasted with Jewel, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. Theology and persecution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. +Scepticism and the spirit of inquiry on other subjects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +Chillingworth's ‘Religion of Protestants,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. The rapid increase of +heresy in the middle of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_347">347</a> <i>note</i>. Increasing +indifference to theological matters, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>. The work of Chillingworth a +vindication of religious dissent, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. Political character of the +opposition to ecclesiastical authority in the reigns of James I. and +Charles I., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. Its frivolous form in the reign of Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +Progress of the English intellect in the seventeenth century towards +shaking off ancient superstitions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. Destruction of the old notions as +to witchcraft, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_363">363</a> <i>note</i>. Sir Thomas Browne's works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. Boyle's +discoveries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. Foundation of the Royal Society, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. Ecclesiastical +opposition to physical science in the reign of Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. Popular +belief in supernatural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span> +causation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>. Improvements in legislation in the +reign of Charles II., and the causes which produced them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +Hobbists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>. Effects of the alliance of the clergy with James II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. +Dissolution of this alliance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Union of the clergy and dissenters, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. Causes which produced the revolution of 1688, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. Effects of the +expulsion of the Stuarts on English civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. Struggle between +William III. and the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>. Loss of the clergy of all power out of +the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_416">416–418</a>. The clergy weakened by the founders of Wesleyanism, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_419">419–424</a>. Loss of the intellectual vigour of the dissenters, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_422">422</a>. But +increase in their numbers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_423">423</a> <i>note</i>. Final separation of theology from +morals and politics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_424">424–427</a>. Discoveries of geologists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_429">429</a>. Diffusion +of knowledge among the people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>. Sunday schools, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>. Sunday +newspapers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Country printing offices, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Popular works on physical +truth first published, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_432">432</a>. Invention of encyclopædias, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. Literary +periodical reviews, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. Reading clubs, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. Debating societies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>. +Right of public meeting, and publication of parliamentary debates, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>. Doctrine of personal representation and of personal independence, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. Change in the style of authors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. Review of the reactionary and +retrogressive period of English history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>. Political degeneracy of +England during the reign of George III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446–455</a>. Sketch of the career of +Edmund Burke, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_455">455</a> <i>et seq.</i> Arbitrary laws of George III. against the +liberties of his country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_488">488</a>. Gloomy prospects of the people late +in the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_494">494</a>. Secret imprisonment of opponents of the +government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_494">494</a>. Effect of the suspension of the habeas corpus act in +1794, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_496">496</a>. Preparation for a counter reaction, owing to the progress of +knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_498">498</a>. To which, and to the power of public opinion, England +owes her reforms of the present century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_498">498</a>. The Scotch and English +methods of philosophy contrasted, iii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +<li>Intellect, French, outline of the history of the, from the middle of the +sixteenth century to the accession to power of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>. Greater +power of the Church in France than in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. As shown by the +successful efforts of the clergy to withstand the Reformation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. This +influence greater in France than in England during the sixteenth century, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>. Hence the impossibility of toleration in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_8">8</a>. The civil wars +in France conducted in the name of Christianity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_8">8</a>. Internal condition of +the country before the accession of Henry IV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. Beginning of +toleration by the publication of the Edict of Nantes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Appearance of +scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. Rabelais and Montaigne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. Charron, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. The party of +the ‘Politiques’, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_22">22</a> <i>note</i>. Decline of the ecclesiastical power in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>. Richelieu's endeavours to humble the French nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +Fails, but effectually humbles the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. Favour shown by Richelieu +to the Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_37">37–39</a>. Causes of the religious feuds of the +seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>. Character of the civil war raised by the +Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63–66</a>. Efforts of the Protestants to suppress the thirst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span> +for knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. And to hamper and vex the people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>. The +liberal policy of Richelieu only part of a much larger movement, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>. +Illustration of this from the philosophy of Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. Who is +regarded as one of the founders of French prose, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. His origination of +the modern method of philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. Progress of the French mind as +shown in the very existence of the ideas of Descartes and Richelieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>. +Spread of scepticism in France in the reign of Louis XIII. and during the +minority of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. The anti-ecclesiastical spirit exhibited by +Mazarin, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. Injurious effects of the protective spirit carried by Louis +XIV. into literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176–188</a>. Proof that the literary splendour of +his reign was not his work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>. Effect of his protection in stopping the +progress of science, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. In mathematics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. And in astronomy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. +Newton's discoveries neglected for forty-five years, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. Absence of mere +practical ingenuity in the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. Few and +insignificant improvements effected during this period in manufactures, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>. Decline at the same time in physiology, surgery, and medicine, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_194">194–196</a>. In zoology and chemistry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>. And in botany, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>. Results +which followed the decline of the national intellect in the reign of +Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i> Reaction against the protective spirit on the +death of Louis XIV., and preparations for the French Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +Ignorance of the English language and literature at the end of the +seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>. Causes of the junction of the French and +English intellect after the death of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. Voltaire and his +works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. Other authors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_216">216</a> <i>et seq.</i> Admiration for England expressed +by Frenchmen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>. Who disseminate liberal opinions which the government +attempts to stifle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. Persecution of literary men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_230">230–242</a>. +The avocat-general's proposition as to the publication of new works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. +Reasons why French literary men at first attacked the Church and not the +government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247–251</a>. Effects of the hostility of the French +intellect against the state, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. Rise and extent of scepticism in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_261">261</a> <i>et seq.</i> The two epochs through which the French intellect +passed during the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. Inquiries respecting political +economy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327–329</a>. Eagerness of the French for economical and +financial inquiries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Influence of Rousseau, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_330">330–332</a>. +Anti-ecclesiastical policy of Machault and his successors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332–334</a>. +Concession of civil rights to Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. Revival of Jansenism, and +consequent overthrow of the Jesuits, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. Destruction of the French +Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. Rise and progress of atheistical opinions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Tendency of +the French intellect during the latter half of the eighteenth century to +withdraw from the internal, and concentrate attention upon the external +world, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351–353</a>. Works of Helvetius and Condillac, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_353">353–360</a>. +Researches as to the laws of heat, light, and electricity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_361">361–363</a>. +And in chemistry and geology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. The study of physical phenomena in +connexion with the French Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. Impetus given to zoology by +Cuvier, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. And by Bichat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. Reaction in France at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span> +commencement of the present century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. Researches in botany and +mineralogy at the end of the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. And in the aberrations of +the human mind, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_404">404</a></li> +<li>Intellect, German. The Scotch method of philosophy compared with that of +Germany, iii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> +<li>Intellect, human, sole source of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Intellect, Scotch, examination of the, during the seventeenth century, +iii. <a href="#Page_191">191–280</a>. And during the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_281">281–482</a>. Barrenness of +the Scotch mind in science in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. Causes of +this, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. Results of the ignorance of the inductive or analytical +method, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. Scotland in this respect compared and contrasted with +Germany and England, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. Hutcheson, Adam Smith, Hume, and Reid, <a href="#Page_292">292–360</a>. +Examination of Scotch physical philosophy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> <i>et seq.</i> Difference +between the results achieved by Scotchmen in the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>. The deductive method supreme in both +centuries, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>. Reasons why the Scotch literature of the eighteenth +century affected the nation so little, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>. Superstition and illiberality +still existing in Scotland, <a href="#Page_471">471</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Intellect, Spanish, outline of the history of the, from the fifth to the +middle of the nineteenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_425">425</a> <i>et seq.</i> Influence of the +clergy over the Spanish intellect, high and low, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li>Intellectual progress of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>. Progressive aspect of intellectual +truths, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. Mischievousness of ignorant men in proportion to their +sincerity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Interest, in what it consists, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>. Rate of interest in India in 900 +<span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>. And in 1810 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Inverness burnt by the Highlanders, iii. <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Ireland, the potato the principal food of the people of, for above two +hundred years, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Period of its introduction into that country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> +<i>note</i>. Potato crops as compared with those of wheat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Daily average +consumption of potatoes in Ireland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_66">66</a> <i>note</i>. Evil consequences of the +cheapness and abundance of food, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>. Idleness of the Irish at home +compared with their industry abroad, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>note</i>. The bards of Ireland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> +<i>note</i>. Their contributions to the early history of their country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> +<i>note</i>. Injuries done to the traditions of the bards of, by clerical +historians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>. Pork the chief food of the Irish in the twelfth century, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i>. Causes which have produced the present superstition of the +Irish Catholics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>. The Irish invasion of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> +<li>Irritability, Glisson's anticipation of the truth respecting, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_196">196</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Isomorphism, Mitscherlich's discovery of, in minerals, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_400">400</a></li> +<li>Italy, physical causes of the superstition existing in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Triumph +of the imaginative and small proportion of scientific men in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Jacobites, extinction of the hopes of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_444">444</a></li> +<li>James I., political character of the opposition to ecclesiastical +authority in the reign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. His attempts to revive the power of +the nobles, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. His imprisonment in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>. Recovers his +liberty, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. Bearded by the ministers, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span> +The Gowrie Conspiracy, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Ascends the throne of England, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. Attempts +to subjugate the Scotch Church, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. His cruelties, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. Forces +episcopacy upon Scotland, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. And sets up High Courts of Commission, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>James I. of Scotland, attacks the nobles, and favours the Church, iii. +<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>. Causes of his failure, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. Put to death by his aristocracy, +<a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>James II. of England, his accession, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. Attempts of Archbishop Sancroft +to convert him to Protestantism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a> <i>note</i>. Services rendered to him by +the Protestant clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Alliance between the Roman Catholic King and +the Protestant clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Causes of the dissolution of this alliance, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. His declaration of indulgence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. Establishes the first standing +army in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a> <i>note</i>. Persecutions in his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. Union +of the Churchmen and Dissenters, and production of the revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. +His character, iii. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. His fiendish cruelty, <a href="#Page_147">147–149</a>. His ignominious +flight, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>James II. of Scotland, his treachery, iii. <a href="#Page_49">49–52</a></li> +<li>James IV. of Scotland, his policy, iii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>James V. of Scotland, seized by the Douglases, iii. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. His escape, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, +<a href="#Page_59">59</a>. Favours the Church, and punishes the nobles, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. Who bring about +the Reformation, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. Accepts the title of ‘Defender of the Faith,’ <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +His marriage with Mary of Guise, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. Cause of his death, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Jamin's ‘Thoughts,’ suppression of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Jansenism, tenets of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. Its introduction into France, previous to +the time of Louis XIV., but suppression by him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. Its revival in the +eighteenth century, and its effect on the democratic movement, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. Its +overthrow of the Jesuits, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Java, early civilization of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. Causes of the loss of the historical +traditions of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. Establishment of Mohammedanism in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a> <i>note</i>. Period +of the Indian colonization of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a> <i>note</i>. Traditions of Java preserved +in the island of Bali, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>Jefferson, Thomas, his part in the French Revolution, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>Jeffreys, Lord, his cruelty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Jehangueir, the emperor, his extraordinary wealth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Jerusalem, origin of the name of, according to the historians of the +Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Jesuits, the, banished from France by Henry IV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. Recalled, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a> +<i>note</i>. Services of the early Jesuits to civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. Their system +of education, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. Their incompatibility with the opinions of the +eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. Buffier the only Jesuit name in the history of +abstract philosophy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a> <i>note</i>. The order overthrown in France in the +last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>. Regarded as the instigators of Damiens' attempted +assassination of Louis XV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. Expelled from Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_546">546</a></li> +<li>Jewel, Bishop, his ‘Apology for the Church of England’ compared with +Hooker's ‘Ecclesiastical Polity,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. And with Chillingworth's ‘Religion +of Protestants,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_348">348</a></li> +<li>Jews, influence of religion on the progress of society illustrated by the +history of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. Importance of the history of the, according +to Bossuet, ii.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span> +285. Harshness of the early Spanish laws against them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. Decree of +expulsion of Ferdinand and Isabella, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a>. Number of Jews expelled from +Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Johnson, Dr., on free will, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Joubert, his eminence in medicine, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Jousse, suppression of his ‘Treatise on Presidial jurisdiction,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Joyce, Cornet, his origin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Judas, history of, according to Matthew of Westminster, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_316">316</a></li> +<li>Judges in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. Period when judges were first knighted in +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_135">135</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Julian, the emperor, causes of his persecution of the Christians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li>Jurisdictions, hereditary, abolition of, in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Jury, origin of trial by, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Jussieu, his botanical generalizations, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Justice, permanent improvement in the administration of, in England, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a></li> +<li>Juxon, William, his character as archbishop of Canterbury, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Kamtschatkans, religious regard they pay to some animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Kant, his views as to the scientific conception of the understanding, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i>; quoted, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_35">35–38</a></li> +<li>Ken, Bishop, deprived, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_410">410</a>. Refuses to admit in the secular power +the right of deprivation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_410">410</a></li> +<li>Kennedy, Bishop of St. Andrew's, his power in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. His +counsel to the king, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Kilmarnock, state of, in the seventeenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. Rise of the +manufactures of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li>‘King's Friends,’ the party so called, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_448">448</a></li> +<li>Kings, causes of the diminution of the respect formerly felt for, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. Reasons why their information is inaccurate, and their prejudices +numerous, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. Their nonsensical or blasphemous titles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Kirke, Colonel, his cruelty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Kirk-sessions in Scotland, in the seventeenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>. +Their tyranny, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +<li>Knights Templars, discourse of St. Bernard on the, quoted, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_133">133</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Knighthood, bane of the order of, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. Little respect +paid to it in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. Compulsory knighthood in that country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li><a name="Knowledge" id="Knowledge">Knowledge</a>, influence of the progress of, in diminishing religious +persecution, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. And in diminishing war, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. The three ways in which +the progress of knowledge has lessened the warlike spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_203">203–223</a>. The +totality of human actions governed by the totality of human knowledge, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. Remarkable diffusion of knowledge in the United States, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. Books +the storehouse of knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. In what the knowledge in which all +civilization consists is based, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. The ‘learned ignorance’ for which +many men are remarkable, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. Condition and results of the literature of +Europe from the sixth to the tenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. Endeavours of +governments to hinder the advance of knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. Craving of the +people after knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>. Popular form taken by the diffusion of +knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Simplicity of the style of the authors of the last +century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>. The increase and diffusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span> +of knowledge in England at the latter part of the eighteenth century +antagonistic to the political events of the same period, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_498">498</a>. Efforts of +the French Protestant clergy to suppress the pursuit of knowledge, ii. +70. Sudden craving after knowledge in France at the latter part of the +last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_407">407</a></li> +<li>Knox, John, commencement of his career, iii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>. His influence in +promoting the Reformation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>. His part in the murder of Beaton, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>. Goes +to Geneva, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>. Returns, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. His petition to Parliament as to the Church +revenues, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>. His death, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Konigseg, his services to Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_519">519</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>La Bletterie, cause of his expulsion from the French Academy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>Labour, effect of climate on the energy and regularity with which it is +conducted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>. See <a href="#Wages">Wages</a></li> +<li>Labourers and employers, their wages and profits, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>. Effect of the +supply of food on the labouring classes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>. Native laws respecting the +Sudras or labourers of India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>La Bruyère, his ‘Charactères,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Lacteals, Aselli's discovery of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>. Recognized by Descartes, but +denied by Harvey, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a> and <i>note</i></li> +<li>La Fayette, character and abilities of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_470">470</a>. Burke's hostility to, +471. His familiarity with English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>. His +introduction of democratic opinions into France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_417">417</a></li> +<li>La Fontaine, ‘Fables’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>La Force, Marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>La Harpe, his ‘Éloge sur Fénelon’ suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Laing, Mr., his remarks on the German literary class, quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_239">239</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Laland, his advocacy of atheism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Lamplugh, translated from Exeter to the see of York, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_404">404</a></li> +<li>Lanjuinais, his work on Joseph II. ordered to be burned, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li>Lanthenás, his familiarity with the English language and literature, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Laplace, his professed atheism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>La Popelinière, his French historical works, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>Lateran, Matthew of Westminster's etymology of the name, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_317">317</a></li> +<li>Latin, a vernacular dialect in the Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>. Results of Latin +being colloquially employed by the monks, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_271">271</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Laverdy, openly protects the Jansenists, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Lavoisier, his discoveries in chemistry, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_367">367</a></li> +<li>Law courts, first publication of the proceedings in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_434">434</a></li> +<li>Layamon, his translation into English of the history of Geoffrey of +Monmouth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Le Blanc, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +His admiration for England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_228">228</a></li> +<li>Le Brun, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a></li> +<li>Legat, one of the last English martyrs to religious opinions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_345">345</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Legislation, main object of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. Burke's views as to the true end of, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_459">459</a>. The safest course for a legislator to pursue, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_504">504</a>. See <a href="#Government">Government</a></li> +<li>Leicester, Earl of, the founder of the House of Commons, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Lenglet du Fresnoy, his imprisonment in the Bastille, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>Lens, the crystalline, discoveries of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span> +Descartes respecting the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Leprosy, superstitions respecting, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. The leprosy of the Middle Ages +extirpated from modern Europe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Lerma, Duque de, prime minister of Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_474">474</a>. His alliance with +the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_474">474</a>. And its consequences, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_475">475–477</a>. His part in the expulsion +of the Moriscoes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_493">493</a></li> +<li>Lesdiguières, Marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>. His apostacy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Leslie, his philosophy of heat, iii. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>. Aid which he derived from +poetry, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>. His injustice to Bacon, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li> +<li>Le Trosne, suppression of his work on ‘Finance,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Lettes, their fondness for pork, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Le Vassor, his ‘Histoire de Louis XIII.,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_30">30</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>L'Hopital, his recommendation of religious toleration, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>. His +failure to effect any of his noble schemes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Libel, Burke's attack of the power exercised by judges in trials for, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>Libraries, circulating, first establishment of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Licences required +by Act of Parliament for keeping reading-rooms or circulating libraries, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_490">490</a></li> +<li>Lichfield, first printing office in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Life, statements of Hindu poets as to the ancient duration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. +Active causes of the increased duration of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. Examination of Bichat's +work on Life, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_390">390</a></li> +<li>Light, French researches as to the phenomena of, in the eighteenth +century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Lindsey, Mr. his establishment of Sunday schools, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Linen, manufacture, rise of in Glasgow, iii. <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. And in other parts +of Scotland, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li>Linguet, his works suppressed and their author imprisoned, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Linnæus, his artificial botanical system superseded by the French natural +method, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></li> +<li>Literature, American, characteristics of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li>Literature, influence of on the progress of society, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>. Result which +is sure to happen to a literature above the level of its age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. +Illustrations from Greece, Rome, and Germany, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. In what real knowledge +consists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. Men and countries where erudition merely ministers to +ignorance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. Condition and effects of the literature of Europe from +the sixth to the tenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. Effect of the monopoly of +literature by the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. Character of the literature of India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>. +And of ancient Greece, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Literature, English—characteristics of, in the reign of Charles II., i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. Influence of the intellect of France on Dryden's plays, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>note</i>. +Causes which have maintained the independence, and increased the value of +English literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>note</i>. Change in the form and make of English +literature in the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. Coleridge's lamentations of this +change, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a> <i>note</i>. Addison's establishment of the easy and democratic +style, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>. Failure of an attempt to revive the pedantic style, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a> +<i>note</i>. Abolition of servile dedications, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. Introduction of the plan +of publishing books by subscription, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>. First instance of a popular +writer attacking public men by name, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>. English literature unknown to +the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[519]</a></span> +at the end of the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i>. But +begun to be studied after the death of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. Its services to +French, and thence to European liberty, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_227">227</a></li> +<li>Literature, French, effect of, on English writings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>. +Characteristics of French literature at the time of Descartes and +Richelieu, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. The protective spirit carried by Louis XIV. into +literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>. Result in an alliance between literature and government, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>. Servility of men of letters at this time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>. Injurious +effects of the protective system of Louis XIV. upon literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. And +of pensions to literary men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>. The literary splendour of the +reign of Louis XIV. not of his creation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. Causes of its decay in +his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. Causes of the junction of English and French intellects +after the death of Louis XIV. Systematic and prolonged persecution to +which literature was exposed in the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_230">230–242</a>. Proposal +of the avocat-general as to the publication of new works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. Why the +Church, and not the government, was first attacked by literary men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. +State of French historical literature from the end of the sixteenth to +the end of the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_261">261</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Literature, German, since the middle of the eighteenth century, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +Origin of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. Remarks on Mr. Kay's picture of German education, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_238">238</a> +<i>note</i>. Mr. Laing's observations on the German literary class, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_239">239</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Literature, Scotch, poverty of, down to the commencement of the +eighteenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. Buchanan and Napier, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. Character of the +Scotch philosophical literature of the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. Reasons +why the Scotch literature of the eighteenth century was unable to affect +the nation, iii. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> +<li>Literature, Spanish, causes which gave it its adventurous and romantic +tone, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. Hold retained by the Spanish Church over the highest +and lowest intellects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li>Liver, business of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. The liver and lungs always compensatory, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. Size of the fœtal liver, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Locke, John, his views as to the use of money in trade, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>note</i>. +Causes of his Socinian views, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. His death, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_374">374</a></li> +<li>Locomotion, effect of improved means of, in weakening the love of war, i. +221–223</li> +<li>Logarithms, discovery of, iii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Logos, influence of the Platonism of Alexandria in developing the idea of +the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_286">286</a></li> +<li>London, the Great Plague and Fire of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_387">387</a></li> +<li>Lords, House of, abandons its pretensions to an original jurisdiction in +civil suits, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. Origin of the disrepute into which the, fell in the +reign of George III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_451">451–453</a>. Abolished, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Lotos bread of Egypt, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>. Herodotus on the lotos, quoted, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Loudun, insolence of the Protestant assembly of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Louis, Saint, of France, his etymology of the word Tartar, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_313">313</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Louis, suppression of his thesis on ‘Generation,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Louis IX. of France, recognizes the right of the nobles to wage private +war, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Louis XIII., his protection of the French protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. Le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[520]</a></span> +Vassor's ‘Histoire de Louis XIII.,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_30">30</a> <i>note</i>. Heretics not only +protected during his reign, but openly rewarded, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>. Illtreated by the +Protestants whom he had protected, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Louis XIV., his accession, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. The protective spirit carried into +literature during his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>. Character of the King's private life +and public career, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>. His revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and the +results, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_178">178–181</a>. His reign notwithstanding held up by some to +admiration, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. Gratitude of men of letters to him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. Injurious +effect of his system of protection upon literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_182">182–187</a>. The literary +glory of his reign not his work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>. Scarcely anything added during his +reign to the sum of human knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189–202</a>. Causes of this intellectual +decay, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>. Universal decline of France in every department during the +latter part of his reign, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_210">210–212</a>. His death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. The retrograde +movement in historical literature in the reign of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. Causes of this, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. His treatment of literary men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_274">274–277</a>. His thirst for glory, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>. +Voltaire's ‘Age of Louis XIV.,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>. His disposition to favour the King, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li>Louis XVI., rupture between England and France caused by the execution +of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_485">485</a>. His edict granting civil rights to the Huguenots, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_335">335</a></li> +<li>Loyalty, causes which weakened, in the reign of Charles II., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. +Origin of the deep feelings of loyalty among the French people, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>. +And among the Spaniards, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_249">249</a> <i>note</i>. The loyalty of the English and +French compared, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>. Causes of the loyalty of the Spaniards, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_455">455</a> +<i>et seq.</i> Connexion between loyalty and superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_455">455</a>. Old +punishments for disloyalty in Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_458">458</a>. The loyalty of Spain contrasted +with that of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> +<li>Lulli, the French musician, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li>Lungs, connexion between carbonized food and the respiratory functions, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. The lungs and liver always compensatory, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Mably, his admiration for England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. Suppression of his +‘Observations on the History of France,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. Guizot's edition of this +work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. Character of his ‘History of France,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Macaulay, Mr., character of his ‘History of England,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_394">394</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Macchiavelli, his views as to the real history of Rome, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Machault, controller-general of France, his edict against mortmain, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. Dislike of the clergy for him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Favour with which he regarded +the Jansenists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a></li> +<li>Madden, Sir F., his edition of Wace's ‘Brut,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Madrid, decline in the population of, in the seventeenth century, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_501">501</a>. Starving condition of the people of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_509">509</a>. Scenes of robbery and +murder in consequence, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_509">509–511</a>. No public library in, in 1679, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_527">527</a>. +Beautified by Charles III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_561">561</a></li> +<li>Magendie, his division of food into azotized and non-azotized, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Maize, its extraordinary fecundity in Mexico and Peru, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. Most +probably peculiar to the American continent, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Malaga captured from the Arabs, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_440">440</a></li> +<li>Malayo-Polynesian race, causes of the corruption of the early histories<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[521]</a></span> +of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. Eastern and western limits of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Malebranches, his ‘Inquiry respecting Truth,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Malesherbes, M., his attack on church property in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a></li> +<li>Mallet, character of his ‘History of Denmark,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Malus, his researches into the laws of light, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Malthus, principle of his work anticipated by Voltaire, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a></li> +<li><a name="Man" id="Man">Man</a> modified by nature and nature modified by man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>. Inquiry into +the laws of this double modification, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>. Inferences respecting human +actions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>. Two classes of actions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>. The powers of man unlimited, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. +Modes in which his energies are checked by the energies of nature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +Laws of the process by which the mind of man is influenced by the aspects +of nature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Effects of the force and majesty of nature in the +tropics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. Causes which give birth to superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Fictions +in Sanscrit literature as to the longevity of the human race at an early +period of the world, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. Moral and intellectual progress of man, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>. No +evidence of the improvement of the natural faculties of man, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>. +Dependence of his progress on an improvement of the circumstances under +which his faculties come into play, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>. The standard of action having +varied in every age, the causes of action must be variable, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +Stationary character of moral principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>. Progressive aspect of +intellectual truths, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. Ignorant men always mischievous in proportion +to their sincerity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. Religious persecutions in Rome and Spain, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_185">185–188</a>. More virtue than vice in every country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>. Inferences to be +drawn as to the causes of social progress, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>. The totality of human +actions governed by the totality of human knowledge, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>Manchester, Earl of, joins the Parliamentary forces, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>Manichæans, their doctrine of predestination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Manrent, in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mansfield, Lord, his speech on the Theological Society, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Manufactures, few and insignificant improvements made in, in France +during the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>. Sudden rise of the manufactures +in Scotland, in 1707, iii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li>Marat, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Marchand, Prosper, his ‘Dictionnaire Historique,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_267">267</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Margat, suppression of his ‘History of Tamerlane,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>Marlborough, Duke of, character of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Marmontel, how treated by a French noble, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li>Marriages, determined by uniformity of sequence, and not by the temper +and wishes of individuals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. Effects of the price of food upon +marriages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Marsy, his ‘Analysis of Bayle’ suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li>Martin, bishop of Tours, Bossuet's estimate of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>. The +Benedictines' life of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. His miracles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_288">288</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Martyrs, adoration of, in the early ages of the Church, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_145">145</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mary, Queen, restores England to Catholicism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. But fails to effect +a restoration of church property, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mary of Guise, her marriage with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[522]</a></span> +James V. of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. Her attempt to establish a standing army, +<a href="#Page_77">77</a>. Becomes regent, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>. Deposed, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Masillon, the last of the great French pulpit orators, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_348">348</a></li> +<li>Masquerades forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Mathematicians, their pretence to certainty in their own pursuits, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. The study of mathematics in France in the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Mathew of Westminster, his history of Judas, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>. His origin of the +custom of kissing the Pope's toe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. His etymology of the Lateran, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_317">317</a></li> +<li>Maxwell, Lord, iii. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>. His venality, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mazarin, Cardinal, his anti-ecclesiastical policy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. His +toleration, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>. His alliance with Oliver Cromwell, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. Signs the +treaty of the Pyrenees, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li>Mechanics, why less superstitious than agriculturists, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376–379</a></li> +<li>Medici, Catherine de', her protection of the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. +Her foreign policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li>Medicine, decline of the science of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Meetings, public political, establishment of the right of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. +Passing of an Act intended to stifle religious or political meetings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_489">489</a></li> +<li>Melrose Abbey robbed by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Melville, Andrew, takes the lead of the Scotch reformed church, iii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. +Begins a struggle with the State, which lasted for sixty years, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. His +name of επισκοπομαστιξ, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i>. Appointed moderator at St. +Andrew's in 1582, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. His personal insult to the king, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Summoned by +the king to England, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>. Imprisoned in the Tower, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Memory, aberrations of, the laws respecting the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Mental laws, examination of the method employed by metaphysicians for +discovering, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. Failure of their two methods, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>. Mental laws +either moral or intellectual, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>. Comparison between moral and +intellectual laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>. Necessity of ascertaining the fundamental +laws of intellectual progress, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. Advantages to be gained in that +respect from studying the histories of Germany, America, France, Spain, +and Scotland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li>‘Mence, Institutes of,’ authority of in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. Vast antiquity of +the, according to the Hindu writers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Menzies, John, the Aberdeen preacher, iii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mercenaries employed by William the Conqueror and his immediate +successors, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Mercury, mine of, at Almaden, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_540">540</a></li> +<li>Mescua, Mira de, the Spanish dramatist, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li><a name="Metaphysics" id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>; metaphysical inquiry preceded and often controlled by the +physical, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a> <i>note</i>. The only successful mode of prosecuting the study +of metaphysics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>. Examination of the two metaphysical methods of +generalizing mental laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. Definition of the term metaphysics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_164">164</a> +<i>note</i>. The English inductive and the Scotch deductive methods, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_245">245</a> <i>et +seq.</i> Robert Simson and Matthew Stewart, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Adam Smith, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>. David +Hume, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>. Examination of the method employed by metaphysicians for +discovering mental laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. Failure of their two methods, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>. +Descartes, the originator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[523]</a></span> +of the modern method of philosophy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. Analogy of his philosophy +with the anti-theological policy of Richelieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>. The eminent +characteristic of the philosophy of Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>. Analysis of his +principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. Services which metaphysicians formerly rendered to +the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>. Analysis of the works of Helvetius and Condillac, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_353">353–360</a>. Rise of the reactionary party in France at the beginning +of the present century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. See also <a href="#Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> +<li>Meteorology, causes which have retarded the progress of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_377">377</a> <i>note</i>. +Supernatural causes attributed by ignorance to changes in the weather, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_378">378</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Method, importance of the philosophy of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_387">387</a></li> +<li>Mey, suppression of his treatise on ‘French Law,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Mexico, authentic existing materials for forming an opinion on the +ancient state of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. Characteristics of the climate of, and reasons +for its early civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. Exuberance of the maize plant in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. +The potato introduced by the Spaniards into, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Extraordinary +fecundity of the banana in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Success with which astronomy was +cultivated in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. Condition of the upper and lower classes of the +inhabitants of, when discovered by the Europeans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>. Custom of caste in +Mexico, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. Frivolous waste of labour of the Mexicans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. Their +immense buildings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Mezeray, character of his ‘History of France,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>. How treated +by Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. His ‘Abrégé Chronologique,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_275">275</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Michael, St., foundation of the order of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_313">313</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Micrometer, discovery of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li>Microscope, invention of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Middle Ages, the childish admiration of the, dispelled by Voltaire, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_305">305</a></li> +<li>Middleton, Dr., ferment caused by his ‘Free Inquiry,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>Mill, James, his method of investigating speculative jurisprudence, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a>426</li> +<li>Mill, John, his inquiry into the method of investigation which political +economists ought to follow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Millet, use of, as food in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_71">71</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Millington, Sir Thomas, his botanical discoveries, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. Causes of his +opposition to ecclesiastical authority, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a></li> +<li>Milton, John, parts of his works translated into French by Mirabeau, ii. +225</li> +<li>Minana, Spanish historian, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Mineralogy, French researches in, at the end of the eighteenth century, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. Doubts as to the true method of investigating, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. The +discovery of isomorphism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_400">400</a></li> +<li>Mines, military employment of gunpowder in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mirabeau, his knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +His professed atheism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Miracles, the celebrated dispute respecting, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>Missionaries, influence of religion on the progress of society +illustrated by the efforts of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_255">255</a></li> +<li>Mississippi, area drained by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Mohammed, cause of his death, according to Mathew Paris, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. And +cause of his becoming a heretic, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_316">316</a>. How regarded by Bossuet, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_286">286</a></li> +<li>Mohammedanism, area of the countries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[524]</a></span> +in which it is professed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>. Lofty ideas of the Mohammedan writers +on the oneness of God, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_287">287</a> <i>note</i>. The Mohammedans in Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_439">439</a></li> +<li>Molina, Tirso de, the Spanish dramatist, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Monboddo, Lord, his lamentation over the extinction of pedantry in +English literature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>‘Monconys, Voyages de,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_371">371</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Money, notions of the use of, in trade, in the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_210">210–212</a>. Right of coining allowed to the aristocracy of +France, but never in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Monks, results of Latin being colloquially employed by the, of the Middle +Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_271">271</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Monotheism, forms of religion preceding, according to Hume and Comte, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>250 <i>note</i></li> +<li>Monsoons, causes of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_102">102</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Monstrosities, animal, discoveries respecting, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_396">396</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Montaigne, Michel de, first appearance of his essays, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. Difference +between him and Rabelais, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. Regarded as the first French sceptic, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. +Opinions of Dugald Stewart and Rousseau of his writings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i>. +Immense influence of his works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i>. Compared with Charron, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. His +scepticism compared with that of Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>. His the first sceptical +work published in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>Montalvan, Spanish dramatist, his office in the Inquisition, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li>Montbarey, Prince de, character of his censures of Louis XV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_406">406</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Montesquieu, his erroneous notions as to political economy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> +<i>note</i>. His knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +His admiration for England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. His the first information concerning the +real history of Rome, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. Character of his ‘Spirit of Laws,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. His +method, and its value, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>Montgomery, Robert, appointed Archbishop of Glasgow, iii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +Excommunicated by the General Assembly, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. Submits, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> +<li>Montgon, suppression of the ‘Letters’ of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Montlosier, his geological labours, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a></li> +<li>Moral truths, little changes which they have undergone, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>. Moral +truths in the New Testament quoted from pagan authors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_180">180</a> <i>note</i>. +Influence of moral feelings on individuals, but not on society in the +aggregate, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. Separation of theology from morals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a>. Consequences of +this separation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425–427</a></li> +<li>Morals, Charron's, the first attempt to create a system of morals +independent of theology, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Morellet, l'Abbé, his translation of the ‘Wealth of Nations’ into French, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. His punishment in the Bastille, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li>Moriscoes, their expulsion from Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_485">485</a> <i>et seq.</i> Number expelled, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_494">494</a></li> +<li>Morris-dances forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Mortmain, Machault's edict against, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a></li> +<li>Morton, the Regent, his persecution of the reformed clergy of Scotland, +iii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> +<li>Mosaic cosmogony first impugned, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a></li> +<li>Mounier, his familiarity with the English language and English +institutions, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. His proposal for the establishment of two Chambers +in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a></li> +<li>Muhlberg, results of the battle of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_446">446</a></li> +<li>Municipal privileges in England,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[525]</a></span> +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Futility of, in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Murder, uniform reproduction of the crime of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Muscular system, waste or decomposition of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Music forbidden by the Scotch clergy, iii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li>Muskets, the, of the fifteenth century, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Names, origin of the habit of generalizing, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_297">297</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Nantes, edict of, confirmed by Catherine de' Medici, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. By her son +Louis XIII., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. And by Mazarin, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Napier, Sir William, his military genius and works, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Napier, John, his discovery of logarithms, iii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Naples, foundation of the city of, according to the writers of the Middle +Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_313">313</a></li> +<li>Napoleon I., compared with Richelieu, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Nasmyth, his researches into the structure of the teeth, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_385">385</a></li> +<li>‘Nations, Morals, Manners, and Character of,’ Voltaire's, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li>Nature, laws of, origin of the perception of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. Causes of the +disturbances in the laws of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>. Influence and results of the general +aspects of, on the human race in its infancy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. Modes in which the +energies of Nature hamper the energies of Man in South America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>. Laws +of the process by which the aspects of Nature influence the human mind, +its natural movements, and natural progress, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Feelings inspired by +the force and majesty of natural phenomena in tropical regions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. +Physiological effects of the fear of earthquakes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Comparison of +the material phenomena of Greece and India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. Instance in the +proportion of births of the sexes of the regularity of natural laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>‘Nature, the System of,’ publication of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a></li> +<li>Necessity, doctrine of, its displacement of the doctrine of Chance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. +Origin of the doctrine, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_343">343</a></li> +<li>Necker, M., his Report on the Finances of France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Eagerness of +the French to read it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Character of the work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. His +anti-ecclesiastical policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. His Calvinist opinions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>.</li> +<li>Newspapers, first publication of, on Sundays, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Establishment of +political ones, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. And of the right to publish parliamentary debates, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>. Vast increase in the circulation of newspapers in the latter half of +the last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_439">439</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Newton, Sir Isaac, his imagination i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_124">124</a> <i>note</i>. His death, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_374">374</a></li> +<li>Niebuhr, his arguments as to the early history of Rome anticipated by +Voltaire, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. The three principles fundamental to his history which +it is impossible to refute, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Nile, effects of the overflow of the, on the civilization of Egypt, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. Herodotus's expression δῶρον τοῦ ποταμοῦ, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Nîmes, insolence of the Protestant assembly of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Nobles. See <a href="#Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> +<li>Nonconformists. See <a href="#Dissenters">Dissenters</a></li> +<li>Nonjurors, the, amongst the bishops and inferior clergy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_408">408–412</a>. The +last of the nonjuring bishops, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_412">412</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Norfolk, Duke of, concludes the treaty of Berwick, iii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>North, Lord, overpersuaded by George III. to engage in war with America, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_480">480</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Norwegians, their invasion of Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_10">10</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[526]</a></span></li> +<li>Nosology, the, of Cullen, iii. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li> +<li>Nutrition, M. Chevreul's generalizations of the laws of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Oaths, causes which have given rise to, in England, of every kind and in +every direction, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. Amount of perjury in England caused by +legislation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_282">282</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Œpinus, his experiments on electricity, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Oils, amount of carbon in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Okey, the fifth-monarchy man, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Opinion, public, origin of the supremacy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>. The real cause of +the abolition of the corn-laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>Optics, discoveries of Descartes in, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Orders of chivalry, origin of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Ordinance, the Self-denying, passed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Oregon or Columbia river, the only river of importance on the western +coast of North America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li>Orkney Isles, seized by the Norwegians, iii. <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Orleans, Duke of, his residence in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li>Osteology, comparative, Ambrose Paré's contributions to, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Owen, Professor, his researches into the structure of the teeth, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>. His services to comparative anatomy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>Oxford, effort of the clergy to instil their principles at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a> +<i>note</i>. Pitt's denunciation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a> <i>note</i>. Execution of the first heretic +at, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Oxygen in food, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Paganism, large amount of, existing in every Christian sect, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_260">260</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Paisley, population of, in 1700, iii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. Rise and progress of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +<li>Palæontology, Cuvier the founder of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. Its importance to geology, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_369">369</a> <i>note</i>. Daubenton's labours, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>. Owen's, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>Palatine, endeavours of Richelieu to save the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Paley, Dr., effect of his utilitarian moral system, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Palm-tree, the date, its importance in Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Palm-wine, of Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_84">84</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Paravicino, Spanish poet, his sermons, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Paré, Ambroise, his eminence in surgery, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>. One of the founders of +comparative osteology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Paris, origin of the name of, according to the historians of the Middle +Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. State of the pulpit oratory of, in 1771, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_348">348</a></li> +<li>Paris, Mathew, his statement as to the reason why Mohammedans refuse to +eat pork, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. Sismondi's eulogy of him as an historian, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_315">315</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Parliament, gradual diminution of the number of ecclesiastics in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>. Final expulsion of the clergy from the House of Commons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_418">418</a>. +Establishment of the right to publish the debates in Parliament, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>. And +of the doctrine of personal representation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_435">435</a></li> +<li>Parr, Dr., classical style of his English, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a></li> +<li>Pascal, Blaise, period in which he flourished, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. His great works, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. His ‘Provincial Letters,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Pathology, characteristics of, iii. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>. Compared with Physiology, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>. +Account of the generalizations of Cullen and of Hunter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[527]</a></span> +<a href="#Page_413">413</a>. Difference between the science of pathology and the art of +therapeutics, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>. Cullen's theory of the solids and fluids, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>. His +theory of fever, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>. His nosology, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>. His services to pathology, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, +<a href="#Page_447">447</a></li> +<li>Patin, his opinion of the English of the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Patronage of literature. See <a href="#Protective_spirit">Protective spirit</a></li> +<li>Pecquet, his discovery of the chyle, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Pedantry of ancient English authors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. Discarded for a lighter +style, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a></li> +<li>Pelagius, his doctrines as to free will, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. Absence of the +speculative spirit in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. His learning, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Penal code, increasing severity of the, in the reign of George III., i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a></li> +<li>Pensions, literary, injurious effect of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>–187</li> +<li>Perjury, cause of the increase of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>. Amount of, in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_282">282</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Persecution of the Christians under the Roman Emperors, causes of, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>. And of those of Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>. Causes of the diminution of religious +persecution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>. Number of persons put to death in Holland and Spain, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. Old theological theory of the justification of persecution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_344">344</a></li> +<li>Persia, Arab conquest of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>. Causes of the absence of authentic +information respecting the early history of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. The ‘Shah Nameh’ of +Ferdousi, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. Antagonism between Mohammedanism and the old Persian +history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. Results anticipated from a decipherment of the Persian +cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_304">304</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Perth burnt by the English, iii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. Population of, in the sixteenth +century, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Peru, physical condition of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>. Exuberance of maize of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. And of +the banana of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. Condition of the upper and lower classes of the +people of, when discovered by the Europeans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>. Rigid enforcement of +caste in Peru, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> <i>note</i>. Frivolous waste of labour of the Peruvians, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. Their immense buildings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. The effect of earthquakes in Peru in +encouraging superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li>Pestilence, superstitions respecting, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. Pestilences ‘the harvests +of the ministers of God,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_130">130</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Petit, Antoine, popularity of his lectures on anatomy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_406">406</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Pharamond, authorities for the existence of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_265">265</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Philip Augustus, his policy in regard to the French aristocracy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Philip II. of Spain, his fondness for bacon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i>. His hatred of +the Calvinists, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. His character, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. His war against the +Dutch Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_451">451</a>. Object of all his wars and negotiations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_452">452</a>. His +celebrated Armada, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_453">453</a>. Supported in everything by his loyal subjects, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_453">453</a>. Ascendancy retained by him over the ecclesiastical hierarchy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_473">473</a> +<i>note</i>. His cruelty to the Moriscoes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_486">486</a>. His character as a ruler, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_473">473</a>. His part in the extension of the influence of the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_475">475</a></li> +<li>Philip III. of Spain, his cruelty to the Moriscoes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_489">489</a></li> +<li>Philip IV. of Spain, his character, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_468">468</a></li> +<li>Philip V. of Spain, his accession, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_513">513</a>. His policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_513">513</a>. Attacks the +inquisition, but is unable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[528]</a></span> +to abolish it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_521">521</a>. Opposed by his people in everything, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_522">522</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Philip the Fair, recognizes the right of the nobles to wage private war, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Philippine Islands, pure form of the Polytheism of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. Spanish +conquest of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>Philology, study of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>. Buffier the only Jesuit whose name has a place +in the history of abstract <a name="Philosophy" id="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_342">342</a> <i>note</i>. Examination of the +Scotch philosophy of the eighteenth century, iii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. Causes of the +success of the deductive and not of the inductive method in Scotland, +<a href="#Page_282">282</a>. The Scotch method compared and contrasted with those of Germany and +England, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. Summary of the most important distinctions between +deduction and induction, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. Hutcheson's philosophy, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>. Adam Smith's, +<a href="#Page_304">304</a>. Hume's, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. Reid's, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. See also <a href="#Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> +<li>Phlebitis first recognized by Hunter, iii. <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> +<li>Phosphorus, amount of, in the brain, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> <i>note</i>. First announced by +Hensing, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Phrenologists, the principal obstacle in the way of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Phyllotaxis, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Physical science, present state of, compared with history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. +Physical, the natural precursor of metaphysical inquiries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a> <i>note</i>. +Remarks on the influence exercised by physical laws over the organization +of society and over the character of individuals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>. Effects of food, +climate, and soil, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>et seq.</i> Democratic character of the physical +sciences, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. Popular works of Desaguliers and Hill on physical +truth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i>. Examination of the Scotch method employed in physical +philosophy, iii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. The laws of heat, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. Black's philosophy of latent +heat, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. Reasons why it is incumbent on physical philosophers to +cultivate the imagination, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>. Leslie's philosophy of heat, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>. +Geological speculations in Scotland, England, and Germany, <a href="#Page_388">388–393</a>388–393. +Watt's invention of the steam-engine, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>. Methods employed by Watt and +Cavendish in the discovery of the composition of water, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>. Nature of +the supposed difference between the organic and inorganic world, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>. +Life probably a property of all matter, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>. Division of organic science +into physiology and pathology, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>. Theory in science, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>. Hunter's idea +of uniting all the physical sciences, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>. The deductive method supreme +in Scotland in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>. The two +methods compared, <a href="#Page_462">462–464</a>. Science the ally of religion, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>. Attempts of +the clergy of the reign of Charles II. to oppose the spread of physical +science, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. The term <i>natural</i> science, in contradistinction to +<i>supernatural</i>, as used at this period, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_372">372</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Physiologists, view taken by, of the origin of the sexes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>. +Probable causes of the small contributions of physiologists towards the +power of predicting events, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_171">171</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Physiology, decline of the science of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>. Glisson's services to, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>. Characteristics of the science of, iii. +<a href="#Page_410">410</a>. Compared with pathology, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>. John Hunter's generalizations, <a href="#Page_428">428</a> <i>et +seq.</i></li> +<li>Piracy of the Rochellois, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[529]</a></span> +seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li>Pistols, invention of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_206">206</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Pitt, William, the elder, his reputation as a statesman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>. Reason +why he was hated by George III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a></li> +<li>Pitt, William, his subserviency to George III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_448">448</a>. His +abandonment of liberal principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>. Prosecutes and persecutes his +brother reformers, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Plague, the Great, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_387">387</a></li> +<li>Plants, effects of heat and moisture on, the geographical distribution +of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Plato, his conclusion as to the truth or falsehood of spectral phenomena +or dreams, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Platonism, its natural precursor the atomic doctrine, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_10">10</a> <i>note</i>. +Influence of the Platonism of Alexandria in developing the idea of the +Logos, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_286">286</a></li> +<li><a name="Poetry" id="Poetry">Poetry</a> cultivated solely by the ancient Sanscrit authors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. +Indian metres, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. Cause of the reverence felt for great poets, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_294">294</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Poisons, general theory of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Poissy, conference of, predominance of the theological spirit shown in +the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Political economy, study of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>. Influence of the discoveries made in, +in lessening the warlike spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>. Misconception of the true nature of +barter in early times, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_210">210–212</a>. Movement of the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +Smith's ‘Wealth of Nations,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>. His method of treating the laws of +wealth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>. Mr. John Mill's and Mr. Rae's inquiry into the proper method +of investigation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>note</i>. French translations of the ‘Wealth of +Nations’ in the eighteenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. Voltaire's opinions +respecting, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. Rise of the French political economists in the middle of +the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. The revolutionary tendency of this +economical movement, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. Schism effected between the nation and +government by the economists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>. Influence exercised shortly before the +revolution by the economists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. Examination of Adam Smith's ‘Wealth of +Nations,’ iii. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>. Salutary effects of man's constant endeavours to +better his condition, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. Malthus's work on population, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>. Constant +struggle between capital and labour, according to Adam Smith, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>. +Views of David Hume, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> +<li>Politics, separation of theology from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a>. Consequences of this +separation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425–427</a>. Effect of the protective spirit carried into +politics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li>Polytheism, the predecessor of monotheism, according to Hume, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a> +<i>note</i>. Natural creed of the Romans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>. The religion of the +Malayo-Polynesians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_305">305</a></li> +<li>Pope, origin of kissing his toe, according to Mathew of Westminster, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. Voltaire's Reasons for the unity and consolidation of the power of +the popes as compared with that of the Greek patriarchs, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_303">303</a></li> +<li>Population, connexion between food and the laws of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>. Case of the +potato and Irish population, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>. A poor diet said to be more favourable +to fecundity than a rich one, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>note</i>. Voltaire's ideas respecting the +ratios by which population and food increase, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. Malthus's work on, +iii. <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Pork, in general use in Europe as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[530]</a></span> +food, for centuries, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. Cause of the refusal of the Mohammedans to +eat pork, according to Mathew Paris, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. Eaten in Asia and Africa, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_315">315</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Porson, Richard, his letter on the texts of the Heavenly Witnesses, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a>. His appreciation of the beauties of the English language, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a></li> +<li>Portugal, physical causes of the superstition existing in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. +Absence of science and triumph of the imagination in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Potato, the principal food of the labouring classes in Ireland, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. +Time of its introduction into that country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> <i>note</i>. The potato crop +compared with that of wheat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Used as food by the ancient Peruvians, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>. Introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. The starch of the +potato frozen into saccharine in Southern Peru, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_111">111</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Pouissin, his works of art, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Prathama-Raja, the Hindu poets' account of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Precision contrasted with certainty in writing history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li><a name="Predestination" id="Predestination">Predestination</a>, probable origin of the dogma of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>. Foundation of the +theory, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. Calvin, Augustin, and the Manichæans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. Ambrose, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> <i>note</i>. +Writers on the absurdity of ‘an omnipotent arbitrary deity,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> <i>note</i>. +Barrenness of the hypothesis of predestination in a scientific +investigation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. The doctrine of providential interference bound up +with that of predestination, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_19">19</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Preëmption, destruction of the prerogative of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_385">385</a></li> +<li>Prerogative, royal limits set to the, after the expulsion of the Stuarts, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. None of our sovereigns since Queen Anne allowed to be present at +state deliberations, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a> <i>note</i>. Reaction in favour of divine right, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a></li> +<li>Prescription, old customary French law of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>‘Presidial Jurisdiction,’ by Jousse, suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Press, efforts made by governments to destroy the liberty of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>. Foundation of the public press in England, and its effect on English +civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>. Final abolition of the censorship over the, in +England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. Practice of the English clergy of censuring all books that +encouraged free inquiry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. First publication of Sunday newspapers, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>. Speech of Danvers as to the power of the press in his time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_484">484</a> +<i>note</i>. War carried on in the reign of George III. against free +discussion of the acts of the government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_491">491</a>. Vindictive +prosecutions and persecutions of eminent men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_488">488</a>. Importance of the +press in England and France in the middle of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Preston-pans, battle of, iii. <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +<li>Prévost de la Jannes, his ‘Life of Domat’ suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Prévost, his views as to the laws of the radiation of heat, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Priapus, Voltaire's remarks on the worship of, quoted, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_303">303</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Pride compared with vanity, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li>Pride, Colonel, his origin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Primi, the Abbé, his ‘History of Louis XIV.,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. Thrown into the +Bastille, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Printing, early knowledge of, in China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_302">302</a> <i>note</i>. Legislative +restrictions in former times on, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_386">386</a> <i>note</i>. When first generally +practised in country towns, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Probability, Romish doctrine of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_22">22</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Profits, in what they consist, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[531]</a></span> +Always reduced by high wages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Progress, moral and intellectual, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>. Comparison of the moral with +the intellectual element, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>. See <a href="#Knowledge">Knowledge</a>; <a href="#Intellect">Intellect</a>; <a href="#Man">Man</a></li> +<li>Progress, social, inferences to be drawn as to the causes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Proselytism, why opposed by Charron, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_20">20</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li><a name="Protective_spirit" id="Protective_spirit">Protective spirit</a>, effect of the prevalence of the, in France, in trade +and in politics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>. History of the protective spirit, and +comparison of it in France and England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. This spirit not destroyed by +the feudal system, but only assumed a new shape, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. New form of the +protective spirit which continues in France to the present time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. The +results compared in France and England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. Activity of the protective +spirit in France, as shown by the history of chivalry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_131">131–134</a>. Effect of +this spirit carried into religion at the period of the Reformation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. +Attempts of Charles I. to revive the old protective spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. Results +of the energy of the protective spirit on the issue of the Fronde, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_160">160–174</a>. The protective spirit carried by Louis XIV. into literature, and +its result, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i> Lamentable results of the system of patronage +in the reign of Louis XIV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>. Reasons why government patronage should +take a wrong course, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>. Illustrations of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. Reaction against the +protective spirit in France, and preparations for the French Revolution, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li>Protestantism, compared with Roman Catholicism, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>. Intolerance, +bigotry, and persecution of the Protestantism of Sweden, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>. Intolerance +of Protestants compared with that of the Catholics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. Policy of +Mazarin as to the <a name="Protestants_French" id="Protestants_French">French Protestants</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_96">96</a> <i>et seq.</i> The war of Philip II. +against the Dutch Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_451">451</a>. Refusal of Henry IV. of France to +punish them at the request of the pope, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. The King's measures for +their protection, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>. The Edict of Nantes confirmed by Catherine de +Medici and by Louis XIII., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. Richelieu's liberal treatment of the +Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_37">37–39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. The Protestant Confederation of 1633, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>. +Desertion of the Protestant leaders, and consequent fall of the +Protestant party into the hands of the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_47">47–50</a>. De Rohan and his +brother the only staunch Protestant leaders in 1621, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. Causes of the +intolerance of the French Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. Causes which produced +their former superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_52">52–54</a>. Evidence of their intolerance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>. +Decisions of the assembly at Saumur, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>. And of other assemblies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>. +Their interference in the functions of government and in other matters, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>. Bitterness of feeling exhibited in the works put forth by them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +Join the rebellion under Condé, and are defeated, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. Their rebellion in +Béarn, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. Civil war raised by them, and its character, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>. Their +wealth, accumulated by industry and piracy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>. The General Assembly of +La Rochelle and its decisions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. The consequent civil war, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>. +Treaties of Montpelier and La Rochelle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>. Interference of the +Protestants in the commonest occurrences of life, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. Results<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[532]</a></span> +which would have happened to France if the Protestants had gained the +upper hand, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>. The rebellion of the Protestants put down by +Richelieu, who, however, refuses to persecute them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>. Siege of La +Rochelle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>. Civil rights conceded to Protestant by a royal edict, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_335">335</a></li> +<li>Providential interference, doctrine of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_19">19</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Prussia, Extent of popular superstitions in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_238">238</a> <i>note</i>. Origin of the +name of, according to the historians of the Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Punishments future, Charron's views as to the doctrine of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_22">22</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Punjab, Arab conquest of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li>Puppet-shows forbidden by the French Protestants, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Puritans, their government of England, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. Their fanaticism, and +little superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. Instances of their ignorance of the real +principles of government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_361">361</a></li> +<li>Purveyance, destruction of the prerogative of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_385">385</a></li> +<li>Pyramids of Egypt, a testimony of the degraded condition of the people, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>. Weight of the great pyramid, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_90">90</a> <i>note</i>. Hypotheses as to the +purposes for which they were built, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_90">90</a> <i>note</i>. Estimate of the expense of +building one of the pyramids, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_91">91</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Pyrenees, treaty of the, signed by Cardinal Mazarin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Quæns, historical error to which their name gave rise, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>Quid emptores, statute of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Quiché Indians, corrupt Christianity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_265">265</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Quinault, the poet of French music, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Rabelais, not the first French sceptic, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. His ridicule of the +clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. Difference between him and Montaigne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>Racine, his works, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. Pensioned to write a history of France for +Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Rae, Mr., his inquiry into the method of investigation which political +economists ought to follow, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Ragi, use of the grain called, in the south of India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Ragnar Lodbrok, confusion in Saxo-Grammaticus's life of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>Raikes, Robert, his organization of Sunday schools, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Railways, effect of, in correcting national prejudices, and in diffusing +desires for peace, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_221">221–223</a></li> +<li>Rainbow, the causes of the, detected by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>. Notions of the +Hebrews and of other nations respecting the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_79">79</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Raleigh, Sir Walter, his military genius and works, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Ravaillac, murders Henry IV. of France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>. Accounts of him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_24">24</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Raynal, l'Abbé, suppression of his work on the Indies, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li>Reading clubs, formation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a></li> +<li>Reaumur, appearance of his work on the natural history of animals, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Rebellion, the Great English, causes which gave rise to, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +Characteristics of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. Difference between it and the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>. +Conduct of the nobles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. The true character of the Rebellion, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>. Plebeian origin of the leaders, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155–159</a>. Causes of its success, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>Reboulet, suppression of his ‘History of Clement XI.,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Red Sea Canal, number of lives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[533]</a></span> +sacrificed in the construction of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Reform, the principle of, abandoned by William Pitt, i, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>. Mr. Grey's +remarks on Pitt's conduct, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Reformation, connexion between the, and the views advocated by Richard +Hooker, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_351">351</a> <i>note</i>. Immediate fall of the Church in England at the +first assault of the Reformation, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. Influence of the Reformation +generally in increasing the power of the Catholic clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> <i>note</i>. The +Reformation encouraged by the pride of Englishmen, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. Analogy between +the Reformation and the Revolutions of the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138–140</a>. +Short existence of the Reformation in Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. Causes which brought +about the Reformation in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. John Knox, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>. The +Reformation established, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Reform Bill, important effects of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>Reid, Thomas, examination of his philosophy, iii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. Estimate of the +value of what he effected, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>. Opposition between his method and that of +Bacon, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>Religion; views of Hume and Comte respecting monotheism, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_251">251</a> <i>note</i>. +Influence of religion on the progress of society, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>. Illustration from +the efforts of the missionaries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>. From the history of the Jews, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>. From the early history of Christianity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>. And from Sweden and +Scotland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_263">263–266</a>. Baneful results of legislative attempts to encourage +religious truth and discourage religious error, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_281">281–285</a>. Origin of +religious toleration in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. The last executions in England for +heresy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. The right of private judgment held sacred by Chillingworth, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. Whose work formed a decisive vindication of religious dissent, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +Passing of the Toleration Act, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. Easy and rapid changes in the +national faith under Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>. +Charron's the first instance in modern language of the doctrine of +religious development, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>. An end put to religious wars by Richelieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +Authorities respecting religious wars, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i>. Effect of the peace of +Westphalia, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. Origin of the difference between religious theory and +religious practice, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. Eagerness of the clergy rather directed against +error than against virtue, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_52">52</a> <i>note</i>. Causes of the energy and vitality +of a religion not protected by the government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>. Descartes' remarks +on the slaves to form in religion, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>. Causes which lessen the +disposition to form new creeds, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_263">263</a> <i>note</i>. Religious wars, massacres, +and persecutions, the result of ignorance of the duties of governments, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_262">262</a></li> +<li>Rent, theory of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> <i>note</i>. Considered as a division of wealth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> +<i>note</i>. Rent in England, Scotland, France, and the United States, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. In +India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>. Mode of ascertaining the true theory of rent, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>note</i>. +Remarks on the theory of, iii. <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> +<li>Representation, personal establishment of the political doctrine of, i. +435</li> +<li>Reptiles, noxious, worship of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Respiration, theory of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_367">367</a></li> +<li>Retz, Cardinal de, character of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>. Secular view taken by him of +political affairs, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li>Reviews, literary periodical, origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_433">433</a></li> +<li>Revolution of 1688, proximate cause<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[534]</a></span> +of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. Importance of the, to England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. Sudden +repentance of the clergy in having promoted it, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_403">403</a></li> +<li>Revolution, the French, preparations for the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. Precursors of the, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Causes of the hideous peculiarities of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. Its proximate +causes, after the middle of the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. The first epoch +through which the French intellect passed in the eighteenth century, +viz., the attack on the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. The second epoch, viz., the attack +on the State, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. Rise of the political economists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. Sudden increase +of works relating to finance and other questions of government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>. +Influence of Rousseau, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. Attack of the government on the Church, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. Machault's edict against mortmain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. Excitement caused by the +edict, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a> <i>note</i>. The anti-ecclesiastical policy of Machault's +successors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Religious toleration of the government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. Revival of +Jansenism in France, and consequent overthrow of the Jesuits, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +After the fall of the Jesuits, the fall of the clergy inevitable, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +Reasons for this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. Rise and progress of atheistical opinions in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Study of physical phenomena in France in connexion with the +Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_375">375–404</a>. Effect of the American Rebellion in hastening the +Revolution in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>. Jefferson's part in the final blow dealt +to the French government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_418">418</a>. Summary of the causes of the French +Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>Revolution, the Scottish, of 1559, iii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Rey, the first European philosophic chemist, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li>Rhyme, antiquity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_293">293</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Rice, the general food of the people of India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. Nutritive qualities +of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>. Immense yield of a rice-crop, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Richard I. of England, historical error as to his appellation of the +Lion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Richardson, admiration of Diderot for the works of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li>Richelieu, Cardinal, his character, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. Compared with Napoleon, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>. Fails to diminish the power of the French nobility, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. Effectually +humbles the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_29">29–31</a>. His treatment of the clergy how regarded by +them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>. Charges brought against him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>. Review of his career, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>. +Supports the new secular scheme of government against the old +ecclesiastical schemes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>. His liberal treatment of the Protestants, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_37">37–42</a>. His endeavours to save the Palatine, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>. The peculiar glory of his +administration, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>. Correspondence of his policy in regard to the French +Protestant and Catholic Churches, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_42">42</a> <i>et seq.</i> Puts down the rebellion of +the Protestants, but abstains from persecuting them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>. Confirms the +Edict of Nantes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>. Determines on the siege of Rochelle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>. Reasons why +he put down the Protestant party, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>. His liberal policy part only of +a much larger movement, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>. Analogy of the philosophy of Descartes with +Richelieu's anti-theological policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Rio de Janeiro, vigour and profusion of the vegetation near, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Rioja, Spanish poet, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Riolan, period in which he flourished, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Ripperda, his services to Spain, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_542">542</a></li> +<li>Roads in Scotland in the seventeenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[535]</a></span> +and eighteenth centuries, iii. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> +<i>note</i>. Aversion of the Highlanders to roads, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Robertson, Dr., value of his ‘History of Scotland,’ iii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Robinson, John, Bishop of Bristol, the last ecclesiastic who held any of +the high offices of state, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_417">417</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Rochelle, La, intolerance of the Protestants in the town of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>. +Determinations of the general assembly of 1620, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>. The civil war +and its character, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_63">63–66</a>. Peace of La Rochelle, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>. The great siege of, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Rochester, first printing office in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Rohan, Duc de, employed by Richelieu, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>. De Rohan and his brother +Soubise the only staunch Protestant leaders in 1621, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. An amnesty +granted to him by Richelieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Rohan, Chevalier de, his ill-treatment of Voltaire, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>Roland, Madame, her knowledge of the English language and literature, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li>Rolle, his remark on the peers created by George III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_454">454</a></li> +<li>Romans, the, in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. Character of their civilization in +their best days, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. Cause of their decline, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> +<li>Rome, causes of the persecutions of the Christians by the Emperors of, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>. Reason of the evanescence of the civilization of ancient, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. +Voltaire's services in purging the early history of Rome of its +absurdities, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. Niebuhr's arguments anticipated by Voltaire, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. Montesquieu's the first account of the real history of Rome, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +Machiavelli's views, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i>. Vico's opinions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Roses, wars of the, effect of the, upon the English nobles, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li>Ross, Western, seized by the Norwegians, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. Annexed to the Crown of +Scotland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Ross, John, his violent sermon against James VI., iii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +<li>Rouelle, his geological labours, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_368">368</a></li> +<li>Roundheads, title first bestowed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li>Rousseau, J. J., his opinion of the works of Montaigne, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i>. +Persecuted by the Government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. Influence of his works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. +Enthusiasm of the nation in his favour, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_331">331</a> <i>note</i>. Immense demand for +his works, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_331">331</a> <i>note</i>. Belongs to the Calvinistic sect, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Royal Society, avowed object of the establishment of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_371">371</a></li> +<li>Rubis, De, his work on the European monarchies, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li>Russia, cause of the war between Turkey and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>. And of Russian +predilection for war, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Ruthven, Raid of, iii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Sabbath, the Scotch, iii. <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Sahara desert, its extent, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>. Condition of its inhabitants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Sailors, causes of the superstitions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_379">379</a></li> +<li>Saint-Fargeau, Pelletier de, his Jansenism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Saint Lambert, his professed atheism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Salamanca, reply of the University of, when urged to teach the physical +sciences, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sales, Delisle de, persecuted for his writings, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Sancroft, William, his character as archbishop of Canterbury, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. Dr. +Birch's opinion of him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a> <i>note</i>. His attempts to convert James II. to +Protestantism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_395">395</a> <i>note</i>. His open disloyalty, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_408">408</a></li> +<li>Sandoval, Spanish historiographer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[536]</a></span> +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Sanscrit, character of the works written in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. And of the +Sanscrit language, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_134">134</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Saracens, origin of the name of, according to the historians of the +Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>Saragossa besieged by Childebert and Clotaire, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Saumaise, his opinion of the English people of the seventeenth century, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Saumur, decisions of the Protestant assembly at, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Saveur, considered as the inventor of acoustics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Saxe, Maurice de, his treatment of the actress Chantilly, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li>Saxo Grammaticus, confusion in his life of Ragnar Lodbrok, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>Scandinavia, causes of error in the early history of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>. The elder +and younger Eddas, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. Pork the chief food of the Scandinavians in early +times, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> <i>note</i>. Scandinavian pirates in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +<li>Scepticism; the spirit of doubt the necessary precursor of improvement, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>. Hence the immense importance of scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. First open +appearance of scepticism in England and France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. Authorities as to +the increase of scepticism in England since the latter part of the +eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_356">356</a> <i>note</i>. What the author means by the term +scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_357">357</a> <i>note</i>. Degree of suffering produced on some minds, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>. +Legislative improvements of the reign of Charles II. caused by the +sceptical and inquiring spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. Encouragement given to scepticism by +the conduct of the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. Rapid succession of sceptical +controversies early in the eighteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a>. First appearance of +scepticism in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. Rabelais, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. Intimate connexion between +scepticism and toleration in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. Montaigne, the first systematic +sceptic in that country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. The first open declaration of scepticism in +France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>. Reason why scepticism was favoured by Henry IV. of France, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. Scepticism of Hooker and Chillingworth, and of Montaigne and +Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>. Spread of scepticism in France in the middle of the +seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>note</i>. Analogy between the progress of +scepticism in England and France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>. Period when the spirit of +inquiry began to weaken the church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. Commencement of the struggle +between the advocates of inquiry and the advocates of belief, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>. +Rise and extent of historical scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>. The first sceptical book +in the French language, by Montaigne, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>Schism Act, passing of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a></li> +<li>Scholastic prejudices overthrown by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Science unknown to the Egyptians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. Relation between inventions, +discoveries, and method, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_387">387</a></li> +<li>Scotland, rent paid by the cultivator in proportion to the gross produce, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. Character of the method of investigation of the great thinkers of, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. Cause and effect of the divergence and hostility between the +practical and speculative classes of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. Robert Simson and Matthew +Stewart, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Superstition, intolerance and bigotry of the clergy and +people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>. The bards of Scotland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i>. Origin of the Scotch +people, according to the writers of the Middle Ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>. Abolition of +episcopacy in Scotland, by William<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[537]</a></span> +III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>. Condition of Scotland to the end of the fourteenth century, +iii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i> Scotland and Spain compared as to loyalty, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>. Similarity +of the two countries as to superstition, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>. Investigation of the causes +of Scotch liberality in politics united with illiberality in religion, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> +<i>et seq.</i> Influence of the physical geography of the country on the +course of events, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>. Scotch roads in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>note</i>. +The Roman invasion, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. The Irish invasion, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. The Norwegian invasion, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. +Attacks of the English, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. Immediate consequences of their struggle with +the English in the Scottish character, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. Agriculture stopped, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. Wars on the borders, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>. The growth of towns stopped by +the wars, and the power of the nobles thereby increased, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>. +Circumstances favourable to the authority of the nobles, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. Weakness of +the Crown, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. Ravages of the Highlanders, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>. Prevalence of +barter, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. Industry impossible, and the commonest arts unknown, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +Dirty habits of the people, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>note</i>. Scanty population of the Scotch +towns, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i> Their utter feebleness, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>. Causes of the alliance of +the Crown with the Church, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. Superstition of Scotland, and its causes, +<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. Witchcraft, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>. Ignorance of the upper and lower classes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>. +Triumph of the aristocracy over the Church and Crown, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. Their +subsequent decline, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. Condition of Scotland in the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>. Vigorous measures of Albany against the nobles, +<a href="#Page_45">45</a>. And of James I., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. And of James II., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. Clanship, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. The Crown +encouraged by the clergy against the nobles, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. Struggle in consequence, +<a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i> The Reformation in Scotland the result of this struggle, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +Battle of Solway and death of James V., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. Murder of Cardinal +Beaton, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. Career of John Knox, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>. Influence of the Guises, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>. +Mary of Guise deposed from the Regency, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. Treaty of Berwick, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +Supremacy of the nobles established, and destruction of the Church, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +Quarrel between the nobles and the preachers about the wealth of the +Church, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. Presentation of the First Book of Discipline, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. The shares +of the new and old clergy, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. The nobles said to have been instigated by +the devil, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>. Persecution of the new clergy by Morton, at the head of +the nobles, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>. The consequent rupture between Church and State, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. The +struggle under the leader, ship of Andrew Melville, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. Attack on the +bishops, ending with the abolition of episcopacy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i> The Second +Book of Discipline, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. Struggle between the upper classes and clergy as +to episcopacy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. Violent language used by the clergy, Melville's +personal insult to the King, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. The Gowrie conspiracy, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Boons +conferred upon their country by the clergy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. Condition of Scotland +during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i> Attempts +of James VI. (now James I. of England) to subjugate the clergy, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. He +forces episcopacy upon them, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. And sets up High Courts of Commission, +<a href="#Page_125">125</a>. Tyrannical conduct of the bishops, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. The reaction, and its +causes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. Framing of the National Covenant, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. Overthrow of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[538]</a></span> +Bishops, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. Oppressions of Charles II., <a href="#Page_137">137–139</a>. His attempts to +establish a permanent despotism baffled, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. Episcopacy re-established, +<a href="#Page_141">141</a>. Dragonnades in the west, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>. Cruelties of James II., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. +Consequences of the alliance between the Crown and the clergy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. The +reaction of 1688, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>. Causes of the rebellion of the Highlanders in 1715 +and 1745 in favour of the Stuarts, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>. Insignificance into which the +Highlanders sank after 1745, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. Beginning of the trading spirit, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>. +Connexion between the rise of the trading spirit and the abolition of +hereditary jurisdictions, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Armour ceased to be worn, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>. Causes +of the decline of the power of the nobles, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. Treatment which they +received in London, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. Rage in Scotland for speaking with an +English accent, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>note</i>. Causes of the abolition of clanship, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, +<a href="#Page_168">168</a>. Sudden rise of trading and manufacturing interests, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>. Their +growth assisted by the union with England, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>. Facts illustrative of the +history of Scotch industry down to the middle of the eighteenth century, +<a href="#Page_178">178</a> <i>et seq.</i> The first banks in Scotland, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>. Rise of a new and +splendid literature, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. Which, however, fails to diminish the national +superstition, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. Recapitulation of the history of the struggle with +episcopacy, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>et seq.</i> Cromwell's chain of fortresses in Scotland, +<a href="#Page_194">194</a>. Causes of the war of the people against Charles I., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>. Events +which produced the solemn League and Covenant, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. Effect and cause of +Scotch superstition, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. Zeal of the people to hear sermons of +inordinate frequency and of terrible length, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. Effect of the +pretensions and arrogance of the clergy on the Scotch mind, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>et +seq.</i> Examination of Scotch philosophical literature of the eighteenth +century, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. And of Scotch physical philosophy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. Superstition and +illiberality in religion still existing in Scotland, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>. Notions +countenanced there respecting the origin of epidemics, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>. +Correspondence between the Presbytery of Edinburgh and Lord Palmerston on +the origin of the cholera in 1853, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> +<li>Sculpture, condition of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Segovia, appearance of, in 1659, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_503">503</a> <i>note</i>. Decline of the silk and +wool manufactures of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_503">503</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Seiks, cause of their superstition respecting the wounds inflicted by the +tiger, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Serpent, worship of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Serra, his views as to the exportation of the precious metals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Serres, historiographer of France, importance attached by him to correct +dates in history, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_267">267</a></li> +<li>Severus, his expedition against Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li>Sévigné, Madame, her name for Queen Mary, consort of William III., ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Seville, decline of, in the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_501">501</a></li> +<li>Sewell, Mr., his remarks on the doctrines of passive obedience and divine +right, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_394">394</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sexes, proportion kept up by the law of Nature in the births of the, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>. Opinions respecting the origin of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_170">170</a> <i>note</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_173">173</a> <i>note</i>. +Method by which the discovery of the proportion has been made, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li>Shaftesbury, Earl of, Lord Chancellor, his notions of political economy, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_211">211</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Shakspeare, his investigations of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[539]</a></span> +human mind, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> <i>note</i>. His pure English, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_307">307</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sharp, archbishop of St. Andrews, iii. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. His cruelty and rapacity, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Sheldon, Gilbert, his character as archbishop of Canterbury, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a></li> +<li>Shetland Isles, seized by the Norwegians, iii. <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>‘Siam, History of,’ by Turpin, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Silk trade of Toledo, lost, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>Sinclair, Sir John, his services to statistical science, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_33">33</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sion College, the only public library in London at the end of the +seventeenth century, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sigfussen Sæmund, his compilation of the Elder Edda, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_301">301</a></li> +<li>Silesia, origin of the name of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>Simson, Professor Robert, his efforts to revive the pure Greek geometry, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. Notice of him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> <i>note</i>. His reasons for recommending the old +analysis, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sines, law of the, pointed out by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_278">278</a></li> +<li>Sins, specimens of the, invented by the Scotch clergy, iii. <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> +<li>Siva, antiquity of the worship of, in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>. How represented by +the Hindus, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>. His wife Doorga or Kali, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Skye, Isle of, seized by the Norwegians, iii. <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Slavery, favour with which it was regarded by George III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a>. +Burke's attack on, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a>. Extinction of slavery in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. Its +recent extinction in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Small-pox, extra European origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_130">130</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Smith, Adam, publication of his ‘Wealth of Nations,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>. Its +influence in a few years, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. His views as to the usury laws, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> +<i>note</i>. His services to mankind, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. His method of metaphysical +investigation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>. French translations of his ‘Theory of the Moral +Sentiments,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. And of his ‘Wealth of Nations,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. Examination of +his philosophy, as shown together in the ‘Moral Sentiments’ and in the +‘Wealth of Nations,’ iii. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. His obliviousness and disregard of facts, +<a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. His method of studying pathology compared with that of Cullen, +<a href="#Page_417">417</a></li> +<li>Smith, William, character of his geological speculations, iii. <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li> +<li>Smuggling, the only means of keeping up trade during the evil +interference of legislation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>. Moral evils of smuggling, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_279">279</a></li> +<li>Social laws, triumph of, over every obstacle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>. Best method of +arriving at social truth, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li>Socrates, effect produced by his method of dialectics upon some Greek +minds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_357">357</a></li> +<li>Soil, influence of, on the human race, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. The Great Sahara, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>. The +valley of the Nile, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. Heat and moisture the causes which regulate +the fertility of every country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Soldiers, why less superstitious than sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_379">379</a></li> +<li>Solids, Cullen's theory of the, iii. <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>Solis, the Spanish historian, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Solway, battle of, iii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li>Somers, Lord, prosecution instituted against him by the House of Commons, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a>. Protected by the House of Lords, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a></li> +<li>Sorbonne, Duvernet's history of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Sowrdis, Archbishop of Bordeaux, ignominiously beaten, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. Flies to +Carpentras, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Space, the idea of, of the metaphysicians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>. Authorities on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[540]</a></span> +the different theories of space, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Spain, Arab conquest of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>. Physical causes of the superstition +existing in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. Triumph of the imagination, and absence of science in, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. Causes of the persecutions in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>. Numbers of persons put to death +by the inquisition in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. Pork, a common food in, in former ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_314">314</a> +<i>note</i>. Archbishop Turpin's account of Charlemagne's conquest of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_319">319</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>. Scepticism punished, and its promulgation prevented in, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. +Influence of French literature in, in diffusing scepticism late in the +last century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_336">336</a> <i>note</i>. Outline of the history of the intellect of, +from the fifth to the middle of the nineteenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425</a>. Heat and +dryness of the climate, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a>. And therefore droughts and famines frequent +and serious, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_427">427</a>. Earthquakes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_428">428</a>. Causes of the prevalence of a +pastoral life in Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a>. Settlement of the Visigoths and +establishment of their opinions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. Attacks of the Franks upon their +Arian neighbours, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_435">435</a>. Rise of the influence of the Spanish priesthood, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a>. Character of Durham's ‘History of Spain and Portugal,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a> <i>note</i>. +Proofs of the power of the Spanish clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. Harsh character of +the Spanish laws against heresy and the Jews, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_438">438</a>. The eight centuries of +struggle between the Arabs and Spaniards, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_440">440</a>. Effect of the dangers +of the Spaniards in exciting their superstitious feelings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>. Their +chest of relics in the Asturias, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_441">441</a>. Their miracles and dreams, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_442">442</a>. The +three ways in which the Mohammedan invasion strengthened the devotional +feelings of the Spanish people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_444">444</a>. Capacity and honesty of Isabella in +the war with the Arabs, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_444">444</a>. Ferdinand and Isabella's decree against the +Jews, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_445">445</a>. The number of Jews actually expelled from Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a> <i>note</i>. +Domestic and foreign policy of Charles V., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a>. His obedience to the +tendencies of his age, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_447">447–449</a>. Character of Philip II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_450">450</a>. His +war against the Dutch Protestants, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_451">451</a>. Number of persons put to Death by +Alva, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_451">451</a>. Object of all the wars and negotiations of Philip II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a>. +The Armada prepared to humble England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_453">453</a>. Unshaken loyalty of Philip's +subjects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_455">455</a>. Causes of the spirit of loyalty which has +distinguished the Spanish above every other European nation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_455">455</a>. The +Arab invasion one of the causes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_456">456</a>. The old ballads, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_456">456</a>. The poem of +‘The Cid,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_457">457</a>. Loyalty of the Spanish codes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_458">458</a>. Consequences of +Spanish loyalty and superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_461">461</a> <i>et seq.</i> Rapid progress of Spain +in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_463">463</a>. Her territories in America +and in other parts of the world, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_464">464</a>. Her military superiority over her +contemporaries, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_464">464</a>. Her eminent literary men who were also soldiers, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_464">464</a>. Causes of her decline, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_467">467</a>. Essential difference between +English and Spanish civilization, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_466">466</a>. The decay of Spain in the +seventeenth century due to the weakness of her people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_470">470</a>. The declining +energy of the government the cause of the increasing influence of the +clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_472">472</a>. Davila's statement of the Spanish theory of government, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_472">472</a> +<i>note</i>. Flourishing state of the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_475">475</a>. Her hold over the highest +as well as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[541]</a></span> +lowest intellects, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_479">479</a>. Great numbers of works on Spanish +ecclesiastical history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_483">483</a>. Expulsion of the Moors from Spain, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_483">483–485</a>. Cruelty with which they were treated, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_485">485–494</a>. +Effect of the expulsion of the Moors in impoverishing the country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_497">497</a>. +Steps which mark the decline of Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_500">500</a>. Loss of population and of +manufactures, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_501">501–504</a>. Increase of poverty, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_504">504–506</a>. +Destruction of the military reputation of Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_515">515</a>. The whole +kingdom unprotected, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_509">509</a>. Gangs of robbers and murderers in the capital, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_510">510</a> <i>note</i>. The Austrian dynasty succeeded by the Bourbons, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_513">513</a>. Policy +of the first Bourbon, Philip V., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_513">513</a>. The Dukes of Berwick and Vendôme, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_515">515–517</a>. The finances of Spain administered by Orry, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_518">518</a>. Alberoni +Ripperda, and Konigseg, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_519">519</a>. Endeavours of foreigners to improve the +country by weakening the Church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_521">521</a>. The clergy forced to contribute to +the taxes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_523">523</a>. Alliances formed between Spain and the Mohammedans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_525">525</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_549">549</a>. Inertness and ignorance of the people, high and low, at this period, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_529">529</a>. State of medical science in the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_532">532</a>. Foreign +aid called in to remedy native ignorance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_536">536</a>. Expulsion of the Jesuits, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_546">546</a>. Attacks made on the Inquisition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_547">547</a>. Foreign policy of Spain under +the influence of foreigners, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_549">549</a>. A prospect of the return of wealth +opened up, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_551">551</a>. Effects of the vigour displayed by Charles III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_552">552</a> +<i>et seq.</i> Causes of his failure to produce permanent good, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_553">553</a>. Decline +of Spain under Charles IV., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_571">571</a>. Endeavours in the nineteenth century to +improve the country, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_574">574</a>. Causes of their failure, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_575">575</a>. Immense natural +advantages of Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_583">583</a>. Her great men, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_585">585</a>. Her progress prevented by +national ignorance, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_589">589</a>. The essential vice of the Spanish people, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_592">592</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_593">593</a>. Causes which keep Spain in her miserable condition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_593">593</a> <i>et seq.</i> +Scotland contrasted with Spain as to loyalty and superstition, iii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li>Stafford, William, his work on the theory of politics, ‘A Brief Conceipt +of English Policy,’ i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Stanyan's ‘History of Greece,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li>Starch, amount of oxygen in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Starvation, proximate causes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>States-General of France, feebleness of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Statesmen, why as a body they are always in the rear of their age, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_213">213</a></li> +<li>Statistics, study of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>. Importance of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> <i>note</i>. Of murder and other +crimes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_24">24–29</a>. Value of statistics in the light thrown upon the study of +human nature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>. Early writers on statistics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_33">33</a> <i>note</i>. Dislike of Adam +Smith and David Hume for statistics, iii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. Objections to them, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Steam, effect of the application of, to purposes of travelling, in +weakening the love of war, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_219">219–221</a></li> +<li>Steam-engine, Watt's invention of the, iii. <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> +<li>Stearn, Richard, his character as Archbishop of Canterbury, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_392">392</a></li> +<li>Stepney, Mr., his notions of political economy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_211">211</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Stewart, Professor Matthew, his crusade against the algebraic or +symbolical analysis, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li>Stœffler, John, his predictions as to the deluge of 1524, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li>Stoics, the, on the preservation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[542]</a></span> +consciousness in dreams and in insanity, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_17">17</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Stuart, Charles, the young Pretender, his stupidity and drunkenness, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_444">444</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Subinfeudation, effects of, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Suicide, the crime of, dependent upon the individual, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>. Futility of +endeavours to diminish, by legislation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_26">26</a> <i>note</i>. Bentham on the perjury +of English juries in cases of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_26">26</a> <i>note</i>. Regularity of the recurrence +of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. Causes of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. Supposed effect of gloomy weather on the love of, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>220 <i>note</i>. Statistics of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Sully, Marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>. His historical work, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>Sumatra, superstitions of the people of, respecting tigers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Sumbawa, the great earthquake and volcanic eruption of 1815 at, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Sunday schools begun, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_430">430</a>. Opposition of the clergy to their +establishment, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_431">431</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Superstition, physical causes which give birth to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>. +Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. The worship of ferocious +animals, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. The fear of death, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. Pestilences, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. Extent of +popular superstition in Prussia, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_238">238</a> <i>note</i>. Progress of the English +intellect in the seventeenth century in shaking off ancient +superstitions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. Instance in Scotland of the popular belief in +supernatural causation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>. Causes of the superstitions of sailors and +agriculturists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. Terror inspired by comets and eclipses, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. The +study of final causes abandoned by Descartes, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>. Connexion between +loyalty and superstition, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_455">455</a>. Similarity between Scotland and Spain as +to superstition, iii. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>. Scotland favourable to superstition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. Sources +of superstition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. Cause and effect of Scotch superstition, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +Superstition of the Scotch still existing, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>. Superstitions every day +becoming effaced as physical science advances, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> +<li>Surgery, decline of the science of, in the reign of Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Surnames, origin of, in Europe, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li>Sweden, intolerance, bigotry, and persecution of the Protestantism of, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>. Swedish heroes of antiquity, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>Switzerland, Calvinism the popular creed of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>Sydenham, Thomas, his reformation in therapeutics, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Sympathy, examination of, iii. <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. Hunter's pathological speculations +respecting the principles of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Taille, the, in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. Authorities respecting the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_129">129</a> <i>note</i>. +The diminution of the, proposed by the Fronde, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_150">150</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Talleyrand, M. de, his admiration for Charron's ‘De la Sagesse,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>‘Tamerlane, History of,’ by Margat, suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Tarrega, the Spanish dramatist, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li>Tartars, origin of the, according to the writers of the Middle Ages, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. And according to Whiston, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_313">313</a> <i>note</i>. Effects of the barrenness of +the steppes of, in keeping the people uncivilized, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>‘Taste, Essay on,’ by Cartaud, suppressed, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Taxation; settlement of the right of the people of England to be taxed +entirely by their own representatives, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. Disputes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[543]</a></span> +between the two Houses of Parliament respecting taxation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_384">384</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Taylor, Jeremy, his abilities and virtues, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. Marked neglect with +which he was treated by Charles II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. His assertion of the doctrine +of passive obedience, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_401">401</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Teeth of animals, researches of Nasmyth and Owen on the structure of, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_385">385</a></li> +<li>Temperaments, the theory of, the principal stumbling-block of the +phrenologists, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Teratology, formation of the science of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_397">397</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Terray, M., his attack on Church property in France, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. His open +protection of the Jansenists, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Test Act, the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. Suspended by James II., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. Repealed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Theology, state of the, of Europe from the sixth to the tenth centuries, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. Attempts to make politics a mere branch of theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_326">326–328</a>. +Theological justification of persecution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. Increasing indifference to +theological matters in England in the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>. +Chillingworth's views, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. Connexion between the Reformation and +the dogma of an infallible church, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. The authority of private +judgment recognized, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. Ecclesiastical power almost extinct in Europe, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_354">354</a> <i>note</i>. Decline in British theology at the present time, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_355">355</a> <i>note</i>. +Efforts of the clergy to check the progress of scepticism, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>. Political +character of the opposition to ecclesiastical authority in the reigns of +James I. and Charles I., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. Antagonism in the reign of Charles II. +between the physical sciences and the theological spirit, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. Reasons of +the hostility of the clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>. Separation of theology from morals and +politics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a>. Effect of this separation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425</a>. Attempts to put down the +Theological Society, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_436">436</a> <i>note</i>. Theological influence greater in France +in the sixteenth century than in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>. Charron's the first +attempt made in a modern language to construct a system of morals without +the aid of theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. Preparation of the way for the separation of +theology from politics, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. Analogy of the anti-theological policy of +Richelieu with the philosophy of Descartes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>. Mischief done to the old +theology by Descartes' principles, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. Effect of the protective spirit +carried into theology, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>. Former subservience of philosophy to +theology, and universal interest which theological discussions once +inspired, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>. Exactness of the knowledge of theologians on subjects on +which nothing is known, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_284">284</a> <i>note</i>. Reasons why theology is inferior to +history, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. Voltaire's attack on mere theologians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>. The +question of free will taken up by theologians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. De Maistre's method +of investigation, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_389">389</a> <i>note</i>. Reasons why the theological or deductive +method of philosophy was followed in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. The deductive +method of philosophy only applicable to theology, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>Theory, necessity of, in science, but dangerous in practice, iii. <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> +<li>Thermotics, attention given to, in France, in the eighteenth century, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>Therapeutics, Sydenham's reformations in, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>. Difference between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[544]</a></span> +the art of, and the science of, pathology, iii. <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li> +<li>Thibet, bards of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Thomas, suppression of his ‘Eloge on Marcus Aurelius,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Thomson, Hugh, the Presbyterian preacher, iii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Thread manufacture of Paisley, rise of the, iii. <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +<li>Thumb-screw, torture of the, iii. <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li>Tigers worshipped by the Hajin tribe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i>. Superstitions of the +Garrows and Seiks respecting them, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i>. How regarded by the +Malasir, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_125">125</a> <i>note</i>. And by the inhabitants of Sumatra, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Tissues, food necessary for repairing the waste of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. +Bichat's views respecting the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_379">379–382</a>. The degenerations of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_382">382</a> +<i>note</i>. The study of, neglected by Cuvier, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_383">383</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Toledo, power of the clergy at, in the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_437">437</a>. +Captured from the Arabs, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_440">440</a>. Decline of, in the seventeenth century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>Toleration, religious, origin of, in England, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. Unusual amount of +toleration in Holland two centuries back, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_337">337</a> <i>note</i>. State of the two +hostile creeds in England in the reign of Elizabeth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. Hooker's +‘Ecclesiastical Polity’ compared with Jewel's ‘Apology for the Church of +England,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. Causes which always hasten the march of toleration, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>54. Summary of the progress of toleration in England and France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>. The +religious toleration of the French government in the middle of the +eighteenth, century, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_334">334</a></li> +<li>Toleration Act, passing of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a></li> +<li>Toolholos, or bards of Thibet, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_292">292</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Tooth, golden, work of Dr. Horst on the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_332">332</a></li> +<li>Tories, the, re-established in power under George III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a></li> +<li>Tournaments, origin of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. Extinction of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Tournefort, his inferiority as a botanist, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Townsend, his views respecting political economy, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a></li> +<li>Tracheæ of plants, discovery of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Trade-wind, tract north and south of the equator covered by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +Causes of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. Way in which the trade-wind is connected with the +civilization of South America, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li><a name="Trade" id="Trade">Trade</a>, absurd notions respecting, in the 17th and 18th centuries, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +Number of laws passed by the English legislature respecting, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_213">213</a> <i>note</i>. +Struggles of Parliament against the principles of free trade, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. +Objects of early commercial treaties, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_216">216</a> <i>note</i>. Why the commercial +spirit, formerly warlike, is now pacific, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. Injuries inflicted upon +trade by the interference of legislators, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. Uncertainty of legislation +the bane of commerce, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>. Burke's advocacy of free trade, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_462">462</a>. +Effect of the protective spirit carried into trade, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>. Voltaire the +first historian to recommend free trade, iii. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>. The free trade of the +American colonies in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li>Tragedies of Corneille, period in which they appeared, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Transubstantiation, relation of the Cartesian philosophy to the doctrine +of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. Development of the doctrine of, by the metaphysicians, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_262">262</a></li> +<li>Travelling, advantages of, in producing contact and respect, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[545]</a></span> +in weakening the love of war, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_219">219–221</a></li> +<li>Travis, George, his letters on the text of the Heavenly Witnesses, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_429">429</a></li> +<li>Trojan origin of different nations, believed in, in the Middle Ages, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309</a></li> +<li>Tuffnel, the fifth-monarchy man, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Turenne, created a marshal, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li>Turgot, M., his lectures and their influence, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_320">320</a>. Sir James +Mackintosh's opinion of his writings, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. Influence he exercised shortly +before the Revolution, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. His anti-ecclesiastical policy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. Said to +have been a Jansenist, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Turkey, causes of the war between Russia and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Turks, their defeat before Vienna, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_447">447</a></li> +<li>Turku, the ancient name of Abo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Turner, Sir James, his cruelties in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, his absurd history of Charlemagne, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_318">318</a></li> +<li>Turpin, M., suppression of his ‘History of Siam,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Understanding, Kant's views as to the scientific conception of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> +<i>note</i>. Why controlled by the imagination in India, and paramount in +Greece, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_138">138–146</a></li> +<li><a name="United_States" id="United_States">United States</a> of North America, rent paid by the cultivator in, in +proportion to the gross produce of the land, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. Causes of low rent, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_76">76</a> <i>note</i>. Comparison of the history of England with that of the United +States, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>. Characteristics of American literature, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. Love of the +people for the study of the law, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_241">241</a> <i>note</i>. Policy of George III. +respecting, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_479">479</a>. His hatred of the Americans, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_480">480</a> <i>note</i>. Effect of +the Declaration of Independence in hastening the French Revolution, ii. +416</li> +<li>Usury-laws, Adam Smith's views as to the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i>. Jeremy Bentham's +demolition of the, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> <i>note</i>. Increase of usury due to the attempts of +legislators to keep it down, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>. Efforts of the Church to suppress it, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_283">283</a> <i>note</i>. Jeremy Bentham's treatment of the usury-laws referred to, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_284">284</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Vanity compared with pride, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li>Vassy, massacre of, predominance of the theological spirit shown in the, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Vattel, his views as to political economy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>note</i>. His principles +of foreign policy compared with those of Grotius, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_40">40</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Vega, Lope de, his offices in the Church and in the Inquisition, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_479">479</a>. +His joy at the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_496">496</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Velly, character of his ‘History of France,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Vendôme, Duc de, his command of the Spanish army, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_517">517</a></li> +<li>Veneration, origin of, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Venner, the fifth-monarchy man, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Vergil, Polydore, his attack of the popular belief in the Trojan descent +of the English kings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_309">309</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Verse, historical and scientific works written in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_294">294</a> <i>note</i>. +See <a href="#Poetry">Poetry</a></li> +<li>Vico, his opinions as to the real history of Rome, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>Villaret, character of his ‘History<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[546]</a></span> +of France,’ ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Villaviciosa, Spanish poet, his office in the Inquisition, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_481">481</a></li> +<li>Vienna, defeat of the Turks before, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_447">447</a></li> +<li>Villenage, extinction of, in England, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Visigoths, their settlement in Spain, and establishment of their Arian +opinions there, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_434">434</a>. Attacked by the orthodox Franks, under Clovis +and his successors, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_435">435</a></li> +<li>Voisins, Gilbert des, his Jansenism, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Volcanic eruption of 1815 at Sumbawa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Voltaire, his visit to England and study of its language and literature, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_216">216–218</a>. His admiration for England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. Persecutions to which he +was exposed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>. His method of writing history compared with that of +Bossuet, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. As instanced in his ‘History of Charles X.,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. Turns his +attention to physical and speculative science, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>. Returns to history, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>. His ‘Age of Louis XIV.,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>. His ‘Morals, Manners, and Character of +Nations,’ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_297">297</a>. His intellect, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. His habit of looking at epochs, and +not at the character of the men by whom a country is governed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. His +tragedies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. His endeavours to explain the origin of feudality, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +His remark on licentious religious ceremonies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. The first historian +to recommend free trade, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. His anticipation of Malthus's principle, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. His attack on the admiration entertained for the Middle Ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +And for the pedantic admirers of antiquity and classical models, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_306">306–308</a>. +Ignorant prejudice against him in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. His vast labours aided by +Montesquieu, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Wace, his translation into Anglo-Norman of Geoffrey of Monmouth's +history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li><a name="Wages" id="Wages">Wages</a>, in what they consist, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>. And on what they depend, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>. Enquiry +into the physical conditions which over supply the labour market and keep +the average rate of wages at a low point, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_54">54</a> <i>et seq.</i> Effects of climate +on wages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_62">62–64</a>. Social and political consequences of the high rate of +wages in Europe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. Highest, lowest, and average rates of wages in +England during the last few years, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_66">66</a> <i>note</i>. Rates of wages in Ireland, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>. And in India, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>. Adam Smith's views as to the conflict between +capital and, iii. <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Wales, injuries done by clerical historians to the traditions of the +bards of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>Wall, his part in Spanish affairs, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_544">544</a></li> +<li>Walpole, Sir Robert, endeavours of the House of Commons to hunt him to +the death, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_452">452</a>. His refusal to tax the colonies, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_478">478</a></li> +<li>War, decline of the practice of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. Causes of this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>. +Military spirit of Russia and Turkey, and its causes, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>. Love of +war extinct in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>. Contrast between the military genius of +ancient and modern Europe, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_199">199–202</a>. Causes of the decay of this genius in +modern times, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_202">202–223</a>. The right of private war allowed to the French +nobles, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. Early extinction of private war in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li>Warburton, Dr., Bishop of Gloucester, his separation of theology from +politics, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_425">425</a>. Effect of his opinions, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_426">426</a></li> +<li>Watches, superiority of the English in the seventeenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_193">193</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Water, methods employed by Watt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[547]</a></span> +and Cavendish in the discovery of, iii. <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li> +<li>Watson's ‘History of Philip II.,’ translated by Mirabeau, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_225">225</a></li> +<li>Watt, James, his invention of the steam-engine, iii. <a href="#Page_402">402</a>. His discovery +of the composition of water, and the method employed, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li> +<li>Wealth, effects of climate, food, and soil on the accumulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. +Effects of wealth on the existence of an intellectual class, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. Physical +causes by which the creation of wealth is governed, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_42">42</a> <i>et seq.</i> Laws of +the distribution of wealth, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. Interest, profits, and wages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>. Causes +of the unequal distribution of wealth in India in all ages, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_722">72–77</a></li> +<li>Weather, alleged effect of gloomy, on the love of suicide, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_220">220</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Wellington, Duke of, his character as a warrior and statesman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Welsh, John, story of, and the Popish mocker, iii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li>Werner, A. G., character of his method of geological speculation, iii. +<a href="#Page_393">393</a></li> +<li>Wesley, John, his abilities as a theological statesman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_422">422</a>. +Calumnies and insults to which he and his followers were subjected by the +clergy, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_423">423</a>. His ambitious views as to his sect, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Westphalia, Congress of, purely secular policy of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. The +revenues of the Church seized by the contracting parties, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. Indignation +of the pope at the treaty, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_41">41</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Whewell, Dr., his errors, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_401">401</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Whigs, their long monopoly of power, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_443">443</a>. Displaced by the Tories in +the reign of George III., <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_446">446</a></li> +<li>Whitby, first printing office in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_432">432</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>White, Blanco, on free will, quoted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_15">15</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Whitefield, George, his career, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_421">421</a> <i>note</i>. Character of his sermons, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_420">421</a> <i>note</i>. Excitement produced by him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_421">421</a> <i>note</i>. Opposition of the +clergy to him, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_424">424</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Wightman, one of the last English martyrs to religious opinions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_345">345</a> +<i>note</i></li> +<li>Will, free, controversies of the Calvinists and Arminians as to, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_338">338</a></li> +<li>William the Conqueror, his modification of the feudal system in England, +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>William III., main characteristics of the reign of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>. Eulogy +of Sir A. Alison, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_403">403</a> <i>note</i>. Hostility between the King and the clergy, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>. His abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>. His deprivation of the +Archbishop of Canterbury and six of his brethren, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_410">410</a></li> +<li>Williams, John, Bishop of Lincoln, the last ecclesiastical lord keeper, +i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_417">417</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Witchcraft, period of the destruction of the old notions respecting, i. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a> <i>note</i>. Charge of Chief Baron Hale in 1665, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_363">363</a> <i>note</i>. The last +witches executed in England and in Spain, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_364">364</a> <i>note</i>. John Wesley's +belief in the existence of witches, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_364">364</a> <i>note</i>. Repeal of the statutes +against witchcraft, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_364">364</a> <i>note</i>. Witchcraft in Scotland, iii. <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Woodrow, value of his ‘Analecta,’ iii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Wool manufactures of Spain in the eighteenth century, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_542">542</a></li> +<li>Writing, invention of, a cause of error in history, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>. Modes in +which it effects this, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Yeomanry, rights of English,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[548]</a></span> +ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. Unknown in France, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. Decay of the Yeomanry in England, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li>Yeomen of the Guard, establishment of the, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>note</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Zamora, Spanish poet, ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_480">480</a></li> +<li>Zoology, state of the science of, in France under Louis XIV., ii. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li>Zoology, generalizations in, of Frenchmen in the eighteenth century, ii. +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. The statical and dynamical parts of, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. Impetus given to the +science by Cuvier and Bichat, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44494/44494-h/44494-h.htm#Page_376">376–381</a></li> +<li>Zurich, antiquity of, according to Swiss authorities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44493/44493-h/44493-h.htm#Page_312">312</a></li> +</ul> + +<p class="title">THE END.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p class="title">LONDON: PRINTED BY<br /> +SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> +AND PARLIAMENT STREET</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<div class="note"> +Transcriber's Notes: + +The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and +formatting have been maintained. + +Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked +as an misprint. + +Index entries out of sequence have not been corrected. + +<table summary="corrections"> +<tr><td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td>p. xii: 361–sqq. → 361–seq.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. xiv: 420–sqq. → 420–seq.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 7: vol iv. p. 313: → p. 313;</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 7: vol. xviii. p, 309 → p. 309</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 12: by the English. → by the English.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 13: Somerville's Memoire → Memorie</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 18: sovereignty over Scotland. → Scotland.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 18: Chalmer's Caledonia → Chalmers’ Caledonia</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 20: days of Robert the First, → First,’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 21: 18, 27, 375; vol. → 18, 27, 375, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 21: 485; vol. x. p. 584; vol. → 485, vol. x. p. 584, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 23: Extract from the → Extracts from the</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 24: mercery and haberdashery. → haberdashery.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 25: vol. i. p. 512 → 512.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 26: the bishop and chapter. → chapter.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 29: though it is is → though it is</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 30: Great Tay, through Perth, → ‘Great</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 31: ces salles parées. → parées,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 37: the Spottiswoode → The Spottiswoode</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 41: could sign his own name.’ → name.”</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 46: justiciaries to assist. → assist.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 50: not the king himselue → himselfe</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 62: Calderwood's Historie → History</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 64: Henry VIII., “in → ‘in</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 65: Pitcairn's Criminal Trials of → in</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 66: favor ony heretike. → heretike.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 78: ‘the secound of Maij. → ‘the secound of Maij.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 80: he (the orator)’ → he (the orator)</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 86: on the extreame povertie → ‘on</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 91: “To requyre payment → ‘To</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 94: <i>Church and State in Scotland</i> vol. → <i>Scotland</i>, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 95: in this reformed Kirk. → Kirk.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 97: and ordaines, That → that</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 106: miscreants and bribers → bribers.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 107: salbe the worst.’ → worst.”’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 111: Edinburgh, 1847. p. xxxix. → Edinburgh, 1847, p. xxxix.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 119: of Montrose, in 1600 → 1600.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 121: pp. 265, 266, 272; vol. → 272, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 129: twentie thowsand pounds.” → twentie thowsand pounds.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 137: The Diary of Mr. John Lamont, → Lamont</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 147: Duke of York's instigation. → instigation.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 147: instigation.’ <i>Shield's Hind let loose</i> → Shields’ Hind</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 147: See <i>Shield's Hind let loose</i> → Shields’ Hind</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 148: According to Burnet, the → ‘the</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 149: with an exquisite torture; → torture;’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 152: greatest of his works → works.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 154: to about 4500 men; → men;’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 158: London, 4to, 1817, vol ii. p → vol. ii. p.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 162: Fountainhall's Notes on → Notes of</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 204: <i>Burnet's History of his own Time</i>, vol → vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 211: whole counsel of God. → God.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 215: before he reached him!”’ → him!’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 218: p. 43, in vol i. → vol. i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 224: <i>Binning's Sermons</i>, vol. ii. p. 118; vol. → 118, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 226: his people by Satan, → Satan,’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 228: and continoues sick.” → sick.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 228: when this happened. → happened.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 250: Fleming's Fulfilling of → of the</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 250: Balfour's Annals → Annales</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 253: then when they are are → then when they are</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 254: and we should chose → choose</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 262: On the 22d October → On the 22nd October</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 264: The History → Historie</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 280: <i>Chalmers' Caledonia</i>, vol → vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 287: <i>Gray's Precious Promises</i>, p. 139 → p. 139.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 288: <i>of Edinburgh</i>,, → <i>of Edinburgh</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 311: vol. ii. p. 23, seqq. → vol. ii. pp. 23 seq.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 312: united with biography, → biography.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 313: vol. ii. p: 206. → p. 206.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 328: the wages of labour. → labour.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 333: <i>Brougham's Works</i>, Glasgow, 1856. → 1856,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 336: to determine what Adam's → Adam</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 338: Moral Sentiment → Sentiments</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 349: of Smith, not → nor</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 352: murder by persons unknown?’ → unknown?</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 358: pp. 36, 37, 340, 343; vol. → 343, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 358: pp. 115, 116, 288–299; vol. → 288–299, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 358: vol. i. p. 305; vol. → 305, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 359: vol. i. p. 329, 334; vol. → 334, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 361: into execution in his writings. → writings.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 368: concealed in them,—<i>latet</i> → <i>latent</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 387: says of it, very grvaely → gravely</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 392: strata from the year 1790. → 1790.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 398: were of igneous origin. → origin.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 410: if not superior, to Newton. → Newton.’</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 436: <i>Hunter's Works</i>, vol. i. p. 43; vol. → 43, vol.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 473: ‘The members were of opinion that it was → ‘that it was</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 483: Geoffrey of Monmouth, i. 324. → i. 324</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 484: statement respecting, ii. 281. → ii. 281</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 488: one of Linnæus, → one of Linnæus, ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 490: civil war, ii, → ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 491: at an early period in, → at an early period in, i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 492: peace of Westphalia, ii, → ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 494: they appeared, ii. 208. → 208</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 496: his secular philosophy, 329 → 329.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 497: with the clergy, 420, → 420.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 497: for the relief of the, 463. → 463</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 498: Dryburgh Abbey → Abbey,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 498: sixteenth century, iii. 30. → sixteenth century, 30.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 500: term of years first authorized. → authorized,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 501: establishments of, → establishments of, i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 502: first financial reforms, i. → first financial reforms,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 502: Fossils; → Fossils,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 504: Francis 1. of France → Francis I. of France</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 505: surrounded his accession, → surrounded his accession, i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 505: ‘Letters’ of, ii, → ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 506: of political degradation. → degradation,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 506: admiration for England, ii, → ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 507: studies in crystallography → crystallography,</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 508: causes of the, i. 144. → i. 144</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 510: French by Le Blanc, ii, → ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 511: in the reign of Louis XIV., → in the reign of Louis XIV., ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 512: of the government, 494, → 494.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 514: Ismorphism → Isomorphism</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 515: his accession, → his accession, i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 515: ‘Ecclesiastical Polity,’ → ‘Ecclesiastical Polity,’ i.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 519: literary class, 239 <i>note</i>. → <i>note</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 520: to favour the King, 297. → 297</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 520: the Jansenists, ii. 344 → the Jansenists, 344</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 521: of human knowledge, 229. → 229</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 523: drained by the, 97 → drained by the, i. 97</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 524: literature, i. 437 <i>note</i>. → <i>note</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 525: Calvinist opinions, 345. → 345</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 530: Mathew Paris, i. 315. → Mathew Paris, 315.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 533: theory of rent, i. 250 → theory of rent, 250</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 534: Religious teleration → toleration</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 534: clergy inevitable, ii. 347. → clergy inevitable, 347.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 535: pointed out by Descartes, → pointed out by Descartes, ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 543: once inspired, ii. 262. → once inspired, 262.</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 544: in the eighteenth century, 558 → 186</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 545: conception of the, 18 → conception of the, i. 18</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 546: aided by Montesquieu, 314. → 314</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 546: tax the colonies, 478 → 478</td></tr> +<tr><td>p. 547: office in, i 432 → office in, i. 432</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44495 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44495-h/images/cover.jpg b/44495-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a41e20 --- /dev/null +++ b/44495-h/images/cover.jpg |
