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padding: .5em .5em 0 2em; -text-indent: -1em;} -div.correction p.partial {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: 0; -margin-bottom: -.5em;} -span.citation {font-size: medium; font-family: serif;} -</style> -</head> - -<body> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page517" id="page517">517</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partVIII" id="partVIII"> -<span class="smaller">PART VIII.</span></a><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS<br> -<span class="subhead">IN GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h2> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page519" id="page519">519</a></span> -<h3><a name="england" id="england" href="#partVIII">X. MILITARY -SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.</a></h3> - - -<h4><a name="britain_military" id="britain_military" href="#england">I. MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> British army originated in the -feudal system, by which the great barons were bound to furnish a -contingent to the army of the State; and their vassals were bound to -attend them in person, and to furnish each the contributions in men, -horses, arms, and other materials of war, for which he was liable by the -tenure on which he held his lands. When regal power absorbed the -privileges of the great feudatories, the people were expected to provide -themselves with arms, and, in case of invasion, to respond to the -summons issued through officers commissioned by the sovereign to array -the fittest men for service in each county. In the time of Henry VIII, -lord-lieutenants and deputy-lieutenants of counties were first appointed -as standing officers for assembling and mustering the military forces. -For a time, contracts were made with “captains,” who undertook to -provide, clothe, and feed a certain number of fighting men for a given -money allowance. In the reign of Charles I, the important question -arose, whether the King of England did or did not possess the right to -maintain a military force without the express consent of Parliament. -Charles II, was compelled to abandon all control of the army, except a -body guard of 5,000 men, sanctioned by Parliament. These regiments still -exist, and are proud of their genealogy. They are the First Foot Guards, -Coldstream Guards, Life Guard, Oxford Blues, the Royal Scots, and the -Second Queen’s <ins class="correction" -title="text has superfluous close quote">Royals.</ins><a class="tag" name="tag8_1" id="tag8_1" -href="#note8_1">1</a> The Declaration of Rights, in the time of -William and Mary, settled in positive terms “that the raising and -keeping of a standing army in time of peace, without consent of -Parliament, is contrary to law.” The first Mustering Act was passed in -1689, to last for six months; but it has been annually renewed ever -since, except in three particular years; and it constitutes the only -warrant on which the whole military system of England is exercised by -the sovereign with the consent of Parliament. For 172 years, with only -three interruptions, the ministers of the crown have -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page520" id="page520">520</a></span> -annually applied to Parliament for permission to raise a military force -and for money to defray expenses. The sovereign can make war and bestow -military employment and honors; but the House of Commons can refuse -supplies.</p> - -<p>Military service in England is voluntary, except in rare cases, and -then only in the militia. As the chances of promotion from the ranks are -small, the recruits are drawn from the most necessitous classes of the -community, or the least fitted for industrial pursuits. The system of -recruiting, with the bounty and machinery of deception is the most -characteristic feature of the British army as compared with those of -Europe, and makes the distinction between officers and men more broad -than in any other service.</p> - -<p>The British army, in its completeness, is theoretically commanded by -the sovereign, assisted by the secretary of state for war in some -matters, and by the commander-in-chief in others. The component parts -are the household troops, the infantry of the line, the ordnance corps, -comprising artillery and engineers, and the marines. There are also -certain corps, raised and belonging to the principal colonies; the -troops in India; the yeomanry cavalry; the dockyard battalions; the -volunteer artillery and rifles; the enrolled pensioners, etc. In 1814, -the regular army reached 200,000, and at the close of the war, 10,000 -officers were retained on half pay. In 1860-61, in the army estimates, -provision was made for the following force, viz.:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers reduced"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<th>Home and<br>Colonies.</th> -<th>India.</th> -<th>Total.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry</td> -<td>11,667</td> -<td>7,243</td> -<td>18,910</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry</td> -<td>103,169</td> -<td>66,345</td> -<td>169,514</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery</td> -<td>22,675</td> -<td>5,482</td> -<td>28,157</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Engineers</td> -<td>4,730</td> -<td>——</td> -<td>4,730</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Staff & Depot</td> -<td>1,121</td> -<td>13,420</td> -<td>14,541</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total</td> -<td class="sum">143,362</td> -<td class="sum">92,490</td> -<td class="sum">235,852</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Under the column “India” are included only troops <i>sent</i> to -India, and paid for out of the Indian revenues. Of the total 235,852 -forces, 10,459 are officers, 17,670 non-commissioned officers, and -207,723 rank and file. For the use of this army, 24,342 horses are -provided. The total expenditure sanctioned by Parliament in 1860 was -£14,800,000, viz.:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Military Pay and Allowances, £5,500,000;</p> -<p>Civil Salaries and Wages, £1,800,000;</p> -<p>Stores and Works of every kind, £5,400,000;</p> -<p>Pensions, Retired Pay, &c., £2,100,000.</p> -</div> - -<p>The military force of various kinds within the United Kingdom, -excluding the troops in East India, on the 1st of June, 1860, was -323,259, viz.:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Regulars (service companies,) 68,778;</p> -<p>Regulars (depot companies,) 33,302,</p> -<p>Embodied Militia, 15,911;</p> -<p>Disembodied Militia—Effectives, 52,899;</p> -<p>Yeomanry Cavalry—Effectives, 15,002;</p> -<p>Enrolled Pensioners—Effectives, 15,000;</p> -<p>Volunteer Rifles and Artillery, 122,867.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page521" id="page521">521</a></span> -<p>The total force of the United Kingdom in 1870-71, was as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers reduced"> -<tr> -<td colspan="4"></td> -<th>Total.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">Officers on the General and Departmental Staff,</td> -<td>1,239</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Regiments.</th> -<th>Officers.</th> -<th>Non-com.,<br>&c.</th> -<th>Rank<br>and file.</th> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Horse Artillery,</td> -<td>78</td> -<td>138</td> -<td>1,834</td> -<td>2,050</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Life-Guards and Horse-Guards,</td> -<td>81</td> -<td>192</td> -<td>1,029</td> -<td>1,302</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry of the Line,</td> -<td>465</td> -<td>969</td> -<td>7,733</td> -<td>9,267</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Artillery,</td> -<td>661</td> -<td>1,550</td> -<td>12,866</td> -<td>15,087</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding Establishment,</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>205</td> -<td>225</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Engineers,</td> -<td>539</td> -<td>564</td> -<td>3,879</td> -<td>4,836</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army Service Corps,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>386</td> -<td>1,801</td> -<td>2,195</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Foot-Guards,</td> -<td>237</td> -<td>453</td> -<td>5,220</td> -<td>5,910</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry of the Line,</td> -<td>2,934</td> -<td>6,468</td> -<td>51,990</td> -<td>61,392</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army hospital corps,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>165</td> -<td>694</td> -<td>860</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>West India Regiments,</td> -<td>104</td> -<td>150</td> -<td>1,680</td> -<td>1,834</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Colonial corps,</td> -<td>58</td> -<td>149</td> -<td>1,632</td> -<td>1,839</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">6,276</td> -<td class="sum">11,197</td> -<td class="sum">90,593</td> -<td class="sum">108,066</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Depots of Indian Regiments.</th> -<td colspan="4"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry,</td> -<td>27</td> -<td>54</td> -<td>513</td> -<td>594</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry,</td> -<td>200</td> -<td>600</td> -<td>5,000</td> -<td>5,800</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">227</td> -<td class="sum">654</td> -<td class="sum">5,513</td> -<td class="sum">6,394</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Recruiting and Teaching Estab’ts.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry Riding School,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry Depots,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>14</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Recruiting Establishments,</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>17</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>23</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Inst. in Gunnery and Engin’ing,</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>57</td> -<td>62</td> -<td>129</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">23</td> -<td class="sum">85</td> -<td class="sum">62</td> -<td class="sum">170</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Training Schools and Factories.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cadet Company, Woolwich,</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>20</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>39</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Mil. College, Sandhurst,</td> -<td>17</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>48</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Regi’al Schools and Factories,</td> -<td>32</td> -<td>281</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>320</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">58</td> -<td class="sum">331</td> -<td class="sum">17</td> -<td class="sum">407</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The total force of officers and men was 115,037, viz.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>General and Department Staff,</td> -<td>239</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Regiments,</td> -<td>066</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Depots of Indian Regiments</td> -<td>394</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Recruiting and Teaching Establishments,</td> -<td>170</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Training Schools and Factories,</td> -<td>407</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The British forces in India, exclusive of depots at home, comprised -the following troops, in 1870-71:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Officers.</th> -<th>Non-Com.</th> -<th>Men.</th> -<th>Total.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Horse Artillery,</td> -<td>200</td> -<td>253</td> -<td>2,680</td> -<td>3,133</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry of the Line,</td> -<td>225</td> -<td>424</td> -<td>3,672</td> -<td>4,321</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Royal Artillery and Engineers,</td> -<td>1,016</td> -<td>795</td> -<td>7,936</td> -<td>9,747</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry of the Line,</td> -<td>1,500</td> -<td>3,262</td> -<td>41,000</td> -<td>45,762</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">2,941</td> -<td class="sum">4,734</td> -<td class="sum">55,288</td> -<td class="sum">63,963</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In addition to the troops above mentioned the army estimates include -appropriations for four classes of reserved or auxiliary forces, -viz.:</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page522" id="page522">522</a></span> -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>1. Disembodied Militia,</td> -<td class="number">128,971</td> -<td class="center">officers and men.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2. Yeomanry Cavalry,</td> -<td class="number"> 15,435</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>3. Volunteers,</td> -<td class="number"> 25,688</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>4. Enrolled pensioners,</td> -<td class="number"> 31,102</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Total enrolled number,</td> -<td class="number">201,196</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p>In England and Wales the Militia Establishment comprises 42 -regiments, with 5,066 officers; in Scotland, 16 regiments and 670 -officers; in Ireland, 48 regiments, with 3,463 officers.</p> - -<p>By Act of 1870, in case of invasion, rebellion, or insurrection, or -of imminent danger thereof, the Militia, in pursuance of an order of Her -Majesty in council, can be called out (the whole or any part) and -embodied for actual service; but when so called out, her proclamation -must be communicated to Parliament within ten days. By recent Royal -Warrant, a lieutenant of the Militia is made eligible to appointment of -sub-lieutenant in the Regular Army, and in the localization of the -military force of the United Kingdom, the Militia, Yeomanry and -Volunteers, are to be brought into closer connection with the Regular -Army.</p> - -<p>The total cost of the British army, voted by Parliament in 1870-71, -was £13,093,500, besides a supplementary vote of £2,000,000 towards -defraying the expenses of the military and naval services of the -kingdom. Of the regular expenses, it appears from official statements -that £893,200 were for the Militia and Inspection service; £81,900 for -the Yeomanry; £412,400 for volunteers; and £76,000 for enrolled -pensioners and army reserve force.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS FOR THE ARMY.</p> - -<p>The sum of £140,700 was devoted to military education, in the -estimates for 1871, when the educational establishments provided for the -army were as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Royal Military College at Sandhurst, preparatory for Infantry and -Cavalry Officers.</p> - -<p>Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, for service in the Artillery and -Engineers.</p> - -<p>Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham.</p> - -<p>Staff College at Woolwich.</p> - -<p>Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at Woolwich.</p> - -<p>School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.</p> - -<p>Survey Classes at Aldershot.</p> - -<p>School of Musketry at Hythe.</p> - -<p>Army Medical School at Netley.</p> - -<p>Royal Hibernian Military School at Dublin.</p> - -<p>Regimental Schools for Children of Soldiers.</p> - -<p>Garrison Schools and Libraries for Adults.</p> - -<p>Schools and Asylums for Orphan Children of Soldiers at Dublin and -Chelsea.</p> - -<p>Training School for Army Schoolmasters in Chelsea Military -Asylum.</p> - -<p>Military School of Music at Kneller Hall.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page523" id="page523">523</a></span> -<h4><a name="britain_navy" id="britain_navy" href="#england">II. -ROYAL NAVY.</a></h4> - -<p>The administration of the Navy of the United Kingdom is vested in the -Board of Admiralty, composed of five members, who are styled “Lord -Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral,” which was -formerly charged with all naval matters. The First Lord Commissioner is -a member of the Cabinet, and dispenser of patronage, and, with his -associates, goes out with the Premier.</p> - -<p>The effective strength of the Navy in February 1, 1869, was:</p> - -<table class="navy"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2"><i>Classes of Ships.</i></th> -<th colspan="4"><i>Steam.</i></th> -<th><i>Sailing.</i></th> -<th><i>Total.</i></th> -</tr> -<tr class="smallroman"> -<td></td><td></td> -<th colspan="3">AFLOAT.</th> -<th>BUILDING.</th> -<th>AFLOAT.</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td><td></td> -<th>Iron.</th> -<td></td> -<th>Wood.</th> -<th>Iron.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Armor-plated ships,</td> -<td class="text">1st Class,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td rowspan="10"></td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">2nd “</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">3d “</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">4th “</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">5th “</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">6th “</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">Sloops and gun-boats,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">Special, with turrets,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“     “</td> -<td class="text">Floating batteries,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td><td></td> -<td class="sum">27</td> -<td class="sum">15</td> -<td class="sum">9</td> -<td class="sum"> </td> -<td class="sum"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="center" colspan="3"> -<img src="images/sidebracket.gif" width="41" height="8" -alt="sideways bracket"></td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center" colspan="3">Total iron-clads,</td> -<td>42</td> -<td rowspan="22"></td> -<td>9</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>52</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Ships of the line (screw),</td> -<td>43</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>47</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Frigates (screw),</td> -<td>29</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Frigates (paddle),</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Block ships (screw),</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Corvettes (screw),</td> -<td>24</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Sloops (screw),</td> -<td>33</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>34</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3"><span class="dittomark">Sloops</span> (paddle),</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Small vessels (paddle),</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Dispatch vessels (paddle),</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Gun vessels (screw and double screw),</td> -<td>50</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>51</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Gun-boats (screw),</td> -<td>58</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>68</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Tenders, tugs, &c., (screw),</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>14</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3"><span class="dittomark">Tenders, tugs, -&c.,</span> (paddle),</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>38</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Mortar ships (screw),</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Troop and store ships (screw),</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3"><span class="dittomark">Troop and store ships</span> -(paddle),</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Transports for India reliefs (screw),</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Yachts (paddle),</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center" colspan="3">Total screw,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>324</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center" colspan="3">  “   paddle,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>66</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total" colspan="3">Grand total,</td> -<td class="sum">375</td> -<td class="sum">15</td> -<td class="sum">18</td> -<td class="sum">408</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Not included in the above list are several ships for the defense of -the colonies. The total naval force, August 30, 1870, was:</p> - -<p><i>In Commission</i>—238 ships, of 57,205 horse-power, 1,984 -guns and 314,449 tonnage. <i>In Reserve, &c.</i>, 318 ships, 64,286 -horsepower, 3,610 guns, and 318,845 tonnage. The total number of -officers, seamen, boys and marines, in 1870-71, was 55,430, besides -4,300 in the coast-guard and 1,270 in the Indian service. Among the -officers were 143 flag officers; 29 superintending dockyards, and 3,193 -other commissioned officers on service.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page524" id="page524">524</a></span> -<h4><a name="britain_mercantile" id="britain_mercantile" href="#england">III. MERCANTILE MARINE.</a></h4> - -<p>The Mercantile Marine of the United Kingdom in number of vessels, -their registered tonnage, and men employed, together with the value of -property and number of passengers transported in them, exceeds that of -any other country. The total number of vessels in the home and foreign -trade, registered in 1869, was 21,881, with a tonnage of 5,575,303, -employing 202,477 men, and freighted with imports and exports to the -total value of 532,475,266<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>All matters relating to merchant ships and seamen, and the mercantile -marine generally, are committed to the general superintendence of the -Board of Trade, which, as constituted in 1786, is composed of certain -high officers, (members of the Privy Council), and its President is a -Cabinet officer. To this Board all consular officers, all officers of -customs abroad, and all local marine boards and shipping masters must -make reports in matter and form as required. Inspectors, duly appointed -by this Board, may visit any ship, examine any registry, machinery, -boats, equipments, &c., to ascertain if they are conformable to law. -In every seaport a Shipping Master is appointed by the Local Marine -Board, who must keep register of names and character of seamen, -facilitate their engagement and discharge, as well as the apprenticeship -of boys to sea-service. The Local Board must provide for the examination -of persons who intend to become masters or mates according to rules laid -down by the Board of Trade. And to such as pass a satisfactory -examination as to sobriety, experience, ability, and general good -conduct on board ship, shall be given a certificate of competency; and -to those who have served as masters or mates, under certain conditions, -a certificate of service with specifications must be given. Shipping -Masters must assist, when applied to by parents or guardians, or masters -of ships, in apprenticing boys to the sea-service. No person can be -employed as master or mate, who does not hold a certificate of -competency, and under certain conditions, of service. Opportunities of -preparing for these examinations are now provided in all the large -seaports, in Navigation Schools; and the Government, through the -Department of Science and Arts, encourages the study of astronomy, -navigation, steam and steam machinery, and other branches, which are -serviceable to officers in command of vessels, whether propelled by -sails or engines, by making appropriations of money to schools according -to the number of pupils who pass satisfactory examinations in these -studies.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page525" id="page525">525</a></span> -<h4><a name="britain_education" id="britain_education" href="#england">MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> following account of the -institutions for military education in England is abridged from an -article in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> for November, 1858:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>There exist in this country three military seminaries—the Royal -Military Academy at Woolwich, where youths are educated for service in -the Artillery and Engineers; the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, -where cadets are prepared for the Infantry and Cavalry; and the -Honorable East India Company’s Military School at Addiscombe, which -educates simultaneously for the Artillery, Engineers, and Infantry -services of the three Presidencies. Supplementary to these are the -School of Practical Instruction at Chatham, where passed cadets from -Woolwich and Addiscombe learn practical engineering; and the senior -department at Sandhurst, supposed to be a Staff school, into which -officers of infantry and cavalry are, under certain restrictions, -admitted.</p> - -<p>I. The Military Academy at Woolwich came into existence in the year -1741. It was created by George II., to supply a want under which the -English army then suffered, by giving some instructions in matters -connected with their respective arts to officers and men who served in -the Artillery and in the Engineers. Its beginnings were of the humblest -imaginable order. A single room in a house at Woolwich, where the -Board of Ordnance used occasionally to assemble, was set apart by -Government as a hall of study; and two masters were appointed to give -lectures by rotation, during four consecutive hours, in three days of -every week. At first only the officers of the single battalion composing -the English Artillery and of the corps of Engineers were required to -attend. By and by the room was thrown open to the non-commissioned -officers and privates also, and eventually the cadets, of whom five were -supposed to be on the strength of each company of Artillery, repaired -thither in like manner. But the cadets being the sons of the officers of -the corps, as they neither dressed in uniform, nor were under any -military control, proved very difficult to manage; and the difficulty -led to a great change as well in their condition as in that of the -Academy itself.</p> - -<p>In the year 1744 the cadets were, for the first time, clothed in -uniform, and collected into a distinct company. Two officers, with a -drum-major, undertook the management of them; and the arrangement -worked, or was supposed to work, so satisfactorily, that by little and -little, as the regiment enlarged itself, the numbers composing the Cadet -Company were increased also. In 1782 they had grown from twenty to -sixty; in 1798 to a hundred; after which steps were taken to lodge and -board, as well as to educate and drill them, apart from the residences -of their fathers. Hence, after trying for a while to accommodate some in -a separate barrack, while others were billeted on private persons at a -payment of 2s. a day per head, the pile which now attracts the attention -of the passer-by on Woolwich Common was erected. And by the addition of -a lieutenant-governor, and a whole host of officers and professors, it -grew into the sort of establishment which is familiar to most of us. In -1806 the staff of officers and teachers appointed to the Cadet Company -consisted of—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Lieutenant-Governor; 2. Inspector; 3. Professor of -Mathematics; 4. Professor of Fortification; 5. Mathematical -Master; 6. Arithmetical do.; 7. French do.; -8. Fortification do.; 9. Landscape-drawing do.; -10. Figure-drawing do.; 11. Second French do.; -12. Fencing do.; 13. Dancing do.; 14. First Modeller; -15. Second do.: 16. Clerk.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1829 the fencing and dancing masters were discontinued, and a -chemical lecturer appointed. In 1836 three new masters were added; and -in 1857 the staff stood thus:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Military.</i>—A Governor; one Second Captain, commanding; -one do. for Practical Class; four First-Lieutenants; one Quartermaster; -one Staff-Sergeant; seven Drill-Sergeants; one Paymaster’s Clerk; one -Assistant do.; Servants.</p> - -<p><i>Civil or Educational.</i>—A Chaplain; Inspector—a -Lieut.-Colonel of Artillery; Assistant do.—Major, R.E.; Professor -of Fortification—Lieut.-Col., R.E.; two Assistants—Second -Captains; Professor of Mathematics; seven Mathematical Masters; Master -of Descriptive Geometry; Master for Geometrical Drawing; Drawing-Master -for Landscape; Second do.; Master for Military -Plan-Drawing—Brevet-Major, R.A.; Instructor in Surveying and Field -Works—Captain, R.E.; Assistant do.—Captain, R.A.; Instructor -in Practical Artillery—Second Captain, R.A.; Assistant -do.—Second Captain, R.A.; four French Masters; four -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page526" id="page526">526</a></span> -German do.; Master for History and Geography; Lecturer in Chemistry; -Assistant to do.; Lecturer in Geology and Mineralogy; Lecturer in -Practical Mechanics, Machinery, and Metallurgy; Lecturer in Astronomy -and Natural Philosophy; Clerk; First Assistant do.—a Sergeant; -Second do.—Bombardier; one Drill-Sergeant—Practical Class; -Modeller, Modelling Smith, Servants, &c.</p> -</div> - -<p>Admittance to the Academy was, till very lately, obtained only on the -nomination of the Master-General of the Ordnance. There was a -preliminary examination, it is true; but this all except the dullest -might calculate on passing, and the ages of entrance ranged between -fourteen and sixteen. In 1835 the minimum age was raised to fifteen, the -maximum to seventeen; while candidates were called up to compete for -admission in the proportion of four youths for every three vacancies. -The arrangement did not avail to produce any radical change in the -spirit of the institution. The preliminary examination still proved to -be a “pass,” and no more; and so it continued till those political views -obtained the ascendant which abolished altogether the office of -Master-General and Board of Ordnance, and gave us in their place a -Secretary of State for the War Department.</p> - -<p>Occasions had arisen, even under the old regime, when young men were -permitted to enter the service of the Artillery under what may be called -exceptional conditions. During the pressure of the great war of the -French Revolution, the demand for officers became at one time so urgent, -that it was found necessary to dispense with a regular academical -education, and to give commissions to candidates who were pronounced by -competent examiners sufficiently conversant with mathematics and -physical science to enter upon the practical duties of their profession. -Lord Panmure, taking advantage of the precedent thus furnished, threw -open Artillery commissions in 1855, and has continued ever since to -treat admission into the Royal Military Academy as a prize for which the -youth of the United Kingdom may freely compete.</p> - -<p>The subjects of study to be pursued in the Royal Military Academy at -Woolwich, not less than the mode of dealing with them, and the -text-books to be used, have hitherto been prescribed to the most minute -particular by regulation. They embrace Mathematics, Fortification, -Descriptive Geometry, French, German, Plan-Drawing, Geometrical Drawing, -Landscape Drawing, History and Geography; to which, during his -continuance in what are called the “theoretical classes,” the attention -of the cadet is confined. When he enters the “practical class,” the -student is instructed, over and above, in Practical Artillery, Surveying -and Field-Works, and attends lectures in Astronomy, Chemistry, Geology, -and Mineralogy. As many as five years may be spent by a young man in -going over this course—viz., four years in the “theoretical,” and -one year in the “practical” class—though the average period of -actual residence does not appear to exceed two years and a half or three -years. There are periodical examinations at the end of every half-year, -the second of which, by its results, determines whether the young man -shall be allowed to go on to a commission, or be removed from the -Academy.</p> - -<p>The moral tone of this military college has never, we regret to say, -been of a very high order. Excellent men have been at the head of it, -and the ability of the professors and teachers appointed to instruct -admits of no question. Yet few right-minded officers look back upon the -years spent in the cadet barracks except with disgust. It is not very -difficult to account for the circumstance. Long after Continental -nations had seen the absurdity of pressing upon boys the sort of -training which belongs to men, we refused to be guided by their -experience, and persisted, both at Woolwich and elsewhere, in our -endeavor to accomplish an impossibility. “Boys of fourteen, fifteen, and -sixteen,” says a very high authority on this subject, “require much -personal supervision in order to form their characters, which young -officers, very often appointed without any sufficient knowledge of their -tempers and habits, cannot be expected to bestow. Such officers may -indeed be able to superintend drill, but not moral training. Rarely do -they draw the cadets towards them, and become their advisers; more -frequently repel them by a harsh dictatorial manner, the cadet being in -their eyes a soldier. There has been also, during all the time I have -known the Academy, great inconsistency in treating the cadets. Honor is -constantly -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page527" id="page527">527</a></span> -talked of, and yet doubts as to their truthfulness are not unfrequently -expressed. I have heard even the lie given in rough and emphatic -terms. Confidence is professedly placed, and yet offences are found out -in a way that shows that no confidence existed. Hence a contest arises -between the officer and cadet, and the latter becomes tricky and -disingenuous.”</p> - -<p>In these emphatic words Colonel Portlock has struck at the root of -most of the evil which has long been felt, and heretofore combated -without success, in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. Whatever is -wanting in the morale of that establishment, it owes to the original sin -of its constitution. We know how to deal with boys so long as we -recognize their boyhood, even while appealing to the point of honor -among them. But we no sooner dress them up in uniform, and affect to -treat them as soldiers, than we lose all moral control over them. They -smoke, drink, swear, and fall into other vices, not because they are -overcome by any irresistible temptation, but because they look upon such -acts as tokens of manhood. And the corporals, who report readily enough -for insubordination, and the officers, who punish for what they call -military offences, take little heed of worse things; partly because, in -a military point of view, they are scarcely criminal; partly because, -not being regarded as such, they are seldom brought under the notice of -the superior authorities. How a seminary so conducted and so managed -should have given to the Artillery and Engineers a body of officers -distinguished, as those of both arms unquestionably are for talent, -intelligence, and gentlemanly bearing, would be inexplicable, were not -the fact well known, that one of the first lessons taught to the young -lieutenant, after quitting the Academy, is to throw off the habits which -he had contracted there, and to adopt the high moral tone and excellent -habits of his regiment.</p> - -<p>It was partly with a view to provide a palliative for this admitted -evil, partly to encourage in our young Artillery officers the habit of -sustained study, that they were required, by a recent regulation, <ins -class="correction" -title="mismatched open quote in original">“to</ins> place themselves under the orders of a director of -studies for half a year after obtaining their commissions. Meanwhile -cadets who are appointed to the Engineers proceed to the training-school -for that arm at Chatham; where they go through a somewhat careful course -of surveying, and are instructed less elaborately in architecture, civil -as well as military, and in mining, sapping, pontooning, and so forth. -According to the report of the Commissioners, it does not appear that -they reach their new field of instruction over and above well prepared -to make the most of it. Indeed, the whole of the Woolwich system is by -these gentlemen condemned in terms as decided as is consistent with good -breeding.</p> - -<p>II. It was not till the year 1804 that the propriety of training -young men in ever so slight a degree for the service of the infantry and -cavalry, seems to have occurred to any statesman or soldier in this -country. Appointments to both arms took place for a time by purchase -only, and by and by, when the numbers of the rank and file increased, -through the weight of influence, personal, political, or social. -Moreover, when the pressure of the great war was at its height, a third -door of entrance to military rank was opened, and ensigncies and -captaincies, and even lieutenant-colonelcies, became the prize of -private gentlemen who were able to bring certain fixed contingents of -able-bodied men under the royal standard. So far as the candidates for -commissions themselves were concerned, however, the same even-handed -justice was meted out to all. Nobody took the trouble to inquire whether -the candidates were qualified morally, intellectually, or physically. He -might be a pimp and blockhead, or lame, or deaf, or blind; but so long -as his patron had the ear of the Government, or the men whom he brought -with him were able to pass muster, his commission, whatever it might be, -was secure.</p> - -<p>The Military College at Sandhurst consisted at first, as it still -consists, of two departments—one, called the Junior Department, -for cadets—the other, the Senior Department, for officers desirous -of qualifying for the Staff. But it had, in its original constitution, -this marked advantage over the arrangement which has since been -effected, that whereas now cadets and officers occupy portions of the -same range of buildings, and come under the instruction -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page528" id="page528">528</a></span> -of the same professors, they were, in 1804 placed, the one at Marlow, -the other at Highwickam—each class of students having its own -teachers, though both were subject to the control and management of the -same military administration.</p> - -<p>As first constituted, the junior department afforded both an asylum -and a place of education for the sons of officers exclusively. Youths -once admitted ceased to be a burden to their friends, except for the -necessary expenses of travelling; they were housed, clothed, and -educated at the public expense. But no sooner was the great war ended -than Parliament began to slacken in its gratitude to the army, and by -little and little the grants for military education fell off, till in -the end they ceased altogether. As a necessary consequence, the numbers -of persons seeking education at the Military College fell off in like -manner. And now the junior department exhibits a muster-roll of 180 -cadets only, while the strength of the senior department has dwindled to -nine individuals. To be sure, other causes than the withdrawal of public -support from the institution have operated to produce this latter -result. Whatever it might have been forty years ago, the senior -department at Sandhurst is certainly no Staff school now. Indeed, the -only science effectively taught there seems to be mathematics; and it is -a curious fact, that though the army abounds with officers who have -passed through that school, and taken high honors, the instances are -rare in which Staff appointments have fallen to the lot of any of -them.</p> - -<p>Lads are admitted into the junior department at Sandhurst between the -ages of thirteen and fifteen. The preliminary examination is of the most -trivial kind, and the instruction communicated is, for half the course, -that of a common school not of the highest order. No doubt each youth -may, if he be disposed, master more than the elements of a good deal of -science; for over and above physical geography and history, instruction -is given in practical astronomy, dynamics, and statics, practical -mechanics, co-ordinate geometry, the differential and integral calculus, -trigonometry and mensuration, Euclid’s Geometry, attack and defence of -fortresses, practical field-fortification, course of military surveying, -the Latin, French, and German languages. Unfortunately, however, there -is no compulsion to study, nor any inducement, unless the youth aspire -to win for himself a commission without purchase.</p> - -<p>III. The Hon. East India Company’s College at Addiscombe approaches -nearer in its constitution and objects to what a military school ought -to be, than any other of which we can boast in this country. It came -into existence in 1818, previously to which date the Directors were in -the habit of sending to Woolwich, for instruction, youths to whom they -had given cadetships in the Company’s Artillery and Engineers. When -first founded, it was intended as a place of training exclusively for -these young gentlemen; but the benefits derived from it became so -obvious and so great that the Court of Directors gradually enlarged its -views, and now young men are educated at Addiscombe not only for the -Company’s Artillery and Engineers, but for their infantry also. And -herein it is that the Directors have mixed up evil with good. They -consider an Engineer cadetship as their great prize, and next to that a -cadetship of Artillery; and they select for these appointments, not the -youths who may have exhibited special talents for either arm, but the -best men, or the men reported as generally best, of their batch. The -consequence is, that to the infantry—for good service in which -talent is as much required as for either the Artillery or -Engineers—the idlers of the College are appointed, while many a -clever lad, who would have shone as an infantry officer, becomes an -indifferent engineer or gunner, simply because he has been posted to an -arm for the practical operation of which he has no genius.</p> - -<p>In all other respects the Military School at Addiscombe may be fairly -said to surpass both Woolwich and Sandhurst. In the first place, youths -enter there almost invariably at a more mature age. Though eligible for -admission after completing their fifteenth year, they seldom, if ever, -come up for examination till after they have turned seventeen. In the -next place, the entrance examination is more severe than either at -Woolwich or Sandhurst; -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page529" id="page529">529</a></span> -and in the third and last place—and this is the most important -condition of the whole—cadets must complete their course at -Addiscombe in two years, unless for special reasons, such as sickness, -they be allowed to prolong their stay one half-year more. Now, lads may -linger on at Woolwich four, and even five years, gaining this remarkable -advantage from their stupidity, that when forced to compete at last for -choice between Artillery and Engineers, they compete with youths who may -have had but two years’ training. And at Sandhurst, the course which -nominally covers four years, may, if the youth have interest at -headquarters, be completed, as far as his appointment to a commission -completes it, in four months.</p> - -<p>The general education given at Addiscombe is certainly not inferior -to that which the cadets receive either at Woolwich or at Sandhurst. It -embraces, indeed, almost entirely the same subjects which are set down -in the curriculum of the others—including lectures in geology, -chemistry, and artillery. But it undeniably falls short in specialties. -Hence, after completing his course at Addiscombe, the Company’s cadet -intended for the Engineers proceeds to Chatham, where, side by side with -young men from Woolwich, he receives practical instruction in his art. -For the Artillery cadet, on the other hand, there is no practical -school. Like his comrade intended for the service of the Infantry, he -proceeds at once from Addiscombe to India, and learns there how to turn -to account the theoretical lessons which have been communicated to him -at home.</p> - -<p>Another distinction deserves to be noted between the constitution of -the school of Addiscombe, and that as well of the Royal Military College -as of the Royal Military Academy: Though all alike put from them the -eleemosynary element, at Addiscombe alone is strict impartiality in the -matter of payments observed. The youth who enters there, whether he be -the son of an earl or of a subaltern’s widow, must be provided with his -£100 a year, besides about £25 more to cover the cost of books, -instruments, and uniforms. Both at Woolwich and Sandhurst there is a -graduated scale, which exacts more from a general officer than from a -subaltern, and more from a civilian than from either. The orphan of an -officer dying in poor circumstances is admitted into Woolwich on payment -of £20 a year. He pays for similar privileges at Sandhurst £40. The -son of a gentleman in civil life pays in both cases £125, a sum more -than necessary to cover the expenses of his own board and education, but -which is exacted in order that there may be a surplus out of which the -deficiencies occasioned by the payments of the sons of officers shall be -made good.</p> -</div> - -<p>Most important changes in the system of Military Education in England -have been introduced since 1855, by Lord Panmure and the Council of -Military Education, inaugurated under his auspices.</p> - -<p>1. Admission to the various Military Schools is now gained by open -competitive examination.</p> - -<p>2. The order and method of studies, and all examinations for -promotion, are governed by an independent Board of competent officers, -and men of service, called the Council of Military Education.</p> - -<p>3. The amount and order of studies in each school are minutely -arranged, and each Professor is kept to the prescribed course by the -supervision of a Master of Studies.</p> - -<p>4. The development of the Staff School has given completeness to the -system.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page530" id="page530">530</a></span> -<h4><a name="britain_french" id="britain_french" href="#england">III. FRENCH VIEW OF ENGLISH MILITARY SCHOOLS.</a></h4> - -<!-- where are I II ? --> -<p>M. Alphonse Esquiros, in the <i>Révue des Deux Mondes</i> of -September 1860, contributes two articles on the military schools and -institutions of England, from which we make a few extracts:</p> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="smallhead">THE MILITARY SPIRIT AND PREPARATION OF -ENGLAND.</p> - -<p>On what foundation is the assertion based that England is only a -first-class naval power? Although never numerous, have not the English -soldiers sufficed for all the great eventualities of history? Has not -the weight of their arms been felt for centuries past in the balance in -which are weighed the destinies of the Continent? Each time that it was -necessary to conquer, have they not conquered? I will not awaken -irritating recollections. I will not mention the name of a great -battle so painful to our national self-love; it will suffice to recall -the fact, that recently, England, with a handful of men, has reconquered -India. Instead of denying history, it were better to ask by what links -the British character is connected with the group of martial nations. -The Englishman is not warlike from inclination; he does not love war for -war’s sake, or maintain an army for the ruinous pleasure of seeing -bayonets glitter and banners flaunt. He has an army to defend his -territory, his commerce, the immense net-work of his external relations -and possessions. Experience has more than once shown him the necessity -of placing the pride of riches under the protection of courage. The -Englishman has less enthusiasm than coolness. Immovable when attacked, -he feels that the responsibility of the labor which has made England an -opulent nation rests upon his arms. The military element, therefore, -presents in Great Britain peculiar and interesting features. And then, -quite recently, besides the regular army, a new independent army has -arisen. Yesterday, it existed but as a project; to-day, it fills the -towns with the blast of its clarions, passes review in Hyde Park and -Holyrood, and covers the plains with the smoke of its skirmishers. -I speak of the volunteers, or riflemen. We must investigate the -origin of this movement, and the influence it has already exercised on -English habits; but before busying ourselves with the army and -volunteers, it will be well to study the military schools and -arsenals.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">REFORMS IN MILITARY EDUCATION AND PROMOTION IN -1856.</p> - -<p>The delay and disasters of the operations before Sebastopol aroused -the attention of the press and the people to the manner in which -officers for the army were trained, appointed, and promoted. The -Government was aroused by the emotions of the country, and in 1856, a -commission was appointed by Lord Panmure, Secretary of War, to -reorganize the education of the officers. That commission visited the -different military schools of Great Britain, visited similar -institutions in France, Prussia, Austria, and Sardinia, and collected -all documents of a nature to enlighten it researches. Its report is a -monument of science, and art, and impartiality. The authors of that -investigation, Col. Yolland, Col. Mythe, and Mr. Lake, of the Oxford -University, pointed out what reform ought to be made in the English -system to raise the establishment of military education to the level of -the inevitable progress claimed by the present age. They recommended a -Council of Military Education, which, placed beyond and above the -educating body, should direct the studies of the young men destined -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page531" id="page531">531</a></span> -for the army. From these various influences—the pressure of public -opinion, the commission appointed in 1856 by the Government, and -especially the Council of Military Education, arose those happy changes, -which we shall endeavor to point out in the military institutions of -Great Britain.</p> - -<p class="smallhead">ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY AT WOOLWICH.</p> - -<p>Before 1855, the candidates were named by the master-general of -ordnance; and although there was an entrance examination, the -requisitions were very elementary, and no youth, influentially connected -or recommended, was rejected. The results, although the institution -furnished some good engineers and artillery officers to the English -army, were not satisfactory. Since 1855 the system of appointment and -instruction has been re-organized. Appointment on nomination has given -place to open competition. A ministerial circular made an appeal to -all candidates desirous of entering the academy without distinction of -class, or party. Public examinations thrown open to the youth of -England, with independent examinations, succeeded the private -examinations within the college walls. The axe was laid at the tree of -privilege, and personal merit was substituted in its place.</p> - -<p>The entrance examinations take place twice, a year, at Chelsea -Hospital—the home of disabled soldiers, and the school of orphan -soldiers’ children—in a large hall hung with the captured trophies -and battle flags of different nations. The programme embraces -mathematics, simple and practical; history, geography, and English -literature; the Greek and Latin classics; the French language and -literature; German, chemistry, and physics; mineralogy and geology; -geometrical and landscape drawing. To each subject a certain numerical -value is assigned. Each candidate is limited to five subjects, including -mathematics, which he may select out of the programme, and on his -obtaining an aggregate as well as relative number of marks depends his -success. The results are made public, and the unsuccessful candidates -are allowed another trial to fill succeeding vacancies. Then -examinations exercise an indirect but elevating influence upon the -schools of the country which send forth the candidates. Competition has -put a check upon ignorance and mediocrity, no matter how well backed by -social and political influence.</p> - -<p>Another reform, not less important than that of competition, or the -system of nominations, was that order of the minister of war, -lengthening the age for the admission of candidates. That age was fixed -between 16 and 20. The inconvenience of submitting young men too -soon to military discipline has been recognized with great wisdom by -Gen. Portlock.<a class="tag" name="tag8_2" id="tag8_2" href="#note8_2">2</a> “The character of adolescents exacts,” he says, “a more -delicate cultivation than that which must be expected from officers -imbued with the command of a military school. In their eyes, no matter -how young he is, the pupil is a soldier, and they treat him almost as -one. Doubtless they excel in drilling him well; but do they possess the -necessary qualities and experience for forming the morals of youth?” -Another consequence of the early admissions was the introduction of a -sort of confusion and uncertainty in the system of teaching. Now, a -distinct line is drawn between the course of studies which precede and -which follow admission to the academy. The conclusion was come to that a -military academy formed a sort of line of demarcation in life between a -good general education which ends, and a professional service which -commences. The character, mind, manners of the candidate -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page532" id="page532">532</a></span> -are supposed to be formed according to the usages of the world; he has -reached that age when a man knows himself, and looks out for a -career.</p> - -<p>It is needless to dwell on the course of instruction, which is now -nearly the same in all the great military schools of Europe. There are -thirty-five professors, many of them eminent in their respective -departments. One leading object, both of instruction and discipline, is -to cultivate the habit of self-improvement and self-government. Physical -sports are practiced and encouraged, and the cadets frequently challenge -the officers of the garrison to a match of cricket.</p> - -<p>An examination takes place every six months, in which the progress of -each cadet is ascertained and reported. Those who pass through the -series in good standing are promoted to a commission; the most -distinguished to the engineer corps, and the others to the artillery. -The appointment of these young officers gives rise to an interesting -ceremony. The Duke of Cambridge, with a numerous staff, visits Woolwich -Academy twice a year. All the cadets are present in review in front of -the monument. It is pleasing to see how admirably they go through the -manœuvres. The duke then enters a hall where a <i>viva voce</i> -examination takes place on the art of fortification. This over, the -cadets form in square, and the duke then advances to the table where the -prizes are laid out. These prizes consist of a sword of honor, -telescopes, mathematical instruments, and books. The President of the -Council of Education reads out the names of the cadets of the first -class who are to receive commissions in the engineers and artillery. In -conclusion, the Duke of Cambridge addresses some parental words to the -young men who are about to leave the academy to enter the army. Such is -a brief account of this academical festival, to which the brilliancy of -the uniforms, the rank and names of the assistants, the happy emotions -on the faces of the young men, impress a character of charm and -solemnity.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">MILITARY COLLEGE AT ADDISCOMBE.</p> - -<p>Addiscombe was formerly the residence of the Earl of Liverpool, but -was converted into a school at an expense of $40,000, by the East India -Company. Within a few years it has passed into the hands of the -Government. One of the first acts of the Secretary of War and Council of -Military Education was to inaugurate a system of admission (which was -open by patronage of members of the company) by competitive examination, -and which has been attended with the happiest results. After passing a -year at Addiscombe, the cadets enter according to merit (ascertained by -examination) and either enter the engineers, artillery, or line service. -The India service will always remain distinct and sought after; that -life of adventures, encampments in the jungles, tiger hunts, the -attraction of struggles against man and nature, the dazzling figures of -a world shining in the east through the fogs of Great Britain, all this -responds to one feature of the English character, the love of -adventure.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">ROYAL COLLEGE OF SANDHURST.</p> - -<p>Here are two distinct institutions—the college, which is a -preparatory school for infantry and cavalry officers, and the <i>senior -department</i>, or staff school. The scholars of the last department, -who have already gone through the competitive examination, are -commissioned officers; they have even served a certain number of years -in the army; some of them have gone through the Crimean war and the -Indian campaign. In 1859, one of these officers had received eighteen -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page533" id="page533">533</a></span> -or nineteen wounds, which had deprived him of one of his eyes. -I was surprised at finding among them candidates for staff -appointments who could write and speak French in a manner that would -have done honor to a French officer.</p> - -<p>The English find it an advantage to admit young officers of talent -and energy into the higher branches of the service. To the experience of -their profession, their picked soldiers add knowledge already acquired, -which a second course of education develops and consolidates. It must, -however, be admitted that it requires a certain moral strength to -return, after having held a command, to the benches of a school, to -follow various studies, and to submit to strict examinations, which -exclude all ideas of promotion and favor, fortune or birth.</p> - -<p>In an economical point of view, these two institutions, Woolwich and -Sandhurst, cover their own expenses without any cost to the State. This -fact, which was by no means foreseen, is owing to two measures -relatively of recent date—the gradual withdrawal of subsidies -formerly granted by Parliament, and the accession of the sons of rich -men not belonging to the army; these latter pay a high premium, and thus -contribute towards the education of the other cadets, who, being sons of -officers, enjoy certain immunities. In England, it is thought equitable -that the services of the father should be counted in favor of the son; -according to this principle, the debt contracted by the country towards -military men is paid to their sons by civilians.</p> - -<p>Young men who have not passed through Sandhurst may, nevertheless, be -admitted as officers into the line or cavalry, but on the condition of -undergoing an examination and <i>purchasing</i> their commissions. This -purchasing of direct commissions is doubtless detrimental to Sandhurst -College. The abolition of the system has often been mooted. The Duke of -Cambridge approves of the abolition, as does the Minister of War, and -wishes that no officer shall be admitted into the English army except -from a military college.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">COUNCIL OF MILITARY EDUCATION.</p> - -<p>So far we only behold the members of a great system. There is unity -in the Council of Military Education, which to a certain extent is the -head of instruction. The influence of their council, which consists of -eminent men, is felt in the different schools, introduces changes and -useful reforms, directs the public examinations—in a word, gives -the impulse to the military studies of the United Kingdom. The civil and -religious element is represented therein by one of the most learned men -of England (the Rev. Henry Mosley, canon.) The other members are -generals and colonels belonging to different corps of the army.</p> - -<p>Thus it will be seen that England enjoys a system of military -education which will bear comparison with that of any other nation in -Europe. The chief purposes of this system are a good general instruction -up to the age of sixteen or nineteen years, then a short military -instruction, then, after some years of service, a final course of -studies in the senior department or staff college. It must not, however, -be supposed that the present state of things, though happily modified by -the recent principle of competition, is the extreme limit of progress. -In the name of liberty, I am too anxious that Great Britain should -maintain her position in the world, to pay a full compliment to her -self-esteem and enslumber her aspirations for reform. She has done much -in these latter times; but there is still much to be done, and she is -aware of it, to raise the moral power of her officers to the level of -modern times, where enlightenment pervades every class of society.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page534" id="page534">534</a></span> -<h4><a name="britain_1871" id="britain_1871" href="#england">MODIFICATIONS IN 1871.</a></h4> - -<p>In 1867 a Royal Commission was appointed “to inquire into the Present -state of Military Education and into the Training of Candidates for -Commissions in the Army.” The Report, with the minutes of evidence and -illustrated documents, was quite voluminous, and has been followed with -important changes in both the system of military instruction, and in the -mode of making appointments and promotions in the army, that will be -noted in detail in the following chapters, which are compiled from -historical notices by the Secretary of the Commission, and recent -Regulations for the government of the several schools and the -examinations for appointment and promotions.</p> - -<p>The most important measure affecting the British army; after repeated -discussions of the principle, in the last and former Parliaments, and -particularly in the last, on a bill of the Gladstone ministry, in which -the votes of the Commons in favor was overruled by the Lords, was the -abolition of the whole system of purchase and sale of commissions by -Royal Warrant issued July 20, 1871. This radical change was followed -(October 30) by a revision of the Queen’s Regulations, in which -original appointments and promotions in the military service are put on -a new basis. Henceforth, commissions of the first grade are to be issued -to sub-lieutenants, for any vacancy occurring:</p> - -<p>1. To successful candidates, in the order of merit as ascertained by -competitive examination in general subjects.</p> - -<p>2. To graduates of the universities who shall pass a qualifying -examination.</p> - -<p>3. To Queen’s Cadets, Indian Cadets, and Pages of Honor, who have -passed successfully the final examination of the Military Academy, or -its equivalent.</p> - -<p>4. To non-commissioned officers who are recommended for promotion by -their commanding officers. If more candidates apply than there are -vacancies to be filled, appointment is decided by competition.</p> - -<p>5. To a lieutenant of the militia, who shall pass the professional -examination required.</p> - -<p>Sub-lieutenants are eligible to promotion only after passing a -professional examination, and only after twelve months’ service with a -regiment, under strict discipline, with liability to be removed for -physical or moral unfitness. Within three years from the date of their -commissions as lieutenants, officers may submit to an examination in -respect to fitness for promotion to captaincies, and any officer failing -to pass within three years, must retire from the army. Lieutenants are -eligible to the rank of captain at any time after two years’ service in -the army, having passed the examination. A captain may be made a -major after two years’ service in the army; and a major is at any time -eligible to a lieutenant-coloneley, which means the command of a -regiment.</p> - -<p>Every promotion must now be made on the recommendation of the -Commander-in-Chief, with the approval of the Secretary of State for War; -and from the principles laid down in the Royal Warrant, as will be seen -further on, every precaution is taken to insure a gradual advance by -seniority, and a more rapid rise by meritorious service founded on -intelligent and disinterested tests. By the new Warrant the Militia is -brought into closer connection with the Regular Army. To the abolition -of purchase, and promotion by professional preparation and service, may -be added the autumn field manœuvres, inaugurated in 1871, with 30,000 -men, and the localization of the Army, by assigning a corps with staff, -train, men, &c., to territorial divisions of the country.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page535" id="page535">535</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_council" id="britain_council" -href="#britain_1871">COUNCIL OF MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_council_historical" id="britain_council_historical" href="#britain_council">HISTORICAL -NOTICE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">In</span> the debates which took place in -Parliament during the Crimean war, in the year 1855, attention was -frequently drawn to the necessity of improving the professional -education of officers, and more particularly of providing means of -instruction for, and requiring special qualifications from, those who -were candidates for the staff. In the course of the same year a great -alteration was made in the principles which had hitherto regulated -preparatory instruction for the army, by abandoning, so far as the -scientific corps were concerned, the system of juvenile military -education, and throwing admission to the Artillery and Engineers open to -public competition among candidates whose age would afford the -presumption that their general education was already completed. At the -beginning of 1856 three Commissioners, Lieut.-Colonel Yolland, R.E., -Lieut.-Colonel Smythe, R.A., and the Rev. W. C. Lake, were -appointed by Lord Panmure, then Secretary of State for War, “to consider -the best mode of reorganizing the system for training officers for the -scientific corps”; and for this purpose were directed to visit the -military schools of France, Prussia, Austria, and Sardinia. The -instructions issued to the Commissioners informed them that it was -already decided that admission to the scientific corps should be -obtained by open competition, and that the age of candidates admitted to -the examination should be from 17 to 20.</p> - -<p>While the Commissioners were still engaged in their inquiries, the -question of military education was frequently brought before the notice -of Parliament in the course of the session of 1856, more particularly by -Mr. Sidney Herbert, who, in an elaborate speech on the 5th of June, -explained to the House of Commons the details of a general scheme of -education for officers of all branches of the service, the outline of -which he had previously sketched out while Secretary at War in 1854, in -a letter to the Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page536" id="page536">536</a></span> -<p>The subject of military education was one which at this time engaged -the serious attention both of the Government and the public. Toward the -close of the year, Major-General Lefroy (then Colonel Lefroy, and -employed at the War Office as artillery adviser to the Secretary of -State) was directed by Lord Panmure to draw up a general scheme for the -education of officers; and numerous plans, with a similar object, were -about the same period proposed for the consideration of the Secretary of -State.</p> - -<p>The military educational establishments which existed in 1856 were as -follows:</p> - -<table class="longtext"> -<tr> -<td>The Royal Military College at Sandhurst, comprising a senior and -junior department.</td> -<td class="bracket">Under the control of the Commander-in-Chief.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich.</td> -<td class="bracket top"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Ordnance School at Carshalton, a preparatory establishment to -the Academy.</td> -<td class="bracket mid" rowspan="2">Under the control of the Clerk -of the Ordnance.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Department of Artillery Studies at Woolwich.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Royal Engineer Establishment at Chatham.</td> -<td class="bracket bottom"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The East India Military College at Addiscombe.</td> -<td class="bracket">Under the Court of Directors of the East India -Company.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The School of Musketry at Hythe.</td> -<td class="bracket">Under the control of the Commander-in-Chief.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea, comprising a training school -for army schoolmasters, and a model school for children.</td> -<td class="bracket" rowspan="2">Under the control of the Deputy -Secretary of War.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Royal Hibernian School at Dublin.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Garrison and regimental schools for soldiers and children.</td> -<td class="bracket">Under the control of the Chaplain-General.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Up to this period no systematic organization for the direction of -military education had prevailed in this country; the various -educational establishments were under the control of separate -departments, and no single authority exercised any general supervision -over them. The appointment of a Director-General of Military Education -had been already advocated in Parliament by Mr. Sidney Herbert, and the -institution of a special department to superintend the whole system of -education for the army was one of the main features both of Colonel -Lefroy’s and of all the other schemes brought under the consideration of -Lord Panmure at this period.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners appointed in 1856, after having visited the -military schools of the Continent, presented their Report in January, -1857. In this Report, although their instructions -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page537" id="page537">537</a></span> -had more particularly directed their attention to the training of -officers for the scientific corps, they touched upon several points -connected with the education of officers of the army generally. One of -the changes most strongly recommended by them was the formation of a -special Board of Military Education. “We consider it of the first -importance,” their Report says, “that military education in this country -should be regarded as a whole, and that perfect unity of system and -harmony in its working should be made to prevail. This, we conceive, can -only be done by bringing military education generally under the control -of one head, the Secretary of State for War; and to effect this, a Board -or Section of Military Education should be formed, as part of the -establishment of the War Office.” The Report adds: “The creation of such -a Section appears to us far more important than any other single object -we can recommend.” The Commissioners also stated that after careful -consideration, they recommended the combined action of a Board in -preference to the undivided authority of a single individual, on the -ground of the variety of knowledge and experience required for the -proper treatment of educational questions.</p> - -<p>The appointment of the Council of Military Education was the first -result of the recommendations of the Commissioners. Its institution was -proposed in a letter from the Commander-in-Chief to the Secretary of -State for War on the 6th of April, 1857, and as originally constituted, -it consisted of the Commander-in-Chief as <i>ex officio</i> president, a -Major-General as vice-president, and two field officers as members. The -appointment of the Council, although the members commenced their duties -at once, was not officially gazetted until June.</p> - -<p>The functions of the Council, however, did not in the first instance -extend to a general superintendence over the whole system of military -education. Almost simultaneously with their institution an -Inspector-General of Army Schools was appointed under the Secretary of -State for War, to whom the management of all institutions connected with -the education of soldiers and children, which had previously been in the -hands of the Chaplain-General, was entrusted. Nor was the supervision of -the Council even over the education of officers at first general, as the -Royal Military Academy at Woolwich remained under the management of the -War Office (under which department it had been placed on the abolition -of the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page538" id="page538">538</a></span> -office of Master-General of the Ordnance), and the examinations for -admission to it were conducted by a separate Board of Examiners, under -the superintendence of Canon Moseley.</p> - -<p>The instructions issued to the Council on their first appointment -directed their attention more especially to the organization of a Staff -College, the revision of the system of examinations for direct -appointments to the army, the amalgamation of Woolwich and Sandhurst, -and the professional instruction and examination of officers after -entering the service. On all these questions they submitted reports in -the course of the year, and at the beginning of 1858 they commenced to -conduct the examinations in connection with the Staff College and the -Cadet College at Sandhurst, although these establishments were not -formally put under their authority until, by a Royal Warrant of the 1st -of October, 1858, the Council were appointed Visitors of the Royal -Military College. The examinations of officers for direct appointments -to the staff, which had been instituted in 1857, were also placed under -the superintendence of the Council in 1858; but at a later period, the -portion of these examinations which has more especial reference to -matters of drill and regimental duty was, on the recommendation of the -Council themselves, removed from their control, with the view of its -being conducted by a Board of Officers appointed by the -Adjutant-General.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the year 1858, the office of Secretary to the -Council of Military Education was created, and in June of the same year -an augmentation of their number took place by the addition of two new -members,—one a field officer, the other a civilian, the Rev. Canon -Moseley. The constitution of the Council as then fixed continues to the -present day, and consists of the Commander-in-Chief as <i>ex officio</i> -president, a vice-president, and four members, one being a civilian.</p> - -<p>The appointment of a civilian as a member of the central Board of -Military Education had been recommended by the Commissioners of 1856, on -the ground of the close connection between military and civil -educational questions. The decision to carry out this recommendation, -simultaneously with an augmentation in the strength of the Council, -appears to have been connected with the determination arrived at, to -place the superintendence of the Academy at Woolwich—the -competitive examinations for admission to which had hitherto been -conducted by Canon Moseley—in the hands of the Council. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page539" id="page539">539</a></span> -They were formally appointed Visitors of the Academy in August, 1858, -their control over the education of the officers of the army being now -made almost entirely general. The powers of the Council, however, in -regard to Woolwich appear, probably from the fact of their not being -defined by Royal Warrant, to be theoretically somewhat less extensive -than those possessed by them over Sandhurst, as the recommendation of -the appointment of professors, which in the case of the latter college -is formally vested in the Council, is at the Academy left to the -Lieutenant-Governor.</p> - -<p>In October, 1859, the Indian Military College at Addiscombe was -placed under the supervision of the Council, and the examinations for -admission to it were conducted by them until the close of the -establishment in 1861.</p> - -<p>In 1860, the superintendence of army schools, garrison libraries, -recreation rooms, the Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea, and the Royal -Hibernian School at Dublin, were transferred from the Secretary of State -for War to the Council.</p> - -<p>In 1864, the Advanced Class of Artillery Officers, on its -institution, was placed under the control of the Council. Since this -date the whole system of army education has been superintended by that -body, with the exception of the examinations of officers for promotion, -the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the more peculiarly regimental -institutions which exist in the Department of Artillery Studies, the -School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and the School of Military -Engineering at Chatham, for the special instruction of officers of the -scientific corps. The Survey Class at Aldershot, though not formally is -indirectly subject to their supervision.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_council_1869" id="britain_council_1869" href="#britain_council_historical">1. -ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES IN 1869.</a></p> - -<p>The Council of Military Education consists of the Duke of Cambridge, -Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, <i>President</i>; Major-General -W. C. E. Napier, <i>Vice-President</i>; Major-General Sir -Fred. Abbott, of the Royal Engineers; Col. Pocklington and Col. Hamley, -of the Royal Artillery; Rev. Canon Moseley, civilian; and Capt. -Greentree, <i>Secretary</i>.</p> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_council_exam" id="britain_council_exam" href="#britain_council_historical"><i>Military -Schools and Examinations.</i></a></p> - -<p>1. To recommend to the Commander-in-Chief, and the Secretary of War, -gentlemen for the appointment of examiners in the army examinations.</p> - -<p>2. To recommend professors and instructors for the Advanced Class of -Artillery Officers, the Staff College, the Royal Military Academy, and -the Royal Military College.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page540" id="page540">540</a></span> -<p>3. To examine, by means of their staff of examiners, officers for -direct appointment to the staff, chiefly the personal staff, and -aids-de-camp and assistant military secretaries.</p> - -<p>4. To examine officers of artillery for admission to the Advanced -Class, and for certificates on quitting it.</p> - -<p>5. To examine officers for admission to the Staff College, -probationarily after a year’s residence, and for qualification for the -general staff on quitting the College.</p> - -<p>6. To examine candidates for admission to the Royal Military Academy -at Woolwich, and for qualification for commissions in the Royal -Artillery and in the Royal Engineers on quitting that establishment.</p> - -<p>7. To examine candidates for admission to the Royal Military College -at Sandhurst, and for qualification for commissions in the army on their -quitting the College.</p> - -<p>8. To examine candidates for direct commissions in the cavalry, -guards, and line.</p> - -<p>9. To visit the several military colleges whenever they consider it -desirable.</p> - -<p>10. To report to the Commander-in-Chief on all questions connected -with the education of candidates for the army, or with the educational -departments of the several military schools.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_council_army" id="britain_council_army" href="#britain_council_historical"><i>Army -Schools, Regimental and Garrison Libraries and Reading -Rooms.</i></a></p> - -<p>1. To receive and consider all applications for training -schoolmasters or schoolmistresses; the usual course of procedure in -these cases is annexed.</p> - -<p>2. The appointment of trained schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, -according to the regulations.</p> - -<p>3. The appointment of acting schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, when -trained masters and mistresses cannot be provided.</p> - -<p>4. The appointment of civilian schoolmasters in embodied regiments of -militia under special regulations as annexed.</p> - -<p>5. The transfers of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses from one -regiment or garrison school to another, as circumstances may -require.</p> - -<p>6. Promotion of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses from one class to -another according to the regulations.</p> - -<p>7. To receive and consider all communications from commanding -officers on matters relating to the appointment of schoolmasters and -schoolmistresses their discipline, application for leave to marry, -furlough, etc.</p> - -<p>8. To receive the monthly report of schools, prescribed by Article 16 -of the Schools Regulations, and to consider the same, and take such -proceedings thereon as may appear necessary.</p> - -<p>9. The periodical inspection of all military schools, and of the -Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and the Royal Hibernian School, -Dublin.</p> - -<p>10. To provide for and superintend the half yearly examination at the -Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea.</p> - -<p>11. The supply of suitable apparatus for the illustration of lectures -for the instruction and entertainment of soldiers, according to the -rules laid down by the Secretary of State.</p> - -<p>12. The general supervision of regimental and garrison libraries and -reading rooms.</p> - -<p>13. To consider applications for, and appoint librarians at rates of -pay previously authorized by the Secretary of State.</p> - -<p>14. To supply games, and other authorized articles for reading rooms, -according to the rules annexed.</p> - -<p>15. To receive the quarterly reports of the state of barrack -libraries in duplicate, and to consider any recommendation which maybe -made therein; one copy to be forwarded to the Secretary of State for -War, with the recommendations of the Council recorded thereon, should -any be necessary.</p> - -<p>16. To make out requisitions upon the War Office for additions to -libraries, when necessary, within the annual amount granted by -Parliament.</p> - -<p>17. To receive and consider the half yearly reports of artillery and -engineer libraries in duplicate, in aid of which a grant of money will -be made annually to each brigade of artillery and company of engineers -by the Secretary of State, on the recommendation of the Council of -Military Education; one copy to be forwarded to the Secretary of State, -with any remarks thereon which may appear called for, the other to be -retained by the Council.</p> - -<p>18. Hospital libraries and the schools and libraries of disembodied -regiments of militia will remain under the Secretary of State for -War.</p> - -<p>19. Upon all matters connected with either schools or libraries, not -specified above, and which may involve expense, reference should be made -to the Secretary of State for War, previously to any decision being -arrived at.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page541" id="page541">541</a></span> -<h5 class="three"><a name="britain_council_commission" id="britain_council_commission" href="#britain_council">EXAMINATIONS FOR -COMMISSIONS AND PROMOTIONS.</a></h5> - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_council_direct" id="britain_council_direct" href="#britain_council_commission">I. -EXAMINATIONS FOR DIRECT COMMISSIONS.</a></p> - -<p class="smallhead">HISTORICAL NOTICE.</p> - -<p><span class="firstword">Previously</span> to the year 1849, no -educational qualifications were required as a condition of obtaining a -commission, except from officers appointed to the scientific -corps—admission to which could only be obtained by passing through -the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich—and from the small -proportion of officers, scarcely amounting, at that time, to one sixth -of the whole number annually obtaining commissions, who entered the -other branches of the service from the Royal Military College at -Sandhurst. Examinations for admission to the army generally were first -instituted by the Duke of Wellington, when Commander-in-Chief, in 1849. -The examination, in addition to general subjects of elementary -education, included the professional subject of fortification, in which -the candidate was required to have read some easy work on the subject, -and to have received some instruction in drawing. This requirement was -subsequently somewhat modified; and the knowledge of fortification -afterward exacted from a candidate was, “to be able to trace upon paper, -in presence of the examiners, a front of fortification according to -Vauban’s first system, and also the profile of a rampart and parapet.” -In other subjects, modifications were also introduced; but the general -character of the examinations remained much the same as originally -established, and the regulations introduced by the Duke of Wellington, -in 1849, continued substantially in force, until the general revision of -the system of military education, which took place in 1857. It appears, -however, from the evidence given by Lord Panmure, before the Royal -Commission on the Purchase System, that, during the Crimean war, the -stringency of the examinations was very much relaxed.</p> - -<p>The examinations were held at Sandhurst by the professors of the -College, in the presence of the Lieutenant-Governor, and were conducted -to a great extent <i>vivâ voce</i>. The Select Committee of the House of -Commons on Sandhurst (1855) did not make any recommendation in regard to -these examinations, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page542" id="page542">542</a></span> -but stated in their report that in the only branch of the examination -which was of a military character, namely, fortification, the knowledge -required would easily be mastered in a week. The character of the -examination, however, appears to have been very generally regarded with -dissatisfaction. Mr. Sidney Herbert, when Secretary at War, in 1854, -criticised it severely, as being “too technical, too limited, and within -its limits too severe,” and as leading necessarily to a candidate -cramming up a few books which happened to be in use at Sandhurst, -without affording any test of general education. He contemplated at that -time a revision of the examinations, and the institution of a special -board of examiners, in place of the Sandhurst professors, for the -purpose of conducting them; and the Treasury, in connection with this -subject, suggested that the machinery proposed for the object in view -should be combined, as far as practicable, with that about to be -established for examining candidates for the Civil Service.</p> - -<p>The outbreak of the Crimean war prevented Mr. Sidney Herbert’s -proposals, which were connected with a general plan for the instruction -of officers, from being carried into effect; and in 1856, Lord Panmure, -before the Purchase System Commission, spoke of the defects of the -existing examinations in nearly the same terms as those used by Mr. -Herbert in 1854. After stating that they led to a system of cramming up -particular books, he laid down the principle that the examination -“should be such as young men may be supposed capable of passing without -having any particular professional education. It ought to be upon -general subjects, such as a young man ought to become acquainted with -during his passage through any high educational establishment in this -country.”</p> - -<p>The various schemes for the reorganization of military education -brought under the notice of Lord Panmure, at the end of 1856, proposed -improvements in the system of examinations for admission to the army; -and nearly all the authorities consulted on the subject at that time -appear to have concurred in the opinion that the examinations should be -strictly non-professional, and should be confined to requiring proof on -the part of the candidates of a knowledge of the ordinary subjects of -liberal education. The commissioners appointed in the same year to -consider the training of officers for the scientific corps also -recommended that the examination of candidates -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page543" id="page543">543</a></span> -for commissions, who did not pass through a military college, should be -of a general, and not of a special, character.</p> - -<p>The Council of Military Education, on their appointment, in April, -1857, were instructed “to revise the whole system of examination for -direct appointments to the army,” which is at present very defective; -and this subject was, in fact, the first of those referred to in their -instructions which they were directed to take into consideration. After -consultation with the head masters of some of the chief public schools -of the country, with the view of ascertaining the amount of knowledge -which might fairly be expected from young men of 17, the Council -proposed a scheme of examination based on the fundamental principle that -the examination should be entirely non-professional, and confined to -subjects which form the course of ordinary liberal education at civil -schools. Regulations founded upon the proposal of the Council were -issued on the 1st of August, 1857, and it was announced that they would -come into operation at the beginning of 1858. These regulations were -subsequently modified in some of their details, even before the first -examination was held under the new system; further modifications have -been from time to time introduced in them, without, however, affecting -their general character; and the scheme proposed by the Council of 1857 -has, in its main principles, formed the basis of all the regulations -under which examinations for direct commissions have been held to the -present time.</p> - -<p>It appears, however, from the evidence given before the Commission of -1869, that it has been found necessary, from time to time, to diminish -the difficulty of the examinations, owing to the number of failures -among the candidates, and that the present standard is considerably -lower than that originally established. An acquaintance with French, -English history and geography, and drawing, was at first an -indispensable condition of qualification, but is now no longer required; -the obligatory subjects of examination have thus been reduced from five -to two—mathematics and English—while, at the same time, the -amount of mathematical knowledge formerly exacted has been reduced.</p> - -<p>The first examination under the new system took place in February, -1858. Even before this, at the end of 1857, the place of examination had -been transferred from Sandhurst to -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page544" id="page544">544</a></span> -London, and the method of conducting the examinations by printed papers, -instead of by <i>vivâ voce</i>, had been adopted. The examinations have, -ever since that period, been conducted by examiners appointed by the -Council of Military Education, and have, as a rule, been held half -yearly. By a regulation which has been for some years in force, -candidates for direct commissions are also permitted to be examined at -foreign stations. The examination is, in this case, conducted in the -presence of a board appointed by the officer commanding the station; but -the method of examination is, in all other respects, identical with that -adopted at home. The examination papers are forwarded by, and the -candidates’ replies are returned to, the Council of Military -Education.</p> - -<p>The plan proposed by the Council was intended to regulate admission -to the army in ordinary times of peace; but almost immediately after it -had been formally approved, and before it had actually come into -operation, the pressure occasioned by the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny -led to an abnormal condition of circumstances. In September, 1857, a -circular was issued, announcing that commissions would be given without -examination on the condition of the applicant raising a certain number -of recruits. In March, however, of the following year, this temporary -measure was abolished, the pressure for troops being no longer such as -to render its continuance necessary. Since that period no candidates, -with the exception of graduates of the universities, have obtained -commissions without passing the regular examination.</p> - -<p>Before 1862, candidates were eligible for commissions without -purchase, on passing the examination for direct appointments. Since that -year, however, all free commissions have been reserved for cadets at -Sandhurst, and those who pass the direct examination have only obtained -commissions by purchase.</p> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_council_regulations" id="britain_council_regulations" href="#britain_council_commission">REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN 1869.</a></p> - -<p>I. The examinations of candidates for direct commissions will be held -in London at such periods as the exigencies of the service may require, -and be conducted under the direction of the Council of Military -Education by examiners appointed for the purpose. The number of -candidates summoned to attend each examination will be limited to the -requirements of the service.</p> - -<p>II. The age of candidates examined for direct appointments will be, -until further notice, from 17 to 20 years for the infantry, from 17 to -22 years for the cavalry, and from 17 to 26 years for colonial -corps.</p> - -<p>III. The candidate will be examined by a medical board, to ascertain -that he is in every point of view, as regards his physical constitution, -fit for military service.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page545" id="page545">545</a></span> -<p>He will be required to produce the following certificates, which must -be forwarded to the Council of Military Education, 13 Great George -street, S.W., as soon as possible after the receipt of the Military -Secretary’s order to attend for examination:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) A certificate of baptism, or other satisfactory proof of -his age.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) A certificate from a minister of the church or of the -denomination to which he belongs, that he has been duly instructed in -the principles of religion.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) A certificate of good moral character, signed by a -clergyman of the parish to which he belongs, or by the tutor or head of -the school or college at which he has received his education, for at -least the two preceding years; or such other proof of good moral -character as will be satisfactory to the Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) A statement of the subjects in which he wishes to be -examined.</p> - -<p>IV. The following will be the subjects of examination, but no -candidate will be allowed to be examined in more than <i>five</i> of -these subjects.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<th class="smallest">Marks.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket" rowspan="2">The classics</td> -<td class="text">Latin,</td> -<td>2,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Greek,</td> -<td>1,600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Mathematics, pure and mixed,</td> -<td>3,600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">English language,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Modern languages (not including provincial dialects) -each,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">History, ancient and modern, with geography,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Natural sciences, <i>i.e.</i>, mineralogy and -geology,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Experimental sciences, <i>i.e.</i>, chemistry, heat, -electricity, including magnetism,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Drawing,</td> -<td>600</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>V. Of the foregoing subjects, the elementary branches of mathematics -and the English language, to the extent stated in the following -paragraphs, will be considered obligatory:</p> - -<p>1. In mathematics, 1,200 marks will be given to the following -obligatory portions, viz., arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal -fractions, proportion, extraction of the square root, and simple -interest.</p> - -<p>Algebra, including fractions, simple equations, and questions -producing them: Euclid, the first three books.</p> - -<p>Of the 1,200 marks allotted to the foregoing portions of mathematics, -400 will be required for qualification, and of these at least 200 must -be obtained in arithmetic.</p> - -<p>2. In the English language, the candidate will be required to write -correctly and in a good legible hand from dictation, and to compose -grammatically. He will be required to obtain at least 200 marks in this -subject.</p> - -<p>3. Out of the remaining subjects the candidate may select any -three.</p> - -<p>4. No candidate will be allowed to count the marks gained in any one -of the three voluntary subjects, unless amounting to one-sixth of the -whole number of marks allotted to that subject; and for qualification, -he will be required to obtain on his five subjects a total of 1,500 -marks.</p> - -<p>5. In the examination in classics, passages will be given for -translation from the books usually read at schools; grammatical -questions will be set, and English passages also given for translation -into the Latin and Greek languages.</p> - -<p>VI. The result of each examination will be reported to the -Commander-in-Chief, and the names of any candidates who distinguish -themselves will be specially brought to his notice.</p> - -<p>VII. An unsuccessful candidate will not be debarred from applying to -the Commander-in-Chief for permission to attend a future examination. No -candidate, however, will be allowed more than three trials.</p> - -<p>Should a candidate obtain only between 700 and 1,200 marks, he will -not be allowed to present himself for reëxamination for at least six -months. If he obtains less than 700 marks, a period of at least twelve -months must elapse before he can be allowed to present himself -again.</p> - -<p>In all cases permission to be reëxamined must depend upon the number -of applicants on the list.</p> - -<p>In subsequent examinations no credit will be given for the marks -gained by a candidate on former occasions.</p> - -<p>In the event of a candidate not appearing for examination at the time -appointed, such candidate will not be permitted to attend on the next -occasion, and he will render himself liable to have his name either -erased entirely or placed at the bottom of the list of those noted for -examination.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page546" id="page546">546</a></span> -<p>VIII. A student at either of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, -Dublin, London, St. Andrew’s, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, or Queen’s -University, Ireland, who shall have passed the examination necessary for -taking a degree in arts, is qualified for a commission by purchase -without being required to pass the foregoing examination, provided he is -within the limits of 17 and 23 years of age if for the infantry, 17 and -25 years if for the cavalry, and of 17 and 28 years for colonial corps, -and can produce the certificates marked (<i>a</i>), (<i>b</i>), and -(<i>c</i>).</p> - -<p>Such candidate must furnish a certificate of having graduated, or of -having passed the examinations, signed by the Registrar of the -University, and showing the date on which the examination took -place.</p> - -<p>On his application being approved, the candidate will receive an -order to be medically examined as to his physical fitness for the -service.</p> - -<p>The candidate will address his application, accompanied by the -necessary certificates, to the Military Secretary, Horse Guards.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_council_public" id="britain_council_public" href="#britain_council_commission">III. -PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION AS PREPARATORY TO MILITARY EXAMINATIONS.</a></p> - -<p class="smallhead">A.—GENERAL NOTICE.</p> - -<p>In connection with the Modern Departments, at some public schools, -technical instruction in military subjects is actually at present given. -This, for instance, is the case at Cheltenham College, the Modern -Department at which appears, in fact, to have been originally instituted -with the express object of affording means of special military -education, and at the present day is officially called the “Military and -Civil Department.” At one time, also, even at some schools in which -Modern Departments did not exist, classes were formed in which -instruction in military subjects was given to boys intended for the -army. Both at Eton and at Harrow such classes existed, and fortification -and military drawing were taught in them. The object of the formation of -these classes appears in both cases to have been to enable boys to go up -straight from school to the examinations for admission to the army, -without the necessity of having recourse to private tuition. At the time -of their institution a knowledge of fortification was required in the -examination for direct commissions, and a candidate was therefore unable -to present himself for this examination without some special -preparation. At the commencement of 1858, however, the direct commission -examinations were entirely remodelled; the small amount of fortification -previously required was at that time excluded from the subjects of -examination, which have ever since been of a non-professional character, -and more or less such as enter into the course of ordinary liberal -education. With the exclusion of technical subjects from the military -examinations, the necessity for any special instruction in such subjects -in -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page547" id="page547">547</a></span> -candidates for admission to the army ceased. The military class at -Harrow seems to have died out within a few years of its establishment; -it has not been in existence during the last ten years and more. At -Eton, though the corresponding class is still maintained, the teaching -of technical military subjects in it has been abandoned. Even in the -Modern Department at Cheltenham the instruction appears of late years to -have become of a less decidedly military character than it originally -was; and fortification, which was at one time taught at Wellington -College, no longer enters into the course of instruction there. In the -Modern Side, which has within the present year been established at -Harrow, though partially intended, among other purposes, to assist the -education of boys intended for the army, no attempt is made to give -special military instruction.</p> - -<p>The question of the possibility of affording an adequate military -education at civil schools was fully discussed by the Commissioners -appointed in 1856 to consider the training of officers for the -scientific corps.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Having arrived at the conclusion that professional military education -as hitherto given in this country has been begun at too early an age, we -are met by what may be called the extreme opposite view, which would -suggest the desirableness of giving up altogether education in military -colleges previously to entering the army, or to entering a purely -practical class or college for the special corps of Artillery and -Engineers. An opinion appears to exist that the ordinary schools of the -country are the best means of giving nearly the whole teaching of -general and even military science which is desirable for all classes of -officers before entering the army. It seems to be thought that not only -modern languages and mathematics, but military history and topography -are likely to be taught in such schools sufficiently for the highest -military purposes, and that even young men intended for the special arms -of the service may, on joining a military academy, be absolved, or -almost entirely absolved, from any other studies than those included -under the expression “<i>a purely practical course</i>.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The Commissioners expressed their unhesitating dissent from this -view. After pointing out the difficulties of giving at ordinary schools -a complete preparation even in studies of a general preparatory -character, such as modern languages and mathematics, and the still -greater difficulties of teaching special subjects, like military history -and topography, the Report proceeds:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Agreeing, therefore, as to the fact of a “sound general education -being given by public schools,” we are unable to draw from it the -conclusion that they will “give a specific military education.” They may -indeed assist our military education, in a manner which the true sense -of the term “sound general education” expresses, by encouraging -preliminary tastes and studies, such as general history, mathematics, -and modern languages, English included, to a greater extent than they do -at present. But if there is such a thing as a science of war at all, it -stands to reason that it can only be taught fully in cases where young -officers have the passion and the capacity to begin it early, by its own -teachers, and in its own place. The teachers should be -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page548" id="page548">548</a></span> -practical men, as well as men of military science; the place a military -college. And the great schools of the country will perform the same -service to such an academy for young scientific officers as they do for -places which give a specific education for other professions; they will -<i>prepare for it</i>, but disclaim any attempt to <i>complete -it</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Report of the Public Schools Commission does not appear to have -made any direct reference to the question of the possibility of giving -technical military instruction at civil schools; but the disinclination -shown by the Commissioners to recommend even the general institution of -“Modern Departments” would lead to the conclusion that they were not -disposed to view with favor the introduction of any system of special -instruction into the ordinary school course.</p> - -<p>The question has been dealt with at considerable length in the -evidence taken before the present Commission. In addition to the -evidence given by Dr. Barry, Mr. Southwood, Dr. Benson, and Dr. Temple, -to which particular reference is made in the Report, opinions on the -subject were expressed by several military witnesses. Major-General Sir -P. Herbert considers that all which is learnt at Sandhurst—all the -knowledge requisite for a line officer—might equally well be -acquired at a public school, if proper arrangements were made for -teaching it. In his opinion fortification (including the practical -construction of field-works), military drawing and surveying, military -history and drill, could all be taught by military instructors at public -schools without difficulty, and without interference with the subjects -of general education. Major-General White considers that military -history, modern languages, and drawing might be taught with advantage at -public schools to boys intended for the army, although it would be -difficult to teach the practical work of field fortification, artillery, -and surveying. Colonel Baker appears to be of opinion that at the -Universities, certainly, a special preliminary education might be given -to candidates for the army, on a system similar to that which it was at -one time proposed to introduce at Cambridge, but which does not appear -to have ever been actually adopted. At the same time, though this -instruction would be of a special character, Colonel Baker does not seem -to contemplate its embracing strictly technical military subjects. On -the other hand, His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge is of opinion -that special military classes at public schools would fail; -Major-General Sir F. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page549" id="page549">549</a></span> -Abbott thinks it unnecessary to establish such classes; Colonel Hort is -decidedly opposed to an attempt to give military instruction at any but -a military college, on the ground that it could not be so effectively -given at a civil establishment, and would, moreover, interfere with the -acquisition of a general education; and Lieut.-General Sir D. Cameron -considers that it would be impossible for public schools to give a -thorough or perfect knowledge of the practical subjects taught at -Sandhurst, such as fortification, artillery, military drawing, and -surveying.</p> - -<p>In connection with the same subject suggestions have been made by -some witnesses that the Government should assign a certain number of -free commissions annually, as prizes to be competed for, either at -particular public schools, or more generally amongst candidates educated -at such schools. The institution of military exhibitions or scholarships -at civil schools, and of military degrees at the Universities, has been -also suggested. By some witnesses these proposals are advocated with the -special view of inducing public schools to adopt a system of military -instruction; by others with the more general object of holding out -increased encouragement to enter the service to candidates who have had -the advantage of a public school education.</p> - -<p>Although the question of giving military instruction at public -schools was not specially discussed by the Public School Commissioners, -their attention was directed to the results of public school education -in preparing candidates for the military examinations. Their Report -speaks as follows in reference to this subject:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The number of public-school boys who enter the army is not large. Of -1,976 candidates for direct commissions within three years, 122 only had -been at any of these schools. Of these 102 succeeded and 20 failed. It -will be observed, on reference to the returns, that this proportion of -failures is considerably below the average; the public school men, -therefore, were better prepared than the general run of candidates. Of -96 who passed at their first examination, 38 came immediately from -school, 58 had had intermediate tuition. Of the 20 who failed, 14 had -had such tuition.</p> - -<p>The public-school candidates for Sandhurst during the same period -were 23 out of 375; the proportion who succeeded being here also above -the average. Of 18 who succeeded, 11 came straight from school; of five -who failed, only one.</p> - -<p>The scheme of examinations for direct commissions, framed to meet the -suggestions of the Head Masters of public schools, is simple and easy, -and requires nothing that is beyond the reach of any boy of moderate -industry and ordinary capacity; and it is clear that no boy, who will -give himself a little trouble, needs to forego the wholesome influences -of a great school for the sake of being “crammed” in the house of a -tutor. The Sandhurst examination is also evidently within the reach of -the schools.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page550" id="page550">550</a></span> -<p>The qualifying examination for Woolwich appears, before 1862, to have -required an amount of mathematical knowledge difficult of attainment for -a boy educated at a public school; but it underwent in that year some -changes which have made it easier for candidates who have not received a -special training. The obligatory mathematics do not now go beyond plane -trigonometry; and a candidate need not obtain in them, to qualify, more -than 700 marks out of 3,500; with this minimum, and with a fair -proficiency in Latin, Greek, French, and geometrical drawing, he is -entitled to enter into the competition. This standard is certainly not -so high as to be inaccessible to a boy educated at a good public school, -and from a table showing the working of the scheme at the examination of -January, 1863, it appears that of the 20 successful competitors, 11 -distinguished themselves in classics; the other marks were chiefly -gained in mathematics and French. In three years, previous to this -change, 35 public-school candidates passed and 49 failed to pass the -qualifying examination, the totals being 545 and 689. Of the whole 84, -two only went direct from the schools, and these failed.</p> - -<p>In another passage the Commissioners say: “The main studies of the -public schools being classical, it is obvious that, unless a due amount -of weight is given to the classics in the Woolwich examinations, boys -from those schools will not stand a fair chance in the competition. On -the other hand, as it is of importance that the examinations should -comprise other subjects besides classics, it is also obvious that unless -the public schools provide a due amount of instruction in those other -subjects, the candidates whom they send up must compete at a -disadvantage. It is certain that there has hitherto been a want of -adjustment between the Woolwich standard and the teaching of the public -schools. The fault, we think, lies chiefly, though not wholly, in the -deficiencies in the course of education pursued at the latter; and we -are convinced that when these deficiencies have been supplied the -difficulty which is now complained of will speedily disappear. But it is -also to be observed, with respect to the Woolwich examinations -themselves, that the scale of marks has lately (as we have already -stated) undergone an alteration, which diminishes the amount of -mathematical attainment required, and allows greater weight to classical -scholarship. It appears probable that the Modern Departments at -Cheltenham and Marlborough would not have been what they are had the old -Woolwich standard, which is stated to have influenced them so strongly, -been the same as the present; and probable, also, that they will -hereafter feel the effects of the change which has been made in <ins -class="correction" title="closing ” missing">it.”</ins></p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_council_promotion" id="britain_council_promotion" href="#britain_council_commission">III. -EXAMINATIONS FOR PROMOTIONS.</a></p> - -<p class="smallhead">HISTORICAL NOTICE.</p> - -<p><span class="firstword">Examinations</span> for promotion were for -the first time instituted shortly after the introduction of examinations -for admission to the army, by the Duke of Wellington when -Commander-in-Chief, in the year 1850. A circular memorandum, -published on the 14th of May of that year, announced that all officers -would in future be subjected to an examination previously to promotion -to the respective ranks of lieutenant and captain. The first examination -was to be confined to subjects connected with the rudiments of drill, -regimental duties, interior economy, and the Mutiny Act and Articles of -War. The second examination for the rank of captain was in addition to -extend to more general subjects, and to include geography, ancient and -modern history, mathematics, and field and permanent fortification; but -the examination in these subjects was not intended to affect lieutenants -who had entered the service previously to 1849.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page551" id="page551">551</a></span> -<p>The examination for promotion to the rank of lieutenant was to be -conducted regimentally by the commanding officer and the two next senior -officers of the candidate’s regiment. The purely professional portion of -the second examination, for the rank of captain, was to be conducted in -the same manner; with regard to the mode of testing the candidates’ -qualifications in the more general subjects required in this -examination, it was stated that such orders would be given in each -individual case as the Commander-in-Chief might think proper and -necessary.</p> - -<p>These regulations continued in force up to the time of the -institution of the Council of Military Education in 1857, although it -appears, both from official statements made by the Secretary at War, and -from numerous expressions of opinion in Parliament between the years -1854 and 1857, that, at least so far as regarded the second examination -for the rank of captain, little attempt was made, even nominally, to -enforce the regulations. Mr. Sidney Herbert proposed, in 1854, in -connection with his general scheme of military education, to remodel the -examinations and to institute a special machinery for conducting them; -and though no actual steps were taken to carry out his proposal, the -necessity of making the examinations real and genuine tests of -professional knowledge, and of enforcing strict qualifications for -promotion, was frequently recognized in the numerous discussions which -took place in Parliament on the subject of military education during the -course of the Crimean War.</p> - -<p>The Council of Military Education, on their appointment in 1857, were -directed to consider the question of the professional examination of -officers for promotion up to the rank of captain, and in the course of -the year submitted a proposal on this subject, in connection with a -scheme for providing instruction for officers after entering the -service.</p> - -<p>New regulations on the subject were issued on the 19th of July, 1858, -which, while introducing little change in regard to the examination of -cornets and ensigns, rendered a knowledge of mathematics, history, and -fortification no longer requisite in the second examination for the rank -of captain. Geography, on the other hand, was still retained among the -subjects, and, as a condition of promotion to a captaincy, a lieutenant -was required “to be able to state the general divisions -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page552" id="page552">552</a></span> -of the world, the name of the capital of each nation in Europe, and the -principal rivers, seaports, and military posts in Great Britain, -Ireland, and Her Majesty’s Dominions in every part of the world.” The -examinations of cornets and ensigns still continued to be conducted -regimentally; that of lieutenants, so far as related to matters of -regimental economy, detail, or discipline, was to be made by boards of -officers appointed by the commanding officer at the station, consisting, -when possible, of three senior officers not of the same corps as the -candidate.</p> - -<p>In November, 1858, revised regulations were issued, which, in -accordance with the recommendations of the Council of Military -Education, made considerable changes in the examinations, and placed -them on their present basis. The subjects of regimental and ordinary -duties on which candidates were to be examined were more minutely -detailed than heretofore; the examinations were made entirely -professional, geography being excluded from the second examination, and -at the same time it was announced that lieutenants would be required to -show a sufficient knowledge of reconnaissance and of field -fortification. But the most important change made at this time was in -regard to the mode of conducting the examinations, which were no longer -to be carried on regimentally, but by a board appointed by the -commanding officer of the district, consisting (if possible) of -three field officers,—with the additional provision that in no -case in which it could possibly be avoided, an officer of the same -regiment as the candidate was to be a member of the board. Cornets and -ensigns were to be required to pass the examination before completing -eight months’ service; and, in order to give additional stringency to -the regulations, it was announced that the Commander-in-Chief would “not -hesitate to promote (either regimentally or from other corps) officers -who may have passed the required examination, in place of the idle and -incompetent.”</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN 1869.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Infantry and Cavalry.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>159. Before officers are recommended for promotion to the rank of -lieutenant, the commanding officer is to apply to the senior officer of -the district or station for a board to examine and report upon their -qualifications as under:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) They must have a thorough knowledge, and must give an -account, of the duties they have to perform as regimental orderly -officers, as officers commanding guards, or as subaltern officers of -guards under officers of superior rank.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page553" id="page553">553</a></span> -<p>(<i>b.</i>) They must have a thorough knowledge of, and be able to -put a company through the various exercises and evolutions prescribed in -the first two parts of the “Field Exercises of the Infantry;” and they -must be acquainted with the rifle drill and practice, and the -theoretical principles of musketry, as defined in the authorized book of -instruction.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) They must know exactly the place of all the company -officers in every situation of the battalion, and be able to command a -company in battalion exercise.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) They must be acquainted with such parts of the Queen’s -Regulations and Orders for the Army as relate to the duties, and conduct -of a subaltern officer, and with the Mutiny Act and Articles of War, so -far as is necessary for the performance of their duties as members of a -court-martial.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) They must be acquainted with the regulations of the army -in regard to the pay and messing of the troops, the supply of clothing -and necessaries, and all details regarding the weight of, and mode of -carrying, the various articles of the soldier’s kit, arms, -accoutrements, and ammunition.</p> -</div> - -<p>160. In addition to such portions of the foregoing as may apply to -the cavalry service, it is necessary in the case of cornets recommended -for promotion to the rank of lieutenant,—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) That they shall have learnt their foot drill and sword -exercise, and have been instructed in the single and double ride.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) That they shall be able to put a troop through the -carbine, lance, and sword exercise, and to exercise both a squad and -troop in the drill and evolutions prescribed in the Cavalry Exercise -Book.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) That they shall be able to command a troop in squadron -exercise.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) That they shall have made themselves masters of the -detail of saddlery, the mode of fitting the saddle, bridle, etc., and of -the whole equipment of the cavalry soldier and his horse.</p> -</div> - -<p>161. Lieutenants in the Cavalry and Infantry will, in addition to the -foregoing, before they are recommended for promotion to the rank of -captain, be required to show that they are further duly qualified as -follows:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) They must have a thorough knowledge of the provisions of -the Mutiny Act and Articles of War, and of the forms and proceedings of -courts-martial, and must give evidence of having studied some of the -standard works on military law.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) They must understand perfectly the evolutions of a -regiment of cavalry or a battalion of infantry, as laid down in the -regulations for those services respectively.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) They must be acquainted with the light infantry drill, -duties of outposts, patrols, escorts, advanced and rear guards.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) They must perfectly understand the interior economy of a -troop or company, and the established system of keeping their -accounts.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) They must be thoroughly acquainted with the Queen’s and -War Office Regulations applicable to their own branch of the -service.</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) They must be competent to take charge of a troop, -company, or detachment, in every position in which it may be placed.</p> - -<p>(<i>g.</i>) And they will be required to show that they have a -sufficient knowledge of field fortification and reconnaissance.</p> -</div> - -<p>162. The board of examination is to consist, if possible, of three -field officers; but on no occasion, when it can be avoided, is any -officer of the same regiment as the candidate to be a member. In all -cases the board will ascertain by practical examination, as well as by -verbal and written answers to questions, whether the officer is -instructed in the subjects specified in the preceding paragraphs. The -questions are to be written on half margin, and the replies written -opposite to them. The board will mark in red ink its correction of any -mistakes in the answers, and will certify in each case that “the -candidate has not received any assistance from books or other sources.” -The report of the board to be on a separate sheet, and when officers of -different regiments are examined by the same board, the report in -connection with each regiment is to be made separately.</p> - -<p>163. The general officer commanding will forward the report of the -board, and the written questions and replies, to the adjutant-general, -accompanied by his own observations thereon, regarding the nature of the -examination, the correctness of the answers, and the eligibility of the -officer examined.</p> - -<p>164. Every cornet or ensign is to be examined on the different points -herein specified, before he has completed one year’s service; and should -he fail to qualify himself for promotion within that period, his -commanding officer must report, through the general officer commanding, -for the information of the Commander-in-Chief, whether it is owing to a -want of diligence and attention on the part of the officer, or to -sickness, or other circumstances over which he could have had no -control.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page554" id="page554">554</a></span> -<p>165. No officer will be recommended for promotion to the rank either -of lieutenant or captain unless his examination papers and certificate -of qualification have been received by the Military Secretary; but the -Commander-in-Chief will, in all cases, select the senior officer who may -have qualified for promotion to the higher grade.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Artillery.</i></p> - -<p>166. The examination of lieutenants of artillery for the rank of -captain will include all the subjects required from officers of the line -of corresponding rank, except that a general knowledge only of the -evolutions of cavalry and infantry will suffice. In addition to the -foregoing, lieutenants of artillery are to be examined as to their -acquaintance with the more special duties of their arm of the service. -The following will serve as a guide:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Field-gun drill. Exercise of heavy guns on ground and -traversing platforms, mortar drill, rocket drill, Armstrong gun drill, -practice with hot shot and molten iron shells, gun and transporting -carriage drill.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) General duties of the men, and principles involved in -mounting and dismounting ordnance generally, in placing guns on towers, -in embarking and disembarking ordnance, and in moving ordnance up steep -inclines; also the tackle, etc., required in the above operations.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Different pieces of ordnance in use throughout the -service at the time of examination, their weight and calibre, and -special purpose.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Ammunition employed with ordnance generally; ammunition -employed with Armstrong guns; general construction of a Congreve rocket, -and the principle of its motion; manufacture and action of fuzes and -tubes; the advantages of the rifle action, and the principle upon which -it depends; essential points with regard to rifling ordnance: general -principles of breaching; position and employment of artillery in the -field; considerations which regulate the rapidity of artillery fire; -principles connected with the construction of artillery carriages; -general knowledge of laboratory duties.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) Embarking and disembarking horses; management of horses -on board ship.</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) To be able to define technical artillery terms, etc., in -such a way as to make them understood by the non-commissioned officers -and men under their command, such as,—1, point blank; 2, point -blank range; 3, dispart; 4, chambers; 5, preponderance; 6, different -kinds of artillery fire; 7, how elevation gives an increase of range; 8, -windage; 9, deviation, etc., etc.</p> - -<p>(<i>g.</i>) Subalterns who have been one year or more in the horse -brigade, or in a field battery, will be required, in addition to the -foregoing subjects, to be thoroughly acquainted with stable duties, and -horse artillery or field battery movements and details. All must have a -general knowledge of these subjects.</p> -</div> - -<p>167. Every officer, on becoming the thirtieth on the list of -lieutenants, must be prepared to undergo the required examination. Any -officer, after four years’ service, may apply for such examination at an -earlier period.</p> - -<p>168. Instructions will, from time to time, be issued to the general -or other officer commanding districts or stations, to assemble a board, -to consist of three officers, viz., a field officer (of the -artillery, if possible), an officer of the staff, and a captain of -artillery, or an officer of that corps who may already have passed the -examination. Either the gunnery instructor or the fire-master should, -when practicable, be selected for this duty. If it be impossible to -obtain a staff officer, a captain of the line should be substituted; if -a second officer of artillery cannot be had, an officer of engineers -should be substituted; but either the president or one member must be of -the artillery.</p> - -<p>169. That portion of the examination which can be best replied to in -writing will be conducted by means of questions prepared by the deputy -adjutant-general of artillery, and forwarded to the general officer -commanding the district. The <i>vivâ voce</i> and practical examination -will be conducted by the board of officers, who will satisfy themselves -that the officer under examination not only possesses the requisite -knowledge himself, but that he is able to impart that knowledge in a -clear and satisfactory manner.</p> - -<p>170. The board will then forward, through the general officer, its -report, together with the written answers, to the adjutant-general of -the forces; and, in returning to him the written answers, the president -of the board will certify that they are the <i>bonâ fide</i> -performances of the candidates, without assistance. The written papers -will then be examined by the deputy adjutant-general of artillery, and -the result, together with the opinion of the board, reported to the -Commander-in-Chief.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page555" id="page555">555</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">ROYAL WARRANT OF OCTOBER 30, 1871.</p> - -<p>In pursuance of the abolition of the whole system of purchase, sale, -or exchange for money, of commissions in the army, by Royal Warrant, -dated July 20, 1871, certain changes in respect to first appointments, -regimental promotion, and exchanges, became necessary, and were provided -for in the Royal Warrant issued October 30, 1871, which became operative -on the first day of November following. By these regulations, the first -step in official rank is that of Sub-Lieutenant; the rank of Cornet and -Ensign being no longer recognized. As a general rule, the final -appointments will be given only to successful candidates at a -competitive examination. These will be probationary, and revocable in -case the unfitness of the incumbents shall be demonstrated by practical -trial in their <ins class="correction" title=". missing">work.</ins> -From the Memorandum of the Secretary of War (Edward Cardwell), which -accompanies the Warrant, we cite the following as defining the present -system of original appointments and <ins class="correction" -title=". missing">promotion.</ins></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Commissions as Lieutenants will be given to all Cornets and Ensigns -appointed before the 26th of August, 1871, and to Cornets and Ensigns -appointed since that date from the A List at Sandhurst, their -commissions to date from the first of November.</p> - -<p>Commissions as Sub-Lieutenants will be given to:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) All other Cornets and Ensigns appointed after the 26th of -August, 1871, the rank of Cornet and Ensign being abolished.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Candidates who have passed the examination for Direct -Commissions, in their turn as vacancies occur.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Candidates for commissions in the Household Cavalry and -Foot Guards who are nominated to fill the vacancies which occur in those -regiments, before the date of the first competitive examination for -Sub-Lieutenancies, and who pass a qualifying examination.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Candidates from the Universities now on the -Commander-in-Chief’s list.</p> - -<p>Sub-Lieutenants will be attached for a year to regiments at home. -They will then be required to go through a course of instruction, and on -passing a practical professional examination, be commissioned to -regiments as Lieutenants. They will be under strict discipline, and will -be liable to be removed for unfitness, either moral or physical, and for -misconduct. Those unsuited to the Cavalry may be transferred to the -Infantry.</p> - -<p>In dating their commissions they will be allowed a portion, not -exceeding one year, of their services as Sub-Lieutenants; the time -allowed being determined by the class of certificate they receive after -their year’s regimental training, their conduct while under instruction, -and their position at the final examination. Their service for -retirement will reckon from the date of their commissions as -Lieutenants.</p> - -<p>Candidates who have passed the examination for direct commissions, -and have also passed satisfactorily through a year’s course of study at -the Royal Military College before being appointed to be Sub-Lieutenants, -and Sandhurst Cadets from the B List will be commissioned to regiments -as Lieutenants on serving satisfactorily for twelve months with a -regiment as Sub-Lieutenants.</p> - -<p>There are now a large number of supernumerary officers, and also a -large number of candidates who have passed for commissions.</p> - -<p>The absorption of supernumerary officers will probably be completed, -and the candidates who have passed for commissions have received their -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page556" id="page556">556</a></span> -appointments in about two years from the present time, and personal -appointments in the Army will then only be given as follows:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) To successful candidates at a competitive -examination.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) To non-commissioned officers recommended for promotion by -the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) To candidates from the Universities.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) To Queen’s Cadets, Indian Cadets, and Pages of Honor.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) To Lieutenants of Militia.</p> - -<p>The competitive examination will be carried out by the Civil Service -Commissioners; the standard of qualification being that recommended by -the Royal Commission on Military Education. Ample notice will be given -of the first examination, and there will be no advantage in any -applications being made for admission to be examined before the -publication of such notice.</p> - -<p>Non-commissioned officers, on being selected for promotion, will pass -an examination in certain professional subjects; and then, after twelve -months’ satisfactory service as Sub-Lieutenants, will receive -commissions as Lieutenants.</p> - -<p>A certain number of Sub-Lieutenancies a year will be allotted to -candidates who have passed the University examination specified in the -Regulations. If they also pass the examination for the degree of B.A., -they will be allowed two years’ extension of the limit of age. -University candidates will be required to give at least six months’ -notice of their desire to be admitted into the Army. If in any year -there should be more candidates than appointments, the requisite number -will be chosen by competition between the candidates; after their -appointment they will go through the same course as other -Sub-Lieutenants.</p> - -<p>There will be no vacancies for two years for any candidates from the -Universities whose names are not now on the Commander-in-Chief’s -list.</p> - -<p>Queen’s and Indian Cadets and Queen’s Pages will be required to pass -a qualifying examination, which for the present will be the same as that -recommended by the Royal Commission on Military Education. The -nominations will remain as heretofore. When appointed, Cadets and Pages -will go through the same course as other Sub-Lieutenants.</p> - -<p>First appointments as Subalterns in the Militia will be made on the -recommendation of the Lieutenants of counties. Candidates, before -receiving their Commissions as Lieutenants in the Militia, will be -required to pass a qualifying examination in general subjects equal to -the standard fixed as necessary for a candidate for a Sub-Lieutenancy. -They will next be required to be attached to a regiment of the Line for -three months, or such time as may be necessary to teach them their -drill. After serving with their Militia regiments for two annual -trainings, they will be eligible for the appointment of Lieutenants in -the Army. In order to obtain such an appointment they must be -recommended by the commanding officer of their Militia regiment, his -recommendation being confirmed by the general officer commanding the -district, and they will be required to pass an examination in -professional subjects of the same kind as that which will be required of -a Sub-Lieutenant before he receives his commission as Lieutenant.</p> - -<p>The limits of age, except for non-commissioned officers, will be -fixed at from seventeen to twenty for Sub-Lieutenants, the limit being -raised to twenty-two in the case of candidates who have passed their -examination for the degree of B.A. at the Universities, and from -nineteen to twenty-two for Lieutenants from the Militia.</p> - -<p>In addition to the examinations hitherto required from regimental -officers, those who are promoted to the rank of Captain after the 1st of -November will, before being promoted to the rank of Major, be required, -to pass a professional examination.</p> -</div> - -<p>The General Order promulgating the Royal Warrant and the Memorandum -of Secretary Caldwell contains the following paragraph:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>His Royal Highness the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, in -promulgating these regulations to the Army, would desire to impress upon -each individual officer, and especially upon those of junior standing -who have still a name to make in the service, that they must more than -ever rely upon their own exertions, upon their professional knowledge -and ability, upon their general character and conduct as officers, and -the opinion with which they impress their military superiors, for -advancement in the service.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page557" id="page557">557</a></span> -<p class="heading"><i>Examiners Employed by Council of Military -Education.</i></p> - -<p><i>Mathematics.</i>—Rev. Canon Heaviside, Norwich; Rev. W. N. -Griffin, late Fellow and Tutor, St. John’s, Cambridge.</p> - -<p><i>Classics.</i>—Rev. Osborne Gordon, D.D., late of Christ -Church College, Oxford; Prof. Rawlinson, Camden Professor of Ancient -History, Oxford.</p> - -<p><i>English.</i>—G. W. Dasent, D.C.L.; W. Stebbing, M.A., Fellow -of Worcester College, Oxford.</p> - -<p><i>French.</i>—M. Esquiros; M. Savoye.</p> - -<p><i>German.</i>—Prof. Max Müller, Prof. of European Languages, -Oxford; C. Schöll, Ph.D.</p> - -<p><i>Hindustani.</i>—Prof. J. Dowson; Rev. W. D. Mallagan, -M.A.</p> - -<p><i>Experimental Sciences.</i>—Prof. Liveing, M.A., Prof. of -Chemistry, Cambridge; Prof. Abel, Chemist to War Office.</p> - -<p><i>Natural Sciences.</i>—Prof. Morris, F.G.S.; H. W. Bristow, -F.R.S.</p> - -<p><i>Drawing.</i>—Lt. Col. H. Scott, R.E.; Rev. W. Kingsley, late -Fellow and Tutor, Cambridge.</p> - -<p><i>Italian.</i>—C. De Tivoli.</p> - -<p><i>Spanish.</i>—Señor Vives.</p> - -<p><i>Portuguese.</i>—Le Chevalier da Costa Ricci.</p> - -<p><i>Dutch.</i>—Rev. Dr. Gehle.</p> - -<p><i>Modern Greek.</i>—Rev. N. Morphinos.</p> - -<p><i>Danish.</i>—Rev. J. Plenge.</p> - -<p><i>Military History.</i>—Major G. P. Colley.</p> - -<p><i>Fortification and Practical Gunnery.</i>—Lt.-Col. -Hutchinson, R.E.; Major Milman, R.A.</p> - -<p><i>Military Administration.</i>—Major M. Petrie.</p> - -<p><i>Persian.</i>—Col. Ouseley.</p> - -<p><i>Military Legislation.</i>—Col. J. H. Laye, D.J.A.</p> - -<p><i>Artillery.</i>—Major C. F. Yonng.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the evidence before the Military Education Committee, of July 13, -1869, the Secretary of the Civil Service Commission expressed the -opinion that the entrance examination, both to Sandhurst and Woolwich, -on subjects purely civil, might be conducted by the latter; and that the -same and other subjects, in their scientific value, both in all -qualifying and competitive examinations for direct commission and -promotion, could be conducted by the same examiners, thereby securing -economy, more uniformity in the methods and tests, and more satisfactory -results. The staff of examiners should be composed of changing as well -as of permanent members, and when the service is professional, an expert -should be called in. The entire work of the Civil Service Commission, -including the India Service, is done by one Commissioner, the Secretary, -and his permanent examiners, with occasional assistants.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Expenses of Council of Military -Education.</i></p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<th><i>Year.</i></th> -<td rowspan="10"> </td> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1858-59,</td> -<td>6,325</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1859-60,</td> -<td>6,956</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>7</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1860-61,</td> -<td>7,757</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1861-62,</td> -<td>7,789</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1862-63,</td> -<td>7,681</td> -<td>17</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1863-64,</td> -<td>7,529</td> -<td>11</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1864-65,</td> -<td>7,976</td> -<td>17</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1865-66,</td> -<td>7,884</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1866-67,</td> -<td>7,353</td> -<td>16</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page558" id="page558">558</a></span> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page559" id="page559">559</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_sandhurst" id="britain_sandhurst" href="#england">ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE AT -SANDHURST.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_sandhurst_historical" id="britain_sandhurst_historical" href="#britain_sandhurst">I. HISTORICAL -NOTICE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">The Royal Military College at -Sandhurst</span> was instituted in 1799, on the persistent -representations of its necessity and advantages, by General Le Marchant, -an eminent and distinguished officer, who met his death in actual -service on the plains of Salamanca, in 1812. The report of the -Parliamentary Commissioners of 1855 and 1870 give the following -particulars of the history and present condition:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>It commenced as a place of instruction for officers, in 1799. In -1801, the Junior Department was organized. The united departments took -the name of the Royal Military College, and his Majesty George the Third -was pleased by Royal Warrant to appoint a Supreme Board of Commissioners -for the purpose of managing all the affairs of the College.</p> - -<p>An establishment and a course of study were recommended by this -Board, and adopted in a Royal Warrant, passed in the same year, 1801. -From this date warrants were issued from time to time until the warrant -of 1808, which cancels all former warrants, and still regulates the -College.</p> - -<p>By this warrant, a Board of Commissioners was appointed, consisting -of the Commander-in-Chief, the Secretary at War, the Master-General of -the Ordnance, the Quartermaster-General, the Adjutant-General, the -Governor, and the Deputy-Governor of the College,—all for the time -being. Certain other officers were added to these <i>ex officio</i> -members. In the Board so constituted were vested the control, direction, -and management of all the affairs of the College. The College was to be -under the immediate command of the Governor and Deputy-Governor, to be -divided into a senior and junior department, each to have its own course -of study, under its own staff.</p> - -<p>A collegiate board was created to take cognizance, of all matters -relating to the interior economy of both departments. This board -consisted of the Governor, the Deputy-Governor, and three other resident -military authorities.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Royal Warrant of the 27th May, 1808, for regulating all matters -relative to the Royal Military College, states the objects of the two -departments of the College, as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Senior Department of the Royal Military College is established -for the purpose of instructing officers in the scientific parts of their -profession, with a view of enabling them the better to discharge their -duty when acting in command of regiments (the situation in which they -can best recommend themselves to Us, and be entitled to hope for -advancement in the higher stations of Our service), and, at the same -time, of qualifying them for being employed in the -Quartermaster-General’s and Adjutant-General’s Departments.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page560" id="page560">560</a></span> -<p>The Junior Department of the Royal Military College is appropriated -to the instruction of those who, from early life, are intended for the -military profession, and who, by this means, may be grounded in science -previously to their obtaining commissions in Our army.</p> - -<p>This department of the College is also intended to afford a provision -for the sons of meritorious officers, who have fallen or been disabled -in the service of their country, and the means of education to the sons -of those officers who belong to Our regular service.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first of the departments organized was thus the Senior -Department, which was established at High Wycombe, in 1799, although it -would seem that classes for the military instruction of officers had -been in existence previous to that year. The origin of the Senior -Department is thus described in the evidence given by Sir Howard Douglas -before the Select Committee on Sandhurst:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>General Jarry, who was the first Commandant of the Senior Department, -was a Frenchman, highly educated in France, who entered the service of -Prussia a short time before the commencement of the Seven Years’ War, -and was on the personal staff of Frederic the Second through the whole -of that war. He returned to France, and became afterward one of the -generals of the French army; and, in the year 1795, defected from the -French army, and came to London, where he soon became very generally -known as a man of eminent talent, perfectly master of the science and -the practice of his profession, and, from his having served so long -about the person and on the staff of Frederic the Second, full of the -most interesting anecdotes and instructive details connected with that -war. General Le Marchant, having formed an acquaintance with General -Jarry, in London, it occurred to him that, if General Jarry could be -engaged to give lectures to a certain number of young officers Who might -be disposed to go and reside where the general might attend, it would be -very advantageous to the service. General Jarry was so engaged. -A house was taken at High Wycombe; a considerable number of the -rising young officers of the day became his students,—Sir George -Murray, Sir Henry Bunbury, Sir Richard Bourke, General Richardson, and a -great many others. General Jarry soon found that the rudiments of -military science in the British army were not sufficiently known to -enable all the students to profit by his instruction, and recommended -that mathematical, and fortification, and other classes, should be -established; and, accordingly, Mr. Dalby, a mathematical professor, M. -St. Denis, professor of fortification, and M. Polchet, of the -Polytechnic School, were engaged; and in this Way the Senior Department -was established.</p> -</div> - -<p>General Jarry became commandant of the establishment on its -institution, and, in 1804, Sir Howard Douglas himself was appointed to -assist General Jarry, as superintendent.</p> - -<p>The formation of the Junior Department had probably been determined -upon from the time when the Senior Department was established. It was -actually organized in 1801, when it was established at Great Marlow, -and, in the year 1803, consisted of 200 cadets; the Senior Department -being, at the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page561" id="page561">561</a></span> -same time, composed of 30 students. Each department had at this time its -own commandant, superintendent, and special staff of instructors -(7 for the Senior, and 19 for the Junior Department); while there -was, in addition, a general staff, consisting of a governor, -lieutenant-governor, and other officials, for the two departments, -which, although in separate localities, together constituted the Royal -Military College.</p> - -<p>The Royal Warrant of 27th May, 1808, fixed the establishment on a -still larger scale, as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1 Governor, 1 Lieutenant-Governor, 1 Inspector-General of -Instruction.</p> - -<p><i>Senior Department.</i>—1 Commandant, 1 Adjutant, 30 -Students.</p> - -<p><i>Junior Department.</i>—1 Commandant, 1 Major, 4 Captains of -Companies, 412 Gentlemen Cadets.</p> - -<p><i>Staff.</i>—1 Chaplain and Librarian and Superintendent of -Religious and Classical Instruction, 1 Agent, 1 Secretary to the Board -of Commissioners, 1 Paymaster, 1 Quartermaster, 1 Surgeon, 1 Assistant -Surgeon.</p> -</div> - -<p>The number of professors is not fixed by the warrant, but, in 1810, 5 -were employed at the Senior, and 32 at the Junior Department. In 1815, -the number of professors was 6 at the former, and 36 at the latter.</p> - -<p>The establishment, with slight modifications, continued as above -throughout the period of the war which terminated in 1815; but shortly -after the conclusion of peace reductions began, in consequence of the -recommendations made in the report of the Finance Committee of 1817, and -at the same time the course of instruction in the Junior Department was -made of a much less military character than it had originally been.</p> - -<p>The Senior Department was, as has been stated, originally established -at High Wycombe, and the Junior Department, as there was not sufficient -accommodation for it at the same place, was, on its institution, placed -at Great Marlow. It is probable, however, that it was intended from the -first that the Military College should be at Sandhurst, and it appears -that, as early as 1801, the greater part of the estate at Sandhurst had -been purchased. Owing, however, to doubts having subsequently arisen as -to the eligibility of Sandhurst as a site for the college, the works -there do not appear to have been commenced until 1809; and it was -eventually determined that the Junior Department alone should be placed -there, the Senior Department being accommodated at Farnham. In 1812, the -Senior Department went to the quarters prepared for them at -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page562" id="page562">562</a></span> -the latter place, and about the same time the Junior Department was -removed to Sandhurst. In 1820, in consequence of the space left vacant -by the reductions which had then been made in the Junior Department, the -Senior Department was transferred to Sandhurst; its separate military -staff was at the same time abolished, the number of students at it was -reduced to 15, and the number of instructors to 2. It continued in -this state down to the time of its conversion into the Staff College, -which took place in January, 1858. The Junior Department was also, by -successive reductions, brought, in 1832, to the state in which it stood -in 1855, at the time of the appointment of the Select Committee of the -House of Commons, the number of cadets having been reduced to 180, -divided into two companies. In the year 1832, also, the Parliamentary -votes in aid of the College, which, in 1815, had amounted, for the -Junior Department alone, to £34,000, entirely ceased, and, from this -time up to 1855, the College was not only self-supporting, but, in some -years, actually paid money into the Exchequer.</p> - -<p>In the year 1855, in consequence of attention having frequently been -drawn in Parliament to the state of Sandhurst, a Select Committee of the -House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the condition of the -Royal Military College. The establishment of the College, was, at that -time, as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1 Governor, 1 Lieutenant-Governor.</p> - -<p><i>Senior Department.</i>—2 Instructors, 15 Students.</p> - -<p><i>Junior Department.</i>—1 Major and Superintendent of -Studies, 2 Captains of Companies, 180 Gentlemen Cadets, 1 Chaplain, 1 -Secretary to the Board of Commissioners, 1 Paymaster and Quartermaster, -1 Surgeon, 1 Assistant Surgeon, 1 Riding Master, 16 Instructors.</p> -</div> - -<p>This continued without material alteration to be the establishment -until 1858.</p> - -<p>The instructors undertook the following branches:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>(<i>A.</i>) <i>Senior Department.</i>—1. Mathematics and -Fortification. 1. Military Surveying.</p> - -<p>(<i>B.</i>) <i>Junior Department.</i>—3. Mathematics. -2. Fortification. 3. Military Drawing and Surveying. -1. Landscape Drawing. 2. History, Geography, and Latin. -3. French, 2. German. [The seniors in those branches also gave -instruction to the Senior Department.]</p> -</div> - -<p>The Chaplain also gave instruction in History.</p> - -<p>The title of Major and Superintendent of Studies dates from the year -1842. For some years previously, the offices of Adjutant, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page563" id="page563">563</a></span> -Paymaster, and Superintendent of Studies, had been combined in the -person of one officer, Major Proctor. On his retirement, in 1842, -Lieut.-Colonel Prosser was appointed Major and Superintendent of -Studies—an office which has been retained to the present -day—and the appointment of Adjutant was abolished.</p> - -<p>At the time of the inquiry by the Select Committee of the House of -Commons (1855), the Junior Department of the College was a school for -boys. The limits of age for admission were from 13 to -15. Candidates were admitted by application to the Governor, on -passing a qualifying examination, before the professors of the college, -in elementary subjects of ordinary education. The maximum term of -residence was four years, the average period being three years. The -course of study was intended to complete the general education of the -youth, in addition to giving him military instruction, and included -history, geography, and Latin, as well as more professional -subjects.</p> - -<p>The system of instruction which prevailed at the College at that time -is described as follows by Mr. Twisden, now professor of mathematics at -the Staff College:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The instruction and examinations in the Junior Department were, in -the year 1855, conducted on the following system: There was a division -of the department into upper and lower school; but, practically, the -division was of little importance. The most important division was made -by the line which, in each separate branch of instruction, divided the -cadets in the Board class from those not in the Board class.</p> - -<p>A cadet was in a Board class who was actually preparing for the -public examination, which took place before the “<i>Board</i> of -Commissioners for Regulating the Affairs of the Institution.” The Board -was, however, in most cases, represented by not more than one or two of -its members. In any given subject, a cadet had to pass through certain -grades of elementary instruction before he could be placed in a Board -class. Moreover, he was only moved from one grade of elementary -instruction to another on passing examinations, which were held monthly -by the senior instructors in the several subjects. The junior -instructors reported those of their cadets whom they regarded as ready -for promotion, and the senior ascertained that the proper degree of -proficiency was obtained. Thus, in mathematics, a cadet had to pass -examinations in Fractions and Decimals, mixed numbers, Rule of Three, -Interest, and Square Root, Algebra up to the end of Quadratic Equations, -and logarithms,—four successive examinations in all. He had then -to spend a half year in the study of Euclid’s Geometry before admission -to the Board class. It will be understood that all the cadets were not -examined monthly, but only such as were reported as fit for examination; -so that any one cadet might pass a long time without examination, or he -might be examined for several successive grades in one subject, and not -undergo any examination in another. There was, in fact, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page564" id="page564">564</a></span> -scarcely any mutual dependence of one branch of instruction upon -another. I believe the only exceptions to this were, that a cadet was -required to have passed his examination in algebra before getting into -the lowest fortification class, and to have gained a certain proficiency -in military drawing before getting into the surveying class.</p> - -<p>The Board class in each branch was taught by the senior instructor in -that branch, except that the Board class of history was taught by the -chaplain. When a cadet had passed an examination in any subject before -the Board, he was said to have taken up a step. The steps which it was -possible for him to take up were as follows, and I have arranged them in -three groups, for conveniences of reference:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>A.—(1.) Euclid’s Geometry. (2.) Fortification. (3.) -Surveying.</p> - -<p>B.—(4.) Trigonometry and Mensuration. (5.) Attack and Defence -of Fortification. (6.) History and Geography. (7.) Latin. (8.) French. -(9.) German.</p> - -<p>C.—(10.) Elements of Mechanics. (11.) Elements of Coördinate -Geometry and Differential Calculus.</p> -</div> - -<p>To gain a commission without purchase, it was necessary to take up -the three steps in the group A, and any three in the group B,—six -in all. But if a cadet took up more than six steps, the fact was -mentioned in the certificate given him on leaving the College. For -gaining this honorary distinction, the steps marked in group C were -allowed to count; but I believe not otherwise. I may mention that, -in many cases, more than six steps were taken up.</p> - -<p>The process of examination before the Board was this: About seven -weeks before the end of the half year, the senior instructor in each -branch reported the cadets in his branch whom he thought capable of -taking a step. Thus the senior instructor or professor of mathematics -reported those cadets in the Euclid Board class whom he judged capable -of taking up the step. Shortly after, these cadets were examined before -the Lieutenant-Governor; about a week before the end of the half year, -they were examined again, on this occasion, before the Governor; lastly, -they were examined publicly before the <i>Board</i>. Failure was -possible in either of these examinations, and not unfrequently occurred -at the preliminary examinations, and sometimes, though rarely, at the -Board examination. The effect of failure was, that the cadet could not -pass his step without going through his examinations at the end of the -next half year.</p> - -<p>The examinations were conducted entirely <i>vivâ voce</i>. The -Governor’s and Lieutenant-Governor’s examinations were searching; they -sometimes lasted from six to seven hours; but, of course, the cadets, -severally, were under examination only during a part of that time. The -Board examination, though less searching, was a real examination. -A cadet under examination had not the least notion of what was -going to be asked, except that it was fairly within the subject of the -step.</p> - -<p>The system thus briefly described was invented by Major Proctor, who -was at first <i>Adjutant</i> and, afterward, Superintendent of Studies. -It was in operation, at all events, as early as the year 1818. It was -open to several objections; but it possessed this capital advantage, -that it was calculated to bring, and, in point of fact, brought a large -majority of the cadets up to a certain moderately high standard of -proficiency. The instructors were under no temptation to take great -pains with a few clever boys, and to neglect the rest; they were nearly -sure to assist every cadet showing the least inclination to work, and to -assist those most who were in need of assistance.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the system failed to supply a cadet of superior -ability with a motive to attain a high degree of proficiency in any -given subject. The -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page565" id="page565">565</a></span> -utmost attained was, that cadets of more than ordinary ability were -encouraged to attain the standard of proficiency in more than the -necessary six subjects. The system was also open to the serious -objection that, under it, the cleverest cadets got through their course -quickly. This was bad for them, for it had the effect of bringing their -school-education to an early end; and it was bad for the institution, -because the eldest cadets were not the most intelligent.</p> - -<p>I must be allowed to add, that my experience of the examinations by -<i>vivâ voce</i> has given me a very lively sense of the value of that -kind of examination; and, though it is not adapted for all subjects, -and, where many have to be examined, takes too much time, yet it might -be used under many circumstances with very great advantage, and I regard -its total disuse since the year 1858 as a very serious error.</p> - -<p>I have mentioned above the fact of the Junior Department being -divided into an under and upper school. I may add that there were -six classes,—three in each school, and two removes in each class. -I believe that this was the remains of an earlier organization, -which, without being formally abrogated, was, by degrees, nearly -obliterated by the introduction of the step system. The only thing that -kept up the distinction between upper and lower school was, that a -cadet, to be in a Board class, had to pass into upper school. The three -classes in the upper school did not have a nominal existence in -1851.</p> - -<p>With respect to the Senior Department, a somewhat different system -was followed. The course was one of two years; but, in the case of -officers who had been cadets, the course was one of a year and a half. -There was an examination held at the end of each half year on the -subject of the half year’s course. The method of examination resembled -that in use in the Junior Department. The subjects comprised in the -course are mentioned in a paper printed on page 215 of the evidence -taken before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Sandhurst -(1855).</p> - -<p>In certain respects, officers might do more than the prescribed -course, and obtain honorary mention, <i>e.g.</i>, they might do extra -plans; they might take up a certain amount of analytical mathematics, -with a portion of Poisson’s “Traité de Mécanique,” and of Laplace’s -“Mécanique Céleste.” I have by me the synopsis of the ordinary -course of mathematics in use before the year 1858; but, as the heads of -it are given in the paper above referred to, it is unnecessary to give -any details about it.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Report of the Select Committee of 1855 contained various -suggestions for the improvement of both departments of the College, but -did not propose to alter the character of the Junior Department as a -place of juvenile education. The only practical results of the report -were, the establishment of Queen’s cadetships, and the revision of the -rates of payment required from all classes of cadets. The institution of -Queen’s cadetships was determined upon by the Government in 1856, but -the other alteration was not immediately carried out, and no -modification of importance in the constitution of the College ensued -from the recommendations of the Committee. It was not until the general -reorganization of the system of military education which took place in -1857 that any important change was made in regard to the Military -College.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page566" id="page566">566</a></span> -<p>It appears to have been decided at the end of 1856 by Lord Panmure, -then Secretary of State for War, that an amalgamation of the Junior -Department of Sandhurst with the lower classes of Woolwich should be -effected. The Council of Military Education, on their appointment, in -April, 1857, were directed to suggest the mode in which this -amalgamation could be carried out, taking, as their starting point, the -principle that Sandhurst was to be converted from a school for boys into -a college for young men, with the age of admission ranging from 16 to -18.</p> - -<p>The proposed plan having been approved, an announcement was made, in -December, 1857, that the education of candidates for all arms of the -service, who did not obtain commissions by direct appointments, would be -given at Sandhurst; that entrance would be obtained by competitive -examination, open to candidates between the ages of 16 and 18; that the -period of study would be two years, and would be terminated by a -competitive examination, the most successful candidates in which would -be permitted to select the Engineers or Artillery, according to the -number of vacancies in those corps, or would receive commissions without -purchase in the Cavalry, Guards, or Line. Those who selected the -Ordnance corps were to be removed to the school of application at -Woolwich.</p> - -<p>Almost simultaneously with this notification, appeared a General -Order, announcing the conversion of the Senior Department into the Staff -College, which was then placed under a separate commandant and staff of -instructors,—the Junior Department being henceforward called the -Cadet College.</p> - -<p>An examination for admission to Sandhurst, under the regulations -described above, took place in January, 1858, when 24 candidates were -admitted to the College. On the 26th of April, however, a resolution was -passed by the House of Commons, on the motion of Mr. Monsell, in -consequence of which the plan for the amalgamation of Woolwich and -Sandhurst was necessarily abandoned; and, in May, 1858, revised -regulations were issued, which again placed Sandhurst on the footing of -an entirely distinct establishment from Woolwich. In these regulations, -however, a new provision was introduced, by which a cadet at the -Military College was, if otherwise eligible, permitted to compete at the -examination for admission to Woolwich, without his position at Sandhurst -being affected by failure in this examination. This regulation has been -retained.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page567" id="page567">567</a></span> -<p>The large increase in the numbers of the College which was -contemplated by the amalgamation scheme was not carried out, the -establishment still remaining at 180 cadets, divided into two companies. -At the same time, the other alterations recommended by the Council in -the constitution and course of study of the College were brought into -effect. Since this period the system of juvenile military instruction, -which had been already abandoned at Woolwich, has been discontinued at -Sandhurst. The establishment was converted from a school for boys into a -college for young men, the minimum age for admission being placed at 16; -while the course of instruction—the length of which was fixed at -two years—was made almost entirely professional. The principle of -competition was adopted as the condition of admission, although not to -so full an extent as at Woolwich, the candidate for Sandhurst being -required to apply to the Commander-in-Chief, in order to have his name -entered on the list of competitors. The entrance examinations for -admission to the College, and the final examinations for commissions, -were placed under the control of the Council of Military Education; and -the whole method of instruction was revised, the old system of “steps” -being abandoned.</p> - -<p>For many years, up to this time, the College had been almost entirely -self-supporting. The orphan-class of cadets, established by the Royal -Warrant of 1808, who had received a gratuitous education, had, after -successive reductions, been finally abolished in 1822; and, though the -sons of officers were still educated at reduced rates, the system had -been gradually introduced of affording them this advantage without -expense to the public, by increasing the rates paid by the sons of -private gentlemen. This system, which had been animadverted on by the -Select Committee of the House of Commons, in 1855, was altered on the -reorganization of the College, in 1858; the rates of payment from all -classes were reduced, and the principle was, at least partially, -adopted, of defraying, by a Parliamentary vote, the difference between -the actual cost of the education of a cadet and the lower rates charged -for the sons of officers. The first public announcement of the -institution of Queen’s cadetships, the holders of which were to receive -a gratuitous education, was also made in 1858. Since this period, a -large part of the expense of the College has been borne by the -public.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page568" id="page568">568</a></span> -<p>Some addition to the instructional staff was made in the year 1858, -in consequence of the general changes introduced at that time in the -system and subjects of instruction; and, in the same year, the office of -Adjutant—which had been abolished in the year 1842—was -revived, in consequence of the strong representations of the Governor, -Lt.-Gen. Sir H. D. Jones.</p> - -<p>The next important change in the organization of the College was in -1862. After the abandonment of the scheme for the amalgamation of -Woolwich and Sandhurst, the Council of Military Education turned their -attention to the subject of enlarging the latter establishment, with the -view of making it a general military college, through which all -candidates for commissions in any branch of the service, except the -Artillery and Engineers, should be required to pass. The general outline -of a scheme having this object in view was submitted by the Council as -early as July, 1858, to General Peel, then Secretary of State for War. -It was still under consideration when General Peel left office, in the -summer of 1859, and was again brought under the notice of his successor, -Lord Herbert, in August of that year.</p> - -<p>After some consideration, the general principle of the scheme was -sanctioned by Lord Herbert, in December, 1859; but no immediate steps -were taken for carrying the plan into operation. At the end of 1860, -however, the Council were directed to draw up a detailed scheme of -organization for the College, on the assumption that all candidates for -commissions in the Cavalry, Guards, and Infantry, would be required to -pass through a year’s course of instruction there; a vote was also -included in the estimates of 1861 for commencing the enlargement of the -buildings, with the ultimate object of providing accommodation for 600 -cadets. The details of the scheme were, after some correspondence, fully -matured, and were on the point of being submitted to Her Majesty for -approval, with the view of the new system coming into effect on the 1st -of January, 1862. The plan, however, met with very great opposition, -both in the House of Commons and from the authorities of the -universities, who regarded it as necessarily leading to the exclusion of -university men from the army. In consequence of this opposition, the -Under-Secretary of State for War, toward the end of the session of 1861, -announced, in the House of Commons, that the new system should not come -into -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page569" id="page569">569</a></span> -operation until Parliament had had a further opportunity of expressing -their opinion upon it. The original plan was also so far modified that -the extension of the College was limited to providing accommodation -first for 500, and then for 400 cadets, in the first instance; but the -abolition of appointments to direct commissions, and the system of -passing all candidates for commissions in the Line through the College, -were still contemplated, though the commencement of the system was -deferred until the 1st July, 1862.</p> - -<p>The question was in this state at the time of the death of Lord -Herbert, in August, 1861. Sir George Lewis, who succeeded him as -Secretary of State for War, having, during the recess, reconsidered the -question, announced, shortly after the commencement of the session of -1862, that it had been determined to abandon the idea of requiring all -candidates for commissions in the Line to pass through the College, and -that the system of appointments to direct commissions by purchase would -be maintained. At the same time, it was proposed that -<i>non-purchase</i> commissions should in future only be obtained by -passing through Sandhurst, and that an enlargement of the College to 336 -cadets should take place, to provide for the increased number of -non-purchase commissions caused by the amalgamation of the Indian with -the Imperial Army.</p> - -<p>Even in this modified form, the plan for the extension of the College -appears to have been viewed with considerable jealousy by the House of -Commons. A vote adverse to it was actually at first carried; but -the question having, in consequence of the representations of Sir George -Lewis, been reconsidered, the plan proposed by the Government was at -length agreed to. Regulations for the College on the new footing were -issued on the 1st May, 1862. These regulations form the basis of the -present system of the College.</p> - -<p>One of the most important changes made at this time was the great -increase in the number of free commissions placed at the disposal of the -College. Under the old system which existed prior to 1858, while the -institution was still a mere place of juvenile education, all cadets who -passed in the six “steps,” to which allusion has been made, received -free commissions; but there was, strictly speaking, no competition for -such commissions. After the alteration in the age of admission to the -College, and the general revision of the course of -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page570" id="page570">570</a></span> -instruction which took place in 1858, a limited number of free -commissions were bestowed upon those cadets who stood highest in the -final examination. A large number of these appointments, however, -still remained in the gift of the Commander-in-Chief, and were granted -to candidates who passed the ordinary examination for direct -commissions. Since 1862, all non-purchase commissions have been reserved -for cadets at the Royal Military College, with the exception of a small -number (not exceeding on an average 12 annually) bestowed upon -non-commissioned officers promoted from the ranks, and upon gentlemen -who have held the appointment of page to Her Majesty. The commissions -given to the latter are exclusively in the Foot Guards, and their number -seldom exceeds one in each year. The free commissions allotted to the -College are thrown open to competition among the cadets, with the -exception of those reserved for Queen’s and Indian cadets. Both of these -classes of cadets have, since the institution of Indian cadetships, -which took place simultaneously with the change of the College system, -in August, 1862, been entitled to receive free commissions on passing a -qualifying examination at the end of their term of residence.</p> - -<p>The course of study at the College was, at the same time, -considerably modified, with the view of allowing its completion, under -ordinary circumstances, in one year, instead of two years, as -formerly,—the maximum term of residence being fixed at a year and -a half. An attempt was also made to render the course more strictly -professional, and better adapted to qualify a young officer for the -performance of ordinary regimental duties immediately on joining his -corps, by the introduction of instruction in military law, interior -economy, etc.</p> - -<p>The age of admission was fixed at 16 to 20 for candidates for the -Infantry, and 16 to 22 for those for the Cavalry,—an extension of -a year in these limits being for the first time introduced in favor of -students at the universities. A further privilege held out to the -latter class of candidates was that, while others could only obtain -admission by competitive examination, the fact of having passed certain -university examinations was of itself made a qualification for -admission. These concessions, which, at first, were made to the -Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, have been since extended -to the other universities.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page571" id="page571">571</a></span> -<p>The number of cadets was never raised to the extent contemplated in -the plan proposed by Sir George Lewis. It was originally intended that -the College should accommodate 336 cadets, divided into four companies -of 84 each; but the establishment was ultimately fixed at 250. This -increase, however (the numbers having, previously to 1862, been 180), -led to the addition, in August, 1862, of a third company to the two in -which the cadets had been previously divided. An additional captain was -appointed to command this company, and, at the same time, three -subaltern officers (one to each company) were, for the first time, added -to the strength of the establishment, to assist the captains in the -charge of the companies. Simultaneously with this, an important -alteration was made in the discipline of the College, by abolishing the -system which had hitherto prevailed of employing the sergeants to assist -in maintaining discipline by reporting the cadets for offences committed -against the regulations.</p> - -<p>The increase in the establishment also necessitated in this year an -augmentation of the staff of instructors.</p> - -<p>The establishment of the Royal Military College in 1863, after the -change of system had come into effect, was as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>General Staff.</i>—1 Governor, 1 Chaplain, 1 Paymaster, 1 -Quartermaster, 1 Surgeon, 1 Assistant-Surgeon, 1 Riding Master.</p> - -<p><i>Staff College.</i>—1 Commandant, 1 Adjutant, 9 Professors, -30 Students.</p> - -<p><i>Cadet College.</i>—1 Lieutenant-Governor, 1 Major and -Superintendent of Studies, 3 Captains of Companies, 3 Subalterns, 250 -Gentlemen Cadets, 1 Adjutant, 40 Professors and Instructors, of whom two -were employed also at the Staff College.</p> -</div> - -<p>The organization of the College has undergone no material alteration -since 1863, with the exception of the abolition of the office of -Lieutenant-Governor, and the substitution for it of that of Commandant -of the Cadet College. The change, though decided upon in 1862, was not -carried out during the tenure of office of the officer who, at that -time, held the appointment of Lieutenant-Governor, and did not actually -take effect until 1864. The Lieutenant-Governor, though nominally the -deputy of the Governor, had exercised no control over the Commandant of -the Staff College from the time of the institution of the latter -establishment, in 1858. His functions were limited to the Cadet College, -of which he was virtually, though not nominally, the Commandant.</p> - -<p>The establishment of cadets was raised in 1865 to 300, and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page572" id="page572">572</a></span> -some slight alterations have, at various times, been made in the number -of professors and instructors; but, in its general character, the -establishment at the present time remains as it was in 1863.</p> - -<p>The modifications which have since been made consist chiefly in the -reduction of the higher limit of age for admission to 19 for all -branches of the service (retaining, however, the former exception in -favor of students from the universities); the discontinuance of the -study of military law, etc.; and the extension of the ordinary course of -residence from one year to a year and a half.</p> - -<p>In regard to discipline, the system of assigning marks for good -conduct, which was introduced by the regulations of 1862, has been -discontinued, owing to practical difficulties which were found to occur -in carrying out the system with uniformity. At the beginning of 1868, an -alteration was introduced in the powers of the professorial staff with -regard to the maintenance of discipline. Previously to this period they -had exercised no disciplinary powers; they have since been required to -take notice of all offences which come within their cognizance, either -in or out of study, and have been empowered to place a cadet in arrest -pending an inquiry into the offence. Even at the present time, however, -the professors have no power of punishment, this power being confined to -the military staff of the College.</p> - -<p>According to the Royal Warrant of 1808, the four companies of cadets -were placed upon the establishment of the army, and every one admitted -to the College received a warrant of gentleman cadet, with the daily pay -of 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Down to the year 1857, the regulations for -admission to the College contained the provision that, “in conformity to -the Royal Warrant, dated the 27th of May, 1808, all gentlemen cadets at -the Royal Military College are subject to the Articles of War.” This -provision appears to have been omitted from all regulations published on -the recommendation of the Council of Military Education since the -reorganization of the College, which took place at the beginning of -1858. At the present time, a cadet, on admission, is required to sign a -declaration “to conform, in every respect, to Her Majesty’s Regulations, -and to the rules and discipline of the service.”</p> - -<p>The Board of Commissioners, at the time of the report of -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page573" id="page573">573</a></span> -the Select Committee of the House of Commons, in 1855, still continued -to administer all the affairs of the Royal Military College, in virtue -of the wide powers vested in them by the Royal Warrant of 1808. For some -years previously to this, however, the War Office had exercised -considerable control over the financial acts of the Board. On the -appointment of the Council of Military Education, in 1857, the latter -body began to superintend the course of instruction at the College, -their attention having been directed to this subject in the first -instructions issued to them on their appointment. At the beginning of -1858, they commenced to conduct the examinations for admission, and, by -a Royal Warrant of the 1st October, 1858, they were formally appointed -Visitors of the College, and required to report to the -Commander-in-Chief upon the instruction given at it. The power of -recommending either the appointment or removal of the professors and -instructors was, by the same warrant, placed in their hands.</p> - -<p>The original warrant of 1808 has never been cancelled, and the powers -vested by it in the Board of Commissioners still, therefore, nominally -remain in force, except so far as by the warrant of 1858. Since this -time, however, the connection of the Commissioners with the management -of the College has been gradually diminished. In 1863, the office of -Secretary to the Board was abolished, his financial duties being -transferred to the Paymaster of the College, and the performance of his -other duties being provided for in the Commander-in-Chief’s office. The -discipline of the College still remains nominally under the -superintendence of the Commissioners; but, even in regard to this point, -their interference, except when questions of considerable importance -have arisen, appears to have been little called for. Their duties of -late years seem to have been principally confined to business connected -with the management of the College property, in regard to which, -although the estate is now formally vested in the Secretary of State for -War, the former powers of the Commissioners are reserved.</p> - -<p>The attendance in the College, since its reorganization, has been as -follows, viz.:</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>1855</td> -<td> . . . </td> -<td>180</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1862</td> -<td> . . . </td> -<td>250</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1865</td> -<td> . . . </td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page574" id="page574">574</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><i>Staff of Government and Instruction</i>, -1871-2.</p> - -<p><i>President.</i>—Duke of Cambridge, Field Marshal.</p> -<p><i>Vice-President.</i>—Rt. Hon. Edward Cardwell, Secretary of -War.</p> -<p><i>Governor.</i>—Lt.-Gen. Sir D. A. Cameron.</p> -<p><i>Assistant.</i>—Col. J. E. Addison.</p> -<p><i>Paymaster.</i>—Major Oliver Nicolls.</p> -<p><i>Chaplain.</i>—Rev. E. J. Rogers, M.A.</p> -<p><i>Quartermaster.</i>—John Davies.</p> -<p><i>Surgeon.</i>—A. McLean, M.D.</p> -<p><i>Assistant Surgeon.</i>—John Greig, M.D.</p> -<p><i>Riding-Master.</i>—Capt. C. C. Brooke.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">CADETS’ COLLEGE.</p> - -<p><i>Adjutant.</i>—Major W. Patterson.</p> -<p><i>Captains of Companies of Gentlemen Cadets.</i>—Lt.-Col. -W. R. Farmar, Lt.-Col. Alfred P. Bowlby, Capt. H. E. Couper.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Staff of Instruction.</i></p> - -<p><i>Mathematics and Arithmetic.</i>—Rev. J. W. Vintner, Rev. -Alfred Deck, G. Hester, J. P. Ketley.</p> -<p><i>Fortification.</i>—Capt. G. Phillips, Lt. E. D. C. -O’Brien, Capt. H. L. Mitchell.</p> -<p><i>Military Surveying.</i>—Capt. W. Paterson.</p> -<p><i>Military History.</i>—Capt. E. M. Jones.</p> -<p><i>Military Drawing.</i>—Capt. E. A. Anderson, Capt. C. W. -Fothergill, Capt. R. L. Leir.</p> -<p><i>Landscape Drawing.</i>—Robert Harley.</p> -<p><i>French Language.</i>—J. Balagué.</p> -<p><i>Geology.</i>—T. R. Jones.</p> -<p><i>Chemistry.</i>—Edm. Atkinson, Ph.D.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">STAFF COLLEGE.</p> - -<p><i>Commandant.</i>—Col. E. B. Hamley, C.B.</p> -<p><i>Adjutant.</i>—Major A. S. Jones.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Professors and Instructors.</i></p> - -<p><i>Mathematics.</i>—Rev. J. F. Twisden, T. Savage.</p> -<p><i>Military History.</i>—Major C. Adams.</p> -<p><i>Fortification and Artillery.</i>—Capt. H. Schaw.</p> -<p><i>Military Topography.</i>—Major S. B. Farrell, Royal -Engineers.</p> -<p><i>Military Administration.</i>—Capt. W. Walker.</p> -<p><i>French.</i>—A. A. De Charente.</p> -<p><i>German.</i>—Dr. Overbeck.</p> -<p><i>Hindustani.</i>—J. Dowson.</p> -<p><i>Military Drawing.</i>—Capt. E. A. Anderson.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page575" id="page575">575</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_sandhurst_queens" id="britain_sandhurst_queens" -href="#britain_sandhurst">QUEEN’S AND INDIAN CADETSHIPS.</a></h5> - -<p>The creation of Queen’s cadetships originated in the recommendations -of the select Committee of the House of Commons on Sandhurst. At the -time the Committee reported (in the year 1855) the age of admission -to Sandhurst was from 13 to 15; in the following year, however, at the -time the recommendations of the Committee were adopted by the -Government, it was in contemplation to raise the minimum age for -admission to the College to 16; and it was consequently decided that, in -order to meet the case of those who under the former regulations would -have been admitted as Queen’s cadets at a younger age, a special -allowance of 40<i>l.</i> a year might, at the discretion of the -Secretary of State, be granted to a candidate qualified for a Queen’s -cadetship, at the age of 13, to assist him in his preparatory education, -until he attained the age at which he would be eligible for admission to -the College. This arrangement was sanctioned by the Treasury in 1856, -and at first the results of the recommendations of the Select Committee -seem to have been confined to granting candidates the special allowance -in aid of their preparatory education, as no cadet entered until -1860.</p> - -<p>The first public announcement of the institution of Queen’s -cadetships, and of the regulations under which they were to be granted, -was made by a General Order, dated Horse Guards, 5th January, 1858. It -had by this time been finally determined to fix the ordinary minimum age -for admission to Sandhurst at 16; but an exception was made in favor of -the Queen’s cadets, who were to be admitted one year younger,—at -the age of 15. The following were among the regulations:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>These cadetships, of which there are twenty in all, are confined to -the sons of officers of the army, Royal navy, and Royal marines, who -have fallen in action, or have died of wounds received in action, or of -diseases contracted on active service, and who have left their families -in reduced circumstances.</p> - -<p>Gentlemen cadets on this class are educated gratuitously.</p> - -<p>The nominations, with the concurrence of the Secretary of State for -War, are made by the Commander-in-Chief for the army, in the proportion -of 15 cadetships, and by the First Lord of the Admiralty for the navy -and marines, in that of five cadetships,—to whom applications are -to be made.</p> - -<p>No candidate can be admitted under the age of 15, nor above that of -17.</p> - -<p>In a case where the services of the father and the circumstances of -the family are deemed such as to constitute a claim, a candidate -ineligible for immediate admission, on account of his not having -attained the proper age, but being a promising youth, may, at the -discretion of the Secretary of State for War, be allowed an addition to -the compassionate allowance, with the especial view of promoting his -education, until he is eligible for admission.</p> -</div> - -<p>The regulations under which Queen’s cadets are at present nominated -are similar to the above, with the exception that -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page576" id="page576">576</a></span> -the wording of the phrase “diseases contracted on <i>active service</i>” -has been altered to “diseases contracted on <i>service abroad</i>,” and -that Queen’s cadets, like other candidates, are not now admitted until -the age of 16. An addition to the “Compassionate Allowance,” not -exceeding 40<i>l.</i> a year, may at the same time be granted to a -candidate after the age of 13, in order to assist him in his education -until he becomes eligible for admission to the College. The number of -Queen’s cadetships (20) includes both those who have entered, and those -to whom the educational allowance is granted previously to their -admission.</p> - -<p>From the first institution of Queen’s cadetships, the candidates -nominated to them have been admitted to the College on passing a -qualifying examination, and have received a gratuitous education; they -were, however, originally required to compete for commissions without -purchase, with other candidates, at the end of the College course. The -privilege of obtaining a free commission on passing merely a qualifying -examination was not extended to them until the institution of the Indian -cadetships in 1862. As it was found necessary to exempt the Indian -cadets from competition with other candidates for commissions without -purchase, a similar privilege was extended to the Queen’s cadets. Both -classes of cadets, in addition to their free education and maintenance, -receive clothing and pocket money.</p> - -<p>The institution of Indian cadetships at Sandhurst took place in -consequence of the transfer of the government of India from the East -India Company to the Crown, and the subsequent amalgamation of the -Indian and Imperial forces.</p> - -<p>The notice of the admission of Indian cadets to the establishment -appears for the first time in the College regulations of 1st May, 1862. -Their number, like that of the Queen’s cadets, is limited to -20. They are nominated, under the provisions of Acts 21 & 22 -Vict. cap. 106, s. 35, and 23 & 24 Vict. cap. 100, by the Secretary -of State for India in Council, from the sons “of persons who have served -in India in the military or civil services of Her Majesty or the East -India Company.” The restrictions, however, regarding the death of the -father and the circumstances of the family, which apply to a candidate -for a Queen’s cadetship, do not limit the nomination of Indian cadets. -The expense of the education and maintenance of the latter is borne by -Indian revenues.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page577" id="page577">577</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<h5><a name="britain_sandhurst_admission" id="britain_sandhurst_admission" href="#britain_sandhurst">REGULATIONS -FOR ADMISSION, CLOTHING, BOOKS, PAYMENTS, ETC., 1867.</a></h5> - -<p>1. Candidates for vacancies at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, -will be required to undergo an examination under the superintendence of -the Council of Military Education. Examinations for this purpose will be -held in June and December of each year, at the Royal Hospital, -Chelsea.</p> - -<p>2. Twenty Queen’s cadets will be borne on the establishment, being -the sons of officers who have fallen in action, or have died of wounds -received in action, or of diseases contracted on service abroad; and who -have left their families in reduced circumstances. Fifteen will be sons -of officers of the army, and five will be sons of officers of the Royal -Navy and Royal Marines.</p> - -<p>There will be, in addition, twenty Indian cadetships, for nomination -to which the sons of persons will be selected who have served in India -in the military or civil services of Her Majesty, or of the East India -Company.</p> - -<p>3. Candidates, whether for the infantry or the cavalry, must be -between 16 and 19 years of age at the commencement of the term -immediately succeeding their admission examination.</p> - -<p>Terms commence on the 1st February and 1st August.</p> - -<p>Students from the Universities will be admissible at the ages stated -in Art. 11 of these regulations.</p> - -<p>4. Every candidate for admission must apply (if under age, through -his parent or guardian) to the Commander-in-Chief, to have his name -entered on the list of candidates.</p> - -<p>5. He must transmit with his application the following documents, -viz.: (<i>a</i>) An extract from the register of his baptism, or, in -default of that, a declaration before a magistrate, made by one of his -parents, giving his exact age. (<i>b</i>) A certificate, from the -minister of the Church or denomination to which he belongs, of his -having been duly instructed in the principles of the Christian -religion.</p> - -<p>6. His name having been placed upon the list of candidates, it will -be open to him to offer himself at any of the half-yearly examinations -which may occur while he is within the prescribed limits of age. If -unsuccessful in obtaining one of the vacancies at the college, he will -be allowed to present himself at any subsequent examination until he has -exceeded the maximum age. After he has exceeded the maximum age, he can -only be admitted into the army on obtaining a direct commission by -purchase, in the usual manner, after passing a qualifying -examination.</p> - -<p>7. He will be examined by a medical officer, who will ascertain -whether he is free from all bodily and organic defects, and whether, as -far as regards physical constitution, he is in every point of view fit -for military service.</p> - -<p>8. The following will be the subjects of examination, but no -candidate will be allowed to be examined in more than <i>five</i> of -these subjects:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Marks.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Classics: Latin, 2,000; Greek, 1,600,</td> -<td>3,600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics,</td> -<td>3,600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>English language,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Modern languages, each,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History, with geography,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Natural sciences (<i>i.e.</i>, mineralogy and geology),</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Experimental sciences (chemistry, heat, and electricity),</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geometrical drawing</td> -<td>600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Free-hand drawing</td> -<td>600</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Of the above subjects, the elementary portions of mathematics and the -English language are obligatory on each candidate.</p> - -<p>The following elementary branches will be included in the obligatory -section of mathematics, viz.:</p> - -<p>In arithmetic: vulgar and decimal fractions, proportion, extraction -of the square root, and interest.</p> - -<p>In algebra: fractions, simple equations, and questions producing -them.</p> - -<p>In Euclid: the first three books.</p> - -<p>To these elementary branches 1,200 marks (out of the whole 3,600 for -mathematics) will be allotted, and it will be necessary for -qualification that at least 400 be obtained, of which 200 must be -obtained in arithmetic.</p> - -<p>In the English language 400 marks will be allotted to correct and -legible writing from dictation, and to composition; and of these it will -be necessary for qualification that 200 be obtained.</p> - -<p>Out of the remaining subjects the candidate may select any three.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page578" id="page578">578</a></span> -<p>No candidate will be allowed to count the marks gained in any of the -three voluntary subjects, unless amounting to one sixth of the whole -number of marks allotted to that subject; and for qualification he will -be required to obtain on his five subjects a total of 1,500 marks.</p> - -<p>No marks will be allowed to count in any subject left optional to the -candidate, unless he gain at least one sixth of the whole number -allotted to that subject.</p> - -<p>9. Every candidate will be required to forward to the Military -Secretary, Horse Guards, one month before the examination, a statement -of the subjects he desires to take up, as well as a certificate from the -master or tutor under whom he has been educated, of his general moral -conduct for at least the two preceding years. If a candidate has failed -in a previous examination he will only be required to forward a list of -the subjects he selects, and a certificate of conduct between the two -examinations. These documents are under no circumstances to be -transmitted before the date above specified.</p> - -<p>10. After the examination the candidates will be reported to the -Commander-in-Chief in the order of their merit, and will be appointed -accordingly as far as vacancies will allow.</p> - -<p>11. Candidates who have passed the examinations called “responsions” -and “moderations” at the University of Oxford, or those called “previous -examinations” at the Universities of Cambridge and Dublin, or the -matriculation examination of the University of London; or any one of the -three examinations required for the degree of M.A. at the Universities -of St. Andrew’s and Glasgow; or the “class examination of the second -year” (Curriculum of Arts) at the University of Aberdeen; or the -“preliminary examination” at the University of Edinburgh; or the “first -University examination” of Queen’s University, Ireland, will be -considered as qualified for admission to the Royal Military College -without further examination.</p> - -<p>Candidates from the Universities must not be more than 21 years of -age for the infantry, nor more than 23 years for the cavalry. They will -be required to send to the Military Secretary, Horse Guards, two months -before the commencement of the term at which they desire to enter, -certificates from the responsible authorities of their college of -general moral conduct during residence at the University, and of having -passed the above-mentioned examinations, together with the certificate -of age, as required by clause 5</p> - -<p>Should the number of general candidates be considerably in excess of -the number of vacancies at the college, a suitable portion of those -vacancies will be offered to the University and to the competing -candidates respectively.</p> - -<p>12. Candidates for admission as Queen’s cadets must apply for a -nomination to the Commander-in-Chief, if the sons of officers in the -army; or to the First Lord of the Admirality, if the sons of officers in -the Royal navy, or Royal marines. The above nominations will be made by -the Commander-in-Chief or First Lord of the Admiralty, with the -concurrence of the Secretary of State for War. The Secretary of State -for India in Council will nominate to cadetships for the Indian -services.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Provision of Necessaries, Books, Contributions, -etc.</i></p> - -<p>13. Every gentleman cadet will receive from the Military Secretary a -list of the articles of clothing, books, and instruments with which he -must provide himself before joining the college, and which he will be -required to keep complete during his residence.</p> - -<p>Any other books, instruments, or drawing implements that he may -subsequently require for the prosecution of his studies, will be -provided at the college, and charged to his account.</p> - -<p>14. The amount of contribution for education, board, washing, and -medical attendance, on account of each cadet, per annum, is as -follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td><i>a.</i> For sons of private gentlemen,</td> -<td>£100</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>b.</i> For sons of admirals, and general officers having -regiments or receiving Indian colonels’ allowances,</td> -<td>80</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>c.</i> For sons of general officers,</td> -<td>70</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>d.</i> For sons of captains and commanders of the Royal navy, and -field officers of the army having substantive rank,</td> -<td>50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>e.</i> For sons of all officers of the royal navy and army under -the above rank,</td> -<td>40</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>f.</i> For sons of officers of the royal navy and army who have -died in the service, and whose families are proved to be in pecuniary -distress</td> -<td>20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page579" id="page579">579</a></span> -<i>g.</i> Queen’s cadets and cadets nominated by the Secretary of State -for India in Council,</td> -<td>Free.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>15. General officers on the non-effective list will pay according to -their last substantive rank.</p> - -<p>Officers who have sold their commissions are, in this classification, -reckoned as private gentlemen.</p> - -<p>The cases of officers who have retired voluntarily upon half-pay -previous to having served twenty-five years on full pay will be -specially considered.</p> - -<p>Officers who retire on half-pay after twenty-five years’ service on -full pay will be classified for payment with the rank in which they last -served.</p> - -<p>16. The orphans of officers whose claims do not come under classes -<i>f</i>, and <i>g</i>, must contribute according to the substantive -rank last held by their fathers.</p> - -<p>17. For sons of officers who have retired on <i>full</i> pay, the -payments will be according to the substantive rank last held by their -fathers.</p> - -<p>18. The sons of officers of civil departments having relative rank -with officers of the army and navy, of the permanent militia staff, and -of adjutants of the volunteer force, are admissible to the college on -the same terms as those prescribed for the sons of army and navy -officers of corresponding rank.</p> - -<p>19. The sons of Indian naval and military officers not specially -nominated by the Secretary of State for India will be admitted on the -same terms as the sons of officers of the Queen’s service.</p> - -<p>20. Contributions for the sons of professors at the Staff and Cadet -Colleges, at the Royal Military Academy, and at the late Indian -Colleges, Addiscombe, will be . . . £50</p> - -<p>For the sons of masters at the above institutions, . . . -40</p> - -<p>21. Any change which may take place by promotion or retirement in the -rank of the father of a cadet must be immediately notified to the -Military Secretary, in order that the contribution paid to the college -on account of such cadet may be regulated accordingly.</p> - -<p>22. <i>Previously</i> to the admission of a cadet (not a Queen’s -cadet) he, or if a minor, his parent or guardian, will be required to -make the following payments, viz.:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. His contribution for half a year.</p> -<p>2. The sum of 15<i>l.</i> for his first equipment of uniform -clothing.</p> -<p>3. The sum of 10<i>s.</i> for the support of the company -reading-rooms.</p> -<p>4. A deposit of 15<i>l.</i> on account, for contingent expenses.</p> -</div> - -<p>23. The above sums are to be paid to the paymaster of the -College.</p> - -<p>24. For each succeeding half year the regulated contribution is in -like manner to be paid in advance, to the paymaster of the college, to -whom must also be remitted the sum of 5<i>l.</i> for the further -provision of uniform clothing, and such sum as may be required to make -up the contingent deposit to 15<i>l.</i> The amount of this balance will -be shown by an account, rendered at the end of every half year, of the -sums paid out of the deposit during the past term.</p> - -<p>25. No cadet on whose behalf these regulations in regard to payments -have not been complied with, will be received at the college.</p> - -<p>26. No refund of contribution will be made for any portion of the -half year in which the cadet may be removed from the establishment, -without the special sanction of the Secretary of State for War.</p> - -<p>27. No payments will be required from Queen’s or Indian cadets.</p> - -<p>28. If a cadet be rusticated during a term, his contribution for the -half year will be forfeited.</p> - -<p>29. If absent a whole term in consequence of rustication or sickness, -a contribution of 10<i>l.</i> will be required for the privilege of his -name being kept on the rolls of the establishment, and for a vacancy -being guaranteed at the commencement of the next term.</p> - -<p>30. If absent from sickness during any portion of a term, a refund of -that portion applicable to subsistence will be permitted.</p> - -<p>31. In the cases of cadets of the orphan class, whose annual -contribution is only 20<i>l.</i>, the amount to be paid when the absence -extends over a whole term will be submitted to and determined by the -Secretary of State.</p> - -<p>32. Every gentleman cadet will be supplied with a weekly allowance of -pocket money, at the discretion of the commandant of the college; but -this allowance will not exceed 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a week for a -gentleman cadet who is a responsible under officer, 4<i>s.</i> a week -for a gentleman cadet who is an under officer, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a -week for a gentleman cadet who is a corporal, and 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -a week for all other gentlemen cadets. The expense of this allowance -will be -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page580" id="page580">580</a></span> -defrayed out of the amount deposited for the purpose of meeting -contingent expenses, and in the case of Queen’s or Indian cadets it will -be borne by the public.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Discipline.</i></p> - -<p>33. All gentlemen cadets are subject to such rules and regulations as -are, or may be from time to time, established for the maintenance of -good order and discipline.</p> - -<p>34. Every gentleman cadet will be liable to be removed from the -college at any time should his conduct be such as to render it obvious -that his remaining would be either hurtful to the institution or -unprofitable to himself.</p> - -<p>35. To every cadet will be assigned, at the commencement of each -term, 100 marks for conduct.</p> - -<p>From this number deductions will be made in certain authorized -proportions for every offence which shall have been met by a punishment -of more than two days’ drill.</p> - -<p>Should the cadet forfeit more than three-fourths, or 75 of the above -100 marks, he will not be gazetted to his commission until all other -gentlemen cadets of the same batch shall have been provided for; and -should he lose all his marks for conduct he will be rusticated for one -term.</p> - -<p>36. Gentlemen cadets are strictly prohibited from contracting debts -with any publican or tradesman in the vicinity of the college.</p> - -<p>37. No perquisites or presents of any kind are to be received by any -person belonging to the college from either the gentlemen cadets or -their friends.</p> - -<p>38. Gentlemen cadets will not be allowed to remain at the college -during the vacations without the special sanction of the Secretary of -State for War, on satisfactory proof being shown that they have no -friends in the United Kingdom to whom they could go. Payment of -1<i>l.</i> 1<i>s.</i> a week will be required in such cases from those -who are not Queen’s cadets.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Termination of the Course, and removal from the -College.</i></p> - -<p>39. The course of study is calculated for a residence of three terms, -or 18 months, reckoned from the commencement of the term in which a -gentleman cadet may join. It is open, however, for any cadet, who at the -end of his first term shall have proved himself qualified for promotion -at once to the third term classes, to compete for a commission without -purchase, or to be examined for a commission by purchase, at the end of -his second term; but no fourth term will be allowed on any plea but that -of long continued sickness, in which case special application must be -made to the Commander-in-Chief, accompanied by an opinion from the -surgeon of the college.</p> - -<p>Gentlemen cadets allowed a fourth term will not be permitted to -compete for commissions without purchase.</p> - -<p>40. Examinations for commissions will be held periodically. The -number of commissions to be given without purchase will be announced -previously to the examination. These will be competed for and awarded to -the candidates who are first in order of merit.</p> - -<p>41. Candidates who have not succeeded in obtaining a place amongst -those to whom commissions without purchase can be awarded, but who have -obtained the minimum number of marks required for qualification, will be -considered to have prior claims to all other candidates for commissions -by purchase.</p> - -<p>42. Queen’s and Indian cadets will receive commissions without -purchase on passing the qualifying examination. The names of those who -distinguish themselves equally with competitors for commissions without -purchase will be published in the same lists with the latter.</p> - -<p>43. In every case a certificate of conduct and proficiency in -military and athletic exercises will be required from the governor of -the college before a cadet can be examined for his commission.</p> - -<p>44. Any gentleman cadet desirous of entering the Royal Artillery or -Royal Engineers will be permitted, if otherwise eligible, to offer -himself as a candidate at any of the competitive examinations for -admission into the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and his position -at the Royal Military College will not be affected by his failure at -such examination.</p> - -<p>45. No gentleman cadet will be allowed to present himself at a direct -commission examination during his residence at the Royal Military -College.</p> - -<p>46. No gentleman cadet is to be removed from the college without the -permission of the Commander-in-Chief, obtained through the governor of -the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page581" id="page581">581</a></span> -college. And when a parent or guardian intends to withdraw a cadet, or, -if of age, the gentleman cadet intends to leave the college at the end -of a term, at least six weeks’ notice of his intention is to be given to -the governor. In default of such notice a quarter’s subscription must be -paid.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Miscellaneous.</i></p> - -<p>47. The establishment for Queen’s cadets having been sanctioned by -Parliament when the age of admission to the Royal Military College was -from 13 to 15 years, it has been decided that in any case when the -services of the father and the circumstances of his family are such as -to constitute a claim, an addition of not more than 40<i>l.</i> a year -to the “compassionate allowance” may, at the discretion of the Secretary -of State for War, be allowed to a candidate who is over 13, to enable -him to complete his preparatory education, as he is ineligible for -immediate admission into the college in consequence of the minimum age -of admission having been raised to 16.</p> - -<p>48. It is desirable that every candidate who is under 21 years of age -should, at his admission, be accompanied by his parent, guardian, or -some other responsible person, to satisfy the requirements of the -college on his behalf.</p> - -<p>49. The responsible parent or guardian of every successful candidate, -and the candidate himself, before he can be admitted as a cadet, will be -required to sign respectively the following declarations:</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Declaration by Cadet.</i></p> - -<p>“I ___________________, do hereby declare that I have attentively -considered the regulations for admission to the Royal Military College, -and I consent to abide by the same in every particular, as well as to -observe and follow all such orders and directions as I shall from time -to time receive from the governor, the commandant, or other officers or -authorities of the Royal Military College. And I further hold myself -bound to conform, in every respect, to Her Majesty’s regulations, and to -the rules and discipline of the service.”</p> - -<p class="rightside">(Signature) _________________</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Declaration by the Parent or Guardian.</i></p> - -<p>“I hereby declare that I consent to the admission of my (son or ward) -to the Royal Military College, on the foregoing conditions.”</p> - -<p class="rightside">(Signature) _______________</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Subjects of the Final Examination.</i></p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers drop"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Max. allowed to count.</th> -<th>Min. allowed to count.</th> -<th>Min. required for Qualification.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>50. Field fortification and elements of permanent fortification, -including preparatory course of practical geometry,</td> -<td>1,800</td> -<td>450</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military drawing and surveying,</td> -<td>1,800</td> -<td>450</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military history and geography,</td> -<td>1,800</td> -<td>450</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="plaintext numbers drop"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Max. allowed to count.</th> -<th>Min. allowed to count.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics:</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><i>First Section.</i>—Arithmetic: algebra, up to -simple equations; Euclid, four books, use of logarithmic tables, -elementary problems in heights and distances, and mensuration,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><i>Second Section.</i>—Euclid, Books V., VI., -and XI. (propositions 1-20), higher algebra, plane trigonometry, and -mensuration,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><i>Third Section.</i>—Practical mechanics and -hydrostatics,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher fortification,</td> -<td>600</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemistry,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geology,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Free-hand drawing,</td> -<td>600</td> -<td>150</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In order to qualify for a commission, every gentleman cadet will be -required to obtain 1,950 marks in the obligatory section of -fortification, military drawing and surveying, military history, the -first section of mathematics, and one foreign language; of which number -of marks 1,300 must be gained in the three <i>military</i> subjects -before specified.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page582" id="page582">582</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_sandhurst_subjects" id="britain_sandhurst_subjects" href="#britain_sandhurst">SUBJECTS AND -COURSE OF INSTRUCTION.</a></h5> - -<p>The studies of the college are mathematics, fortification, military -drawing and surveying, military history and geography, and one modern -language (either French or German), which are obligatory on all cadets, -and, in the final examination 1,950 marks (out of 5,400 required), with -a certificate of proficiency in military and athletic exercises, are -required to qualify for a commission. To these studies are added -chemistry or physics, geology, and a second modern language.</p> - -<p>For educational purposes, the cadet corps is divided into three -companies, designated A, B, C, each company pursuing the same subjects -at the same time, with a classification of members into sections, -according to the results of the minor and term examinations. The minor -examinations take place every six weeks, and the term examinations every -six months, and the final examination at the close of the course, which -occupies three terms of six months each. The final examination is -conducted by examiners attached to the Council of Military Education. -The final result, as bearing on a commission, is reached by adding the -marks as determined by the average of the minor and term examinations, -and the answers of the final examination.</p> - -<p>The instruction is given in halls of study, of which there are 18, -large enough to accommodate, each, 18 cadets, but generally occupied by -15. The lecture hall will accommodate 100 without crowding.</p> - -<p>1. <i>Mathematics</i>, elementary for all sections, including -arithmetic, algebra up to simple equations, euclid, the use of -logarithmic tables, elementary problems in heights and distances, and -mensuration; and higher in the third section, including trigonometry and -practical mechanics and hydrostatics, occupies 21 hours a week during -the entire residence. To this branch is assigned a professor, one senior -master, and three other masters. To the highest proficiency in -mathematics is assigned a maximum of 1,200 marks, and a minimum of 300 -is allowed to count.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Fortification</i> includes field and the elements of permanent -fortification, with a preparatory course of practical geometry. To this -study, which occupies three hours every day, or 18 hours per week, are -assigned six professors, and to the highest -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page583" id="page583">583</a></span> -proficiency is awarded a maximum of 1,800 marks, with a minimum of 450. -Field fortification is taught in the first two terms, plan drawing and -practical work going on together. The cadets trace and execute portions -of fieldworks, making and planting revetement, gabions, and fascines, -and doing all but the heavy work, which is left to the sappers. They are -also instructed in bridge making and in pontooning, and witness every -species of work done in the hall, on the fortification ground.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Military Surveying and Drawing</i> occupy together 17 hours, -under 12 professors. The cadets commence by drawing from copies, then -from models, being in the meantime also taught the use of instruments; -then in six weeks after joining the corps, they are taken out to -triangulate with the prismatic compass and pacing, and traverse roads. -The former practice with the theodilite and sextant has been abandoned, -and the whole instruction has been concentrated on the art of field -sketching as of more importance to an infantry officer. To the highest -proficiency in this subject is given 1,800 marks, and a minimum of 450 -is allowed to count in the final result. In the final examination the -candidate for a commission must obtain at least 1,200 marks in the above -subjects.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Military History and Geography</i> is under the charge of one -professor and two instructors. The present course is to give instruction -by lecture, in the organization and mode of action of the three arms, -and explanation of the operation of the commissariat and transport -department of an army, followed by a short and simple campaign. In the -second half-year, two campaigns are selected, with a view to illustrate -the generally received principles of tactics and strategy, and in the -third half-year one campaign is thoroughly worked out in detail. The -cadets take notes of the lecture, on which they are examined orally, and -after the main propositions and facts are printed by the professor, a -subsequent study and examination on the printed scheme is had. In this -study the cadets draw plans of the theatre of war and of battles, -showing the position of the opposing forces.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Languages</i>, French and German,—the former with one -professor and three masters, and the latter with one master. The usual -course in either language is grammar, exercises, dictation, translation, -and composition. To the highest proficiency -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page584" id="page584">584</a></span> -in either, 1,200 marks are assigned, and a minimum of 300 is allowed. -One of these languages is obligatory in the final examination, but the -candidate can be examined in both. The cadets can change from one -language to the other at the beginning of the term.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Chemistry</i> (including sound, heat, electricity, and -magnetism) and <i>Geology</i> (including mineralogy and physical -geography) occupy each a half hour four days in the week, and employ -part of the time of two professors.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Freehand or Landscape Drawing</i> receives two lessons per -week, first from copies and models, and in the third term one lesson per -week from nature. To the highest proficiency is assigned 600 marks, and -a minimum of 150 is allowed.</p> - -<p>8. <i>Military exercises</i> enter into the programme for the day, -and consist of gymnastics for the first term, gun-drill and riding (one -lesson per week) in the second term, and two lessons in the last -exercises for the third term. Parade and infantry drill occupy, in -addition, half an hour before breakfast, and 50 minutes between the -first and second period of study in the morning (9.30 and 10.50).</p> - -<p>For qualification a cadet must obtain an aggregate of 1,200 marks out -of 5,400 on the three military subjects, and a total aggregate of 1,950 -of these. Similar proportions of marks must be obtained each term that -the cadet may return in the following term.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_sandhurst_results" id="britain_sandhurst_results" href="#britain_sandhurst">RESULTS OF -EXAMINATIONS.</a></h5> - -<p>Out of 2,399 admission examinations in eleven years, from 1858 to -1868, 444 were unsuccessful; and in the final examinations, in the same -period, out of 1,726, 25 failed. The results of the examinations show -better preparation from year to year.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">EXPENDITURES.</p> - -<p>The expenditures of the government, on account of the Military -College, were as follows: for 1858-9, £27,969; for 1863-4, £39,690; for -1866-7, £36,416, exclusive of payments made by the cadets or by the -Indian government, which, in 1866-67 was £4,237.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page585" id="page585">585</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_woolwich" id="britain_woolwich" -href="#england">ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY AT WOOLWICH.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_woolwich_historical" id="britain_woolwich_historical" href="#britain_woolwich">HISTORICAL -NOTICE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Military Academy at Woolwich was -instituted by George II. in 1741, to give instruction to officers who -served in the Artillery and Engineers. It began in a small room in a -building at Woolwich, where the Board of Ordnance used occasionally to -assemble, under the instruction of two masters, who lectured by rotation -during four consecutive hours in three days of every week. At first only -the officers of the single battalion composing the Artillery, and of the -corps of Engineers, were required to attend. In the second year -non-commissioned officers, and privates too, were at liberty to attend, -and upon its close cadets, to the number of five to each company of -artillery, resorted to the hall. Being sons of officers of the corps, -and not in uniform or under military control, the cadets became an -element of disorder, which led to a more systematic organization. In -1744, the cadets were clothed in uniform, and collected into a distinct -company, under two officers, with a drum-major. By 1782, the number of -cadets had increased from twenty to sixty, and in 1798, to one -hundred,—boarding with their families. In the last year -arrangements were made to lodge and board the cadets by allowing -2<i>s.</i> a day per head, until by degrees, in 1857, an imposing pile -of buildings had been erected, and the establishment for government and -instruction consisted of 18 officers on the military staff, and some -fifty professors and masters in the civil and educational corps.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_woolwich_admission" id="britain_woolwich_admission" href="#britain_woolwich">REGULATIONS FOR -ADMISSION.</a></h5> - -<p>Previously to the year 1855 admission to the Royal Military Academy -could only be obtained by a nomination from the Master-General of the -Ordnance. The limits of age for admission were at that time from 14 to -16, and the candidates -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page586" id="page586">586</a></span> -nominated were required to pass an entrance examination before the -professors of the Academy, which varied somewhat according to the age of -the individual. A certain number of the candidates previously -passed though the preparatory school at Carshalton, admission to which -was equally obtained by nomination from the Master-General of the -Ordnance, and were transferred to the Academy on passing an examination -similar to that required from those who entered the latter establishment -direct. The term of residence at the Academy varied, according to the -progress of a cadet, from two to four years.</p> - -<p>The inability of the Academy to meet the demand for officers for the -Artillery and Engineers created by the Crimean war, led to the -introduction of a new system of obtaining commissions in the scientific -corps. At first a limited number of nominations were placed in the hands -of the head masters of the great public schools of the country, and the -candidates nominated by them were appointed to provisional commissions -on passing an examination at Woolwich; but after a short time the -principle of open competition for admission to the Artillery and -Engineers was adopted, in 1855, by Lord Panmure, when Secretary of State -for War. Simultaneously with this change—the first recognition of -the competitive principle in regard to military education in this -country—a great alteration was made in the limits of age for -admission to the scientific corps. Both direct appointments to -commissions in the Artillery and Engineers, without any previous special -instruction, and admissions to the senior or practical class at the -Academy, without passing through the lower or theoretical classes at -that institution, were thrown open to public competition among all -natural-born subjects of Her Majesty. The limits of age for candidates -for the direct appointments were from 19 to 21. Those who were -successful were in the first instance to receive provisional -commissions, and to be placed for instruction under the Director of -Artillery Studies, at Woolwich, for a period of about six months, at the -end of which they were to be permanently commissioned. Candidates for -admission to the practical class at the Academy were required to be -between the ages of 17 and 19; those admitted were to remain in the -practical class for six or eight months, after which, on passing an -examination, they were to receive commissions -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page587" id="page587">587</a></span> -in the Artillery or Engineers. The first competitive examination under -this system (the regulations for which will be found below) was held in -August, 1855, and was conducted by a body of examiners specially -appointed for the purpose, under the direction of Canon Moseley. The -examination for both classes of appointments thrown open to competition -was the same, and was based on the general education of the country, the -object being merely to compare the abilities and attainments of the -candidates without reference to special professional knowledge. Two -other similar examinations, both for provisional commissions and for -admission to the practical class, were held in January and June, 1856, -the only difference being that the limits of age of the candidates were -somewhat extended, and that in these later examinations no commissions -in the <i>Engineers</i> were offered to competition.</p> - -<p>On the conclusion of the Crimean war, however, the system of -appointing officers directly from civil life to commissions in the -scientific corps, as well as that of admitting candidates to the -practical class at the Academy, which had been adopted to meet the -pressure of the war, came to an end. No other examination after that in -June, 1856, was held for a year; but in June, 1857, the first -competitive examination for admission to the ordinary course of -instruction at the Academy took place. The limits of age for admission -were fixed at 17 to 20, and it was announced that the successful -candidates would remain under instruction at the Academy “until -sufficiently advanced in scientific knowledge to pass a satisfactory -examination.”</p> - -<p>Since this period open competitive examinations have been held -regularly every six months for admission to the Academy; and though -various modifications in their details have been made, their general -character remains little altered. The limits of age for candidates, -originally placed at 17 to 20, were, however, in 1862, reduced to 16 to -19, at which they are at present fixed.</p> - -<p>The examinations for admission to the Academy, like those which had -previously been held for provisional commissions and for appointments to -the practical class, were at first conducted by Canon Moseley and a -special Board of Examiners appointed by the Secretary of State for War, -with whom the general management of the Academy, after the abolition of -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page588" id="page588">588</a></span> -the office of Master-General of the Ordnance, remained. In 1858, -however, the superintendence of the system of instruction at Woolwich -was transferred to the Council of Military Education, who, since July, -1859, have conducted the examinations.</p> - -<p>Although the principle of open competition for appointments in the -scientific corps was first recognized in 1855, and in 1857 was extended -generally to admission to the ordinary course of instruction at the -Academy, yet the system of competitive examination did not become the -sole and universal means of admission to Woolwich until the year 1861. -Time was required to clear off the vested interests of candidates who -had been placed on the old nomination list of the Master-General of the -Ordnance; of youths who had been admitted to the preparatory school at -Carshalton; of cadets who, at the time of the proposed amalgamation of -Sandhurst and Woolwich, had obtained admission to the former institution -on the understanding that they would have the opportunity of obtaining -commissions in the Artillery and Engineers; and, lastly, of cadets at -the Indian Military College at Addiscombe, who, on the abolition of the -local Indian army, were transferred to Woolwich before receiving -commissions in the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers.</p> - -<p>Out of 3,085 admission examinations in eleven years, from 1858 to -1868, more than one-half (2,136) failed. Of those who entered after this -trial, in the same length of time, only three failed to pass the final -examination.</p> - -<p class="smallhead">STAFF OF GOVERNMENT AND INSTRUCTION.</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p><i>President.</i>—Duke of Cambridge, K.G.</p> -<p><i>Governor.</i>—Major General J. L. A. Simmons, K.C.B.</p> -<p><i>Secretary and Treasurer.</i>—Bt. Major E. J. Bruce, -R.Art.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Mathematics.</i>—M. W. Crofton, B.A., and five -masters.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Fortification.</i>—Lt. Col. J. J. Wilson.</p> -<p class="in-one"><i>Instructors.</i>—Major W. J. Stuart, and -three others.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Military History.</i>—Capt. H. Brackenburg, -R.Art.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Military Drawing.</i>—Lt. Col. A. W. -Drayson.</p> -<p class="in-one"><i>Landscape Drawing.</i>—William Clifton.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Artillery.</i>—Lt. Col. C. H. Owen, and five -masters.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Practical Geometry.</i>—T. Bradley, and two -masters.</p> -<p><i>Professor of German.</i>—C. H. Schaible, and two -masters.</p> -<p><i>Professor of French.</i>—Theodore Karcher, and two -masters.</p> -<p><i>Professor of Chemistry.</i>—C. L. Bloxham.</p> -<p><i>Chaplain and Classical Instructor.</i>—Rev. W. F. Short.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="smallhead">EXPENDITURE FOR MILITARY ACADEMY AT WOOLWICH:</p> - -<p>In 1858, £27,969; in 1861-62, £25,188; in 1866-67, -£36,416,—exclusive of payments made by the cadets.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page589" id="page589">589</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">REGULATIONS FOR ADMISSION.</p> - -<p>N.B.—All candidates for commissions in the Royal Artillery and -Royal Engineers are required to go through a course of instruction at -the Royal Military Academy.</p> - -<p>I. Competitive examinations for admission are held in London twice a -year, in January and July. They are conducted by examiners appointed for -the purpose, in the presence and under the superintendence of the -Council of Military Education.</p> - -<p>The candidates must be between 16 and 19 years of age.</p> - -<p>II. The admissions will be determined by the result of the -examination, the subjects of which will be as follows, viz.:</p> - -<table class="plaintext midnumber"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<th>Marks.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket tall" rowspan="3">1. Mathematics</td> -<td class="rightbracket" rowspan="2">Pure</td> -<td><p>Section I. Arithmetic, algebra, Euclid, plane -trigonometry,</p></td> -<td class="number">2,000</td> -<td class="bracket tall" rowspan="3">3,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<!-- --> -<td><p>Section II. Spherical trignometry, elements of co-ordinate -geometry, and of the differential and integral calculus,</p></td> -<td class="number">500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<!-- --> -<td colspan="2">Mixed: Statics, dynamics, and hydrostatics,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">2. English language and composition,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">3. History of England, its dependencies and -colonies,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">4. Geography (modern),</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket" rowspan="2">5. Classics</td> -<td colspan="3">Latin language,</td> -<td class="number">1,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Greek do.,</td> -<td class="number">1,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">6. French language,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">7. German do.,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">8. Hindustani do.,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4"><p>The examination in French, German, and Hindustani, -will include writing from dictation.</p></td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">9. Experimental sciences, <i>i.e.</i>, chemistry, -heat, electricity, magnetism,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="4">10. Natural sciences, <i>i.e.</i>, mineralogy and -geology,</td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket">11. Drawing</td> -<td colspan="3"><p>Free-hand drawing of machinery, architectural, -topographical, landscape or figure subjects,</p></td> -<td class="number">1,000</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Every candidate must qualify in geometrical drawing; <i>i.e.</i>, -drawing in ink, with accuracy, neatness, and to scale, the several -problems of Euclid. The standard of qualification in this subject is 100 -marks, which must be gained, out of a maximum of 300 nominally assigned -to it. But the marks so gained will not count toward the general -aggregate.</p> - -<p>III. No candidate will be allowed to be examined in more than five -subjects, of which one must be mathematics, and no one who does not -obtain at least 700 marks in section I. of pure mathematics, will be -eligible for an appointment.</p> - -<p>From the other subjects of examination, to which marks are assigned -as above, each candidate may select any, not exceeding four in number, -in which he desires to be examined. The rules for counting marks in such -subjects are as follows:</p> - -<p>In all subjects carrying marks, except the 1st section of -mathematics, in which 700 marks are required, one-sixth of the number -allotted to each must be gained before they can be allowed to count.</p> - -<p>In classics, the subject is divided into two sections as above, -either or both of which the candidate may take up as one subject; but he -will not be allowed to count the marks gained in either section unless -they amount to one-sixth of the number allotted to it.</p> - -<p>In either <i>French</i>, <i>German</i>, or <i>Hindustani</i>, every -candidate will be required to obtain for qualification one-sixth of the -maximum of marks, whether he takes it up as a subject in which he -desires to compete or not.</p> - -<p>It should be understood that, although only a small qualifying test -has been imposed in respect to modern languages, a knowledge of them on -admission will contribute greatly to a candidate’s future success at the -Royal Military Academy.</p> - -<p>IV. The candidates are allowed to answer as many questions as the -time allotted to the subject will permit.</p> - -<p>V. No candidate will be admitted unless he obtain an aggregate of at -least 2,500 marks.</p> - -<p>VI. The successful candidates will remain under instruction for about -two years and a half, or until they are sufficiently advanced in -scientific knowledge to pass a satisfactory examination, and they will -then be qualified to receive commissions in the Royal Artillery or Royal -Engineers. If, however, they should be found unable to qualify -themselves within three years in their professional studies, or to -acquire a sufficient proficiency in military exercises, or if at any -time, by failure at the half-yearly examinations, it should appear -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page590" id="page590">590</a></span> -improbable that they will ultimately succeed in qualifying for a -commission, they will be removed. Further, every cadet will be liable to -be removed temporarily or permanently on the commission of any of those -offences to which such penalty is awarded by the regulations of the -Royal Military Academy.</p> - -<p>VII. Each cadet on joining will be required to pay a sum of -25<i>l.</i> to cover the expense of uniform, books, etc., and to bring -with him the articles of clothing of which he will receive notice, and -which must afterward be kept up at his own expense. He will also be -required to pay a contribution of 62<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i>, payable in -advance, for each half year of the time during which he remains under -instruction; and a deposit of 5<i>l.</i> into the hands of the paymaster -on account, for contingent expenses, which latter sum he will be -required to make up on returning to the Royal Military Academy after -each vacation, to cover any unavoidable expense that may be incurred on -his account during the ensuing half year.</p> - -<p>The annual contributions, however, for sons and orphans of naval and -military officers will be regulated at the <ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘followig’">following</ins> rates, as heretofore:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>For sons of admirals and of generals having regiments,</td> -<td>£80</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For sons of generals without regiments,</td> -<td>70</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For sons of captains and commanders of the navy, and of colonels and -regimental field officers of the army,</td> -<td>60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For sons of all officers of the army and navy under the above -ranks,</td> -<td>40</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For sons of all officers of the army and navy who have died in the -service, and whose families are proved to be left in pecuniary -distress,</td> -<td>20</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The sons of general officers who are paid only on their commissions -as field officers will pay the same contributions as the sons of field -officers.</p> - -<p>Officers who have sold their commissions are in this classification -reckoned as private gentlemen.</p> - -<p>The cases of officers who have retired voluntarily upon half pay -previous to having served 25 years on full pay will be specially -considered.</p> - -<p>Officers who retire on half pay after 25 years’ service on full pay -will be entitled to be classified for payment with the rank they last -served in.</p> - -<p>The sons of officers of the civil departments of the army and navy, -of officers of the permanent Militia Staff, and of adjutants of the -Volunteer Force, are admissible to the Academy upon the same terms as -those prescribed for naval and military officers.</p> - -<p>The sons of Indian naval and military officers will be admitted on -the same terms as the sons of officers of the Queen’s service.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>The sons of professors at the Staff and Royal Military Colleges, at -the Royal Military Academy, and at the Royal Military College, -Addiscombe,</td> -<td>£60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The sons of masters at the above institutions,</td> -<td>40</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>If a cadet be absent a whole term in consequence of sickness or -rustication, a payment of 10<i>l.</i> will be required for the privilege -of his name being kept on the rolls of the establishment, and for a -vacancy being guaranteed at the commencement of the next term.</p> - -<p>If a cadet be absent from sickness during a portion of the term, his -pay will continue to be issued and credited to his account; but no -refund of the contribution will be permitted.</p> - -<p>If rusticated during a term, the daily pay will cease from the date -on which the cadet is sent away, and the contribution made for the half -year will be forfeited.</p> - -<p>In the case of a cadet of the orphan class, whose annual contribution -is only 20<i>l.</i>, the amount to be paid when absence extends over a -whole term is to be determined by the Secretary of State.</p> - -<p>VIII. Any gentleman who wishes to present himself at one of the -half-yearly examinations must send in his name to the military secretary -at the Horse Guards one month before the time of examination, forwarding -with his application to be noted the following papers:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1st. An extract from the register of his baptism, or, in default of -that, a declaration before a magistrate, made by one of his parents, -giving his exact age.</p> - -<p>2d. A certificate of good moral character, signed by a clergyman of -the parish to which he belongs, and by the tutor or head of the school -or college at which he has received his education for at least the two -preceding years, or such other proof of good moral character as will be -satisfactory to the Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page591" id="page591">591</a></span> -<p>3d. A statement of the subjects of examination in which (in addition -to mathematics) he may desire to be examined.</p> -</div> - -<p>A candidate who has been examined before, when he applies for leave -to present himself again, will only be required to forward the list of -subjects he selects, and a certificate from his tutor or the head of his -school, etc., for the interval between the two examinations.</p> - -<p>IX. The candidates will be inspected by military surgeons on the -first day of the examination, in order that it may be ascertained that -they are free from any bodily defects or ailments calculated to -interfere with the performance of military duties.</p> - -<p>Extreme short-sight, or any serious defect of vision, is regarded as -a disqualification.</p> - -<p>The responsible parent or guardian of every successful candidate, and -the candidate himself, before he can be admitted as a cadet, are -required to sign, respectively, obligations to conform to the -regulations.</p> -</div> - - -<h5><a name="britain_woolwich_subjects" id="britain_woolwich_subjects" href="#britain_woolwich">SUBJECTS AND -STAFF OF INSTRUCTION.</a></h5> - -<p>For instruction the Cadets are divided into five classes of equal -strength, according to length of residence; forty-four in the first four -classes, and forty-six in the junior. The subjects are:</p> - -<p>1. Mathematics, under a professor and four instructors, is studied in -three classes, and the final examination is held after a residence of a -year and a half, with a maximum of 6,800 marks in all.</p> - -<p>2. Fortification, under a professor and four instructors, is studied -in four classes. The final examination is in the last class, and the -maximum of marks attainable in all is 6,300.</p> - -<p>3. Artillery, under a professor and three instructors, is studied in -two classes; the second and first, and the final examination, is in the -first, with a maximum of 6,200 marks.</p> - -<p>4. Surveying and topographical drawing, under a professor and four -instructors, is studied in all the classes, and the final examination is -at the completion of the course, with a total of 4,200 marks.</p> - -<p>5. Practical Geometry, under a professor and two instructors, is -studied in two classes, and the final examination is at the close of the -first year, with an aggregate of 2,100 marks.</p> - -<p>6. Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, under one professor, are studied -in the last two terms, and the final examination is in the last, with a -maximum of 1,600 marks in the former, and 900 in the latter.</p> - -<p>7. French and German are studied, each under a professor and two -instructors, for four terms, and after the final examination in the -second class. The total marks in each is 1,500. Hindustani can be -substituted for German.</p> - -<p>8. Landscape Drawing, under two instructors, is studied in three -classes, and the final examination is in the third class, with a maximum -of 1,500 marks.</p> - -<p>9. Military History is taught by one professor in the last two terms, -and has a maximum of 2,000 marks.</p> - -<p>10. Chemistry, under one lecturer, is taught in the last term, and -receives a total of 1,200 marks.</p> - -<p>11. Gymnastics, drill, and riding are taught as follows: Regular -gymnastic instruction is conducted by a superintendent and three -sergeants, for at least six months, and practised through all the terms. -Artillery drill, with gun, sword, and other military drill and tactics, -are conducted partly by military officers and partly by the professors -and instructors of artillery. Riding drill is conducted under the -officers of the Royal Artillery, in the last two terms, and is practised -four or five hours a week. Swimming is taught optionally.</p> - -<p>12. Recreations and amusements are optional and at the expense of the -Cadets. Workshops are maintained by the government, but tools and -materials are furnished at the expense of the Cadets. There are two -reading rooms.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page592" id="page592">592</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_woolwich_preparation" id="britain_woolwich_preparation" href="#britain_woolwich">SCHOOL -PREPARATION FOR WOOLWICH.</a></h5> - -<p>From the returns and evidence furnished, it is an extremely rare -occurrence for a candidate to go up direct from a public school which -does not possess a Modern Department to the examination for admission to -Woolwich. Out of 855 candidates admitted to Woolwich in 10 -years—from 1858 to 1867—the six public schools of Eton, -Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, Westminster, and Shrewsbury, only sent up -five direct. Colonel Addison states that at Sandhurst, out of 320 -admissions during the last two years, there have been only 16 from the -nine schools mentioned in the Report of the Royal Commission on Public -Schools; but from Cheltenham and Wellington College the admissions have -been more numerous. Even for the direct commission examination, those -who present themselves from public schools (including Cheltenham and -Marlborough, where Modern Departments exist), without seeking the -assistance of a private tutor, scarcely amount to five per cent. of the -whole number of candidates. At the same time, it may be observed that -the proportion of failures among such candidates in the latter -examination is comparatively slight, not amounting to more than 8 per -cent., while the average number of failures among the candidates -generally during the last four years has been very nearly 25 per cent. -In fact, the general tenor of the evidence goes to show that, in the -case of the examinations both for direct commissions and for admission -to Sandhurst, there is, or at least should be, no necessity for -candidates who have had the ordinary education of a classical public -school to have recourse to private tuition. The Woolwich examination -appears generally to be regarded in a different light. Its higher and -more special character, and the great importance attached to -mathematics, coupled with the competition which exists for it, render it -apparently doubtful whether success would generally be obtained by -candidates from public schools—other than those where, like -Cheltenham, instruction is given with a particular view to this -examination—without a special preparatory tuition.</p> - -<p>The general character of the “Modern Side” at Harrow, which was -established in September of 1869, “for the benefit of boys for whom, -from various causes, an advanced classical training seems undesirable,” -is explained as follows in a circular issued by the Head-Master when -announcing the intention of adopting the institution:</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page593" id="page593">593</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The principal subjects of instruction on the “Modern Side” will be -mathematics, French, German, Latin, history, English literature, and -physical science.</p> - -<p>The requirements of boys not intended for the Universities will be -specially kept in view, including the case of those who are candidates -for Woolwich or the Indian Civil Service. It is hoped that this -provision may obviate the supposed necessity for removing boys to a -private tutor’s precisely at an age when the influences of public school -life are most powerful and most salutary.</p> - -<p>Except for purposes of instruction there will be no distinction -whatever between boys on the Modern Side and boys on the Classical -Side.</p> - -<p>No boy will, for the present, be admitted to the Modern Side unless -he has been in the school for at least a year, and has hitherto shown -diligence and made fair progress.</p> -</div> - -<p>The nature of the instruction in the “Army Class” at Eton is -described by the Head-Master (Rev. Dr. Hornly) as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Army Class was established by Dr. Goodrich in the year 1858. It -was established in order to give Eton boys greater facilities for -preparing certain subjects which were required in the army examinations, -and to obviate the supposed necessity of giving Eton boys a special -preparation, elsewhere than at <ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘Eaton’">Eton</ins>, in order to fit them for the army -examinations.</p> - -<p>At first fortification and military drawing were included in the -course, and a considerable proportion of the ordinary school work -(<i>e.g.</i>, Latin verse writing) was remitted.</p> - -<p>This was not found to answer. The course included more than was -necessary for the ordinary army examination, and not enough for the -higher examinations at Woolwich. There seemed to be a danger of the -class becoming a sort of refuge for the idlest boys in the school.</p> - -<p>Dr. Goodford subsequently altered all this, and placed the class upon -its present footing, which is as follows:</p> - -<p>Two lessons a week (repetition lessons) are remitted to make time for -lessons in modern history. English essays, or abstracts of what has been -taught in school, are written by the boys out of school (one exercise a -week), and carefully looked over. No other part of the ordinary school -work (except the two repetition lessons) is given up. Boys cannot join -the class till they are 16 years of age. They are expected to stay at -Eton till the time comes for their examination. The class consists at -present of 28 boys, with an average of 25.</p> - -<p>The class has certainly been successful. No boy going up from Eton -has failed yet in the army examination since the reconstitution of the -class of which I have spoken. I think the class has done good in -the school.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that nothing more has been seriously attempted as yet -than to secure boys from failure in the ordinary examinations. If boys -are to be prepared at Eton for any higher competition, such as that at -Woolwich, a very different course will obviously be necessary, and -probably a system of “bifurcation” will be found indispensable.</p> - -<p>I am not prepared to say that this may not be introduced with -advantage at Eton; but the impending changes in the governing body at -Eton, and the anticipated changes with regard to army examinations, make -it difficult to commence any work of reconstruction at the present -moment.</p> -</div> - -<p>The most successful institutions in preparing candidates either for -Sandhurst or Woolwich are the Cheltenham and Wellington -Colleges—each having a Modern Department, in which Latin and Greek -yield their supremacy to modern science and living languages.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Modern Department in Cheltenham College was established in 1843 -as a Military School, and is claimed to be such at this time. The -studies of subjects consist of mathematics, drawing of all kinds, -physical science, two modern languages (French and German), English, -surveying, and fortification, both field and permanent. The principal -(Rev. T. A. Southend), in his evidence before the Military -Education Commission in 1869, states that his pupils, at -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page594" id="page594">594</a></span> -the age of eighteen, went through the whole Addiscombe course, and all -that was done at Woolwich, and a good deal of what was done at Chatham. -The whole of his class, in 1868, went up for the entrance examination at -Sandhurst, and passed. From twelve to fifteen go to Woolwich every year, -and in 1869, forty out of one hundred and twenty in the Academy were -prepared at Cheltenham. The special military instruction is based on a -course of Latin and Greek.</p> - -<p>Out of three hundred and twelve students in Wellington College, -ninety-six boys are in the Modern Side, entering at the age of twelve -and thirteen, and remaining till seventeen or eighteen. But of the -ninety-six, forty are preparing for the Engineers or Artillery, and -twenty for the Line. The subjects taught in the military division are -the same as at Cheltenham, except fortification; and the head-master -(Rev. Dr. Benson) claims, in his evidence before the Commission, that -his graduates are as well trained in the same subject as the pupils of -Sandhurst or Woolwich. He advises the establishment of exhibitions in -the Military School, open to competition to the pupils of all the public -schools, and regards the modern side as an essential feature in all -public schools.</p> -</div> - -<p>Rugby School was the earliest of the great Public Schools of England -to make Physical Science a regular part of its curriculum, and to give -any considerable prominence to modern languages and history; but its -governing authorities have resisted all efforts to establish a distinct -Modern Side.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Rev. Dr. Temple, head-master of Rugby School (now Bishop of -Exeter), in his evidence before the Commission, remarked that the -general education of boys entering Sandhurst should be the same as that -given to other boys of the same age, destined for any other profession -than that of arms. His opinion was adverse to having a modern -department, in which the ancient classics held a subordinate place, in a -school in which the classics held the first, and over which the -head-master presided. The modern studies should have an independent -scope, and their own master, who will by his character and personal -attention fix the standard of attainment. The great public schools -should hold on to their present aim and methods, introducing other -studies to perfect their mental discipline and results. No side sections -or departments in any existing school can do the work of scientific -school culture so thoroughly as an independent school, in which the -natural sciences and modern languages are taught by the main staff of -professors. All teachers, in any school, civil or military, should be -specially appointed for their educational qualities.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Marlborough College, a modern department exists, which was -established to prepare boys for definite examinations in which they -would not succeed if they competed direct from the classical side of the -College, and at the same time to solve the problem of giving a good -school education on a basis of instruction in which the dead languages -hold a subordinate place. Boys enter the Modern School after they have -reached the fourth form in the classical department, so that Latin and -Greek constitute a substantial part of their attainments and discipline. -The success of the graduates of this institution in competing for -admission into the military or civil service of the government, or in -any of the walks of active or professional life, shows conclusively that -the modern curriculum with its studies properly adjusted, and a well -trained staff, under an able head-master, is quite equal to the -classical, not only in practical utility, but in comprehensive and -liberal discipline.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page595" id="page595">595</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_chatham" id="britain_chatham" -href="#england">ROYAL SCHOOL OF MILITARY ENGINEERING AT -CHATHAM.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_chatham_org" id="britain_chatham_org" href="#britain_chatham">ORGANIZATION, ETC.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Royal Engineering Establishment -at Chatham was instituted in 1854, to furnish a sound course of -practical instruction in Military and Civil Engineering to the officers, -non-commissioned officers, and sappers of the corps of Royal Engineers, -in addition and prior to which both officers and men pass through the -ordinary drill and military duties common to the army generally.</p> - -<p>The present organization and staff are composed of a director; an -instructor and assistant in construction and estimating; an instructor -and assistant in field works; an instructor and assistant in surveying; -an instructor and assistant in telegraphy, photography, and an assistant -in signalling; a brigade major; quartermaster in charge of stores, and -field officer for military discipline.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>The number of officers under instruction, recently commissioned, -captains and subalterns,</td> -<td>81</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Non-commissioned officers and sappers, average,</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<h5><a name="britain_chatham_nature" id="britain_chatham_nature" -href="#britain_chatham">NATURE AND LENGTH OF COURSE.</a></h5> - -<p>There are six distinct courses:</p> - -<p>1. Drill and military duties, which occupy 107 days. This includes, -besides the interior economy of a company, proceedings of -courts-martial, boards of survey, courts of inquiry.</p> - -<p>2. Telegraphy, signalling, submarine mines, etc., which occupy -thirty-five days. This includes the construction and maintenance of -lines, a knowledge of instruments and batteries, application of -electricity to explosions, management of torpedoes, etc.</p> - -<p>3. Chemistry, which occupies fifteen days. This course comprises the -analysis of limes, cements, and other building materials.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page596" id="page596">596</a></span> -<p>4. Field works, military bridging, etc, which occupies 122 days. This -comprises instruction in earthworks, pontooning, rafts, spar, and other -temporary bridges, reports on existing fortresses, construction of -railways, escalading, diving, etc.</p> - -<p>5. Architectural course, which occupies 183 days. This course -includes building material, design, estimate, and specification for a -building, instruction and report, with hand sketches of various works in -execution, lime and cement works, quarrying, brickmaking, etc.</p> - -<p>6. Surveying and Astronomy, which occupy 183 days. This course -includes trigonometrical survey, military reconnoissance, special -survey, road reconnoissance, astronomical memoranda and calculations, -adaptation of works of defence to a contoured site, inspection tours of -works of defence in England, and report on same, isolated lectures on -geology, electricity, machinery, etc., by selected professors.</p> - -<p>The first allowance toward expenses of junior officers of the Royal -Engineers, in visiting engineering works, at home and abroad, was made -in 1854, and is now 500<i>l.</i> per annum.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_chatham_practical" id="britain_chatham_practical" href="#britain_chatham">INSTRUCTION FOR -NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND SAPPERS.</a></h5> - -<p>All recruits for this corps join at Chatham, and for about sixteen -months are subject to daily drill and military duties in field work and -all branches of the engineer service, and are drafted off, from time to -time, into the special classes in construction, photography, telegraphy, -lithography, printing.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Synopsis of the Course.</i></p> - -<p>The following synopsis of the instruction given at the Royal School -of Military Engineering at Chatham, was drawn up by Major General -J. L. Simmons, the Director of the establishment.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="smallhead">I.—THE SURVEY COURSE.</p> - -<p>The course of surveying for the officers of the Royal Engineers is -intended to qualify them for carrying on survey operations of every -description, and for designing and laying out engineering works, so far -as these are influenced by the features of the ground on which they are -placed, or over which they are carried.</p> - -<p>The course consists of two parts,—the one relating to surveying -processes exclusively, the other to the uses made of the plans and maps -prepared by such processes, for engineering purposes.</p> - -<p>Under the first of these divisions the officers are practically -instructed in astronomical, general, special, and reconnoitring -surveying, including the accurate delineation of the inequalities of -ground by levelling and by contours traced instrumentally, and also the -giving reliefs to hill forms by sketching with the pen and drawing with -the brush.</p> - -<p>Under the second division they are exercised in the adaptation of -works of fortification to contoured sites, and in the selection and -survey of lines of communication by roads, railways, and canals, and in -drawing up projects for their execution.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page597" id="page597">597</a></span> -<p class="heading"><i>Astronomical Surveying.</i></p> - -<p>The officers are taught the construction and use of astronomical -instruments, and are practised in making observations with them. They -study from published works and memoranda printed at the establishment, -the most useful problems for finding the time, the latitude and -longitude, the direction of the meridian, and the variation of the -compass.</p> - -<p>Examples of each problem are worked out by them from their own -observations or from observations made in their presence.</p> - -<p>The use of meteorological <ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘intruments’">instruments</ins> and the reductions of the observations -made with them are also practised.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>General Survey.</i></p> - -<p>As a preliminary exercise in drawing each officer constructs a plate -of scales from data supplied to him. For particular information on the -delicate and powerful instruments and apparatus which have been used in -great national surveys, and which cannot be studied in the establishment -observatory, the officers are referred to published works; and they are -instructed in the adjustments, the unavoidable errors of construction, -and the powers of the instruments put into their hands for the execution -of their survey course.</p> - -<p>The general survey comprises:</p> - -<p>1st. <i>The selection and measurement of a base.</i>—The base -is measured with an ordinary chain and a five-inch theodolite, and this -measurement having been reduced to its horizontal value at the level of -the sea, the section of the base is laid down on paper.</p> - -<p>2d. <i>Triangulation.</i>—The measured base is extended by a -triangulation over 10 or 16 square miles of country, and the relative -altitudes of, and the distances between, the stations selected are -determined from observations. The computed horizontal distances are laid -down, and the azimuth of one of them is determined.</p> - -<p>3d. <i>Traversing.</i>—The positions of the roads, streams, -boundaries of woods, and other marked features, surrounding and -intersecting an area of six or eight square miles of the country -triangulated, are then determined by running traverses with a theodolite -from one station to another, so as to cut up this area into spaces which -will admit of being filled in by a less accurate method, without -introducing an error in the plan.</p> - -<p>4th. <i>Plotting of detail and completion of the work.</i>—The -protracted lines are now transferred to another sheet of paper, and the -detail, obtained as the traverses proceed, is plotted from the -field-book. From this plot sketch sheets are prepared, and the remainder -of the work is sketched in with the aid of a prismatic compass, the form -of the ground being represented by pencil strokes, assisted by contours -put in with the aid of a portable level.</p> - -<p>The sketch sheets are etched in with a pen, and a finished brush-work -plan of the complete survey, embracing all the information collected, is -prepared from them, with the original plotted detail, as a basis.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Special Survey.</i></p> - -<p>A piece of ground, about half a mile in area, is surveyed with minute -accuracy as for some special purpose, and is laid down on a scale -sufficiently large to admit of the calculation of the areas of the -enclosures from the paper. The method followed is the same as that -pursued on the Ordnance Survey, and with the Tithe Commutation Surveys, -etc.</p> - -<p><i>Contouring.</i>—On the ground thus specially surveyed -contours are traced instrumentally at given vertical distances apart and -are plotted on the plan.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Military Reconnaissance.</i></p> - -<p>This is conducted on principles similar to those which govern the -operations of the general survey; the instruments employed, however, are -all portable. The measurement of a base is made by such means as readily -offer themselves (generally by pacing), and the trigonometrical points -are fixed simply by protracting angles observed with a box sextant or -compass. The whole of the remaining features and details considered -necessary in a military point of view are sketched in with the aid of -bearings and pacing. The reconnaissance embraces about six square -miles.</p> - -<p>In addition to the topographical sketch of the ground, each officer -sends in a detailed report of its general character, its resources, and -military capabilities. Each officer also makes a hasty reconnaissance of -a road with a view to -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page598" id="page598">598</a></span> -its employment as a military communication. All the information which -can be obtained as to the character of the country through which it -passes, and towns and villages near it, together with the construction, -gradients, etc., of the road, are noted on the face of the sketch.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Fortification Branch.</i></p> - -<p>Every officer is required, in this branch of the survey course, to -design one or more works of defence for the occupation of a site, of -which a contoured plan is furnished to him.</p> - -<p>In performing this exercise the officer becomes, expert in reading -the various forms and slopes of ground, as expressed by contours; he -meets with and learns to provide for some of the many modifications of -the conditions of defence which the occupation of irreglar sites -necessitates, and he acquires facility in the application of descriptive -geometry to the determination of the planes of defilade and the several -planes of a work.</p> - -<p>The data upon, which, the design, is framed consist of a plan of -ground shown by contours and of some of the conditions to be filled by -the proposed fortification, such as the objects for which; the site is -occupied, the strength of the garrison, the extent, of the works, the -nature of the defence of the ditches, the trace, or the, profile to be -adopted, etc.</p> - -<p>On the completion of his design the officer writes a report -explanatory of the character of the works, he has adopted, and -describing his arrangements both for the distant and near defence, with -any improvements which have suggested themselves in working it out; and -since the scale of the design, admits of considerable accuracy in its -preparation, he is required to enter very fully into the detail of the -arrangement he proposes.</p> - -<p>The report is accompanied by tables showing how the remblai and -deblai are equalized, and that the distribution of the latter is, -economical.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Civil Applications.</i></p> - -<p><i>Projects for a line of communication, general plan, and trial -sections.</i>—The officers are instructed in the general -principles which should guide them in laying out lines of communication, -whether by road, railway, or canal, and are then sent out to examine the -country between two points five or six miles apart, and are required to -decide on two or more routes which apparently offer the greatest -facilities in point of gradients, soil, and the materials of -construction. Availing themselves of the best map or plan they can -obtain, they draw a plan showing approximately the divisions of the -properties through which the trial lines are run; they then make trial -sections; and from these sections and their previous examination of the -ground, they determine on the line, to be adopted, embodying in a report -a general description of the country, the obstacles encountered on each -route, the gradients, curves, etc., and also the calculations which led -to their decision. In their calculations they estimate the cost of the -necessary constructions on each of the trial lines, the cost of -conveyance for heavy goods on an assumed basis of daily traffic, and the -time occupied in each case for quick transit.</p> - -<p><i>Working plan and section.</i>—A length of one mile of the -route determined on as the best is selected, and for this a special -survey is made, which is laid down as a working plan, the line being -picketed out when no objection is made by the owners of the property -through which it passes. A working section of the line is also -prepared from accurate levels.</p> - -<p><i>Plan of details, etc.</i>—For the works proposed on that -portion of the line Which is, included within the limits of the working -section, a plan of details Is prepared, as well as a specification for -the works and an estimate of their probable cost.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">II. THE COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION AND -ESTIMATING.</p> - -<p>For this course 142 days, including Sundays, are allowed. The course -is divided into four parts.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part I—Theory of Construction.</i></p> - -<p>This part consists of a series of examples in construction, about 50 -in number, which will be varied from time to time.</p> - -<p>They are drawn up with a special view to the application of the -mathematical knowledge already possessed by the officers to some of the -cases, which they are likely to have to deal with in practice.</p> - -<p>References are given in the margin of the printed paper of examples -to -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page599" id="page599">599</a></span> -some of the many books in which the information, necessary for their -solution can he found.</p> - -<p>The instructing officer will explain every morning, except Saturday, -as many of the examples as he considers the officers can work during the -remainder of the day, and the officers are expected to study these -subjects from some one of the books referred to.</p> - -<p>The object of these short explanations is twofold: 1st, to explain -the principles on which the particular cases or similar cases are to be -dealt with; 2d, to impart in a condensed form some of the varied -information which is familiar to all engineers of experience, but which -an engineer at the commencement of his career often has a difficulty in -finding.</p> - -<p>The officers will take notes of these explanations, and write each -morning notes at the head of the fair copy of the examples, to which -they refer. The examples explained on each day are to be worked out on -that day in the fullest manner; the reasoning of each step is to be -stated, and all rough calculations are to be left on the paper, so as to -lessen as much as possible the labor of examination. They are to be -brought to the instructing officer the following morning, and after -examination are to be written out fair on ruled foolscap, -quarter-margin, on the right-hand sheet, with explanatory diagrams to a -large scale, where necessary, on the left-hand sheet.</p> - -<p>The fair notes of each week’s work must be sent in before the end of -the following week.</p> - -<p>The weights, strength of materials, and other information, will be -found in the printed tables.</p> - -<p>This part of the course occupies about 40 days, and while it -continues leave will be granted on Saturdays and Sundays only.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part II.—Materials.</i></p> - -<p>The object of this part of the course is to give the officers some -sort of guide in judging of the quality of the principal materials which -they will have to use, as well as to afford them information as to the -particular material most suitable for a building or engineering -work.</p> - -<p>It may be subdivided into three parts, viz., lectures given by -professors in the lecture theatre; lectures given by the instructing -officer; and visits made by the officers to lime works, cement works, -brickfields, etc.</p> - -<p>The lectures in the lecture theatre are delivered at the periods most -convenient to the lecturer, but the notes taken by the officers form -part of this course, and will be bound up with the rest of the -papers.</p> - -<p>The notes of the lectures delivered by the instructing officer are to -be written out fair immediately after the lecture, in accordance with -the instructions given, and brought to, the instructing officer on the -following morning.</p> - -<p>A printed paper detailing the particular points to which officers -visiting manufacturing works are to direct their attention will be given -to each officer, and a report is to be sent in as soon as possible after -each visit to the instructing officer.</p> - -<p>Sketches to illustrate the lectures and visits are to be as numerous -and complete as possible.</p> - -<p>The value of these sketches for future reference, and as aids to -officers in their professional constructions hereafter, will be very -much enhanced by having the dimensions clearly written on them, which -should include at least those of all principal parts of machines and -structures.</p> - -<p>This part of the course occupies about three weeks, inclusive of the -time required to visit the works referred to.</p> - -<p>The officers will also be instructed, after they leave the course of -construction, in the method of testing the quality of some of the -materials by chemical analysis, for which a fortnight is allowed.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part III.—Valuation and Measurement of -Work.</i></p> - -<p>This part of the course will occupy in all about 37 days, and will -commence with a series of lectures, the subject matter of which will be -found chiefly in the printed “Notes on the Practice of Building” and -“Notes on the Building Trades.” They will comprise, in separate lectures -for each trade,—</p> - -<p>1. The materials, tools, etc., and apparatus employed, together with -their application to the different kinds of work produced.</p> - -<p>2. The technical terms in vogue.</p> - -<p>3. The general practice of measuring and valuing.</p> - -<p>Hints and memoranda useful in designing, estimating, and carrying out -works will be given, and explanations afforded by reference to models -and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page600" id="page600">600</a></span> -drawings, from some of which colored sketches, with the names and -dimensions of the different parts given on them in full, will be made by -each officer and attached to his printed notes. These sketches will be -done in the Hall of Study from the originals deposited there.</p> - -<p>A lecture will be given explaining the different steps taken in -preparing the annual estimates of a district, to be laid before -Parliament, and the various methods of carrying out the services which -may be authorized.</p> - -<p>The cost of a building will be approximately estimated by cubing it -out from the general plans and elevations.</p> - -<p>The quantities of the same building will then be taken out from the -specifications, working drawings, and a model, by filling in a -measurement form having the details of work done printed on it.</p> - -<p>Details and estimates of the same building will be made out on W.O. -Form 1554, the items and prices being taken from the W.D. Schedules of -the district, and the descriptive part printed on.</p> - -<p>Lastly, the quantities will be abstracted and brought into bill, as -though the work were to be put up to tender, or as would be done in -drawing out contractors’ bills for work to be paid for on a schedule of -prices.</p> - -<p>The portions of the copper plates to be colored will be partly done -in the course of lectures, but about a week at the close of this part of -the course will be allowed to complete the whole. They are to be colored -in the Hall of Study from pattern drawings deposited there. No drawing -whatever to be removed from the Hall of Study.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part IV.—Design.</i></p> - -<p>At the commencement of this part of the course each officer will read -through the “Notes on Military Buildings,” by Colonel Collinson, Royal -Engineers, studying more particularly the parts which have special -reference to his own design. The lithographed drawings which accompany -them are not intended to be models to be copied from, but are given as -examples of works executed, many of which with the advance of sanitary -science have become obsolete as a whole. They contain many useful -details still applicable.</p> - -<p>The design is intended to afford to each officer an opportunity of -applying the knowledge he may have acquired in the course to some case -which he may actually hereafter have to deal with.</p> - -<p>About six weeks are available for this part of the course, and the -conditions under which the design is to be made will be furnished to -each officer.</p> - -<p>As a rule the design will consist of a general plan and report, with -some part worked out in detail, this part being specified for and -estimated.</p> - -<p>The drawings are to be prepared in accordance with the instructions -deposited in the Hall of Study.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Tour Reports and Lectures.</i></p> - -<p>All tour reports and lectures pertaining to the course of -construction will be written in accordance with the general regulations -for reports, that is to say, on foolscap paper, quarter margin, on both -sides of the paper, divided into paragraphs, with headings in the -margin, and signed and dated by the officer. They will form part of Part -II. of the course, and will be bound in the proper places.</p> - -<p>In writing tour reports and lectures the object should be to condense -as much practical information and fact into as small a space as possible -without abbreviating the language or omitting any of the facts. Sketches -should be made by hand, approximately to scale, but should be clear, and -contain full dimensions. Statistical and tabular information should be -given in full.</p> - -<p>For the tour report each officer will receive a statement of the -particulars of each work he has to report on.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Binding.</i></p> - -<p>The whole of the notes, etc., of each officer will be bound in one or -more volumes. Therefore, before leaving the establishment, each officer -should arrange his notes in the order in which he wishes them bound.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">III.—FIELD WORK COURSE.</p> - -<p>The time allowed for this course is 122 days, including Sundays. -While on it officers may be required to attend drill one day in each -week, and also brigade field days.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page601" id="page601">601</a></span> -<p>The course comprises instruction in all those duties (with the -exceptions mentioned below) which devolve upon the Royal Engineers when -employed with an army engaged offensively or defensively, either at a -siege or in the field.</p> - -<p>The exceptions are surveying, reconnaissance, telegraphy, firing -mines by electricity, etc., torpedoes, and demolition of permanent -works; on all which subjects instruction is given to the officers while -on other courses.</p> - -<p>The officers are required to read carefully the notes on field work -instruction, to make models in sand, etc., of such works as admit of -this practice, to take part in the construction of the several works in -the field, etc., and to draw up projects on the subject.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the course an officer must be competent to impart -instruction to sappers in all their field duties.</p> - -<p>The practical instruction is divided into seven parts.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part I.—Modelling in Sand, etc.</i></p> - -<p>This part consists of making models of gabions, fascines, hurdles, -and sap-rollers; of throwing up models in sand of portions of a first -parallel and its approaches, of a second parallel, of single and double -saps, both kneeling and standing, of a trench cavalier, of a lodgment by -half double sap, of rifle-pits, and of trons-de-loup.</p> - -<p>Also of making models in sand of field powder magazines, and of -elevated, sunken, half sunken, and screen, gun and mortar batteries -(ordinary and indented), revetted with gabions, fascines, and sand -bags.</p> - -<p>It includes the laying of model gun and mortar platforms, the making -of a salient of a field redoubt, with gun en barbette, of a field -kitchen, and of the passage of a wet ditch by means of gabions and -fascines.</p> - -<p>Also the erection of spar bridges of different forms with model -spars, and the laying in of a cross-over road to connect two lines of -railway.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part II.—Siege Works.</i></p> - -<p>This part consists of making gabions, fascines, hurdles, and -sap-rollers; of tracing (part by night) parallels, approaches, -batteries, etc.</p> - -<p>Also of seeing parallels, approaches, batteries, saps, trench -cavaliers, etc., constructed by the sappers; and the mode of extending -men and setting them to work.</p> - -<p>The officers are also required to take up for enfilade the -prolongation of faces, etc.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part III—Works of Defence.</i></p> - -<p>This part consists of instruction in forming abattis, entanglements, -rifle pits, trons-de-loup, etc., and in putting up stockades, palisades, -fraises, etc.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part IV.—Mining.</i></p> - -<p>This part includes boring and blasting rock, sinking shafts, driving -galleries, making chambers and powder hose, loading, tamping, and firing -mines, also the preparation and firing of fougasses.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part V.—Bridging.</i></p> - -<p>This part includes knotting, splicing, and lashing spars, diving, -rowing in boats, packing pontoons, and forming temporary military -bridges over streams with large and small pontoons, casks, etc.</p> - -<p>Also the construction of spar, timber, and suspension bridges to -reëstablish a communication by turnpike road or railroad.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part VI.—Railways.</i></p> - -<p>This part consists in seeing the mode of laying down and repairing -lines of railway, and of putting in a cross-over road to connect two -lines of railway, and also the mode of destroying railways.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Part VII.—Sundry Practices.</i></p> - -<p>Under this head are included boring for water (with the American tube -wells as well as with the ordinary apparatus), erecting field kitchens, -filling and throwing hand grenades, and escalading, also the erection of -field observatories.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page602" id="page602">602</a></span> -<p>The officers are, in addition, required to draw up the following -projects:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Project of attack of a fortress actually in existence.</p> -<p>2. Project for the restoration of a bridge.</p> -<p>3. Project for a floating bridge.</p> -<p>4. Project for a field work as a bridge-head.</p> -<p>5. Hasty project for a temporary bridge, or hasty project for the -demolition of a portion of a line of railway.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead">IV.—MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>a.</i>) <i>Course of Telegraphy.—Fifteen -days are allowed for this course</i>.</p> - -<p>All officers under instruction learn the theory and practice of -telegraphy and visual signalling, bearing in mind that a thorough -knowledge of the theory will enable them to overcome difficulties which -would be perplexing to the men, who can only be expected to learn the -practical working of the telegraph.</p> - -<p>The various instruments in use for signalling and testing are -explained to them, and they are taught the ordinary methods of measuring -electrical forces and resistances, and of testing conducting wires for -insulation and conductivity, and for determining the nature and -positions of faults. The degree of accuracy which may be attained in -these measurements is pointed out to them.</p> - -<p>They learn the European Morse alphabet, and the method of sending and -receiving messages, but they are not expected to devote so much time to -the subject as would enable them to become expert telegraphists.</p> - -<p>Each officer is required to give in a project for the construction of -a line of electric telegraph, including at least three stations. In the -report are described the instruments to be used and the modes of -connecting them in circuit; the batteries, the conductors, the supports, -the insulators, and the mode of putting up the line; and the number of -cells required to work the line is calculated.</p> - -<p>An estimate of the stores and materials required accompanies the -report, with a general plan showing the route proposed.</p> - -<p>The various methods of exploding gunpowder by electricity are taught -while the course of telegraphy is going on; the application of this -branch of electrical science is made when the officers are employed on -projects for demolitions by mining.</p> - -<p>In the School of Telegraphy a certain number of the men of the corps -are trained every year as telegraphists.</p> - -<p>The instruments of which the use is taught are.—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The single needle instrument worked by voltaic electricity.</p> -<p>The Morse recording and sounding instrument.</p> -<p>The double needle instrument.</p> -<p>Wheatstone’s magneto dial instrument.</p> -<p>Also day and night signalling with the approved visual apparatus.</p> -</div> - -<p>Each man is required to read a specified number of words per minute, -and to send correctly by each instrument, before he passes on to the -next.</p> - -<p>The European Morse alphabet is used with all the instruments, except -with the double needle instrument, which has a special alphabet.</p> - -<p>The men are taught how to make up and repair the voltaic batteries -and instruments, and to put up conducting wires over ground, and to lay -them <ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘undergound’">underground</ins>, and also to test roughly for the -position of faults. Their previous education does not generally admit of -their acquiring a knowledge of the theory of electricity, or of -performing the more delicate tests required in telegraphy.</p> - -<p>The men who enter the Telegraph School are also instructed in the -practical manipulation of Grove’s voltaic batteries, Wheatstone’s -magnetic exploder, and the dynamo-electric machine, in the use of -frictional electricity, in making the electrical fuzes, and in -connecting and arranging the wires necessary for firing mines by -electricity.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>b.</i>) <i>Chemical Laboratory -Course.—Fifteen days are allowed for this course</i>.</p> - -<p>The object of this course is to enable officers and men at the -establishment, who may show an inclination for chemical studies, to -pursue them practically.</p> - -<p>The course is confined to the chemical relations and behavior of the -substances which affect the qualities of building materials, or which -may influence the questions which are most likely to require the -professional investigation of a military engineer. It is arranged with -the idea of supplying the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page603" id="page603">603</a></span> -want of practical experience in dealing with substances used in -construction, by giving an insight into their nature and composition; -and also with that of imparting such information as may lead in a new -colony, should an officer be called upon to act as its explorer and -pioneer, to a more rapid development of its resources.</p> - -<p>The course for the officers consists,—</p> - -<p>1st. In making themselves acquainted with the action of reagents, -both by wet methods and by the blow-pipe, on different simple -substances, in experiments to which they are directed by a -text-book.</p> - -<p>2d. In applying the information so gained to the qualitative -examination of substances, simple and compound, specially prepared as -exercises for analysis.</p> - -<p>3d. In the quantitative as well as qualitative examination of -building stones, lime and cement stones, gypsum, brick earths, paints, -solders, and other building materials. A sample of water is also -examined, and a qualitative examination is made of one or more ores.</p> - -<p>4th. In preparing, on an experimental scale, bricks, limes, cements, -and plasters, directly from natural stones or earths by simple -calcination, and also by the more complex method which it is often -necessary to adopt.</p> - -<p>5th. The chemistry of the voltaic battery.</p> - -<p>The course for the men only differs from that for the officers in -respect of the order in which the several divisions of the subject are -taken up. The men, instead of commencing with a thorough examination of -numerous simple substances, begin with a few easy experiments on -recognizing lime and cement stones, and on the mode of ascertaining -their comparative values, so that, in case it is judged inexpedient, in -any instance, that the whole course shall be completed, the knowledge -which has been gained may be of a character requiring comparatively -little skill and intelligence to apply to practical uses.</p> - -<p>A certain number of men only are taught.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>c.</i>) <i>Course of Photography.</i></p> - -<p>This study is not compulsory; but any officer and a limited number of -men who have completed the prescribed course satisfactorily, and who -wish to study photography, are allowed to do so.</p> - -<p>The officers devote their attention more particularly to the chemical -theory of the subject, in order that they may be able to overcome the -practical difficulties which constantly occur when this art is pursued -in foreign countries under circumstances of climate and situation -different from those in England, and when chemicals get out of order and -produce anomalous results. In such cases men who have acquired -considerable skill in manipulation, but who have no knowledge of -chemistry, are unable to devise remedies or to overcome difficulties, -and it is the place of their officers to assist them by their superior -knowledge and intelligence.</p> - -<p>The men are taught the negative wet collodion process in all its -branches (except the manufacture of pyroxyline), also the dry process, -and photozincography.</p> - -<p>They are also practised in the use of the dark tent, and in taking -negatives in the field, and of photographic reductions of plans.</p> - -<p>It is seldom that their previous education admits of their becoming -well versed in the chemical theory of the art, but the means of -overcoming the usual practical difficulties are pointed out to them. -Each man is required to enter in a note-book the various solutions, and -to make memoranda of the processes.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>d.</i>) <i>Lectures.</i></p> - -<p>Lectures are delivered between the months of September and April on -civil and mechanical engineering, metallurgy, architecture, electricity -and its applications, and on other subjects of a professional character. -The lectures are attended by all the officers and men under instruction, -and the former are required to take rough notes, and afterward to write -them out fairly, for binding with their other work.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>e.</i>) <i>Visits to Professional -Works.</i></p> - -<p>With the object of giving an idea of the best methods of carrying on -extensive works, and of imparting practical information on professional -subjects, a certain number of the junior officers are selected every -year to visit -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page604" id="page604">604</a></span> -engineering, architectural, and other works of professional character, -accompanied by one of the instructing officers of the establishment.</p> - -<p>Of the various constructions and processes seen during these tours -they make notes and drawings, which are embodied in the form of reports -to the director, and are subsequently bound up with the other parts of -the course.</p> - -<p><i>General Note.</i>—Further explanations of the mode of -filling up the details of the course, and of the forms for the notes and -drawings, are given in the special instructions.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>f.</i>) <i>Demolitions.</i></p> - -<p>The ignition of gunpowder or other explosives by powder hose and -Bickford’s fuze as well as by electricity, both on land and submerged -under water, is taught to all officers.</p> - -<p>In order that the best methods of using gunpowder or other explosives -for the demolition of works and buildings by mining may be thoroughly -understood, each officer is required to make projects for the following -demolitions, viz.:</p> - -<p>1. A front of fortification, or some similar work, exhibiting various -sorts of revetments, and requiring the simultaneous explosion of a large -number of mines.</p> - -<p>2. A casemate, powder magazine, or other substantial military -building under two suppositions: 1st, that there is plenty of time, that -sufficient men and tools are available, and that it is required to -effect complete demolition without wasting gunpowder unnecessarily; 2d, -that time presses, and that the demolition must be effected in the most -expeditious manner possible.</p> - -<p>3. A bridge or viaduct under two different suppositions, as in No. -2.</p> - -<p>The mines in some cases are directed to be tired by powder hose, and -in others by electricity.</p> - -<p>Each of these projects consists of a memoir and explanatory drawings. -The memoir comprises,—</p> - -<p>1st. A description of the building, or work to be destroyed, in all -points which may influence the mode of demolition.</p> - -<p>2d. A general description of the proposed mode of demolition.</p> - -<p>3d. The calculations for the charges of the mines.</p> - -<p>4th. The mode of preparing and firing the mines.</p> - -<p>5th. An estimate of the men, tools, and materials required and of the -time necessary for the operation.</p> - -<p>6th. An estimate of the gunpowder.</p> - -<p>7th. When electricity is to be employed for firing the mines, a full -description of the batteries, etc., is given, with calculations of the -number of cells, etc.</p> - -<p>The drawings include a plan and such sections as may be required to -explain clearly the situations of the various charges of gunpowder, and -of the shafts and galleries.</p> - -<p class="heading">(<i>g.</i>) <i>Submarine Mines.</i></p> - -<p>All officers and a certain number of men are practised in the use of -submarine mines.</p> - -<p>The course consists of,—</p> - -<p>1. The nature and construction of case.</p> - -<p>2. Mode of mooring.</p> - -<p>3. Mode of arranging and laying insulated cables.</p> - -<p>4. Mode of testing fuzes, also testing cables for conductivity and -insulation and for the detection of faults.</p> - -<p>5. Modes of firing at will and by self-acting arrangements.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page605" id="page605">605</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_officers" id="britain_officers" -href="#england">PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION FOR COMMISSIONED -OFFICERS</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_officers_historical" id="britain_officers_historical" href="#britain_officers">HISTORICAL -NOTICE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">Although</span> examinations preparatory to -promotion had been instituted by the Duke of Wellington in 1850, no -attempt was made to provide any general machinery for affording to -officers of the army means of instruction, even in those subjects a -knowledge of which was by the regulations of the service required of -them. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich, originally -instituted on a small scale in 1850, and the Royal Engineer -Establishment at Chatham, supplied to the officers of the scientific -corps, though to a much more limited extent than at the present day, -opportunities of carrying on their professional studies after entering -the army. But to officers of other branches of the service no means of -instruction were afforded in any subjects beyond the mere routine of -drill and regimental duties, except by the Senior Department at -Sandhurst and the School of Musketry at Hythe. The state of the former -institution, the advantages of which extended only to a very small -proportion of the officers of the army, is described in the accounts of -the Royal Military College and of the Staff College. The school at Hythe -was first established in the year 1853, for the purpose of training a -certain number of officers and soldiers in the new system of musketry, -which was adopted on the introduction of rifled arms into the -service.</p> - -<p>The first official suggestion, with the object of remedying the -deficiency of professional knowledge among the officers of the army, was -made by Mr. Sidney Herbert, when Secretary at War, in 1854. The outline -of the plan proposed by him at this time was sketched out in a letter -addressed to Lord Hardinge, then Commander-in-Chief, and its details -were subsequently more fully explained in speeches in the House of -Commons. The scheme contemplated a general reorganization of the system -of military education,—the improvement -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page606" id="page606">606</a></span> -of the examinations instituted by the Duke of Wellington for admission -to the army and for promotion,—the conversion of the Senior -Department at Sandhurst into a special school for the staff,—and -the introduction of a system of professional instruction for officers -after entering the service. With the view of carrying out the latter -part of the scheme, it was proposed, in 1854, to appoint garrison -instructors at certain large stations both at home and in the colonies. -It was not intended to make attendance at the instruction thus given -compulsory, but a stringent examination in the subjects which entered -into the course was to be a necessary condition of promotion to the -ranks of lieutenant and captain respectively.</p> - -<p>The scheme of garrison instruction proposed by Mr. Sidney Herbert met -with the approval of Lord Hardinge, and obtained the sanction of the -Treasury. A sum of 2,000<i>l.</i>, for the purpose of making a -commencement in carrying it out, was inserted in the estimates for -1854-5, and the plan, as explained by Mr. Herbert in moving the army -estimates, met with the entire approval of the House of Commons.</p> - -<p>The outbreak of the Crimean War, however, in the first instance, -interfered with the practical realization of the scheme, although it -appears that some of the instructors had been actually selected for -their posts, and that it was intended to send them out to the Crimea to -acquire a practical acquaintance with such of the minor operations of -war as would fall within the intended course of instruction. This latter -intention was not carried out, and after the resignation of Mr. Sidney -Herbert, which took place in the beginning of 1855, no further steps -appear to have been taken in the matter. At the same time money -continued to be voted for the purpose of carrying out the scheme -(although no application of the funds was made), until the general -reduction in the estimates which took place on the conclusion of peace -in 1856; it appears also, from statements made by the Under Secretary at -War, in the House of Commons, that the Government had never abandoned -the idea of adopting some measure for the professional instruction of -officers.</p> - -<p>In the debates in both Houses of Parliament, during the Crimean War, -numerous discussions took place on the subject of military education; -the failure of the existing examinations for promotion, the lax mode in -which they were carried out, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page607" id="page607">607</a></span> -the want of acquaintance with many of the mere rudiments of military -science displayed by the majority of officers, and the necessity of -supplying them with some means of instruction in the practical duties -devolving upon them on active service, formed frequent subjects of -remark. On the 5th of June, 1856, after the termination of the war, Mr. -Sidney Herbert, then a private member, again brought his proposal for -the appointment of garrison instructors before the notice of the House -of Commons, in connection with his more general scheme for the -improvement of the education of officers; but, although the proposal -again met with the approval of nearly every speaker who took part in the -discussion, the Government declined to pledge themselves to the adoption -of the scheme in its details, as the question of the reorganization of -the whole system of military education was then under consideration.</p> - -<p>During the latter part of the year 1856, as has been elsewhere -stated, the attention of the military authorities was seriously directed -to the question of improving the education of the army. Nearly all the -plans submitted to Lord Panmure with this object included, as an -essential feature, the adoption of some means of professional -instruction for officers after entering the service; and the machinery -suggested was, in almost every case, based in its general principles on -Mr. Sidney Herbert’s original proposal for the establishment of garrison -instructors. The Commissioners appointed in the same year to visit the -military schools of the continent, while their inquiries were chiefly -confined to the improvement of the education of the scientific corps, -recommended in their report that young officers of all branches of the -service should, after entering the army, go through some course of -professional study; at the same time they suggested no machinery for -carrying their recommendation into effect. The military witnesses -examined, during the years 1856 and 1857, before the Royal Commission on -the Purchase System, very generally concurred in the opinion that higher -professional acquirements should be demanded from officers, and that -means of instruction should be afforded to them; and the Commissioners, -in their Report, endorsed this view in the following terms: “Nor can it -be fairly said that the purchase system is the obstacle to introducing a -better system of military education. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page608" id="page608">608</a></span> -A stricter examination before granting the first commission, an improved -training afterward, and a further examination on promotion from ensign -to lieutenant, are measures perfectly compatible with the system of -purchase.”</p> - -<p>The system of garrison instruction suggested by Mr. Sidney Herbert -appears to have found general favor at this period. The instructions -issued to the Council of Military Education, on their appointment in -1857, directed them, in connection with the subject of the professional -examination of officers up to the rank of captain, to consider the -question “of the establishment of instructors at the large stations.” -The plan proposed by the Council, in 1857, did not contemplate the -general appointment of either garrison or regimental instructors; its -main feature was the establishment of officers’ schools at depot -battalion stations, through which all young officers, who were in the -first instance to receive provisional commissions, should pass before -joining their regiments and being permanently commissioned. This -recommendation was supplemented by one for the partial establishment of -district instructors at stations where classes of ten officers could be -formed, for the more advanced instruction of those who had been some -years in the service.</p> - -<p>The great demand for officers occasioned by the Indian mutiny, -combined with practical objections which were made to the Council’s -scheme, prevented their proposals from being carried into effect. The -only immediate result of their recommendations was the establishment, in -1857, of a class at Aldershot for the instruction of officers quartered -at the camp in military sketching. A full account of this -institution, which has since been considerably developed, and is now -called the Survey Class, will be found further on.</p> - -<p>At a subsequent period the attention of the Council appears to have -been directed more to the question of securing the professional -competence of officers by a special military education before entering -the service, than by compulsory instruction at a later period. The -proposal, originally made in 1858, for requiring all candidates for -commissions in the line to pass through Sandhurst, has been already -described in connection with the Royal Military College. The Council -have, however, never ceased to urge the expediency of providing -officers, after they have entered the service, with facilities for -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page609" id="page609">609</a></span> -instruction in the higher branches of military science; and in their -last General Report they recommended the establishment of institutions -similar to the Aldershot Survey Class at other large stations.</p> - -<p>Although no general machinery has been introduced for affording -instruction to officers of the cavalry and infantry after entering the -service, various steps have, from time to time, been taken with the -object of extending their professional knowledge to subjects beyond the -mere routine duties of their own arms. In January, 1859, commanding -officers were directed to require from the officers of their regiments -reports and, if possible, sketches of the roads traversed when route -marching in winter; and later in the same year an order was issued that -officers of infantry should, whenever practicable, be instructed in -great gun drill. In the present year a system of instruction in military -signalling has been introduced at the School of Engineering at Chatham, -to which detachments of officers are periodically sent. In addition to -the recommendations of the present Royal Commission for the introduction -of a system of garrison and regimental instruction, the Royal Commission -on Courts-martial, in their recent Report, recommended that more -attention should be paid to the education of officers in military law, -and that stricter examinations in the subject should be enforced.</p> - -<p>The necessity of an improvement in the professional acquirements of -officers appears to have been almost universally recognized from the -time when Mr. Sidney Herbert brought the subject to public notice in -1854. Various opinions, however, have been entertained as to the means -by which the desired object could best be effected.</p> - -<p>The different plans which have from time to time been suggested may -be classified under two main divisions:</p> - -<p>(1.) Those which propose a special military education for all -candidates for commissions before entering the service.</p> - -<p>(2.) Those which advocate, in preference, the postponement of -professional instruction, at least for the majority of the officers of -the army, until a later period, after the service has been entered, and -the rank of officer been attained.</p> - -<p>Under the former head comes the scheme suggested by the Council of -Military Education in 1858, the adoption of which was at one time -determined upon by the military authorities, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page610" id="page610">610</a></span> -for requiring all candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry -to pass through Sandhurst. A similar proposal was suggested by -witnesses to the Royal Commission on the Purchase System in 1856; it was -supported by the authority of the Duke of Cambridge and Mr. Sidney -Herbert (who had originally been opposed to it) before the Select -Committee of the House of Commons on Military Organization, in 1860; and -the Committee, in their Report, though declining to pronounce any -decided opinion on the subject, stated that they considered the measure -“well worthy of the most careful consideration.” Of late years the same -principle has been publicly advocated by Sir C. Trevelyan, who considers -that there should be but two modes of admission to the rank of -officer,—one through a military college, and the other by serving -in the ranks; and the advantages which would result from passing all -candidates for commissions through a military college have been urged by -several witnesses, including His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, -before the present Royal Commission. On the other hand, opponents of -this view have pointed out the objections entertained by them to any -such measure.</p> - -<p>Allied to the plan for making a military college the sole channel of -admission to the commissioned ranks of the army is one for requiring all -candidates for commissions to serve as cadets, in order to acquire a -practical acquaintance with their duties, before obtaining the rank of -officer. This proposal, originally suggested by Lord Clyde, before the -Royal Commission on the Purchase System, has more recently been -supported by the authority of Sir W. Mansfield and Lord De la Warr; the -latter officer, however, appears of late to have somewhat modified his -views, and to advocate at present, for all young men who obtain direct -commissions by purchase, a probationary course of six or twelve months’ -instruction in military subjects and drill, at their parents’ expense, -prior to joining their regiments, in accordance with a plan submitted to -the Commission. The cadet system has also been advocated by Lord Walden -before the Commission.</p> - -<p>To the class of plans which advocate the postponement of professional -instruction for the majority of the officers of the army until after the -service has been entered, belong Mr. Sidney Herbert’s original proposal, -in 1854, for the introduction of a system of garrison -instruction—the recommendation -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page611" id="page611">611</a></span> -of the Commissioners of 1856 “that young officers after entering the -army should go through some course of professional study,”—the -suggestion made by the Royal Commission on the Purchase System for “an -improved system of training after the first commission is -granted,”—and the proposal of the Council of Military Education, -in 1857, for the establishment of depot battalion schools for young -officers. Opinions founded on the same principle have been expressed by -several witnesses before the present Commission. The system of garrison -instructors at large stations, that of regimental instructors in each -corps, and, lastly, a combination of both systems, have been -respectively advocated by various authorities as the machinery by which -the later instruction of officers should be carried out. Even those who -advocate a special education at a military college as the universal -condition of obtaining a commission do not, in the majority of cases, -contemplate the cessation of all instruction on the commission being -obtained; at the same time in many instances they do not consider that -this later instruction should be made compulsory on officers, and, while -recommending that facilities should be afforded for it, they maintain -the superior efficacy of a system of preliminary military education at -an earlier age.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_officers_aldershot" id="britain_officers_aldershot" href="#britain_officers">I. SURVEY CLASS -AT ALDERSHOT.</a></h5> - -<p>The survey class at Aldershot originated in an order of the -Quartermaster-General in 1857, appointing two extra deputy-assistants to -afford professional instruction to officers of the division stationed -there in military sketching and surveying, field and permanent -fortification, and photography.</p> - -<p>These courses and conditions of attendance are as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. An elementary course comprises practical geometry, so far as is -necessary for the understanding of the principles of surveying and -fortification, plan drawing, the construction and use of scales, and -military sketching.</p> - -<p>The other course embraces surveying in its more advanced branches, -military reconnaissances and road reports, field fortification, -including the attack and defence of small posts, the construction of -simple intrenchments, redoubts, and field works, profiling and tracing -on the ground, gabion and fascine making, camping, and the construction -of field ovens and cook-houses.</p> - -<p>2. Officers will not be allowed to go through the course of -instruction unless their commanding officer will certify that they are -intelligent, zealous, and well conducted; but considering that the stay -of regiments at this camp is frequently limited, the Lieutenant-General -Commanding would wish that every facility should be given to officers to -avail themselves of the instruction, even though they may not be -thoroughly acquainted, with all their duties.</p> - -<p>3. Every officer wishing to attend the course of instruction will -submit his application to his commanding officer, who will forward it -with his recommendation and the certificate mentioned in the last -paragraph, or with such remarks as he may have to offer, should he -consider it his duty not to recommend the application.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page612" id="page612">612</a></span> -<p>4. Officers going through the elementary course will be struck off -all duty for two months (Sundays excepted). They will go on flying -columns.</p> - -<p>5. Officers anxious to attend the second course will be allowed to do -so for four months, during which time they will take all regimental -duties which would entail extra work on the other officers, but will be -excused all brigade and divisional duties, except those mentioned in -paragraph 7.</p> - -<p>6. Officers permitted to attend are not to absent themselves without -leave from the Lieutenant-General commanding.</p> - -<p>7. Officers are to be present at divisional field days, and when the -division marches into the country during the winter months, either with -the deputy assistants quartermaster-general sketching the ground, noting -the movements, preparing reports, etc. (in undress, without -swords), or if not so employed they are to fall in with their respective -corps.</p> - -<p>8. The number of officers attending is restricted to two per -regiment.</p> - -<p>9. The instruction will extend from 10 <span class="smallroman">A.M.</span> till 1 <span class="smallroman">P.M.</span>, -excepting on Saturdays, when all the officers will attend till 12 -only.</p> - -<p>10. Staff officers who may wish to avail themselves of the -instruction given at the Survey Office, or in the field, may attend at -such hours as the nature of the duties they have to perform will -admit.</p> - -<p>11. Officers of the division generally will be assisted by the -D.A.Q.M.G.s as far as practicable, in pursuing their studies in other -branches.</p> - -<p>12. A diary will be kept showing the names of all officers attending, -the hours of attendance, the work done, etc.; this diary is to be -submitted for the inspection of the Lieutenant-General commanding, and -from it a monthly report will be prepared for the information of the -Field Marshal.</p> - -<p>13. Officers will be allowed the use of surveying instruments but -will have to provide their own drawing and other materials. They will, -however, be permitted to retain all sketches, plans, and reports thus -made on their own materials, after they have been returned from the -Council.</p> -</div> - -<p>The course actually carried out in 1868-69 was as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Explanation, use, and construction of scales—several examples -worked and a plate of scales drawn—mode of using the usual drawing -instruments, protractors, and Marquois’ scales.</p> - -<p>Use of the prismatic compass—a road is traversed with the -compass—bearings and measurements entered in a field-book, and the -result plotted indoors on a large scale.</p> - -<p>A plate of the conventional signs used by the topographical -department, and a set of the seven examples of shading ground -(by the late Major Petley), according to the latest scale of shade, -are given to each officer to copy.</p> - -<p>The general principles of plan drawing, and the mode of conducting a -survey by means of measuring a base, and by a triangulation, are -explained, and a flat piece of ground is sketched with the compass, and -plotted in the field.</p> - -<p>The method of representing ground by contours only is now explained -and illustrated by models, drawings, etc., and it is shown how from a -contoured plan sections and elevations of ground are made, also how by -adding shade to the contoured plan, a certain pictorial effect is -produced, etc.</p> - -<p>Abney’s pocket level and clinometer is explained, and various modes -of rough levelling illustrated.</p> - -<p>The method of using the pocket sextant is next shown, and the -officers are taken to a plateau with strongly marked slopes, a base is -measured, triangulation made by means of the sextant; and the artificial -features filled in.</p> - -<p>Contours at 25 feet vertically apart are now sketched in chain dotted -lines, and several sectional lines taken by means of the level, -clinometer, compass, and a scale of hypothenuses, and the various angles -of inclination written on the sketch. The scale of shade is explained, -and the officers taught how to apply it to the sketch of ground so -contoured, and the sketch finished up as directed in the memorandum by -the Council of Military Education.</p> - -<p>Major-General Napier’s pamphlet on reconnaissance is given to each -officer, and four or five miles of road reconnoitred, sketched, and -reported on.</p> - -<p>A sketch on a small scale of as large a tract of country as time and -weather will permit of is next made, triangulation done with the sextant -or theodolite, and lastly, a rapid eye-sketch, without instruments, of -some hilly ground.</p> - -<p>Some work on field fortification, chiefly the chapters describing the -defence of buildings, villages, and positions, also some work on -surveying, is read.</p> - -<p>At the conclusion of each course all sketches and reports, with a -return showing the number of hours’ attendance of each officer, his -attention and progress, are forwarded to the Council of Military -Education.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page613" id="page613">613</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_officers_woolwich" id="britain_officers_woolwich" href="#britain_officers">ADVANCED CLASS -FOR ARTILLERY OFFICERS AT WOOLWICH.</a></h5> - -<p>The necessity of more advanced attainments both in the science and -practice of gunnery was pointed out by the Commissioners in 1856, but -nothing was done till Colonel Lefroy urged the matter on the Council of -Military Education in 1862, and in November, 1863, regulations were -issued for the establishment of Advanced Classes of Artillery Officers -at Woolwich.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>A Director of Artillery Studies was first appointed in 1850, upon the -recommendation of Field-Marshal Sir Hew Ross, G.C.B., R.A. (then -Adjutant-General of Artillery). His duties were to take charge of and -direct the studies of the young officers of artillery on first joining -at Woolwich, to assist them in their professional pursuits, and read -with them military law, military history, treatises on artillery, -fortification, etc.</p> - -<p>The appointment was made provisionally in the first instance, but -confirmed before the close of a year. In April, 1853, the department was -increased by the addition of French and German masters, who, besides -assisting the young officers, were called upon to afford instruction in -their respective languages to officers of artillery of all ranks who -might be desirous of profiting by it.</p> - -<p>An allowance of 300<i>l.</i> per annum was also made to enable a -proportion of the more intelligent of the young officers to accompany -the Director in visits to arsenals and fortresses abroad and -manufacturing districts at home.</p> - -<p>In July, 1855, the Director of Artillery Studies was allowed the -following assistants: 2 Captains of Artillery, 1 Instructor in -Surveying, 1 Instructor in Military Drawing, etc., 1 Lecturer on Natural -Philosophy and Mechanics, 3 Non-commissioned officers, for the purpose -of giving instruction to certain gentlemen provisionally commissioned -from public colleges or schools after a competitive examination, but -without passing through the Academy.</p> - -<p>The Director was expected to advise and assist the efforts of -officers of the Royal Artillery in improving their professional -qualifications, and to arrange classes of officers for instruction in -chemistry, photography, drawing, French, and German, at the Royal -Artillery Institution. He was to inform himself of all the more -interesting experiments under the Ordnance Select Committee, as well as -the operations and processes carried on in the Government manufacturing -departments. He was to arrange and conduct the annual military tour on -the continent; and direct the studies of young officers.</p> - -<p>Upon the formation of the Advanced Class in 1864, the staff was -greatly increased, and an Assistant Director appointed, to take charge -in the absence of the Director; to give instruction to classes of -officers of the regiment sent to Woolwich from time to time, to officers -from the Staff College, and to Militia and Volunteer artillery officers; -to prepare questions for the examination of subaltern officers Royal -Artillery for promotion, and report on the results of such examinations; -to attend on foreigners of distinction, and other duties performed by -the Director prior to the formation of the Advanced Class.</p> - -<p>The following shows the attendance for the year ending 31st March, -1869:</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Advanced class of artillery officers,</td> -<td class="number">6</td> -<td rowspan="10"> </td> -<td>2 years’ course.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Firemasters’ class, R.A.,</td> -<td class="number">7</td> -<td>9 months’ course.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket" rowspan="2"><p>3 short course -classes,</p></td> -<td class="text">Royal Artillery,</td> -<td class="number">29</td> -<td>2   “     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<!-- --> -<td><p>Military Store Staff,</p></td> -<td class="number">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Shoeburyness gunnery class, R.A.,</td> -<td class="number">20</td> -<td>3   “     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Officers of the late Indian brigades,</td> -<td class="number">3</td> -<td><p>1 for 3 months’ course; 2 for 2 months’ course.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Officers from the Staff College,</td> -<td class="number">13</td> -<td>1½ months’ course.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Militia artillery officers,</td> -<td class="number">6</td> -<td>2   “     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Volunteer artillery officers,</td> -<td class="number">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total" colspan="2">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">94</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="heading"><i>Non-commissioned Officers and Men, Royal -Artillery.</i></p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td><p>2 long course classes, non-commissioned officers,</p></td> -<td class="number">19</td> -<td rowspan="4"> </td> -<td>6 months’ course.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><p>10 short course classes, non-commissioned officers and -men,</p></td> -<td class="number">200</td> -<td>2   “     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><p>Shoeburyness gunnery class, non-commissioned officers.</p></td> -<td class="number">36</td> -<td>3   “     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">255</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The young officers lately joined attend here twice a week to receive -instruction, by lectures, from the Assistant Director of Artillery -Studies on military law, courts-martial, and interior economy.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page614" id="page614">614</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">REGULATIONS FOR ADMISSION IN 1869.</p> - -<p>The examination will be early in February of each year, at Woolwich, -under the Council of Military Education.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Candidates for this examination must have undergone a course of -instruction at Shoeburyness; or they must pass satisfactorily a -preliminary examination in practical artillery.</p> - -<p>No officer will be admitted who will not have completed six years’ -service on 31st March, 1870.</p> - -<p>The subjects in which the candidates will be examined, and the -relative importance attached to the subjects, are as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics,</td> -<td>700</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemistry and physics,</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><i>Mathematics</i> includes—</p> - -<p>Plane trigonometry (so much of it as is included in the first 16 -chapters of Todhunter’s treatise).</p> - -<p>Coördinate geometry of two dimensions (Hymer or Todhunter), viz.:</p> - -<p>Straight line referred to rectangular, oblique, and polar -coördinates. The circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola, referred to -rectangular and polar coördinates. The equation to the tangent, and the -normal to the circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola referred to -rectangular axes, the sections of a right cone made by a plane.</p> - -<p>Applications of the above to solutions of simple problems.</p> - -<p><i>Differential Calculus.</i>—Differential coefficient of -simple, inverse, trigonometrical, and complex functions; proof of -Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems and examples of expansions of -functions; differentiation of functions of two variables; limiting -values of functions which assume an indeterminate form; change of -independent variable; maxima and minima of functions of one variable; -tangents, normals, and asymptotes to plane curves; differential -coefficients of arcs, areas, etc.; radius of curvature (Hall or -Todhunter).</p> - -<p><i>Integral Calculus.</i>—Meaning of integration; examples of -simple integration; integration by parts; lengths of curves; areas of -plane curves (Hymer, Hall, or Todhunter).</p> - -<p><i>Elementary Mechanics.</i>—(Whewell or Parkinson.)</p> - -<p><i>Chemistry.</i>—The general laws of chemical -combinations,—the chemistry of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and -nitrogen, and of their chief inorganic compounds. The metallurgic -chemistry of iron. The chemical principles of the manufacture and -explosion of gunpowder.</p> - -<p><i>Physics.</i>—In heat,—the subject of “thermometric -heat” as treated in the first seven chapters of “Tyndall on Heat.”</p> - -<p>In electricity,—the subject of frictional electricity.</p> - -<p>Officers competing are expected to be able to read French scientific -works, such as Helie’s “Traité de Balistique,” Piobert’s “Cours -d’Artillerie,” etc., etc., reference being constantly made to such works -during the course of instruction.</p> - -<p>At the conclusion of each year’s course there will be a final -examination in the subjects read during the year; the marks gained at -the first examination being carried forward to the second, when -certificates will be given to those students who are found -qualified.</p> -</div> - -<p>The course of instruction extends over two years.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The subjects of study the first year are: Pure mathematics; -metallurgy; chemistry; mechanism and the steam engine; royal gun -factories; royal laboratory, Part I.</p> - -<p>The subjects for the second year are: Mixed mathematics and applied -to gunnery; metallurgy; chemistry; heat and electricity; royal -laboratory, Parts II., III., IV.; royal gunpowder factory, including -manufacture of gun cotton; royal small arms factories, Enfield and -Birmingham; royal carriage department.</p> - -<p>In connection with the instruction on metallurgy, the class visit -each year some of the principal private establishments in England and -Wales, accompanied by Dr. Percy, F.R.S., the lecturer on this subject. -They also visit locomotive and marine engine works in connection with -the lectures on the steam engine.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page615" id="page615">615</a></span> -<p>The following processes of manufacture are noted:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>In the Royal Gun Factories: Metallurgy of copper, tin, zinc, and -their compounds; mechanical and chemical properties of gun metal.</p> - -<p>Metallurgy of iron, including cast iron and wrought iron, steel and -alloys; mechanical and chemical properties.</p> - -<p>Principles of construction of cast guns.</p> - -<p>Principles of construction of built-up guns, welding, etc.</p> - -<p>The steam hammer.</p> - -<p>Turning, boring, rifling, and sighting guns. All the machines, -lathes, special tools, and processes.</p> - -<p>Comparison of systems of rifling and breech-loading for cannon.</p> - -<p>Gauges and micrometrical measurements.</p> - -<p>Organization of labor in the Royal Gun Factories.</p> - -<p>System of account keeping, pricing, and payment in the Royal Gun -Factories.</p> - -<p>Relations to the Director of Stores, Director of Contracts, Principal -Superintendent of Stores, and Director of Ordnance.</p> - -<p>Patterns, system respecting them.</p> - -<p>Examination of Stores.</p> - -<p>Duties of the Inspector of Artillery: proof of guns; examination of -guns and stores.</p> - -<p>The Small Arms Departments, Enfield and Pimlico, will follow the -Royal Gun Factories, and be treated in the same comprehensive manner, -including the system of supply of small arms to the army, their repair, -and comparison of systems of rifling and breech-loading for small -arms.</p> - -<p>From the Royal Gun Factories the class will proceed to the Royal -Carriage Department, where the subjects will be:</p> - -<p>Selection and purchase of timber.</p> - -<p>Seasoning of timber.</p> - -<p>Sawmills.</p> - -<p>Planing and other machinery applied to working of timber.</p> - -<p>Construction.</p> - -<p>Mechanical principles as applied in military machines.</p> - -<p>Friction, draught, traction, locomotive power.</p> - -<p>Harness.</p> - -<p>Organization of labor in the Royal Carriage Department.</p> - -<p>System of accountability and payment.</p> - -<p>Prices.</p> - -<p>Relations to Director of Stores, Director of Contracts, Principal -Superintendent of Stores, and Director of Ordnance.</p> - -<p>Patterns, systems respecting them.</p> - -<p>Examination of stores.</p> - -<p>Here will evidently conveniently come in the organization and duties -of the department of the Principal Superintendent of Stores, including -the detail of equipments for all services, and proportions of stores, -packing ammunition, arrangement of magazines.</p> - -<p>The last term will be devoted to the manufacture of gunpowder, -ammunition, and generally the duties of the Royal Laboratory, including -the chemistry of the subjects.</p> - -<p>Selection and purchase of pyrotechnic material.</p> - -<p>Examination and refining of saltpetre, etc.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder and powder-mills.</p> - -<p>Theory of gunpowder, qualities, effect of different sized grains.</p> - -<p>Electro-ballistic apparatus, and other modes of proof.</p> - -<p>Gun cotton.</p> - -<p>Detonating compounds.</p> - -<p>Other laboratory preparations.</p> - -<p>Small arm ammunition, cannon ammunition, fuzes, rockets, etc.</p> - -<p>Manufacture of bullets.</p> - -<p>Casting of every description of projectile for smooth-bored and -rifled ordnance.</p> - -<p>Organization of the Royal Laboratory Department.</p> - -<p>Supply of raw material.</p> - -<p>System of account keeping and payment.</p> - -<p>Prices.</p> - -<p>Relations to the Director of Stores, Director of Contracts, Principal -Superintendent of Stores, and Director of Ordnance.</p> - -<p>Patterns, inspection. Examination of stores.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page616" id="page616">616</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_officers_gunnery" id="britain_officers_gunnery" -href="#britain_officers">III. SCHOOL OF GUNNERY AT -SHOEBURYNESS.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">Shoeburyness</span> first became a station -for artillery practice in the year 1849. The practice was, however, at -that time confined to experiments, which were conducted on a very -limited scale, under the department of the Director-General of -Artillery. A battery was constructed and some wooden huts erected at the -station in that year; but for several years nothing but experimental -practice was carried on by batteries of artillery who were sent to -Shoeburyness merely for the summer months, and were quartered, at least -partially, under canvas. No permanent staff were employed, the senior -officer present with the troops being in command of the station. In 1854 -the establishment assumed a more permanent character, and was placed -under a lieutenant-colonel of artillery as commandant, who was also at -the same time superintendent of experiments. It still, however, -continued to be merely a station for artillery practice and experiments, -until 1859.</p> - -<p>The objects for which the School of Gunnery was established are to -ensure a completeness and uniformity in the instruction of the officers -and men of the Royal Artillery in the use of the weapons and military -machines they are called upon to use; impart to them a knowledge of the -ammunition, stores, and appliances made use of in the artillery service; -of the effect of shot and shell under various circumstances; and, by -constant practice from guns of every description, to train and educate -from year to year a number of officers and men who would carry with them -to their respective brigades an amount of valuable knowledge and -experience which would become in that way, and in due time, diffused -throughout the Royal Artillery, in the same manner as the gunnery -instruction for the Royal Navy on board the “Excellent,” and the -musketry instruction for the infantry at Hythe have percolated with such -advantage through those services.</p> - -<p>On the first of April in each year a class of from 20 to 25 officers -is formed for what is termed a “long course,” embracing a period of 12 -months; and a class of about 40 non-commissioned officers, for a similar -course.</p> - -<p>These classes are formed into two separate squads, and entirely -occupy the time of the chief instructor, one gunnery instructor, and -four assistant instructors. They are instructed -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page617" id="page617">617</a></span> -in the drills and exercises of every species of ordnance, and the mode -of mounting and dismounting them under various circumstances and with -different means; in transporting the heaviest guns from place to place -and mounting them under difficulties; in making rafts; embarking and -disembarking guns; making up ammunition; preparing demands for stores; -carrying on gun practice with shot, shell, etc.; making signals; -throwing up batteries as at a siege, and afterward testing their -efficiency by firing at them; attending lectures on artillery subjects -by the officers instructing the classes, and on subjects of a scientific -nature, and bearing upon the science of artillery, by professional -gentlemen engaged from time to time for the purpose.</p> - -<p>The non-commissioned officers attend these latter lectures, and also -receive from the schoolmaster, under the direction of the officer in -charge of the class (and with great advantage), instruction in -mathematics, and in mechanical drawing applicable to the course they are -being carried through.</p> - -<p>In addition to these “long courses,” as they are termed, another -class of 33 non-commissioned officers is sent every three months to go -through what is termed a “short course,” for the purpose of being -instructed in the various duties connected with the service, transport, -etc., of heavy guns.</p> - -<p>The result of this system is that an officer and two non-commissioned -officers highly qualified to instruct in all artillery duties and -exercises are sent annually to each brigade; also eight non-commissioned -officers well qualified to assist in the instruction of the -non-commissioned officers and men of their brigades in most duties -connected with heavy ordnance, and with enlarged views of artillery -subjects generally.</p> - -<p>Further instruction is imparted to the regiment by sending batteries -from Woolwich, Aldershot, and other contiguous stations, to carry on -their practice, and regimental duty. They take guards and fatigues, move -guns, and otherwise prepare for experiments, and each in its turn goes -through a short course of instruction. The officers and a proportion of -non-commissioned officers of these batteries are formed into a class -under one of the gunnery instructors and his two assistants, and when -they have gone through a preliminary course, one of the batteries, or -more if practicable, are taken off duty for a month, in order to go -through a systematic course, which, though short, is nevertheless highly -valuable.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page618" id="page618">618</a></span> -<p>The staff for government and instruction consists of:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Commandant and Superintendent of Experiments, Brigade major, Surgeon, -Adjutant, Quartermaster, Master gunner, Sergeant-major, -Quartermaster-sergeant.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>School of Gunnery.</i></p> - -<p> 1 chief instructor, a field officer</p> -<p> 4 gunnery instructors (including 1 at Woolwich), captains.</p> -<p> 1 first-class clerk.</p> -<p> 1 third-class clerk.</p> -<p> 6 first-class assistant instructors.</p> -<p> 1 army schoolmaster.</p> -<p>22 store, magazine, and lobbymen.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Experimental Establishment.</i></p> - -<p> 1 Assistant superintendent.</p> -<p> 1 second-class assistant superintendent.</p> -<p> 1 first-class clerk.</p> -<p> 3 laboratory sergeants.</p> -<p> 3 range sergeants.</p> -<p>15 storemen, etc.</p> - -<p>1 staff wheeler, 1 hospital sergeant, 1 photographer, 1 armorer, 2 -wheelers, 2 smiths.</p> - -<p class="break">Elementary exercises for the purpose of instructing -the squad in dealing with heavy weights without machines, showing the -best mode of applying power in moving guns, commencing with light and -progressing to guns of 23 tons; instruction concerning ropes, tackles, -knots, etc.</p> - -<p>Field, garrison, and siege gun drill with smooth bore and rifled guns -mounted on various carriages and platforms; drills with howitzers and -mortars; throwing up works of offence and defence, arming them and -laying platforms, making up ammunition, and arrangements for night -firing.</p> - -<p>Exercises with military machines; construction of sheers, derricks, -etc., and placing them in awkward places; construction of trestle and -other bridges for the purpose of passing heavy artillery across ditches, -etc., and of rafts for similar purposes.</p> - -<p>Embarkation of artillery and horses.</p> - -<p>Mounting, dismounting, and moving heavy guns without the aid of -machines.</p> - -<p>Practice from heavy and field guns, smooth bore and rifled, at known -and unknown distances, with full and reduced charges.</p> - -<p>Battalion drill and telegraphy.</p> - -<p>In the lecture room, instruction in the mechanical powers, in -gunnery, systems of rifling, action and penetration of the service -projectiles; construction, examination, and record of guns.</p> - -<p>Army administration as affecting artillery.</p> - -<p>Lectures on gunpowder, gun cotton, and fulminates; on metallurgy; on -the various modes of computing velocities and the instruments employed; -on electricity and steam; on strategy and tactics.</p> - -<p>Cordage, knotting, tackles, parbuckling, pinching, slewing, etc.</p> - -<p>Mounting and dismounting with and without gins.</p> - -<p>Drill and practice with 32-pr. and 8 seconds guns.</p> - -<p>Drill and practice with mortars on standing and travelling beds, also -mounting and dismounting.</p> - -<p>Drill practice with 40-pr. and 64-pr. guns, firing at moving target; -drill with 7 seconds B.L. guns; drill with 7 seconds, 9 seconds, and 12 -seconds M.L.R. guns and practice; dismounting and mounting the -above.</p> - -<p>Laying platforms, etc.</p> - -<p>Use of platform wagon.</p> - -<p>Light sheers.</p> - -<p>Rocket drill and practice.</p> - -<p>Facing B.L. guns.</p> - -<p>Practical examination, <ins class="correction" -title="text has , for .">etc.</ins></p> - -<p>Cordage, knotting, elementary exercises.</p> - -<p>Ordinary shifts and machine drill.</p> - -<p>Mortar drill and practice.</p> - -<p>12-pr. B.L. gun drill and practice.</p> - -<p>40-pr., 64-pr. and 7 seconds B.L. gun drill and practice.</p> - -<p>7 seconds and 9 seconds M.L. gun drill and practice.</p> - -<p>Dismounting 7 seconds and 9 seconds guns by gins and jacks.</p> - -<p>Parbuckling 7 seconds and 9 seconds guns and moving on sledges.</p> - -<p>Laying platforms.</p> - -<p>Rocket drill and practice.</p> - -<p>Sheers (heavy and light), derricks, etc.</p> - -<p>Facing vent pieces.</p> - -<p>Redrilling and examination of the non-commissioned officers.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page619" id="page619">619</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_staff" id="britain_staff" href="#england">STAFF COLLEGE AND STAFF APPOINTMENTS.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_staff_historical" id="britain_staff_historical" -href="#britain_staff">HISTORICAL NOTICE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Senior Department of the -Military College at Sandhurst was constituted in 1808, to enable -officers “to qualify themselves for the Quartermaster-General’s and -Adjutant-General’s departments;” and during the Peninsular war, most of -the officers in these branches of the service were educated there. So -high was its reputation, that the French Staff School was suggested and -modeled after it. From motives of economy, its independent government -and instruction was gradually reduced, and its graduates, no matter how -well qualified, were no longer sure of appointment and promotion, as -against purchase, until, in 1855, it became virtually extinct,—the -teaching force being reduced to two professors in mathematical studies, -and the number of students to six. In the same year, the French Staff -School, with its thirteen military and five civil professors, and its -range of instruction covering the entire field of practical duties which -belong to an efficient staff officer, was held up as a model. In the -plans and discussions respecting the reorganization and extension of the -educational system of the army, which followed the Crimean war—in -the Report (1855) of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on -Sandhurst; on the suggestions (1856) of the Commissioners on the -Training of officers for the Scientific Corps; the plan of Mr. Sidney -Herbert, as Secretary of War, in 1854 and 1856; in the instructions of -Lord Panmure, in 1856; in the resolution of the House of Commons, July -28, 1857; in the recommendation of the Royal Commission on the purchase -system, in their Report of 1857; in the plans of the Council of Military -Education, in the same year—the supreme necessity of a staff -college, with admission by competitive examination, and the assured -encouragement of appointment and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page620" id="page620">620</a></span> -promotion on ascertained proficiency and general fitness, was so clearly -demonstrated, that at the close (December 17) of 1857, the Senior -Department of Sandhurst was changed to that of a staff college, with a -corps of professors of its own. A separate building was completed for -its accommodation, in 1862; admission was open to officers of all -branches of the service by competitive examination. All appointments to -the Staff were limited to graduates of the College, who had been -attached, for specified periods, to each branch of the service, and to -officers of approved ability in the field.</p> - -<p>The present establishment consists of</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1 Commandant; 1 Adjutant; 2 Professors of Mathematics; 7 Professors -(1 in each) of Military history, Fortification and Artillery, -Military Topography, Military Administration, French, German, and -Hindustani; besides the services of the Riding-master, and the -Professors of Chemistry and Geology attached to the Cadet College of -Sandhurst.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead">CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION IN 1868.</p> - -<p>The college consists of thirty students. Fifteen vacancies will be -offered for competition annually. Only one officer at a time can belong -to the college from a battalion of infantry or a regiment of cavalry, -and only four officers from the Corps of Royal Artillery; but any number -can compete. The officer desiring to compete must be serving with his -regiment.</p> - -<p>The qualifications requisite for admission are:</p> - -<p>1. A service of not less than five years previous to examination, -exclusive of leave of absence.</p> - -<p>2. A certificate from his commanding officer, as to his standing as a -regimental officer, and his general knowledge of the service, character, -habits, and disposition in respect to employment on the staff.</p> - -<p>3. Certificate of having passed the examination for a troop or -company.</p> - -<p>4. Medical certificate of good health and fitness for the active -duties of the staff.</p> - -<p>The subjects of the admission examination, and the relative value of -each, in the final result, are</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Mathematics,</td> -<td>1,200 Marks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military History,</td> -<td>600</td> -<td class="bracket" rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="middle" rowspan="2"> 900   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Geography,</td> -<td>300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">French,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">German,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Hindustani,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Fortification,</td> -<td> 600   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Military Drawing,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Mineralogy and Geology,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3">Chemistry, Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism,</td> -<td> 300   “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page621" id="page621">621</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>In mathematics 400 marks are allotted to arithmetic, the first four -books of Euclid, and Algebra, including questions producing simple -equations; and of this number, at least 250 must be obtained for -qualification.</p> - -<p>Every candidate must take up either the French, German, or Hindustani -language for qualification; the qualifying minimum is, in French, 150 -marks; in German or Hindustani, 100 marks.</p> - -<p>The remaining subjects, as well as the higher portions of -mathematics, may be taken up or not at the option of the candidate, the -marks gained therein being reckoned in determining his position in the -list of competitors. No candidate, however, will be allowed to count -marks in any subject left optional unless he obtains at least one-sixth -of the number allotted to it.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead">COURSE OF STUDY.</p> - -<p>The course of study occupies two years, and the yearly course is -divided into two terms, viz., from February 1 to June 15, and July 15 to -December 15. The subjects are</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Mathematics.</p> - -<p>French, German, and Hindustani.</p> - -<p>Fortification and artillery.</p> - -<p>Topographical drawing, military surveying and sketching.</p> - -<p>Reconnaissance.</p> - -<p>Military art, military history and geography.</p> - -<p>Military administration, including the organization and equipment of -armies in the field.</p> - -<p>Military legislation.</p> - -<p>Elements of natural philosophy, chemistry, and geology, as applied to -the military sciences.</p> - -<p>Exercises in composition will be afforded to the students during the -whole course of instruction, in writing memoirs or essays on the -subjects of the course.</p> - -<p>Riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>During the whole course, monthly reports of the application and -progress of each student are forwarded for the information of the -Council of Military Education. Examinations are held at the end of every -half year; the summer examination being conducted by the professors of -the college, and the winter examination by examiners independent of the -establishment, under the superintendence of the Council.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">EXAMINATIONS.</p> - -<p>The examination at the termination of the first year is probationary, -and any student who fails to obtain the minimum aggregate of marks -specified below, is required to withdraw.</p> - -<p>The following five subjects will be taken up by every student at the -probationary examination, viz.:</p> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Maximum.</th> -<th>Minimum.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> I. Fortification,</td> -<td>280 Marks</td> -<td> 90 Marks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> II. Military drawing and surveying,</td> -<td>270   “</td> -<td> 90   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>III. Military history,</td> -<td>300   “</td> -<td>100   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>IV. Military administration and legislation,</td> -<td>300   “</td> -<td>100   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> V. French, German, or Hindustani,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>133   “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Every candidate is expected to obtain 800 marks on the above -subjects.</p> - -<p>All credits gained on the four military subjects are carried forward -to the final examination.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page622" id="page622">622</a></span> -<p>Of the following subjects the student may select any two, and in -those numbered from one to six, as well as in the language already -selected as “obligatory,” the student may, at his option, carry forward -to the final examination the marks he gains, provided they amount in -each case to three-fourths the allotted maximum, when he will be -considered as finally examined in that subject:</p> -</div> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td>1. Mathematics, lower course,</td> -<td>400 Marks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2. Mathematics, higher course,</td> -<td>500   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>3. French,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>4. German,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>5. Hindustani,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>6. Any other modern language,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>7. Natural sciences, lower course,</td> -<td>150   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>8. Experimental sciences, lower course,</td> -<td>150   “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>In those numbered seven and eight, the marks gained are carried -forward to the final examination.</p> - -<p>In addition to any two of the above subjects, the following may be -taken up at the probationary examination; and if 150 marks be gained in -it, they may, at the option of the student, be carried forward to the -final examination:</p> -</div> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td>Spherical trigonometry and practical astronomy,</td> -<td>200 Marks.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The following are the marks attached to each subject at the final -examination, including, in the maximum, the marks appropriated to the -probationary examinations:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Subjects to be taken up by every student:</p> -</div> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Maximum.</th> -<td rowspan="2"></td> -<th>Minimum.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification and artillery,</td> -<td>600 Marks</td> -<td>300 Marks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military drawing and surveying,</td> -<td>350   “</td> -<td class="bracket" rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="middle" rowspan="2">350   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Reconnaissance,</td> -<td>350   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military art, history, and geography,</td> -<td>600   “</td> -<td rowspan="3"></td> -<td>300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military administration and legislation,</td> -<td>500   “</td> -<td>300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French, German, or Hindustani,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>200   “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Every candidate will be required to obtain for qualification an -aggregate of 1,800 marks on the above five subjects.</p> - -<p>Of the following subjects, the student may select any two, and the -credits gained will count for position in the order of merit:</p> -</div> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Maximum.</th> -<th>Minimum.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics, lower course,</td> -<td>400 Marks</td> -<td>240 Marks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics, higher course,</td> -<td>500   “</td> -<td>300   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Hindustani,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Any other modern language,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Natural sciences.</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Experimental sciences,</td> -<td>400   “</td> -<td>240   “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>In addition to any two of the above-mentioned subjects, the following -may be taken up by any student who did not take it up at the first -year’s examination, or did not then obtain three-fourth marks in it:</p> -</div> - -<table class="marks"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>Maximum.</th> -<th>Minimum.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Spherical trigonometry and practical astronomy,</td> -<td>200 Marks</td> -<td>120 Marks.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>In the examination in modern languages, great stress will be laid on -original composition.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page623" id="page623">623</a></span> -<p>All officers recommended for staff appointments, who have not proved -their fitness in the field, must pass examinations before a board of -officers and by the Council.</p> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><i>a.—Aide-de-Camp.</i></p> - -<p><i>Regimental Duty.</i>—The candidate must be prepared in all -the subjects required in the examination for promotion to a troop or -company.</p> - -<p><i>Tactics and Field Movements.</i>—He will be expected to show -a competent knowledge of the tactics and field movements of that branch -of the Service to which he is destined to be attached as a staff -officer, and a general knowledge of those of the other two arms; the -examination will include the movements of a brigade, and will be based -on the regulation books.</p> - -<p>On being reported by the Adjutant-General to possess the necessary -professional qualifications, the candidate will be examined by the -Council in</p> - -<p><i>English Composition.</i>—The candidate’s proficiency in this -respect will be tested by his answers to the examination papers.</p> - -<p><i>Foreign Languages.</i>—He will be examined <i>vivâ voce</i> -by the examiner appointed under the Council of Military Education in -whatever language he may select and he will also write a short letter on -a given subject in that language.</p> - -<p><i>Military Sketching.</i>—He will be required to sketch at -least two square miles of ground selected by the Council. The sketch -need not be elaborately finished, but it must clearly and intelligibly -represent the features of ground, which must be determined by means of -the pocket sextant or prismatic compass.</p> - -<p><i>Field Fortification.</i>—He must show a knowledge of the -principles and construction of field works, and must explain the objects -to which they are respectively applicable, as well as the modes of -attacking and defending them.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>b.—Brigade Major.</i></p> - -<p>A certificate will be required from the commanding officer of the -regiment to which the candidate belongs, or has belonged, that he -possesses all the qualifications of a good adjutant. The examination for -brigade major will be especially directed to the points more immediately -connected with the duties attached to the appointment, as Military Law, -the “Queen’s Regulations and Orders of the Army,” the Royal Warrant for -Pay, Promotion<ins class="correction" -title="mismatched quotation mark in original">,”</ins> etc., and, in tactics, all that relates to -alignments, points of formation, distances, etc. The subjects of -examination are the same as in that for the appointment of aide-de-camp, -but the examination will be, throughout, of a higher order.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>c.—Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General, -Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General.</i></p> - -<p><i>Military Drawing and Sketching, Judgment of Ground, and its -Occupation by all Arms.</i>—The candidate will be required to make -a rapid sketch on horseback, with report, of about six square miles of -country; and to select a position which might be occupied by a given -force of the three arms, for some stated object, and to show how he -would dispose the troops for that purpose. He will afterward be required -to make a correct and more finished plan of the position selected, with -the disposition of the troops shown upon it.</p> - -<p><i>Practical Geometry and Trigonometry.</i>—The examination in -these subjects will be limited to determining heights and distances by -ground problems, and the ordinary trigonometrical calculations with the -aid of logarithms.</p> - -<p><i>Castrametation.</i>—The candidate will be expected to know -the mode of encampment for each arm of the Service.</p> - -<p><i>Permanent Fortification.</i>—The theory and construction of -permanent works, as exemplified in Vauban’s or any other system the -candidate may select, as well as the modes of attack and defence -applicable to them.</p> - -<p><i>Military History and Geography.</i>—The candidate will be -expected to give proof that he has carefully studied at least four of -the most memorable modern campaigns, of which the details are best -known, such as those of Marlborough, Frederick the Great, Napoleon, and -Wellington, and in these he must be able to explain the apparent objects -of the various movements and the reasons which he supposes led to their -adoption, and, further, to describe the military geography of the seat -of war.</p> - -<p><i>Foreign Languages and Professional Subjects.</i>—In -languages before the Council of Military Education, as well as in -professional subjects before the Board of Officers, the examination will -be of a higher order than those in (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>).</p> - -<p>The examination for Assistant Adjutant-General and Assistant -Quartermaster-General will, throughout, be of a higher order.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page624" id="page624">624</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_others" id="britain_others" -href="#england">MUSKETRY, AND OTHER ARMY SCHOOLS.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="britain_others_musketry" id="britain_others_musketry" -href="#britain_others">SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY AT HYTHE.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> first School of Musketry was -established in June, 1853, and was composed of detachments from -regiments in the neighborhood, viz.: a sergeant, a corporal, and eight -rank and file, from the first, second, and third battalion of the -Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards, Scots Fusileer Guards, Rifle -Brigade, etc., to the number of eleven sergeants, eleven corporals, and -eighty-eight rank and file. In 1855, a permanent corps of instructors of -musketry was organized, and in 1861 a second school was instituted at -Fleetwood, which was discontinued in 1867, as one establishment was -found sufficient for training an adequate number of officers of the -regular army, and a due proportion of officers and sergeants of militia -and the Rifle Volunteer Corps.</p> - -<p>In connection with the establishment at Hythe, district inspectors -are appointed to superintend the general system of musketry instruction -throughout the army, viz., three in Great Britain, two in Ireland, five -in the colonies, and ten in India.</p> - -<p>The instruction embraces not only the practical use of fire-arms, but -the details of construction, both of the weapon and ammunition, the -theory of projectiles, and the comparative value of different arms for -different services.</p> - -<p>The staff of the School of Musketry at Hythe consists of 1 Commandant -and Inspector-General of Musketry Instruction; 1 Deputy Assistant -Adjutant-General; 1 Chief Instructor; 2 Captain Instructors; 1 -Paymaster; 1 Quartermaster and Acting Adjutant; 1 Surgeon.</p> - -<p>In addition to the preparatory and professional schools for officers -of the British Army, already described, there are other public -institutions of a military character and for the military service, which -will be briefly noticed.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_others_surgeons" id="britain_others_surgeons" -href="#britain_others">ARMY SURGEONS.</a></h5> - -<p>In addition to the competitive examination of candidates for the post -of Assistant Surgeon, for which a medical degree is preliminary, the -successful candidates must spend four months at Netley, where the Army -Medical School is now located (since 1863), in connection with the Royal -Victoria Hospital (capable of receiving one thousand patients), where -large numbers of invalid patients of the army are treated. Here, with -every facility of study, observation, and practice, instruction is given -by four professors, each with an experienced assistant, in military -surgery, medicine, pathology, and hygiene, and all the specialities of -the military hospital and field practice, peculiarities of climate, etc. -After spending at least four months in the hospital, laboratory, museum, -and lecture-rooms, the candidate is then examined for his commission as -Assistant Surgeon.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_others_vet" id="britain_others_vet" href="#britain_others">VETERINARY SURGEON.</a></h5> - -<p>Although not exclusively for military service, all veterinary -surgeons in the army must hold the diploma of the Royal Veterinary -College in St. Pancras, London, or of the Veterinary School in -Edinburgh.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page625" id="page625">625</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_others_children" id="britain_others_children" -href="#britain_others">ARMY SCHOOLS FOR SOLDIERS AND SOLDIERS’ -CHILDREN.</a></h5> - -<p>In 1811, on the recommendation of the Duke of York, then -Commander-in-Chief, a royal warrant was issued, authorizing the -appointment of a sergeant-schoolmaster to each batallion for young -recruits and the children of soldiers, with provision for room, fuel, -and light in each regimental barrack, and allowance for necessary books -and stationery. In 1846, to give greater efficiency and uniformity to -the schools established under the warrant of 1811, a new warrant was -issued, requiring that the sergeant-schoolmaster should obtain a -certificate of fitness from the military training college at Chelsea, -and ordering the appointment of an inspector of army schools. In 1854, -the following classification of masters was introduced: <i>First -Class</i>, at 7<i>s.</i> a day and certain allowances; <i>Second -Class</i>, at 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per day; <i>Third Class</i>, at -4<i>s.</i> per day; and <i>Assistants</i> at 2<i>s.</i> The first-class -schoolmaster was a warrant officer, and ranked next to those holding a -commission; the second and third class ranked next to sergeant-major, -and the assistants ranked as sergeants. At this time the privileges of -the regimental schools were extended to the children of discharged -soldiers, pensioners, and various persons employed about the barracks. A -schoolmistress was also employed for the infant division of pupils, and -for teaching needle-work to the girls. In 1863, the office of -superintending schoolmaster, with a relative rank of ensign, was -created, and four (since increased to twelve) from among the most -experienced first-class masters, were appointed to inspect and examine -all army schools in their several military districts, and candidates for -pupil-teachers and schoolmistresses.</p> - -<p>According to the report of the Council of Military Education, for -March, 1870, there were two hundred and fifty-nine masters employed by -the army schools, and four hundred and eighty-five mistresses and -assistants in the children’s schools. In Great Britain there were three -hundred and eighteen schools, and thirty-five thousand three hundred and -seven non-commissioned officers and men on the books, nine thousand -three hundred and fifty-nine boys and girls, besides 11,414 children in -the infant schools.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_others_asylum" id="britain_others_asylum" href="#britain_others">ASYLUM FOR SOLDIERS’ ORPHANS.</a></h5> - -<p>Prior to the establishment of the Army Schools in 1811, two large -institutions for orphan children of soldiers who had fallen in battle or -serving at foreign stations, had been founded and maintained at the -public expense.</p> - -<p>The Royal Hibernian Institution at Dublin, Ireland, was commenced on -a sum appropriated by the Irish Parliament in 1765, and chartered in -1769. It has large buildings, with thirty-four acres of land, and -provides for four hundred and ten children on an annual parliamentary -grant of twelve thousand pounds for its maintenance, besides the income -from a small endowment.</p> - -<p>The Royal Military Asylum in Chelsea was begun by the Duke of York in -1801, and can now accommodate five hundred children on a public grant of -twelve thousand pounds, besides a further grant of three thousand pounds -for furniture and clothing from the Board of Works and the general vote -of the army.</p> - - -<h5><a name="britain_others_normal" id="britain_others_normal" href="#britain_others">NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS IN ARMY SCHOOLS.</a></h5> - -<p>In the Military Asylum at Chelsea, since 1846, there has existed a -Normal School, where teachers of army schools may review their studies, -or candidates for vacancies, or pupil teachers, may qualify themselves -by study, observation, and practice, for appointment as schoolmasters, -and when found qualified they receive certificates of the first, second, -and third class, and are paid accordingly.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page626" id="page626">626</a></span> -<h5><a name="britain_others_music" id="britain_others_music" href="#britain_others">MILITARY SCHOOL OF MUSIC AT KNELLER HALL.</a></h5> - -<p>In the British Army the cost of maintaining the regimental bands -falls upon the officers. In the infantry a sergeant, a corporal and -nineteen privates are taken from the effective strength of each regiment -to form a band. These receive their ordinary regimental pay,—the -rest of the pay, and the entire salary of the band-master, if a -civilian, together with the cost of the music and musical instruments, -are provided out of the Band Fund, which is raised by “stoppages” from -the officers on first appointment, and promotion, and by subscription. -This fund is managed by a committee of officers. Owing to difficulties -in retaining the men, and of finding band-masters with all the requisite -qualifications, the Commander-in-Chief (Duke of Cambridge) established a -Military School of Music in 1856, in concert with the Secretary of War, -which was opened in Kneller Hall for the reception of pupils in March, -1857. The institution must be viewed (1) as a barrack, and (2) as a -school of music. (1). As a barrack it is under the direction of the -Secretary of War, and is managed as any other barrack. (2). As a school -it is under the immediate direction of a military officer (who is -appointed by the Commander-in-Chief), and a musical staff composed of -nine permanent professors, four occasional professors, and a varying -number of special assistants who are selected from the first-class -students. There is also a schoolmaster who gives instruction one hour a -day in general knowledge to each class, and a military chaplain. The -instruments taught in Soprano (8); Alto (3); Tenor (3); Bass (6). The -students are divided into four classes, each of which is divided into -sections according to the instruments to be learned. Seven hours a day -are devoted to obligatory study—but more are given, and a -restriction prohibits all practice after 6.45 in the evening.</p> - -<p>This course of study occupies two years, and there is a higher which -comprises, beside practical instruction in playing and teaching the -instruments composing the band, some general acquirements under the -theory of harmony. There is also practical training in the duties of a -conductor. In addition to ordinary military music, classical concert -pieces, or chamber music, specially arranged for wind instruments, are -performed. Cheap admissions to the operas and principal concerts of the -metropolis are obtained (900 in one year), to such of the advanced -students as are recommended for diligence by the professors.</p> - -<p>Pupils are selected from the various regiments, and often selected -for this special purpose. Boys specially trained for the bands are -obtained from the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, the Hibernian Military -School, Dublin, and the Metropolitan Poor-law School. Each candidate -must be examined by the surgeon of the regiment, and certified to as in -good health and with no tendencies to disease liable to be aggravated by -playing on a band instrument.</p> - -<p>A military band-master is now sanctioned by the Government for any -regiment and battalion throughout the service, who receive regimental -pay of first-class staff sergeant, and 100<i>l.</i> from the Regimental -Band Fund.</p> - -<p>The expenses of Kneller Hall as a barrack are borne by the -government; as a school of music, by the regimental -officers—including an original assessment of 5<i>l.</i> for supply -of instruments, and the salaries to about 1,100<i>l.</i> annually.</p> - -<p>The average number of students annually admitted is 74; the average -number in attendance, 148. The total number admitted since 1857 is 592, -of whom 163 were practiced musicians, 63 band-masters, 271 band-men.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page627" id="page627">627</a></span> -<h3><a name="britain_naval" id="britain_naval" href="#england">III. NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND.</a></h3> -<!-- VIII in TOC --> - -<h4 class="smallcaps">Preliminary Remarks.</h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">Before</span> describing a class of schools -in England, which is now receiving special attention and aid from the -Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, -viz. <span class="smallcaps">Navigation Schools</span>, we will glance -at the condition of Nautical Education generally in this great maritime -and commercial country.</p> - -<p>The old system of training officers for the Royal Navy, under which -mere children with the smallest possible amount of elementary knowledge, -made the ship their school, even after a Naval Academy was established, -had its peculiar advantages as well as its drawbacks. The captain, -having the nomination of an almost indefinite number of “youngsters,” -stood towards them in <i>loco parentis</i>. He was their governor, -guardian, and instructor, and did not “spare the rod” when he thought -its application necessary. The captain was then looked up to with a -feeling bordering on awe. Without assigning a reason he could disrate or -discharge a midshipman; and he could also do much towards pushing him on -in the service. The youngster felt that he was entirely in the power of -his captain, and, unless of a reckless cast, used his best endeavors to -gain his favor. The captain, on the other hand, talked of <i>his</i> -youngsters with pride. He, (if he belonged to the better class of -naval captains,) took care that every facility should be afforded them -for learning their duty, often made them his companions on shore, and -superintended their education afloat, sometimes taking a leading part in -their teaching. He felt responsible for their bringing up, for some were -sons of personal friends or relatives whom he had promised to watch over -the youthful aspirants, and all were more or less objects of interest to -him. But all this was swept away in 1844, and the captain’s patronage -limited to one nomination on commissioning a ship, the Admiralty taking -the rest of the patronage into their own keeping. And what was the -result? No sooner had the Admiralty absorbed the naval -patronage—for the captain was frequently shorn of his one -nomination before leaving Whitehall with his commission—than old -officers and private gentlemen in middling circumstances found -themselves unsuccessful applicants, while the influential country -gentleman totally unconnected with the service, but able perhaps to turn -the scale of an election, was not under the painful necessity of asking -twice for a naval cadetship for his son, or the son of his friend. But -what cared the captain for these Admiralty nominees? Too many of them -were incapable of profiting by -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page628" id="page628">628</a></span> -their opportunities, and others neglected to avail themselves of the -instructions of the professors of mathematics, and became the victims of -dissipation.</p> - - -<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="britain_naval_officer" id="britain_naval_officer" href="#britain_naval">I. Naval -Officers.</a></h4> - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_academy" id="britain_naval_academy" href="#britain_naval_officer"><i>Royal Naval -Academy.</i></a></p> - -<p>The first attempt to educate lads for the naval service of England -was in 1729, when the Royal Naval Academy was instituted in Portsmouth -Dockyard. The course of instruction included the elements of a general -education, as well as mathematics, navigation, drawing, fortification, -gunnery, and small arm exercises, together with the French language, the -principles of ship-building and practical seamanship in all its -branches, for which latter a small vessel was set apart. The number was -limited to forty cadets, the sons of the nobility and gentry, and -attendance was voluntary. Small as the corps was, it was never full, -probably because there was an easier way of gaining admission to the -service through official favoritism, by appointment direct to some ship, -on board of which during a six years’ midshipman’s berth, he acquired a -small stock of navigation and a larger knowledge of seamanship and -gunnery practice. In these ships where the captains were educated men, -and took a special interest in the midshipmen, and competent instructors -were provided and sustained in their authority and rank, this system of -ship instruction and training worked well, as under the same conditions -it did with us. In 1773 a new stimulus was given to the Academy by -extending a gratuitous education to fifteen boys out of the forty, who -were sons of commissioned officers. In 1806, under the increased demand -for well educated officers, the whole number of cadets was increased to -seventy, of whom forty were the sons of officers and were educated at -the expense of the government. From this date to 1837 the institution -was designated the Royal Naval College, but without any essential -extension of its studies. In 1816 a Central School of Mathematics and -Naval Architecture was added to the establishment, and in 1828 the free -list was discontinued, and the sons of military officers were allowed to -share the privileges of the school with the sons of naval officers, at a -reduced rate in proportion to their rank. To keep up the number of -students who would go through the four years course, it became necessary -to extend special privileges, such as made promotion certain and rapid -over those who entered the navy direct. This produced inconveniences and -jealousies, and in 1837 the Naval College was discontinued.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_training" id="britain_naval_training" href="#britain_naval_officer"><i>Training -Ship and Naval College.</i></a></p> - -<p>In 1857 the Admiralty adopted the plan of a Training Ship for naval -cadets. The candidate was to be from thirteen to fifteen years of age, -and to pass an examination in Latin or French, Geography, Arithmetic, -including Proportion and Fractions, Algebra, to Simple Equations, the -First Book of Euclid, and the Elements of Plane Trigonometry. At the end -of twelve or six months, according to age, spent in study and practice -on the Training Ship, the cadet was examined in the studies before -enumerated -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page629" id="page629">629</a></span> -with the addition of Involution and Evolution, Simple Equations, the -Elements of Geometry, and of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, the -simple rules of Navigation, the use of Nautical Instruments, Surveying, -Constructing Charts, and the French language, besides an elaborate -course of Seamanship, and attendance on lectures on Chemistry, Physics, -Hydrostatics, &c. If this examination was satisfactory, the cadet -was appointed to a sea-going ship, and at the expiration of fifteen -months’ service he was eligible for the rating of midshipman upon -passing a further examination. The course in the Training Ship (first -the “Illustrious,” and subsequently changed to the “Britannia,” first in -Portsmouth harbor and more recently at Dartmouth,) proved too extensive -for mastery in one year; and in 1861 the conditions for admission were -lowered, the examinations in the school were made quarterly, and -competitive, and if passed creditably at the end of a year, according to -a fixed standard, (3,000 being the number of marks attainable, and 2,100 -giving a first class certificate,) the cadet is rated at once as -midshipman, and credited a year’s sea-time. If he receives a second -class certificate (1,500 marks,) he must serve six months at sea, and -pass another examination before he can be rated midshipman. The cadet -with a third-rate certificate (1,200 marks,) must serve twelve months at -sea, and pass another examination for his midshipman’s rating. Prizes -and badges are also given, and the stimulus of competitive examination -is applied as shown in the grading of certificates.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_gunnery" id="britain_naval_gunnery" href="#britain_naval_officer"><i>Gunnery -Instruction.</i></a></p> - -<p>In 1832 a uniform and comprehensive system of gunnery instruction was -provided on the “Excellent,” under command of Captain (now Sir Thomas) -Hastings. To give such officers who were found deficient in the -scientific knowledge requisite for a full understanding of the theory of -gunnery, the Naval College was re-opened in 1839, under the general -superintendence of the Captain of the Excellent, with Professors of -Mathematics, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, Steam Machinery, -Chemistry and Marine Artillery. Accommodations were provided for -twenty-five half-pay officers, (captains, commanders, and lieutenants,) -and a certain number of mates on full pay, for whom a special course of -study was instituted. The time allowed at the College was a clear year’s -study, exclusive of vacations, and those who have completed the course -rank among the most distinguished officers of the profession.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_steam" id="britain_naval_steam" href="#britain_naval_officer"><i>Instruction in -Steam and the Steam-Engine.</i></a></p> - -<p>When steam vessels came into use in the Navy, to qualify officers for -special service in them they were encouraged to resort to Woolwich -Dockyard, and afterward to the Portsmouth yard, where an instructor was -appointed and facilities for observation, study, and experiments were -provided. Many officers repaired to private factories, and worked at the -lathe, in stoke-hole and the engine-room, and thus acquired a practical -knowledge of this department of their profession. When the Naval College -was established -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page630" id="page630">630</a></span> -on its present footing, a small steamer, the “Bee,” was built and -attached under the charge of the instructor in steam-machinery. And now -the greater part of the captains and commanders on the active list have -obtained certificates of having passed the course in Steam and the -Steam-engine.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><i>Admiralty Order respecting Naval Cadets and -Midshipmen, dated April 1, 1860.</i></p> - -<p class="heading smallcaps">Cadets.</p> - -<p>“I. No person will be nominated to a Cadetship in the Royal Navy who -shall be under 12, or above 14 years of age, at the time of his first -examination.</p> - -<p>“II. Every candidate, on obtaining a nomination, will be required to -pass an examination at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth, within -three months of nomination.<a class="tag" name="tag8_3" id="tag8_3" href="#note8_3">3</a> In the special cases of nomination -granted to the sons of natives of the colonies a candidate will be -allowed to pass a preliminary examination on board the flag or senior -Officer’s ship on the Station. But such an examination must be passed in -strict accordance with these regulations, and should the candidate be -found qualified, it will still be necessary that he should be sent to -England, to be entered on board a training ship, where he will be -subject to the same regulations as other Cadets.</p> - -<p>“III. The candidate must produce a certificate of birth, or a -declaration thereof made before a magistrate.</p> - -<p>“IV. Must be in good health and fit for the Service—that is -free from impediment of speech, defect of speech, rupture, or other -physical inefficiency.</p> - -<p>“Candidates will be required—1. To write English correctly from -dictation, and in a legible hand. 2. To read, translate, and parse -an easy passage from Latin, or from some foreign living -language—the aid of a dictionary will be allowed for these -translations.</p> - -<p>“And to have a satisfactory knowledge of—3. The leading facts -of Scripture and English history. 4. Modern geography, in so far as -relates to a knowledge of the principal countries, capitals, mountains -and rivers. To be able to point out the position of a place on a map, -when its latitude and longitude are given. 5. Arithmetic, including -proportion, and a fair knowledge of vulgar and decimal fractions. -6. A knowledge of the definitions and axioms of the First Book -of Euclid.</p> - -<p>“As drawing will prove a most useful qualification for Naval -Officers, it is recommended that candidates for the Service should be -instructed therein.</p> - -<p>“V. Candidates will be allowed a second trial at the next quarterly -examination. Should he not pass this second examination he will be -finally rejected.</p> - -<p>“VI. If the candidate succeeds in passing the required examination he -will be at once appointed to a training ship, for the purpose of -instruction in the subjects contained in Sheet No. 1,<a class="tag" -name="tag8_4" id="tag8_4" href="#note8_4">4</a> as well as in the -rigging of ships, seamanship, the use of nautical instruments, -&c.</p> - -<p>“VII. Quarterly examinations will be held on board the training ship, -when any candidate may be examined in the subjects contained in Sheet -No. 1, and also, in the course of instruction, in the rigging of ships, -seamanship, &c.</p> - -<p>“VIII. If a candidate be found at the quarterly examinations, not to -have made sufficient progress, or if, by indifferent conduct or idle -habits on board the training ship, he shall show his unfitness for the -Service; it will be the duty of the Captain to make a special report -thereof to the Admiralty, in order that the Cadet may be at once removed -from the Navy.</p> - -<p>“IX. When the candidate shall have completed twelve months’ -instruction, exclusive of vacations, in the harbor training ship, he -will be examined, and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page631" id="page631">631</a></span> -should he obtain a certificate of proficiency, he will be discharged -into the sea-going training ship. A first-class certificate will -entitle him to count twelve months’ sea time; a second-class, will -entitle him to count six months’ sea time; a third-class, will entitle -him to count six months’ sea time. But should he not obtain a -certificate, he will be discharged as unfit for the Service.</p> - -<p>“X. On leaving the harbor training ship, it is intended that the -Cadet shall pass three months in a sea-going training ship, for -practical instruction in seamanship and navigation, which period will -count for sea time, and at the end of this period, if his conduct has -been satisfactory, he will be appointed to a ship with the rating of a -Midshipman.</p> - - -<p class="heading smallcaps"><a name="britain_naval_midshipmen" id="britain_naval_midshipmen" href="#britain_naval_officer">Midshipmen.</a></p> - -<p>“To qualify a Midshipman for a Lieutenant’s Commission he must have -attained the full age of 19 years, and have completed 5½ years’ actual -service in Her Majesty’s Navy, including the time awarded to him on -leaving the training ship.</p> - -<p>“XI. All Midshipmen, until they have passed their examinations for -Lieutenants, are to keep a book in which the ship’s reckoning is to be -worked out and noted; at sea, this book is to be sent in every day to -the Captain, instead of the slip of paper containing a day’s work. It is -also to be produced at their examinations; and during the last six -months of their service as Midshipmen, it must contain the working of -the observations.</p> - -<p>“XII. A Midshipman when he shall have served two years and a half in -that rank will be required to pass the following -examination:—1. In practical navigation, showing that he -understands the principle of navigating a ship from one distant port to -another, by dead reckoning and by his own observations; and that he can -explain the principles of the same; and that he can also take and work a -double altitude and azimuth. 2. A sufficient knowledge of a -chart to enable him to place thereon the position of the ship by -observation as well as by cross bearings; and to lay off the true and -compass courses. 3. Such knowledge of nautical surveying as may -enable him to measure a base line and determine positions by angles, and -the manner of ascertaining heights and distances. 4. If he has -served in a steam vessel, an acquaintance with the different parts and -working of the steam engine. 5. A proficiency in French to be -attained if he has had an opportunity. 6. He must be a good -practical observer, and his sextant must be produced in good order. -7. He must produce log-books kept by himself from the time of his -entering into a sea-going ship, and certificates of good conduct.</p> - -<p>“8. He will likewise be examined as to his progress in the knowledge -of rigging masts, bowsprits, &c. He must also know the great gun and -small arm exercise, the use of tangent sights, the charges for the guns -of the ship, and be able to exercise the men at his quarters. -A report of the progress he has made in each of the above subjects -is to be made to the Secretary of the Admiralty in the half-yearly -return.</p> - -<p>“This examination is to be conducted by the Officer in command, not -below the rank of Commander, and the next senior Officer in the ship, -and the examinations in navigation in the presence of a Captain or -Commander, by two Naval Instructors, when it may be practicable, or by a -Naval Instructor and a Master, or, where there is no Naval Instructor, -by two Masters; that in gunnery, by a gunner, or other competent -Officer; and the candidate is to be made to take and work out his own -observations for latitude, longitude, variation, &c., as the case -may be. First or second class certificates are to be given according to -the merit of the candidate, in the form A, page 8, or he is to be -rejected if found incompetent.</p> - -<p>“XIII. A Midshipman, having completed his term of service, and being -19 years of age, may be provisionally examined by the Captain or -Commander of such ship or vessel with the aid of other competent -Officers, Lieutenant, Master, or second Master, when no other ships are -present; and if they find him to be duly qualified they are to give him -a certificate to that effect, dated on the day of such examination, and -the Captain may forthwith give him an acting order as Mate; but he must -be re-examined, on the first opportunity that shall afterwards offer, by -three Captains or Commanders, and if he passes successfully he -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page632" id="page632">632</a></span> -will receive from the Commander-in-Chief, or senior Officer, an acting -order as Mate, to take rank according to the first certificate.</p> - -<p>“The examining Officers are to be most strict in their investigation -of the qualifications of Officers, and they are to see that everything -required by these Regulations has been complied with by the candidates, -and that he produces certificates of good conduct from Captains he has -served under from the time of his discharge from the training ship.</p> - -<p>“XIV. All Acting Mates and Midshipmen will be required to undergo the -following final examinations,—1. In Seamanship—On board -the training ship at Portsmouth. 2. In Gunnery—On board the -<i>Excellent</i>. 3. In Navigation and the Steam Engine—At -the Royal Naval College.</p> - -<p>“Acting Mates, who have already passed abroad, are to present -themselves for examination, on board the training ship at Portsmouth, at -the first examination day after their arrival in England, or after being -paid off, and having passed in gunnery they are then at liberty to -select either the first, second, or third examination day at the Royal -Naval College.</p> - -<p>“XV. Any Officer rejected on his first examination at the College -will incur the forfeiture of three months’ seniority in his rank as -Mate. He may present himself on the next examination day, but a second -rejection will incur the forfeiture of three months’ more seniority; he -may again present himself on the next examination day, but a third -rejection will cause his name to be removed from the list of the -Navy.</p> - -<p>“XVI. Officers, when they have passed their final examination at the -Royal Naval College, as provided for in these Regulations, will be -confirmed from the date of their first certificate. The non-appearance -of an Officer for examination at the Royal Naval College at the times -required by these Regulations will be considered as an acknowledgment of -his not being qualified, and he will be dealt with in the same manner as -if he had been actually rejected, on each day on which he may have -omitted to appear, unless under certified ill-health, to be duly -reported at the time.</p> - -<p>“XVII. Naval Instructors are to keep a school journal, or register, -which is to be produced when required by the Captain of the ship or the -examining Officers, and the Captain is to allow them reasonable access -to the charts and chronometers, for the purpose of instructing the -Officers in their use.</p> - -<p>“XVIII. The Captains of Her Majesty’s ships are to take care that a -convenient place is set apart and proper hours are fixed for instruction -by the Naval Instructor; and all Acting Mates and Acting Second Masters, -as well as all executive Officers under that rank, are to attend; and -care is also to be taken that they are regularly instructed in practical -seamanship, rigging, and the steam-engine, and a monthly examination day -is to be established.</p> -</div> - -<p>The subject of Education for Officers has been recently under -discussion in Parliament, and some modifications of the existing system -is now under the consideration of the Admiralty, looking to greater -maturity of age and preparation for admission, a more extended and -thorough course of scientific training in cadets, and continued -opportunities of study with accompanying examinations for officers up to -the grade of commanders.</p> - - -<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="britain_naval_artillery" id="britain_naval_artillery" href="#britain_naval">II. The Royal Marine -Artillery</a>.</h4> - -<p>In 1804 an artillery company was attached to each of the three -divisions of the Royal Marine Corps, to supply the service of the -bomb-vessels, and in time of peace, to drill the whole of the marines in -gunnery. But they were soon made available for other purposes, and on -the outbreak of the American war in 1812, a large body of the Marine -Artillery, with a field battery and rocket equipment, accompanied the -battalions of marines then formed for service in America. In 1817 this -force was augmented to eight companies, and Sir Howard Douglass, while -advocating the establishment -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page633" id="page633">633</a></span> -of “Naval Depots of Instruction,” for the purpose of converting officers -and men of the Royal Navy into efficient gunners, complimented the -Marine Artillery as being “either a corps of good infantry, of -scientific bombardiers, or expert field artillery men, well constituted, -thoroughly instructed, and ably commanded.” It was not until June, 1830, -that an Admiralty order directed that a school of gunnery should be -established at Portsmouth, on board the “Excellent,” and with the -intention of making this school the one means of instruction in this -department, it was farther ordered, in December, 1831, that the Marine -Artillery, as a distinct and separate corps, should be broken up, -retaining two companies as a nucleus of a larger force, should such -become necessary. And the necessity appeared; for the experience of a -few years proved that it would be impossible for the school to effect, -to any important extent, the results which were desired. In 1841, -therefore, a third company of the artillery was ordered; in 1845, two -more; and by subsequent additions, its strength was raised in 1859, to -sixteen companies, with a total of 3,000 officers and men, who were -formed into a separate division with its head quarters at Fort -Cumberland.</p> - -<p>The officers of the Marine Artillery were at first appointed from the -marine corps, without any particular qualifications being required, but -afterwards their appointments were made probationary and conditional -upon the satisfactory completion of a prescribed mathematical course. In -1839 it was decided that a certain number of second lieutenants should -be allowed to prepare themselves for examination on board the Excellent, -and upon the re-opening of the Royal Naval College as an educational -establishment for mates, it was arranged that the students for the -artillery should be transferred to it, and that their success or -failure, after a years’ further study, should decide upon their -appointment to the artillery. Another and final modification took place -upon the introduction of preliminary examinations for the marines, and -the subsequent formation of a cadet establishment on board the -Excellent. In case of vacancies in the artillery, those who had passed -the best examinations upon first entering the corps, were selected for -the College, and no officers were allowed to become candidates on any -other terms, their final success depending as before, upon the progress -they might make as students at the College.</p> - -<p>The cadets have their periods of study limited to two years; it may -be less, but can not be more. They have to acquire a competent knowledge -in Arithmetic, Algebra, Euclid, including the first four books and part -of the sixth, Plane Trigonometry, the use of the Sextant, Fortification, -English History, and French. To this may be added a practical course of -Naval Gunnery. Their studies are carried on under the direction of a -mathematical instructor, and an instructor of fortification. -A French master attends twice a week. If on obtaining his -commission, the young marine officer is selected to qualify for the -artillery at College, he must be prepared at the end of a year to pass -an examination in Analytical Trigonometry, Differential and Integral -Calculus, Conic Sections, Statics and Dynamics, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page634" id="page634">634</a></span> -Hydrostatics, and “Steam,” besides being required to have an increased -knowledge of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Fortification. In a year little -more than a superficial knowledge of these studies can possibly be -attained, yet insufficient as this period clearly is, it has sometimes -been the case that, when a large number of subalterns were required for -the artillery, young officers have been appointed who have completed -only half their term at College. Having thus gained his appointment to -the artillery, his remaining in it depends upon there being a vacancy or -not at the time when his seniority on the general list of the corps -advances him to each successive grade of rank.</p> - -<p>The men are volunteers from the light infantry divisions, possessing -certain specified qualifications as to age, height, intelligence and -character.</p> - -<p>The course of training, which is with a few exceptions, common to -both officers and men, is very comprehensive; it includes—</p> - -<p>1. The usual infantry drills and musketry instruction.</p> - -<p>2. The exercise of field guns and rockets, with such field battery -movements as are of real practical importance.</p> - -<p>3. The service of heavy ordnance, including guns, howitzers, and sea -and land service mortars.</p> - -<p>4. The naval great gun exercise.</p> - -<p>5. Mounting and dismounting ordnance, with or without machines.</p> - -<p>6. The various methods of slinging and transporting ordnance.</p> - -<p>7. Knotting, splicing, and fitting gun gear, use of pulleys, -&c.</p> - -<p>8. A laboratory course, including:—use and preparation of -tubes, rockets, and fuzes; making up cartridges; manufacture of port -fires, Valenciennes stars, signal rockets, blue lights, &c., with -instruction in the manufacture and effects of gunpowder and other -explosive compounds.</p> - -<p>9. A course of practical gunnery, comprising—instruction in the -nature and uses of the various kinds of guns, howitzers, and mortars; in -the natures, employment, and effects of the various projectiles; -disparting and sighting ordnance; heating and firing red-hot shot; and -such matters connected with the theory of projectiles as may have a -practical application.</p> - -<p>10. Practice from different natures of ordnance, with every -description of projectile.</p> - -<p>The system of instruction is so arranged that every officer and -noncommissioned officer is qualified, as far as practicable, as an -instructor, a registry being kept of each man’s progress and -capabilities. A spirit of emulation has been created, attended with -the happiest results, and the whole course is now gone through in less -than twelve months, without the men being wearied or overworked.</p> - - -<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="britain_naval_warrant" id="britain_naval_warrant" href="#britain_naval">III. Schools for Warrant -Officers, Seamen, and Boys.</a></h4> - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_schoolmaster" id="britain_naval_schoolmaster" href="#britain_naval_warrant">1. -<i>Seamen’s Schoolmasters.</i></a></p> - -<p>Schoolmasters for seamen are allowed on all ships having a complement -of not less than three hundred men, and an allowance of £5 per annum is -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page635" id="page635">635</a></span> -granted, in addition to the pay of any rating he may hold, to a -qualified person doing this duty of the captain’s orders, in ships not -having a seamen’s schoolmaster. An allowance is made for books, slates, -&c. to all ships having schools. The success of the school to the -boys and the men depends mainly on the interest shown in it by the -captain and second officer in command, and especially on the character -of the schoolmaster employed. The situation is too often filled by an -old quartermaster, or sergeant of marines, who obtains the berth as a -kind of retirement, or by some person who has a fancy for sea life, but -who is fit for nothing on shore, much less for teaching under the -difficulties of a ship at sea. It is found that when the schoolmaster is -qualified for this special service, and is entered for continuous -service, and being placed in regard to pay, pension, and good conduct -badges on an equality with other chief petty officers, and when a log or -register of attendance is kept, and frequent reports are made to -superior authority, the result is highly conducive to discipline, and to -the elevation of the seamen’s habits and character. One of the -Commissioners recently appointed to examine into the state of popular -education among every class of British subjects, speaking of the effect -of this class of schools upon the men on board the ships, says: “After -visiting the “Cambridge,” at Plymouth, as I walked with the captain -through the lower deck, I found many, both boys and men, reading -books with the greatest attention. In the evening of the same day, on -the lower deck of the “Agincourt,” I found the same scene, while -others were engaged in draughts, chess, or writing letters to their -friends.” With the present scale of punishment on board of men of war, -the school is an indispensable element of discipline. The Commissioners -referred to, in their report to the Queen, recommend that schoolmasters -of higher qualification be appointed, with an increase of pay, and -promotion by merit, when their schools are reported favorably upon by -any authorized inspectors, and with the same retiring pension as -master-at-arms, and that in addition to an elementary general education, -a knowledge of navigation, physical geography, and natural history be -required of candidates.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_harbor" id="britain_naval_harbor" href="#britain_naval_warrant">2. <i>Schools on -board of Ships in Harbor.</i></a></p> - -<p>A second class of naval schools consists of Harbor Ships, into which -boys entered for admission to the Navy, are received until they are -drafted into the various sea-going ships. Four of these ships, the -“Victory” and “Excellent,” at Portsmouth, the “Impregnable” and -“Cambridge,” at Plymouth, are specially devoted to instruction. Boys -remain in these ships for one year. The first part of this period is -generally spent on board the ship, the latter part in the practising -brig, in which during the summer months they are out at sea for five -days during the week. There is a school under a seamen’s schoolmaster on -board of each of these ships. The Commissioners report that the school -time is necessarily subject to great interruptions, but that much -valuable instruction might be given with better organization and -methods. They recommend that an educational -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page636" id="page636">636</a></span> -test for admission to these training ships be introduced, which would at -once have a good effect upon the general education of the people -resident in the seaport towns, and elevate the intelligence, morality -and manners of the seamen.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_marine" id="britain_naval_marine" href="#britain_naval_warrant">3. <i>Royal -Marine Schools.</i></a></p> - -<p>There are four schools attached to the divisions of marines quartered -in barracks respectively at Woolwich, Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth, -and another to the division of marine artillery quartered at Portsmouth. -These five schools are attended by the marines and their children. The -attendance of the men is for the most part voluntary, with the exception -of the non-commissioned officers, who are obliged to attend the school -until they have passed a prescribed examination. In the marine artillery -every man is required to read and write, and if deficient in these -respects, he is obliged to attend the school until his requirements are -reported to be satisfactory. The Commissioners recommend that a better -class of schoolmasters be specially trained and employed, and that they -receive better rank and pay, and more efficient assistance in the -discharge of their duties, and that trained mistresses be employed as -assistants in the boys’ schools, and have the exclusive charge of the -girls’ schools, in all of which sewing should be taught and practised -daily.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_dockyard" id="britain_naval_dockyard" href="#britain_naval_warrant">4. <i>Dock-yard -Schools.</i></a></p> - -<p>There are seven dock-yard schools, held in the respective dock-yards -of Deptford, Woolwich, Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Devenport, and -Pembroke. They were founded in 1840, and are designed for the -instruction of the apprentices employed in these establishments. The -masters of them were originally foremen of the yard, men of good -attainments, who had for the most part received their education in the -School of Naval Architecture; but in 1847 a special class of -schoolmasters was established, ranking as foremen of the yard. The -object of these schools is to advance the education of the young men, -since none are admitted as apprentices to become shipwrights until they -have passed an examination.</p> - -<p>Examinations for admission as apprentices to the dock-yards are held -half-yearly, and about one-half are given to the lads who pass the best -examinations, and the other half to nominees of the superintendent. -These latter, however, are required to come up to a prescribed -intellectual standard. The examinations are held under the Civil Service -Commissioners, in the following subjects:—1. Dictation -exercises to test Hand-writing and Orthography. 2. Reading. -3. Arithmetic. 4. Grammar. 5. English Composition. -6. Geography. 7. Mathematics, (Euclid, first three books, -Algebra including Quadratic Equations, Arithmetical and Geometrical -Progression.) The master shipwright and the schoolmaster are of opinion -that the boys entered by competition are the best, and among the working -shipwrights themselves the opinion is unanimous that the system of -entering at least one-half by competition ought not to be done away. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page637" id="page637">637</a></span> -The effect in inducing parents to keep their children at school in order -to fit their sons for examination is very manifest, and the justice of -promotion by personal merit is felt and acknowledged by all.</p> - -<p>For the first three years all the apprentices are compelled to -attend, while those in the fourth year may volunteer to attend with -others if they show an aptitude for study, and a disposition to profit -by the opportunities afforded them. The fifth-year apprentices may -attend after the hours of labor. So long as admission to the Central -School of Mathematics and Naval Construction at Portsmouth, and an -immediate appointment and regular advancement to the higher offices in -the yard, after leaving the latter establishment, stimulated young men -to the acquisition of knowledge, the attendance for the fourth year was -numerous and regular. But the abolition of the School of Mathematics, -and with it the consequent promotion of its graduates, operated very -unfavorably both on attendance and habits of private study.</p> - -<p>In 1859 the Admiralty adopted a supplementary course of study for -such apprentices as have been diligent in their work, exemplary in -conduct, and made satisfactory progress in acquiring a knowledge of -their trade. This course, extending over two years for three hours a -day, embraces Descriptive Geometry, Elementary Mechanics, and -Hydrostatics, Logarithms, Calculations of displacement, Stability of -ships, &c., Plane Trigonometry, Differential Calculus, with -Analytical Geometry, Advanced Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Dynamics. -This class of apprentices perform the duty ordinarily devolved on mould -loft apprentices, under the superintendence of the draughtsmen in the -mould loft. Scholarships of twenty pounds per annum are granted to such -members of the class as show superior ability, attainments, and good -conduct.</p> - -<p>In the year 1859 there were 1,060 pupils in the five Dock-yard -Schools, viz.: 461 apprentices, and 599 factory boys, the latter -attending mainly in the evening.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners pronounce these schools valuable institutions, both -to the state and to the individuals, and they have demonstrated, -according to the testimony of one of the master shipwrights, that the -educated boy makes the superior workman, and the most moral and -temperate man. They recommend that a better class of teachers be -employed, and that their pay should be increased by half the amount of -the scholarship accorded to the most proficient pupils of the advanced -class, and that the intellectual part of the examinations for promotion -should be conducted by the Civil Service Commissioners. To make this -class of schools what they should be, much must be done to improve the -education of the laboring classes, outside of the dock-yards.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_hospital" id="britain_naval_hospital" href="#britain_naval_warrant">5. <i>Greenwich -Hospital Schools.</i></a></p> - -<p>The Greenwich Hospital School for 200 pupils, the orphans and sons of -disabled seamen, and known as the Upper School, was founded in 1715. In -1805 the Royal Naval Asylum (founded in 1798,) consisting of 600 boys -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page638" id="page638">638</a></span> -and 200 girls, was removed to Greenwich, and in 1821, was united to the -former, and was designated the Lower School, making in that year (1821) -a total of 1,000 children. In 1828, the number of boys in the Lower -School was reduced to 400, and the Upper to 600, one-third of the latter -being the sons of commissioned and ward-room officers. In 1841, the -girls’ school was abolished, leaving 400 in the Upper, and 400 in the -Lower School.</p> - -<p>The schools are supported partly by the income of a special endowment -(£136,000,) and partly by the general funds of the Hospital. The total -expenditure for the two schools in 1859 was £20,234, for an average -attendance of 774 boys.</p> - -<p>Boys are admitted to the Lower School solely upon the claims of their -fathers’ services. Until quite recently admissions to the Upper School -were by patronage, but by recent regulations all exclusive privileges of -nomination have been discontinued, and all claims for admission into the -school (the distinction of Upper and Lower School having been done -away,) are decided by a Committee of Selection, according to a scale -laid down. The 110 boys found to be best in the last examination of -1860, were constituted the Nautical School, admission to which is now -gained by competitive examination among the other boys of the school. -The instruction of this school (for a Nautical School had always -existed, composed of the two first classes of the Upper School,) is -confined to Mathematics and Navigation, and qualifies its recipients to -rise in their profession as masters’ assistants in the Royal Navy, and -as midshipmen and apprentices in the merchant service. A system of -pupil teachers, selected on account of aptitude for teaching, and a -willingness to adopt the profession of schoolmaster as their career in -life, has been recently introduced.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners referred to, recommend that a Normal School for the -Navy be established at Greenwich, similar to that for the Army at -Chelsea, that the present pupil-teachers who are above the age of -eighteen form the nucleus of this school, and that others to the number -of ten at first, be admitted after examination; that the course of their -education be adapted to their future calling, and that at the close of -their career they be examined, and receive a certificate of -qualification. These teachers thus educated and trained, would be fitted -to take charge of the Navigation Schools, under the Board of Trade; -would enter the Dock-yard Schools, as assistants at first, and they -would be appointed to masterships on board the Training Ships, both in -the royal and commercial ports.</p> - -<p>They also recommend that boys from the second class in the Ship -Schools be selected to serve as pupil-teachers under the schoolmasters, -and that a small allowance be made them, in addition to their pay, if -they pass a satisfactory examination at the end of the year, and their -conduct is reported to be satisfactory, and at the end of three years -they be admitted, if found competent, to the Normal School at Greenwich, -or that they be entered for continuous service as assistant -schoolmasters, with rank and pay and pension of first class petty -officers. At the end of two years -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page639" id="page639">639</a></span> -this last class of assistants, if found competent, will be admitted to -the practising school at Greenwich, for six months at the least, during -which residence they will devote their time to the art of teaching, and -to the study of Navigation, Physical Geography, and Natural History. On -the completion of their training they will go out as Royal Navy -Schoolmasters, and will be divided into three classes, viz.: 3d class, -who shall have the rank and pay of chief petty officers, (continuous -service,) and shall be entitled to the same pension. 2d class, who shall -rank above master-at-arms, and shall receive the same pay and pension. -1st class, shall rank with third class warrant officers, with same pay -and pension, and after long and approved service, masters of this class -shall be eligible for further promotion to rank and pay of second and -first class warrant officers. Schoolmasters in each of these classes -shall be entitled to £10 per annum in addition to their pay, if they are -recommended by the captain and chaplain, and their schools are certified -to be in an efficient state when examined.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_mercantile" id="britain_naval_mercantile" href="#britain_naval">NAVIGATION -SCHOOLS.</a></p> - -<p>In 1853 the English Government constituted the Department of Science -and Art, to extend a system of encouragement to local institutions of -Practical Science, similar to that commenced a few years before in the -Department of Practical Art, the two Departments being united in the -course of the same year, and the united Department being administered at -first by the Board of Trade, and in 1856, by the Education Department. -To this Department of Science and Art, was assigned in 1853 the general -management of a class of schools which had been instituted or aided by -the Mercantile Marine Department of the Board of Trade, for the benefit -of the navigation interests of the country. Instruction in navigation -was given in the seaports by private teachers, without system, and to a -very small number of those who should be well grounded in the principles -of the art before being entrusted with the responsibilities of command, -involving the lives and property of others. To introduce system, to give -permanent employment to a larger number of well-qualified teachers of -navigation, to elevate and improve the attainments and character of -British masters, mates and seamen, and indirectly but largely increase -the supply for the Royal Navy in time of war, the Government had -determined to encourage local effort in establishing Nautical Schools. -With this view the Marine Department of the Board of Trade had -established two schools prior to 1853, one in London, and the other in -Liverpool; and an arrangement had been made with the Admiralty, by which -it was believed five or six pupil-teachers, who had completed their term -of instruction at the Royal Naval School at Greenwich, would be able to -attend the scientific courses in the Metropolitan Schools of Science and -Art, and be instructed in those sciences which would better fit them to -become masters of schools of navigation in the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page640" id="page640">640</a></span> -seaport towns. In 1854, the Trinity House<a class="tag" name="tag8_5" id="tag8_5" href="#note8_5">5</a> of Hull reorganized its -old school of navigation, after the plan of the Royal Naval School at -Greenwich, with two divisions, the lower for a class of boys who need -elementary instruction, and the upper, for boys in the technical studies -of a seafaring life. With the latter was opened an evening school for -adult seamen. Similar schools, with a junior or lower division to revise -and complete the general and preparatory studies, and a senior or upper -school for special scientific and practical instruction in navigation -and seamanship, were established at Yarmouth, Leith, Glasgow, Aberdeen, -Belfast, Dublin, Waterford, and other ports, fifteen in all up to 1862, -giving instruction to over 3,000 persons, and all of them enlisting -local co-operation and individual payment with governmental aid. As an -example of this class of schools we cite a brief description of one of -the earliest established, from a Report of the Inspector, Edward Hughes, -one of the masters of the Greenwich Hospital Schools.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><a name="britain_naval_london" id="britain_naval_london" href="#britain_naval_mercantile"><i>London -Navigation School.</i></a></p> - -<p><i>The London Navigation School</i> is held on the upper floor of the -Sailors’ Home Institution, situated in Well Street, London Dock, and -consists of two separate apartments, occupied by the Upper and Lower -sections.</p> - -<p>The upper section is for the instruction of masters and mates of the -merchant service in the following subjects, viz.:</p> - -<p>Sextant Observing. Chart Drawing. Geometry. Algebra. Trigonometry. -The Sailings. Use of the Nautical Almanac and Mathematical Tables. -Principle and Construction of Chronometers. Methods of determining the -Latitude and Longitude. Nautical Surveying. Compasses and Magnetism of -Ships. Theory of Winds, Tides, and Currents. Methods of taking and -recording Meteorological Observations. Principle and Construction of the -Steam Engine as applied to the Paddle Wheel and Screw Propeller.</p> - -<p>The Lower section is for the education of seamen and apprentices. The -course embraces the following subjects:—</p> - -<p>Reading. Writing. Dictation and Letter Writing. Arithmetic. -Geography. The Sailings. Sextant Observing. Method of Keeping Ships’ -Books.</p> - -<p>The hours of attendance are from 9 to 12 a.m., 2 to 4 p.m., and 6 to -9 p.m. on the first five days of the working week, and from 9 to 12 a.m. -on Saturdays.</p> - -<p>The fees are six shillings per week for masters and mates, sixpence -for seamen, and apprentices are admitted free.</p> - -<p>The instruction of both sections is conducted by teachers who have -been educated and trained in the Greenwich Hospital Schools, and who -hold certificates of competency for teaching Navigation and Nautical -Astronomy, from Mr. Riddle, the Head Master of the Nautical School.</p> - -<p>As regards the students who at present attend the school, it is -manifest that the masters and mates taught in the senior section come -for the express purpose of learning to solve certain problems in -Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, required for passing the examination -of the Local Marine Board, and they are unwilling to devote any portion -of their time to the other subjects that enter into the course of -instruction. These, though essential to the education of every master -mariner, are unfortunately not at present required of a candidate to -pass an examination which proclaims him competent to take command of a -vessel.</p> - -<p>The lower section is composed of seamen and apprentices, who are for -the most part employed during the day at their ships in the docks, and -have acquired -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page641" id="page641">641</a></span> -the rudiments of an English education before entering the school. They -attend during their short stay in port from 6 to 9 in the evenings, and -their chief object seems to be to acquire a knowledge of the sailings -and the methods of keeping the books of a ship.</p> - -<p>Both sections are taught the use of nautical instruments, and for -this important purpose the Board of Trade has granted a liberal supply -of requisites to carry out an efficient system of instruction, as will -be seen by the list appended to this Report.</p> - -<p>Those students who are sufficiently educated are accustomed to work -out their own observations. None of them have been allowed to leave the -school without receiving as great an amount as was possible of general -information, in addition to the special instruction in the subjects for -which they attended. Lectures have been delivered in the evenings upon -the Steam Engine, Electricity, and Magnetism, with other branches of -Natural Philosophy; and the Physical Geography of the Ocean has received -particular attention.</p> -</div> - -<p>The following statistics are given in the Report of Capt. Ryder, of -the Royal Navy, in 1858.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The officers of the committee of management are:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Chairman, Admiral Sir H. Hope.</p> -<p>Secretary, Captain George Pierce, R.N.</p> -<p>Head-Master, John Bowing, 1 certificate.</p> -</div> - -<p>The total number receiving instruction in navigation in or through -the agency of the school during 1858 has been 149, showing a total -increase of 25 since last year. The total fees have been 46<i>l.</i> -15<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The entire number of adults and boys who have at any time paid fees -during the year are, masters, 3; chief mates, 17; only mates, 2; second -mates, 37; seamen, 62; apprentices, 28; total number of students, -149.</p> - -<p>The following is the rate of fees paid by adults and boys per -week:—In the day classes—Masters studying for extra -certificates, 6<i>s.</i>; chief mates studying for master, 6<i>s.</i>; -only mates studying for chief mates, 6<i>s.</i>; second mates studying -for chief mates, 6<i>s.</i>; seamen studying for only mates, 6<i>s.</i>; -for second mates, 6<i>s.</i>; apprentices studying navigation, -6<i>s.</i>; those not studying navigation, 1<i>s.</i>; seamen not -studying navigation, 1<i>s.</i>; boys learning navigation, 6<i>d.</i>; -boys not learning navigation, 6<i>d.</i> In the evening -classes—Adults learning navigation, 3<i>s.</i>; not learning -navigation, 1<i>s.</i>; boys learning navigation, 3<i>s.</i>; not -learning navigation, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The average attendance at the classes has been:—</p> -</div> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>Day classes,</td> -<td>morning, 7; afternoon, 6.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Evening classes,</td> -<td>6.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Grand total of fees, 46<i>l.</i> 15<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The amount of aid afforded to the school by the Department has been -43<i>l.</i> 16<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, which sum includes the payments for -the master’s certificate and other allowances, the payments to -pupil-teacher, the cost of medals, &c.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>School Ships.</i></p> - -<p>There is another class of nautical schools for destitute and -endangered boys, which are aided by the government through the Ragged -School Society, and are kept on board of ships, the practical seamanship -of which might advantageously be incorporated into the navigation -schools. The expense of these ships per day is thus given by Capt. -Ryder, in his Report on Navigation Schools in 1858.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>I have collected some statistics showing the expense of school ships. -The Akbar, a frigate at Liverpool, is a reformatory, and has about a 100 -boys. The Venus, also a frigate, is in charge of the Marine Society, and -anchored near Woolwich; she is a school ship for destitute lads, and has -about 140 boys. In the Akbar, supported, partly by local contributions -and partly by the Government grant of one shilling a day for each boy, -the expense of the establishment is probably reduced to as low a scale -as possible. The Marine Society is a -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page642" id="page642">642</a></span> -corporation which can afford to be more liberal in its arrangements. The -Akbar was fitted out at an expense of 1,800<i>l.</i> but about -1,000<i>l.</i> is considered to be sufficient for a fit out, if the hull -is in good repair. The Marine Society’s ships are always fitted out by -the Admiralty without charge. The Akbar costs about 250<i>l.</i> a year -for repairs, &c.</p> -</div> - -<p class="heading">Estimate of Annual Expense per Boy, deduced from -Report.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th colspan="2">Akbar.</th> -<td rowspan="7"> </td> -<th colspan="2">Venus.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="midline" colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="midline" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Food,</td> -<td>£10</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>£13</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Clothes,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Management, &c.</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">24</td> -<td class="sum">0</td> -<td class="sum">30</td> -<td class="sum">0</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="heading"><i>Outline of Aims and Management of Navigation -Schools.</i></p> - -<p>In 1858, Captain Alfred P. Ryder, of the Royal Navy, was appointed to -inspect the Navigation Schools connected with the Department of Science -and Art, and report on their condition and future management. The -statements and suggestions of this report harmonize so fully with the -conclusions which we have reached respecting the need and mode of -establishing and managing this class of schools in our own country, that -we can not better express our own views than by making liberal -extracts.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Government is very anxious to raise the tone of the Commercial -Marine for the following reasons:—</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Because the Commercial Marine supplies even in time of -peace a considerable number of men to the Royal Navy, and because in -time of war we should have to rely upon it almost entirely to enable us -to man our ships when our reserves were exhausted, which would soon be -the case in a naval war.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Because on the efficiency of our commercial marine -depends to a great extent our position as a commercial country, and on -our position as the greatest commercial country rests our supremacy -among European nations.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Because to the commercial marine is entrusted every year -an immense amount of valuable property. Want of skill, intelligence, and -readiness of resource largely increases the yearly loss of this -property.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Because to the commercial marine every year are entrusted -the lives of a large and increasing number of Her Majesty’s subjects. -Want of skill, intelligence, and readiness of resource largely increase -the yearly loss of life at sea.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) Because the commercial marine consists of more than -200,000 persons, and is, therefore, an important portion of the nation, -considering it numerically.</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) Because the commercial marine represents England, its -religion, laws, customs, and habits, in every foreign country, and it is -desirable that our representatives should cease to exhibit (as is -now frequently the case,) the worst side of the national character. -Large numbers of the sailors in our commercial marine are at present -neither good men nor good sailors, but are disorderly, addicted to -drink, inefficient at sea and all but useless in harbor. Many of them -who reach the rank of mate and master compare disadvantageously in -general knowledge with the mates and masters of foreign vessels. There -are of course numerous brilliant exceptions. They are to be found -chiefly in the service of the large ship-owners. In knowledge of -seamanship English masters and mates need not fear a comparison with -those of any other nation.</p> - -<p>The Government, anxious to raise the tone of the Commercial Marine, -has endeavored to purify the stream at its source, by the creation or -support of Navigation Schools, in order that as soon as possible, by the -introduction of well educated lads, its character may be elevated and -improved. The Navigation Schools referred to are supported by fees, by -local subscriptions, and by aid from the Department of Science and Art. -Their object is to offer instruction in -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page643" id="page643">643</a></span> -the scientific branches of an Education specially adapted to the -Nautical Profession.</p> - -<p>In commencing an investigation into the present position and -prospects of the Navigation schools, it is evidently advisable to -ascertain the number of vacancies that occur annually in the commercial -marine; these vacancies are occasioned by death, desertion, and change -of profession. It is much to be desired that these vacancies should all -be filled by well educated English, Scotch, and Irish lads, for in time -of war we could only recruit from the Commercial Marine those sailors -who are British subjects.<a class="tag" name="tag8_6" id="tag8_6" -href="#note8_6">6</a></p> -</div> - -<p>Capt. Ryder estimates the number of lads required to supply the -annual vacancies by death in the British Commercial Marine at over -5,000, and by desertion and change of profession, by at least 1,000 -more, or a total of over 6,000; and that schools for seamen and officers -should be sufficient to give an annual supply of at least that number, -and so accommodate 18,000 students. According to the Report of the -Registrar General of Seamen, there were bound and registered at the -several ports of the United Kingdom, in the year 1856, 7,410 -apprentices. The 176,387 men (not including masters,) employed in the -Home and Foreign Trade, were classified as follows: 21,204 mates, 13,232 -petty officers, 83,682 seamen, 23,974 apprentices and boys, 12,640 other -persons, 1,612 engineers, 4,896 firemen. Of this number 14,375 were -foreigners, and 7,712 lascars. During the year 1856, examinations were -passed for extra masters, 22; for ordinary masters, 1,223; for first -mates, 689; for only mates, 12,223; for second mates, 940—a total -of 4,097. Capt. Ryder calculates that the total number required every -year to fill up the vacancies and meet the demands of an expanding -commerce as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>Of those who leave the service,</td> -<td>6,690</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Of those who are drowned,</td> -<td>1,300</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Of those who die of disease,</td> -<td>2,660</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The average annual increase by expansion of commerce,</td> -<td>3,365</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total supply required,</td> -<td class="sum">14,015</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Capt. Ryder remarks that the system of nautical education should be -broad enough and attractive enough to bring in all the boys of all -classes who wish to go to sea, or may be required to meet the demands of -the national and commercial marine. The education given should make -athletic, intelligent, handy seamen, and impart such an amount of -scientific knowledge of navigation and seamanship as will qualify a due -proportion for a lower grade of officers.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The first point to be aimed at would apparently be the establishment -of an adequate number of schools, so as to offer scientific instruction -on the lowest terms to a sufficient number of boys, to supply the demand -for educated young men to fill the vacancies in the ranks of masters and -mates. Their knowledge of seamanship must of course be gained before the -mast.</p> - -<p>A commercial navy, fed by a supply of lads that had for three years -attended -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page644" id="page644">644</a></span> -the classes at a Navigation school would challenge comparison for -general knowledge and information with any profession in England, and -would soon cease to be the last resort of those idle, troublesome -fellows, expelled from the agricultural class and the various trades, -who are too old, too ignorant, or too profligate ever to make even -indifferent sailors.</p> - -<p>Having stated what appears to me to be the ground that may be -beneficially covered by a network of navigation schools, I will -proceed to state what, in my opinion, are the means by which a -Navigation School may be rendered most attractive and efficient.</p> - -<p class="inhead">I. <i>A Navigation School assisted by the Government -should offer sound Instruction especially adapted to the Nautical -Profession.</i></p> - -<p>Although at first sight the number of subjects named hereafter may -appear large, and the education of too high an order, these objections -will vanish when it is remembered that lads are not acceptable on board -merchant ships until they are 15-16, because they are of little use, and -give trouble; and yet, as has been already stated, if not attracted to -the Navigation schools at the age of 12-13, and induced to remain in -attendance on the classes until they are 15-16, they will be drawn into -some other profession.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction which is adopted must necessarily therefore -be sufficiently comprehensive to extend over <i>three</i> years, and at -the same time continue to the last to be specialty adapted to conduce -towards the boy’s success in his profession.</p> - -<p>The subjects which appear to be suitable for boys destined for the -nautical profession and retained under instruction from 12-13 to 15-16 -are as follows:—</p> - -<p> * (1.) Reading and writing from dictation.</p> -<p> * (2.) First four rules of arithmetic.</p> -<p> * (3.) Grammar.</p> -<p> (4.) A complete course of arithmetic.</p> -<p> (5.) Algebra to quadratics, with application.</p> -<p> (6.) Geometry, Books of Euclid, I. II. III., and a few -propositions in Book IV.</p> -<p> (7.) Trigonometry, plane and spherical.</p> -<p> (8.) Navigation.</p> -<p> (9.) Nautical astronomy, including lunar double alt. -and Sumner’s method.</p> -<p> (10.) Practical use of the instruments used at sea.</p> -<p><span class="linegroup"> (11.) Geography, descriptive,<br> - (12.) Geography, physical,</span> -<span class="leftbracket">especially as regards products, climates, -&c.</span></p> -<p> (13.) Chart drawing; surveying.</p> -<p> (14.) Free-hand drawing.</p> -<p>* (15.) History, particularly Scripture History and English -History.</p> -<p>* (16.) Letter writing; book-keeping.</p> -<p> (17.) Mechanics and steam-engine.</p> -<p> (18.) Magnetism and electricity in relation to ships.</p> -<p> (19.) Laws of storms and tides.</p> -<p> (20.) Knowledge of the code of signals.</p> -<p> (21.) Mercantile laws and usages, as far as is necessary for -the master of a merchant ship.</p> -<p> (22.) Gymnastics.</p> - -<p class="tablefoot"> -* The boys are expected to be proficient in these subjects before entry, -and they need only be taken up in the way of review.</p> -</div> - -<p>The above subjects are taught in the Navigation School at Hull.</p> - -<p class="inhead">II. <i>A Navigation School should provide a good -supply of apparatus, viz., instruments, books, maps, slates, &c. -without any charge to the pupils.</i></p> - -<p>In Ireland, where a class of Navigation Schools has been established -as part of the system of National Education, a very liberal supply of -sextants, books, maps, &c., is given to each school by the Board of -Education.</p> - -<p class="inhead">III. <i>A Navigation School aided by Government -should offer valuable prizes in the shape of exhibitions, instruments, -books, &c.</i></p> - -<p>The great difficulty we have to contend with is the reluctance on the -part of some parents, the inability on the part of others, to maintain -their children during the three years’ course.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page645" id="page645">645</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Exhibitions and prize-schemes should therefore be established on the -most liberal footing.</p> - -<p>Prizes had been awarded by the Department in only two or three -instances before my tour of visits.</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) I beg to suggest that <i>prizes</i> be awarded, when -deserved, at all the schools every half year.</p> - -<p>The prizes to consist of sextants, watches, instruments, books, -&c. The future prizes to be placed at the commencement of the -half-year under the charge of the local committee, to be exposed in the -schoolroom in a case with a glass lid or cover. (The half-yearly value -of the prizes to be about 15<i>l.</i>); the prizes to be fairly and -openly competed for.</p> - -<p>A very limited number of sextants should be given away, not more than -one each half-year among all the schools. The prizes not to be awarded -except on the most satisfactory proof of the lad’s sufficient -proficiency.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) I beg to suggest that <i>exhibitions</i> be established -on the following scale, viz., at the rate of twelve for a school giving -instruction to 100 boys, or one to every eight boys, and be awarded at -all the schools every half-year.</p> - -<p>The boys after the examination to be divided in the following -manner:—</p> - -<p>The First Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for a period under 6 months.</p> - -<p>The Second Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for 6, and under 12 months.</p> - -<p>The Third Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for 12, and under 18 months.</p> - -<p>The Fourth Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for 18, and under 24 months.</p> - -<p>The Fifth Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for 24, and under 30 months.</p> - -<p>The Sixth Division to consist of all the boys who had attended the -Classes for 30, and under 36 months.</p> - -<p>Exhibitions at the rate of one in eight boys to be given to the most -successful boys in each group.</p> - -<p>The exhibitions for the 1st and 2nd Divisions to consist of remission -of fee and a donation of 6<i>d.</i> a week for ensuing half-year.</p> - -<p>The exhibitions for the 3rd and 4th Divisions to consist of remission -of fee, and a donation of 1<i>s.</i> a week for ensuing half-year.</p> - -<p>The exhibitions for the 5th and 6th Divisions to consist of remission -of fee, and a donation of 2<i>s.</i> a week for ensuing half-year.</p> - -<p>This part of my proposal is elastic, the value of the exhibitions can -be increased if the principle is approved of, and the number may be -extended even to offering an exhibition to every boy attaining a certain -degree of proficiency in the studies of the school.</p> - -<p>The chief merits of this plan are (1.) that as all the exhibitions -are thrown open for competition every half-year, the spirit of emulation -is constantly kept alive; it is notorious that the attainment of an -exhibition or scholarship which will be held throughout a student’s -career is often the prelude to idleness. (2.) That exhibitions are -placed within the reach of the youngest boys.</p> - -<p>The examination to decide on the exhibitions and prizes should take -place at the end of the half-year. The questions to be sent from the -Department, and the answers to be sealed up in the presence of the boys, -and sent to the Department on the evening of the examination day. The -prizes and exhibitions should be awarded at the commencement of the next -half-year. As the examination should not, if possible, extend over more -than one day, the Department might make a selection from among the -subjects taught. As the inspector can not be present, one or more of the -local committee should remain in the school during each examination.</p> - -<p>The result of each examination should be allowed to be published in -the local papers; competition will then be created among the various -schools at the seaport, who will view with great interest the position -of their boys on the examination list.</p> -</div> - -<p>Capt. Ryder suggests (1.) that each boy who holds an exhibition or -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page646" id="page646">646</a></span> -gains prizes, have the fact engrossed on a <i>vellum certificate</i>, -and receive a <i>medal</i> or <i>badge</i>. (2.) That all graduates of -the school who bring a good character from their captain or shipowner, -for one year after leaving the school, receive one pound from the funds -of the school. (3.) That shipowners and the Admiralty be induced to look -first to the Navigation schools for their apprentices, and that they -open to competition among the prize boys of the schools, any choice -places in their gift. (4.) That officers and masters of ships, and -public men interested in nautical matters be invited to visit the -schools.</p> - -<p class="inhead">IV. <i>A Navigation School should provide an ample -Educational Staff, whose income should be sufficient, and a certain -portion of it fixed, and whose energies should be mainly directed to the -Education of the Boys.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The educational staff, as a general rule, is very insufficient, owing -to a school for adults having been generally established in connexion -with the school for boys.<a class="tag" name="tag8_7" id="tag8_7" -href="#note8_7">7</a> This course was adopted chiefly for economical -reasons, it being intended that the large fees from the adult class -should pay the greater proportion of the expense of the school; but it -has resulted in the boys’ school being most seriously injured, as -follows, without any compensating advantages.</p> - -<p>The boys who pay fees, from 6<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> a week, are -constantly and unavoidably neglected by the head master, whose interest -it is to attend to the adults who pay from 5<i>s.</i> to 7<i>s.</i> a -week; and even if superior to that motive, the head master can not leave -the adults for more than a few minutes at a time, because, and not -unnaturally, they insist on his remaining with them.</p> -</div> - -<p>A peculiarity in the mode of paying masters of Navigation Schools is -in increasing his compensation from all other sources by the payment by -the Department of an amount represented by the certificate he may hold -of his success in passing examination in certain group of subjects. The -scheme is as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>Group I. Mathematics necessary to the study of navigation,</td> -<td>£5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group II. General navigation and nautical astronomy,</td> -<td>15</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group III. Adjustment and skillful handling of instruments,</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group IV. Physical geography,</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group V. Physics, mechanics, marine steam engine,</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group VI. Chemistry,</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group VII. Natural history,</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Group VIII. Chart, freehand, and mechanical drawing,</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">£50</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>This group payment is a well devised scheme to induce masters to -improve themselves, and is applicable to teachers of every grade, and if -rightly applied, will operate as a constant stimulus to professional -improvement. But in the case of this class of schools, where there are -pupils on a varying scale of direct payment to the teacher, the teacher -will be tempted to give his particular attention to the pupils who pay -best. This can be counteracted by making the masters’ payment depend on -the proficiency of the scholars.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>To obtain and keep the services of the zealous, intelligent, and very -superior men who alone are fit to take charge of navigation schools, -I believe a superannuation allowance would be at the same time the -greatest and most economical inducement.</p> - -<p>I beg to suggest that at 60 years of age a navigation master be -allowed to -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page647" id="page647">647</a></span> -retire with his group money as an allowance. This would be a great -inducement to remain in connection with the Department, and to pass in -as many groups as possible.</p> - -<p>The direct inducement which I propose to give to the educational -staff to bring their schools up to the highest state of efficiency is a -payment in money, and I have been induced to propose this from the sense -of the paramount advantage derived in any undertaking from making it the -direct pecuniary interest of agents to act up to their instructions.</p> - -<p>I propose that every head master, every assistant master and every -pupil-teacher employed in teaching the boys shall receive a sum of money -in addition to his fixed salary and his group money to depend on and -vary with the success of the school at the half-yearly examinations. The -mode by which I propose to estimate the amount of this payment will be -detailed further on, when I speak of inspections.</p> - -<p>It consists of a sliding scale of payment, so contrived that it is -the direct pecuniary interest of the head master to bring all his boys -up to the highest state of proficiency, and also the direct pecuniary -interest of all the educational staff to refrain from forcing on the -clever boys, if by so doing they neglect the duller boys, and also to -refrain from drawing the boys into the upper and more showy subjects to -the neglect of the lower, more elementary, but more important subjects, -errors commonly and but too justly ascribed to schoolmasters in their -endeavors to give to their schools the appearance of high -efficiency.</p> - -<p>I am aware that the sliding scale of payment which I propose has the -demerit of novelty.</p> - -<p>The Committee of Council, fully alive to the advantage of a sliding -scale, have provided that, in the primary schools, the master’s pay -shall depend on and vary with the school pence and the capitation grant -(a grant which is made to depend upon the attendance of the -children,) in the art schools it is made to depend on and vary with the -number of prizes won by the students.</p> - -<p>The disadvantage of the former plan is that the sliding scale, being -made to depend upon mere numerical attendance, both particular -proficiency and general proficiency are ignored.</p> - -<p>The disadvantage of the latter is that it is made the master’s direct -pecuniary interest to force on the clever boys to the neglect of the -dull boys, while general proficiency and numerical attendance are -ignored.</p> - -<p>There are doubtless good reasons why these very different plans -should have been adopted in primary and art schools.</p> - -<p>In the scheme of varying payment which I propose for navigation -schools, both the general proficiency of the school and the numerical -attendance of the scholars are made the measures of the masters’ -emoluments, while the proficiency of individual boys is fostered by -prizes and exhibitions.</p> -</div> - -<p class="inhead">V. <i>The Masters of Navigation Schools should -display great intelligence and aptitude for teaching, should be -intimately acquainted with the best methods of instruction, and be -zealous in the performance of their duties.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>As a general rule I have found the masters intelligent and apt to -teach. The majority of them have enjoyed the privilege of an education -at Greenwich under Mr. Riddle.</p> - -<p>It is important that the masters should be drawn from some normal -school; Greenwich school appears admirably adapted for such purpose. To -draw a large supply of masters from that school, and retain their -services, the position of the masters in a pecuniary point of view must -in my opinion be improved. But if this is done an engagement should be -entered into to remain as a navigation schoolmaster for a certain time, -and after that, not to leave without at least two months’ warning.</p> -</div> - -<p>The position of assistants should be open to all persons whose -credentials previously received, as to good character, proficiency in -all the subjects taught in this class of schools, and required for the -place, are satisfactory. The examination should be public, and the -results published. The vacancies among the head masters should be open -to competition among the assistant masters.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page648" id="page648">648</a></span> -<p class="inhead">VII. <i>The Navigation Schools should be judiciously -situated, have large airy rooms, a good playground, gymnastic poles, and -a lending library.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Exercise at gymnastics is most beneficial to the boys’ health, and -confirms them in their choice of the naval profession. The lads when -they go to sea are much more useful aloft if they have acquired the -agility and daring which can alone be gained by gymnastic exercises.</p> - -<p>One of the causes of the rapid deterioration in the physique of our -sailors is the diminution of work aloft consequent on the introduction -of steam.</p> -</div> - -<p class="inhead">VIII. <i>The Fees in a Navigation School should be -carefully adjusted.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>A carefully adjusted scheme of fees from 1<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> per -week will not exclude by their amount any poor boys whom we might wish -to admit, or to repel by their insignificance those parents who would -attach no value to that which cost them little.</p> - -<p>The larger portion of the fees, after deducting a certain fixed sum, -or a certain definite proportion of them for local expenses, will stand -in the school accounts to the credit of the local committee, and will be -expended from time to time, with the consent of the Department, in -paying the masters’ salaries, the boys’ exhibition money, &c.</p> - -<p>In some seaports, where there is a pertinacious disinclination on the -part of the parents of the boys to their going to sea, I have -suggested to the committee the undertaking to return all or a portion of -the school fees of any boy who has passed above a certain mark, on proof -being received that the boy has sailed. This would in many cases act -both on parent and child as a great inducement to the boy to go to -sea.</p> -</div> - -<p class="inhead">IX. <i>Navigation Schools should be periodically -inspected and reported on.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Inspection to be really valuable should be thorough. Now the subjects -in which it is proposed that the boys shall be taught at the Navigation -School are very numerous, and none of them should, if possible, be -allowed to escape the notice of the inspector and the test of -examination.</p> - -<p>I propose that there shall be two examinations every half-year, (1) -the general examination, to measure the progress and proficiency of the -navigation classes, and the payment to be made to the educational staff; -(2) the special competitive examination for prizes and exhibitions. The -first will be held in the course of the half-year, in the presence of -the inspector and master, the answers, however, to be looked over and -valued in London. The second will be held at the close of the half-year, -in the presence of the master and of one or more of the local committee. -It will be entirely a written examination, the questions to be sent from -the Department. To prevent any suspicion of unfair treatment, the -examination books should, after each examination, be sealed up at the -close of the day, in the presence of the boys, and sent to London. The -prizes and prize studentships will be awarded when the school meets -again, at the commencement of the next half-year. The answers will be -valued in London, by a person appointed for that special purpose. The -practice I have adopted is to give full numbers for an accurate answer, -half numbers for an answer which, though inaccurate, shows -intelligence.</p> - -<p>The inspector who conducts the general examination should have with -him various papers of questions of equal value on each subject, so as to -diminish the possibility of information as to the questions set at the -examination being communicated from one school to the other. The masters -have a direct pecuniary interest in preventing any information being -sent to the other schools.</p> - -<p>I suggest that the general examination, to ascertain the amount of -examination money, be conducted in the following manner:</p> - -<p>The school to be arranged previous to the arrival of the inspector, -in five classes, each class separated from the other as far as the -arrangements of the school will admit, and the five classes to be so -composed as to be about equal, both in average and collective -intelligence. No difficulty is experienced by the masters in doing -this.</p> - -<p>The number won by the boys in a class in a particular subject will be -added together and divided by the number of boys in the class; the -result will be the mean number for that subject for that class, and the -classes being equal, that number will be a measure of the proficiency of -the school in that subject. The -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page649" id="page649">649</a></span> -number of boys in the school multiplied by the sum of the mean numbers -will be the number which will determine the sum of money to be -apportioned to that school, and divided among the educational staff.</p> - -<p>I propose that a sum of money, at the discretion of the Department, -be divided<a class="tag" name="tag8_8" id="tag8_8" href="#note8_8">8</a> once a year among the schools, in the ratio of the -numbers obtained as above, and that notice be given to them to that -effect at the commencement of each year, naming the total sum. -I propose that the sum won by the school should be divided among -the educational staff in the following proportions:—</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>Head Master 5 shares, but total not to exceed</td> -<td>£30</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Assistant Masters, each 2 shares, but total not to exceed</td> -<td>12</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pupil-Teachers, each 1 share, but total not to exceed</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>As every progressive step made by the dullest boy who attends the -classes tells on the gross number, and through it on the pecuniary gain -of the whole staff, the staff will have no temptation to neglect, but on -the contrary, every inducement to push on the dull boys, and as -proficiency in the lower subjects counts as much as proficiency in the -highest the common fault of neglecting the low subjects would evidently -diminish very much the profits of the staff, and will therefore be -prevented.</p> - -<p>I consider this sliding scale would be preferable to paying the -master a certain sum for every prize won in the school, which is a -direct temptation and inducement to him to select from time to time the -most promising boys, and put them under pressure to make prize boys of -them, neglecting the dull boys of the same standing who can not on that -system of reward be productive of any benefit. The collateral advantages -of this system.</p> - -<p>(1.) It becomes the direct personal interest of the staff to retain -the boys as long as possible, in order that at each examination, there -shall be as many boys as possible well advanced in all the subjects.</p> - -<p>(2.) That it becomes their direct personal interest, to select from -among the boys presenting them selves for entry, those that are most -advanced in the elementary subjects, so that their backwardness may -diminish the mean numbers as little as possible.</p> - -<p>(3.) That it becomes their direct personal interest to work the -school with as few masters as possible, as thereby their individual -gains are larger.</p> - -<p>(4.) Competition is created among the Navigation schools and their -educational staffs. The result of each examination should be allowed to -be published in the local papers, and the results of the examinations at -all the Navigation schools should be made known at each school.</p> - -<p>(5.) The inspector and the Department can see at a glance whether any -Navigation school has neglected any subject. The masters could not evade -the rigor of this test by any artifice.</p> - -<p>(6.) The boys will be induced generally to enter into the spirit of -the competition, which will have the best effect. A few only can -win the prizes and exhibitions, but all can contribute by their -exertions to the comparative success of their school.</p> - -<p>(7.) The local committee and the neighborhood would enter into the -spirit of the struggle.</p> -</div> - -<p class="inhead">X. <i>A distinctive Dress or Badge is calculated to -have a very good effect on the Navigation Schools.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Trinity Board at Hull gives to 80 boys in the Navigation school a -neat uniform (blue jacket, blue and white trousers, and blue cap.) This -has a capital effect on the boys, gives them an esprit d’ecole, and acts -as a restraint on their conduct outside the schools.</p> -</div> - -<p class="inhead">XI. <i>In Navigation Schools great pains should be -taken to ensure punctual attendance on the part of the boys.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>I beg to suggest that the best form of registers be provided, and -that it be made imperative that the register be strictly kept in all the -schools, and that the following practice be universal instead of -partial, viz., that any boy arriving late is expected to produce a -written authority from the master of his school or his parents for his -absence. Prizes for good attendance have been found very useful in -primary schools. I beg to suggest one prize of 10<i>s.</i>, three -of 5<i>s.</i>, and five of 1<i>s.</i> every half-year, or 3<i>l.</i> a -year in a school of 100 boys.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page650" id="page650">650</a></span> -<p>Capt. Ryder recommends that the daily record of attendance, -proficiency, and conduct, be posted up on the walls of the school every -week, month, half-year, and year, as well as the names of all prize -boys.</p> - -<p>Capt. Ryder goes into detail of the estimates of receipts and -payments, and makes the education of each boy cost the Department about -£2 10<i>s.</i> per boy per annum. The whole expense of teaching and -clothing at the Hull School averages a little more than £6 per boy per -<ins class="correction" title="final . missing">annum.</ins></p> - - -<div class="in-one"> -<p class="heading"><i>Obstacles to the success of Navigation -Schools.</i></p> - -<p>The principal obstacles in the way of success, in addition to the -inefficiency of the schools, the absence of prizes, &c., are three -in number.</p> - -<p>It is my firm belief that if the Department assist liberally the -establishment of navigation schools, placing them on a proper footing, -and stating that they are schools established for the sole purpose of -giving special instruction in scientific subjects to boys intended for -the Royal Navy and the Commercial Marine, these three obstacles will -gradually vanish. They are,—</p> - -<p class="heading">(I.) <i>A disinclination on the part of shipowners -to enter boys.</i></p> - -<p>In reply to my inquiries the owners of steamers stated, “We don’t -want boys, who eat as much as men, are of very little use, and give a -great deal of trouble; we want <ins class="correction" -title="close quote missing">men.”</ins></p> - -<p>Steam having superseded the use of sails to a great extent, boys, who -in sailing vessels are invaluable for light work aloft, are not valued -in steamers.</p> - -<p>Many of the sailors, so-called, that we find in steamers differ very -little from landsmen, except that they are not sea-sick, they can take -the wheel and pull an oar. To all the valuable qualities of a true -sailor, which were developed by and almost entirely due to his work -aloft, viz., agility, readiness of resource, indifference to all danger -that may be escaped by bodily activity, as distinct from that solid -courage which all Englishmen possess, the steam sailor can lay slight -claim.</p> - -<p>In the Royal Navy we want the superior class of sailors, and if -possible those alone. The partial substitution of steam for sails, while -it has injured our own sailors has, in the same way and for the same -reason, injured those in the commercial marine, on whose aid and support -we may at any time be thrown for a supply of seamen.</p> - -<p>It is most important, therefore, that every impulse should be given -to keep up in the commercial navy both the quantity and quality of the -seamen; it is much to be regretted, therefore, that the same -disinclination to take boys, although fortunately in a less degree, -exists among the shipowners of sailing vessels.</p> - -<p>Lads enter on board merchant ships, some as apprentices, some as -boys.</p> - -<p>In the employment of the larger shipowners apprenticeships are highly -valued.<a class="tag" name="tag8_9" id="tag8_9" href="#note8_9">9</a> The proportion of apprentices to tonnage at present is -about 1 to 200 tons. Before the repeal of the navigation laws, it was by -Act of Parliament 1 to every 100 tons.</p> - -<p>The disinclination to enter boys will, I believe, gradually vanish -when the attention of the shipowners, as a body, is attracted to the -valuable class of boys who will attend the Navigation schools, for they -will be induced to reflect, that although at first sight it may appear -to be more economical to enter no boys or -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page651" id="page651">651</a></span> -apprentices, or a very few only, and those at very low wages,<a class="tag" name="tag8_10" id="tag8_10" href="#note8_10">10</a> yet that -by so doing they are contributing indirectly, but yet surely and -certainly, to the deterioration of the whole class of seamen, and to the -ultimate injury of the ship-owning interest.</p> - -<p class="heading">(II.) <i>A disinclination on the part of parents to -send their boys to sea.</i></p> - -<p>While sailors are, what they frequently are at present, not the most -moral or respectable members of society, it is probable and natural that -many parents would regret their sons’ choice of the sea as a -profession.</p> - -<p>But as sailors and masters improve by the aid of navigation schools, -where they will be instructed in their youth, and are received in -sailors’ homes at every port where their vessels touch, this class of -objections will gradually become obsolete; and the profession of the -sailor will take its proper place by that of the high skilled mechanic -as one of the noblest professions a working man’s son can adopt, being -also one of the highest paid; 3<i>l.</i> and 4<i>l.</i> a month besides -victuals and medical attendance being the not uncommon emoluments of a -merchant seaman. Moreover, the profession of a sailor, if he is a steady -man, may be rendered both healthy, improving, and entertaining, and acts -most beneficially on the character and temper. Steam and science are -rapidly diminishing the longest voyages, and long periods of absence, -one of the not unnatural objections of a parent, are becoming the -exception instead of the rule.</p> - -<p>The wish to go to sea is implanted by Providence, doubtless for the -wisest purposes, in large numbers of the boys of these islands, -frequently in those who have never seen the sea. Those parents, -ministers, or schoolmasters who take upon themselves to thwart this -natural and laudable wish, going the length, as they frequently do, of -treating the boy’s desire, as an evidence of a vagabond and depraved -taste, may be fairly charged with the responsibility of the boy’s -immoral and depraved life, if such unfortunately is the result of his -going to sea, for his naval career is probably commenced by running away -from home, and he thus severs all those domestic ties which conduce so -much to the preservation of purity of life and manners.</p> - -<p>This conduct on the part of parents should be deprecated by every one -who has the best interests of his country at heart.</p> - -<p>Every respectable and well conducted boy who desires to go to sea -should be aided and assisted to do so, and this course should be -systematically adopted throughout the country. The Government, by the -support of navigation schools, show their opinion on this subject. It -only remains for the schools to be put on a proper and liberal footing, -worthy of the Government and of the object which they are intended to -serve. When this is done, the profession of the sailor will be rescued -in the minds of the lower classes from all the odium which at present -surrounds it.</p> - -<p class="heading">(III.) <i>A disinclination on the part of boys to -go to sea.</i></p> - -<p>This disinclination exists in some ports and not in others; it will -decrease wherever it exists when Navigation schools, established on a -liberal footing, offering the inducements I have suggested, are placed -near the docks in every seaport town of any size or importance. It is -advisable that the schools should be so placed that the boys can when -out of the school play about among the shipping, witness and long to -imitate the evolutions of the sailors aloft, &c.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page652" id="page652">652</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>An attractive evening class will have to be established for the -instruction of boys who have to work for their livelihood during the -day, and for apprentices. I have proposed that half the fees be given to -the educational staff, to insure their taking a direct pecuniary -interest in the evening class.</p> - -<p>In concluding this report, I wish to state, that I am fully impressed -with the great benefit that the establishment of good Navigation schools -would confer directly on the Royal Navy, the Commercial Marine, and the -country; and that I see every reason for believing, that if the schools -are placed on a proper footing, the classes will be largely attended, -and the schools will answer every purpose for which they are -established. The limited number of thirty Navigation schools, which I -have suggested, should be forthwith established, although only -professing to assist in providing a sufficient supply of educated young -men to fill up the vacancies among the masters and mates, yet can not -fail to tell with the best effect on the commercial marine generally. -For these well-educated lads, who, after leaving the Navigation schools, -have to struggle through that large body, the seamen of the commercial -marine, before they can win the prizes of their profession, must raise -the tone of the class through which they pass.</p> - -<p>If the thirty schools are established, and after two or three years -are evidently working well, it will be worth considering whether more -schools of a simpler and less expensive character should not be -established to educate a sufficient number of lads fully to supply the -vacancies in the seamen class.</p> - -<p>The alterations I have proposed in the mode of payment of the -educational staff are those upon which I desire to lay the most stress; -they have had but one object in view, the making it the personal -pecuniary interest of each member of the staff to devote himself -zealously to those duties, and to no other, which the Department wishes -him to perform. In individual cases, we might appeal to higher motives -than these, but in dealing with a body of men, however upright and -conscientious, I am firmly convinced that there is no safer course -than the appealing to the lower motive in aid of the higher.</p> -</div> - -<p>The plan of payment of the teachers of navigation schools generally, -presented by Capt. Ryder, was substantially adopted by the Department -having charge of this, class of schools, in 1860, but was changed to the -following Minute in April, 1863, on the recommendation of Capt. -Donnelly, for the purpose of restricting the efforts of the teacher, and -the industry of the scholars, to the subject of Mathematics, Navigation, -Nautical Astronomy, and the Use of Instruments, leaving general -elementary studies to be mastered in other schools.</p> - - -<p class="heading smallcaps"><a name="britain_naval_aid" id="britain_naval_aid" href="#britain_naval_mercantile">Aid to Navigation -Schools and Classes.</a></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>I. Payments will be made by the Department only on the results of -instruction in the following subjects:</p> - -<p>1. Mathematics, including such portions of Algebra, Geometry, -Mensuration, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Logarithms, as far as -necessary for understanding Navigation and Nautical Astronomy.</p> - -<p>2. General Navigation.</p> - -<p>3. Nautical Astronomy.</p> - -<p>4. Physical Geography.</p> - -<p>5. Steam and the Steam Engine.</p> - -<p>II. The payments will be made to those teachers only who have taken -certificates as qualified to teach the above studies.</p> - -<p>III. Examination for teachers will be held annually in November, in -South -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page653" id="page653">653</a></span> -Kingston, Dublin and Edinburgh. The traveling expenses of candidates if -successful will be paid.</p> - -<p>IV. Examination for students will be held</p> - -<p>(1.) The adults, seamen and others, at the seaport towns where local -Marine Boards are formed and are prepared to undertake them from year to -year.</p> - -<p>(2.) The youths, in inland towns once a year, the examination forming -part of the general May Science examination will be held simultaneously -all over the kingdom where local committees are formed to conduct them, -the examination papers being supplied by the Science and Art -Department.</p> - -<p>V. The successful candidate will be classed as passed with honorable -mention, third, second, and first grade certificates. In the three last, -a certificate will be given to that effect. The grades of success may be -improved at any future examination.</p> - -<p>VI. The teacher will receive one, two, three, four or five pounds, -according to the class of success of his pupils, on the condition that -the pupil, if a boy, shall have received forty lessons, at least, from -the teacher, and then goes to sea, and if an adult at sea, then he shall -have received twenty lessons, at least.</p> - -<p>VII. Should the pupil have been previously examined and payment made -on his account, the twenty or forty lessons, as the case may be, must -have been given since that examination, and the payment to the teacher -will be the difference between that sum previously paid and the amount -found due on the grade then taken.</p> - -<p>VIII. A local committee must in all cases be formed, and from them -the teacher will receive the necessary vouchers.</p> - -<p>IX. The sum above fixed can only be considered experimental, and may -be altered from year to year.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="britain_naval_arch" id="britain_naval_arch" href="#britain_naval">COLLEGE OF NAVAL -ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING.</a></p> - -<p>The course of instruction at the Royal College of Naval Architecture -and Marine Engineering at South Kensington was originally in subjects -the same as at Portsmouth, but after careful observation of what could -be accomplished in connection with practical instruction and observation -in the dock-yards, the subjects have been redistributed, and the number -of sessions increased.</p> - -<p>The <i>first</i> year embraces mathematics, practical ship-building -(laying off work), chemistry and metals, machinery, steam and its -management, physics, drawing, and French.</p> - -<p>The <i>second</i> year embraces the same subjects, with the addition -of heat, and strength of materials.</p> - -<p>The <i>third</i> year includes the same subjects still further -pursued.</p> - -<p>A <i>fourth</i> year was added to the course in 1868, and the whole -scheme in its details has not yet been fully tested.</p> - -<p>A portion of each year is spent in the dock-yards in practical work, -under the superintendence of officers in charge of different departments -of the local service.</p> - -<p>At the close of each session of theoretical study, a rigid -examination is instituted, and promotion from class to class, and final -graduation with the diploma of Associate or Fellow is awarded on the -results.</p> - -<p>In 1869 there were 30 students (15 engineers and 15 shipwrights) sent -by the Admiralty, and receiving their instruction free; and 10 outside -or ordinary students (6 engineers and 8 in naval construction), a -total of 40 students.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page654" id="page654">654</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">Schools and Practical Training for Naval -Engineers.</p> - -<p>In addition to the higher theoretical instruction in Naval -Construction, Steam, and Marine Engineering, and kindred branches, at -South Kensington, and to the candidates for assistant engineers, -furnished by the numerous marine engine factories, and ocean steamers, -to which young men resort to acquire a practical knowledge of their -duties, the Admiralty have established in the dockyard schools at -Portsmouth, Devonport, and Sheerness, courses of study and practical -training, and a system of test examinations, for the express purpose of -securing a body of educated and skillful engineers, to meet the demands -of this department of the service.</p> - -<p>Boys between the ages of 15 and 16, can enter their names as -applicants with the Superintendent of the dockyards, and if they can -pass the medical examination and give evidence of good character, they -are examined twice a year by the Civil Service Commissioners in -Arithmetic, including fractions, square and cube roots; Algebra, -including quadratic equations; Euclid (six books), spelling, writing, -and correct oral use of the English language, translations from the -French or Spanish language, and geography. A certain number, -according to the vacancies, who stand highest in the competitive -examination, are received for six years.</p> - -<p>A portion of time is spent, by the boys, on their admission, in the -factories and drawing office, the foundries, the smitheries, and other -shops to acquire a general knowledge of the work done in them. They are -instructed in the parts, construction and working of marine engines and -boilers, and the practical use of the various instruments in the engine -room, including the indicator. They attend regularly for a portion of -the day the dockyard schools, and are examined twice a year by the -Director of Naval Education; and in the final examination they must gain -2,000 marks out of the 2,650 (the aggregate of the marks assigned to -each study), of which more than three-fourths must be in the properties -of steam, mechanics, hydrostatics, plain trigonometry, and good conduct -and industry, to obtain a first-class certificate of qualification. If -his knowledge of steam-machinery, and his good conduct and skill as a -workman, is certified to by the Chief Engineer, a first-class candidate -is fully qualified for the appointment of assistant engineer. The most -intelligent of this class are eligible for a four years’ additional -course in the Royal School in South Kensington, where they study seven -months in the year, the other five being spent in practical application -of principles in the drawing rooms and workshops of the dockyards. -Thirty-two students entered this school from the Dockyard Schools in -1870-71.</p> - -<p>The Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering issue -two grades of diplomas. To gain the lowest, that of <i>Associate</i>, -the candidate must obtain a certain minimum of marks in the aggregate of -all the subjects, in practical engineering; the proportions and -arrangements of engines, boilers, and propellers; strength of material; -heat and steam, as well as in arithmetic and mensuration, algebra, plane -trigonometry, elementary mechanics and hydrostatics, and engine drawing. -To obtain the second (the diploma of a <i>Fellow</i>) the candidate must -produce designs and estimates for building simple and compound engines; -calculate the power of engines and performance of vessels; strength of -material and principles of ship-construction, &c., as well as pass a -satisfactory examination in higher mathematics, physics, and natural -philosophy.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page655" id="page655">655</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_naval_ships" id="britain_naval_ships" href="#britain_naval">TRAINING SHIPS FOR SEAMEN -IN THE ROYAL NAVY.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> entrance to the Royal Navy is -now limited to boys between the ages of 15 and 17, who present -themselves at certain recruiting stations on board of Receiving ships -stationed in the principal ports of Great Britain, and who are found on -examination to be in sound health, not below a certain standard of -height, weight, and circumference of chest, of good character, and with -a rudimentary knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic. After -passing satisfactorily the required examination, with the written -consent of their parents and guardians they are entered and bound to Her -Majesty as sailors until they arrive at the age of twenty-eight, and -then sent to one of the five Training Ships at Devonport (<i>Impregnable -and Implacable</i>), Portsmouth (<i>St. Vincent</i>), Falmouth -(<i>Ganges</i>), and Portland (<i>Boscawen</i>).</p> - -<p>In each Training Ship the boys are divided into two classes—the -First and Second. The First class is the upper division, into which -those pass who have been twelve months on board. Here they receive -7<i>d.</i> per day (instead of 6<i>d.</i> in the Second), and if they -have passed a satisfactory examination in seamanship, gunnery, and -school work, they wear a badge, and are called Badge Boys, and enjoy the -privileges of a Petty Officer,—extra liberty on shore and -exemption from dirty work, as well as increased pay.</p> - -<p>The work on board of a Training Ship, consists of (1.) School duties, -and (2.) Instruction and training in the practical work of a sea-going -vessel.</p> - -<p>(1.) The school work is conducted by the Head-master and his -assistants, under the general control of the Chaplain and Naval -Instructor. The boys are put into four divisions, irrespective of the -classification of First and Second, which has reference to the time they -have been on board. Having a knowledge of reading and writing when they -enter, they are taught arithmetic and geography, and become quite expert -in elementary studies. Each division is subjected to a searching -examination four times a year, by the Captain, and twice a year by the -Inspector of Navy Schools, who reports direct to the Admiralty.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page656" id="page656">656</a></span> -<p>(2.) The Training work, includes all branches of the service required -of a sailor, and a familiarity with every part of the vessel and her -rigging; the names and uses of the masts and yards; knotting and -splicing; the use of the helm and needle; the compass; all the various -niceties of rigging; the way to reef and furl; to make, shorten, and -shift sails; and the meaning of the various words of command. To go -through with quickness and precision all these various subjects, the -boys are divided into sections, each under a regular teacher. The -lessons are short, but frequent, and the repetition is continued till -the right way becomes a habit. A portion of the boys are taught -flags, and the various systems of signaling. All are taught swimming, -and how to rescue a man overboard, before they go to sea. To perfect the -boys in rowing, sailing, and managing boats, a number of different -descriptions is attached to each Training Ship. A Brig is also -provided which is placed under the command of a lieutenant, to cruise -daily with a party of boys, who perform all the work, under an -experienced sailor. Those who have been at school for six months are -sent off for two or three weeks at a time to get accustomed to real sea -work. After an experience of two months in a Brig, the boys return to -the Training Ship for further drill as a preparation for sea service on -board of naval vessels.</p> - -<p>Boys who show an aptitude for the use of tools are formed into a -special class to be trained for ship-carpentering. And to give the -practical knowledge, a small ship (the <i>Circe</i>) is fitted up as a -workshop, and is attached to the <i>Impregnable</i>, at Devonport.</p> - -<p>The training of the British sailor is not limited to seamanship, but -each boy is now conducted with great attention through a complete course -of gunnery instruction. This course is divided into four sections.</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. The Handspike drill, and manning boats’ sides.</p> -<p>2. Pointing, sponging and loading. Rifle drill.</p> -<p>3. Pointing, dismounting and mounting. Sword Exercise.</p> -<p>4. Independent firing; quick and broadside firing; shifting, -breechings, trucks, and trigger lines, bow and quarter firing; and -securing a lower deck gun.</p> -</div> - -<p>On leaving a Training Ship about half the boys go through a course of -Practical Gunnery, to enable them to aim and accustom them to firing -shot and shell, on board of a ship specially fitted up for their -use.</p> - -<p>In few schools of any grade is the occupation of the pupils more -incessant, but the routine is so diversified, that the lads are in high -health and spirits during their entire training.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page657" id="page657">657</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="britain_naval_seaports" id="britain_naval_seaports" href="#britain_naval">SCHOOL SHIPS FOR -DESTITUTE CHILDREN IN SEAPORTS</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">In</span> 1856 the frigate <i>Akbar</i> was -handed over by the Admiralty to a Board of Managers in Liverpool, and in -1858, the frigate <i>Venus</i>, to the Marine Society in London, to be -fitted up and occupied by a class of boys, who were found hanging about -the docks, and were fit candidates for police and reformatory treatment. -In these ships successive classes of lads—in the former an average -of 70, and in the latter, of 140, each year have received the ordinary -elementary school instruction, and in addition, have been trained to the -ordinary routine of a seaman’s life. In due time a majority of them, -rescued from bad influences, and lifted on to a higher plane of -intelligence, have been put on board of merchant vessels, to work their -way up into positions of good pay and responsibility.</p> - -<p>In 1870 the Admiralty turned over to a Board of Management (charged -by the Poor Law with providing schooling for destitute and pauper -children) in the Forest Gate District, composed of three of the eastern -parishes of London, a fine wooden man-of-war, the <i>Goliath</i>, of 84 -guns, rendered powerless for the service, by the progress of modern -naval construction. The ship was fitted up as a nautical and industrial -school, at a cost trifling compared with that of a new building, site, -and equipment for the same number, and, with its complement of 400 lads -born to poverty and almost predestined to vice and crime, anchored off -Gravesend. Fortunate in its superintendent, Captain Bourchier, of the -Royal Navy, and his staff of industrial and book instruction, these lads -(increased during the year to 450) have been subjected to a daily -nautical drill and school course, which give great satisfaction.</p> - -<p>From an official statement published in the London Times (Oct. 11, -1871), it appears that out of 449 boys received on board since the -<i>Goliath</i> took up her station, 16 have gone into the Royal Navy, -and in a few weeks 40 others will be in readiness; 13 have gone to sea -in merchant ships, and more berths are promised shortly; 25 have found -desirable situations on shore or been discharged to their friends. -Besides the regular elementary school studies in which all engage for -four hours, and seamanship which -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page658" id="page658">658</a></span> -is taught to all, 115 are under instruction in the bands, of which there -are four on board, in addition to a drum and fife band. There are 160 -treble and second singers; and concerts, vocal and instrumental, are -given by the young performers. For young musicians there is a demand in -the army, and a list of 30 adepts have been sent to the Horse Guards. -There is a swimming bath attached, and 185 have been taught to swim. Out -of a fund raised by subscription, prizes are given, the first -distribution of which is thus described:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The prizes, of which about 100 were given away—and Captain -Bourchier said he wished heartily that he had a prize for every boy, for -“there was not one black sheep among them”—were awarded according -to a system calculated to stimulate the better feelings as well as the -intelligence of the boys. Thus, while there were prizes for seamanship, -for smartness aloft, for the best sail-makers, best coxswains of boats, -best tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, painters, buglers, &c., there -were also prizes for the best swimmers, the best captain of messes, for -the boys who kept their clothes or band instruments in the best order, -one for the boy who had attended most carefully to the sick, and two for -the most popular boys in the ship. The latter prizes had been awarded -according to a species of informal and unconscious <i>plébiscite</i> on -the part of the boys themselves. There were five “popular boys” -nominated; for one of these—a small, dark, round-faced -urchin—every boy in the ship voted; the next on the list had a -little over 50 per cent. of the crew in his favor; and if names be any -guide to nationality both these boys ought to hail from the sister -island. To five of the boys silver medals were given for special good -conduct, and these enjoyed the distinction of standing in the front row -and having their honors fastened on by Miss Bourchier, daughter of the -Captain Superintendent, the general distribution of books being made by -Mr. Brushfield, chairman of the Board of Managers. As the little fellows -came up to the table it was impossible not to remark what a difference -existed between recent arrivals in the school and those who had been a -few months or even a few weeks on board the <i>Goliath</i>. The school -records show that, though commonly feeble and stunted in growth when -they embark, numbers of them have since grown two and three inches in -height, and as much as two inches round the chest. At Gravesend mariners -know that the salt water mingles with the fresh; the process is silent, -but not the less real. And in the <i>Goliath</i>, as in the tide itself, -a change may be traced, working quietly but just as surely, in the -<i>physique</i> and characters of the boys on board. The constraint, -depression, and helplessness lurking in all pauper boys lifts and melts -away by little and little. In its place come the frankness, courage, and -love of adventure natural to English boys who live near the sea. Every -thing on board encourages a cheerful, self-reliant tone: the music, good -food, good air, alternate hours of work and play, care, and strict -discipline—these are the elements in the midst of which they live. -The boys make every thing for themselves. Even the neat Hussar uniform -in which band No. 1 plays on the quarter-deck has been cut out and made -on board. The form of punishment held in most awe is to be forbidden to -row in the boats. Moreover, they one and all feel that they have a -future. Taking into account the advantages, physical and educational, -which the boys receive, it would not be placing too high a value upon -the training in the <i>Goliath</i> to estimate it in the case of each -boy at 50<i>l.</i> a year. Yet the actual charge made to other unions is -6s. 6d. a week.</p> -</div> - -<p>The editorial notice of this enterprise concludes as follows:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Thus, beside the regular supply of trained sailor boys who may be -expected to take to the navy—we are told the punishment most -dreaded on board the <i>Goliath</i> is being forbidden to row in the -boats—there will be a considerable residue brought up to steady -work on shore, to skilled labor and occupations which ought to secure -them in after life a decent subsistence, and a position far above the -slough of hopeless and helpless poverty in which they were born.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page659" id="page659">659</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="navy_france" id="navy_france"></a>SPECIAL SCHOOLS, AND INSTRUCTION<br> -<span class="submini">FOR THE MERCANTILE AND MILITARY -MARINE.</span></h4> - -<p class="smallhead">INTRODUCTION.</p> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> necessities of the maritime -service in France, public and private, military and commercial, have -created a system, or at least a series of special schools for children -whose parents are occupied on the sea, or youths preparing for the -exigencies of naval affairs, several of which we will proceed to -describe, with the aid of official documents,<a class="tag" name="tag8_11" id="tag8_11" href="#note8_11">11</a> without reference to -the chronological order in which they have been instituted. The system -includes</p> - -<p> 1. Nautical School for the Orphans of Sailors.</p> -<p> 2. The Inflexible and other School-ships.</p> -<p> 3. Naval Apprentice Schools at the government naval -stations.</p> -<p> 4. School for Boatswains and Shipmasters.</p> -<p> 5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers.</p> -<p> 6. Naval Drawing School.</p> -<p> 7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography.</p> -<p> 8. Naval School at Brest.</p> -<p> 9. School of Naval Architecture at Paris.</p> -<p>10. School of Marine Artillery.</p> -<p>11. School of Hydrography.</p> -<p>12. Naval School of Medicine and Pharmacy.</p> - -<p>In addition to the schools above enumerated, several of which will be -described in detail, the French government has now under consideration -the establishment at Paris of a Central School of Commerce and -Navigation. The instruction, while it will be special, will not be -technical, and will be designed for young persons who propose to enter -either the military or mercantile marine, leaving the practical details -of the particular branch of the service to be acquired elsewhere.</p> - -<p>A system of maritime conscription for recruiting the navy, and strict -regulations requiring special instruction in masters and mates of all -mercantile vessels, are in force in France.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page660" id="page660">660</a></span> -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_orphan" id="france_orphan" -href="#navy_france">NAUTICAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHANS OF SAILORS.</a></p> - -<p>Formerly, when the children of sailors were obliged at the age of -seven to leave the asylums (<i>salles d’asile</i>,) which are open to -them with such liberality, they had to stay for six years in the primary -schools before, they were admitted to the “school for young sailors” -(<i>école des mousses</i>,) where their professional education -commenced. This state of things, entirely satisfactory when the child -belongs to a family, is different when it is an orphan. Then there is a -void to be filled.</p> - -<p>An imperial decree, published Nov. 15th, 1862, at the suggestion of -the Marquis of Chasseloup Laubat, provides for this want by furnishing -at Brest an institution for the orphans of the navy, and placing it -under the especial protection of Her Majesty, the Empress. Vice-Admiral, -Count de Gueydon, gave all his care to the organization of this especial -school, which was intended to gather the orphans of seamen, to place -them under the protection of the navy, to educate and instruct them that -they might follow in the steps of their fathers. They were placed under -the supervision of lieutenant Picard of the navy. Their general -instruction was confided to the <i>Brothers of the Christian -Schools</i>, and the “Daughters of Wisdom” (<i>filles de la sagesse</i>) -were intrusted with all the cares which such young children require.</p> - -<p>We have nothing to say in this place of the excellent primary -instruction given in this school, and will only notice briefly the -special or professional instruction, which is imparted in a military -style by divisions, subdivisions, companies, sections, squads commanded -by masters, second masters, quarter-masters, and naval instructors. -There are three sizes (the low, middle, and high,) each of which is -commanded by a pupil.</p> - -<p>The lessons which they receive consist of instruction in the -management of sails, sailor’s practice, (<i>école de matelotage</i>,)the -whistle, fife and drum, rowing, swimming, military practice, -gun-practice, bayonet-practice, bats, <i>eillon</i>-drill, principles of -music, gymnastics, and boxing. There is likewise given to them a -physical and military education, which <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">developes</ins> their strength and gives them the -ability to study more closely.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of January, 1867, there were in the school 415 pupils. -Most of them are sent to the Seamen’s School (<i>école des mousses</i>,) -when they have attained the thirteenth year of their age; those who are -not considered fit to serve in the navy are struck off the lists and -returned to their families.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page661" id="page661">661</a></span> - -<table class="paragraphs"> -<tr> -<th>Name of School.</th> -<th>3d Degree.</th> -<th>2d Degree.</th> -<th>1st Degree.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of maneuvering on the naval gymnasium.</td> -<td>40 learn to mount to the mast-head and to hold themselves on the -sail-yards.</td> -<td>185 are just learning to take in the sails and the reefs, and to -make knots and splices.</td> -<td>190 take in the reefs and make knots and splices.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of whistling.</td> -<td>20 learn to whistle.</td> -<td>10 give almost all the blasts of the whistle.</td> -<td>20 give all the blasts of the whistle.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of rowing.</td> -<td>30 learn to row.</td> -<td>90 are just learning to row.</td> -<td>90 row.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry school.</td> -<td>255 are drilled without arms.</td> -<td>20 are not fit yet to join the battalion.</td> -<td>140 are drilled in the gun-practice, bayonet-practice, and form a -battalion.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of the fife and drum.</td> -<td>8 commence.</td> -<td>10 do pretty well.</td> -<td>7 do well.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of gymnastics.</td> -<td>50 commence the elementary movements.</td> -<td>10 do pretty well.</td> -<td>30 do well.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>School of music.</td> -<td>125 commence.</td> -<td>140 do pretty well.</td> -<td>150 do well.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The following table shows the number of pupils that had entered and -left the school, up to Dec. 31, 1866:</p> - -<table class="outline allcenter"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<th colspan="2">1863.</th> -<th colspan="2">1864.</th> -<th colspan="2">1865.</th> -<th colspan="2">1866.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Number of pupils on the 1st January,</td> -<td colspan="2">—</td> -<td colspan="2">224</td> -<td colspan="2">256</td> -<td colspan="2">420</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Entered during the year,</td> -<td colspan="2">247</td> -<td colspan="2">102</td> -<td colspan="2">235</td> -<td colspan="2">157</td> -</tr> -<tr class="toppad"> -<td class="total" colspan="2">Total,</td> -<td colspan="2">247</td> -<td colspan="2">326</td> -<td colspan="2">491</td> -<td colspan="2">577</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="rightbracket" rowspan="3">Left during the year.</td> -<td class="ongoing text">Sent to the school ship,</td> -<td>15</td> -<td class="bracket ongoing" rowspan="3">23</td> -<td>53</td> -<td class="bracket ongoing" rowspan="3">70</td> -<td>42</td> -<td class="bracket ongoing" rowspan="3">71</td> -<td>93</td> -<td class="bracket ongoing" rowspan="3">162</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<!-- --> -<td class="ongoing">Sent back to their families,</td> -<td> 6</td> -<td>15</td> -<td>26</td> -<td>67</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="ongoing">Died in the hospital,</td> -<td> 2</td> -<td> 2</td> -<td> 4</td> -<td> 2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Present on the 31st of December,</td> -<td colspan="2">224</td> -<td colspan="2">256</td> -<td colspan="2">420</td> -<td colspan="2">415</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_schoolship" id="france_schoolship" href="#navy_france">THE INFLEXIBLE AND OTHER -SCHOOL-SHIPS, AT BREST.</a></p> - -<p>For a long time the children of sailors were placed on board the -vessels of the fleet, where they lived in a state of servitude, and -frequently arrived at a mature age without being able to read or write, -while the gasket of the sailor formed characters which would not yield -to any moral suasion. It is only since 1822 that they received, before -being placed on board the vessels, an elementary and professional -instruction, and since that time the school-ship has -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page662" id="page662">662</a></span> -become the principal seminary for naval officers. The children must be -at least twelve years old and their parents pledge themselves not to -take them away from the school till they have reached the age of -eighteen.</p> - -<p>The school-ship, first established at Brest in 1823, was transferred -to a corvette in 1836, to a frigate in 1851, and finally, in 1861, to -the man-of-war, “<i>l’Inflexible</i>,” where it numbers at present 900 -pupils from the age of 13 to 15. They remain here at least one and -not more than two years, and receive a primary and professional -instruction. After leaving the school they are placed on vessels of the -fleet, where they continue to be under the special superintendence of -the naval department. Even here they go through a regular course of -instruction, given by one of the officers, and have thus an opportunity -to continue the studies commenced on board the school-ship.</p> - -<p>It would lead us too far here to enumerate in detail all the -exercises performed on board the <i>Inflexible</i>. It will suffice to -say that besides school instruction, the pupils are progressively -accustomed to the practice of their profession, and learn everything -which a sailor can be taught on board a vessel; the washing and cleaning -of the vessel and of their linen, the rigging of the mast, the -maneuvering of sail-boats and row-boats, which occupations fill the -morning hours. After dinner, which takes place at 11 o’clock, they go on -board two brigs, where they study and execute alone all that constitutes -the practical art of the sailor.</p> - -<p>It is not to be wondered at that these young sailors on board the -<i>Inflexible</i> get a liking for their occupation. Always in the open -air, with good clothes, varied bodily exercises and abundant food, they -acquire robust health and a thorough knowledge of their profession. -Whilst two companies tack, two others go through military, exercises -with rifles or guns, taking them to pieces, lashing the pieces, and in -various ways maneuvering with the mountain howitzer, bayonet-fencing, -&c. Some go to the sail-maker’s room and make hammocks. In 1857 -there were selected 16 sail-makers and 20 steersmen from those in each -company who showed most aptitude and taste for these specialties. This -classification of the young sailors according to their professional -ability, has produced very excellent results.</p> - -<p>More recently still (by an imperial edict of Aug. 11, 1868,) a -special section of sailor apprentices has been formed on board the -“<i>Inflexible</i>” for children, who have not the required size and -strength, (<i>taille</i>;) they are received into the school as -apprentice sail-makers, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page663" id="page663">663</a></span> -carpenters and calkers. Pupils, after having reached the age of sixteen, -are transferred to the school-ship <i>La Bretagne</i>.</p> - -<p>The following table will give the statistics of this school to -1866.</p> - -<div class="key"> -<p>NA Number Admitted.</p> -<p>CoT Chief of the Topmast.</p> -<p>T Topmen, (<i>gabiers</i>.)</p> -<p>FT Flying Topmen, (<i>gabiers volants</i>.)</p> -<p>S Supplementary.</p> -<p>L Left the Navy, or died.</p> -</div> - -<table class="outline numbers"> -<tr> -<th rowspan="2">Date of Admission</th> -<th class="drop" rowspan="2">NA</th> -<th colspan="6">Left</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>CoT</th> -<th>T</th> -<th>FT</th> -<th>S</th> -<th>L</th> -<th>Total</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Present April 1, 1861</td> -<td>493</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Admitted in 1861</td> -<td>275</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>32</td> -<td>32</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>96</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Admitted in</span> 1862</td> -<td>712</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>202</td> -<td>66</td> -<td>157</td> -<td>54</td> -<td>509</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Admitted in</span> 1863</td> -<td>579</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>183</td> -<td>115</td> -<td>205</td> -<td>38</td> -<td>571</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Admitted in</span> 1864</td> -<td>580</td> -<td>31</td> -<td>173</td> -<td>152</td> -<td>212</td> -<td>28</td> -<td>596</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Admitted in</span> 1865</td> -<td>545</td> -<td>33</td> -<td>191</td> -<td>115</td> -<td>186</td> -<td>64</td> -<td>589</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Admitted in</span> 1866</td> -<td>540</td> -<td>39</td> -<td>190</td> -<td>110</td> -<td>158</td> -<td>72</td> -<td>569</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total</td> -<td class="sum">3,724</td> -<td class="sum">173</td> -<td class="sum">971</td> -<td class="sum">590</td> -<td class="sum">930</td> -<td class="sum">266</td> -<td class="sum">2,930</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The chambers of maritime commerce at Bordeaux, Cette, Marseilles, -Ajaccio, Havre, &c., have established similar nautical schools and -placed them under the supervision of the government.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_apprentice" id="france_apprentice" href="#navy_france">NAVAL APPRENTICE -SCHOOLS.</a></p> - -<p>There have been since 1824, in every one of the five naval stations -of France, elementary schools, intended to give to the apprentices in -the various workshops a degree of elementary knowledge, on the system of -monitorial or mutual instruction. After some years of prosperity they -were abandoned, in consequence of the great aversion then generally -manifested against this method. The only one that remained was the -school at Rochefort, which was under the superintendence of the Brothers -of the Christian Schools. But in 1828 and 1829, under the ministry of -Martignac, the Baronet Hyde de Neuville ordered their reëstablishment. -Every one of these schools organized itself in its own way, and it was -only in 1851 that a decree of April 7th prescribes uniform -regulations.</p> - -<p>We have nothing to say here on these apprentice-schools, which are -simply primary schools for adults, to which are added special schools -for rowing. Their professional instruction is given in the various -workshops of the port, to which they have been assigned; the apprentice -school has had during the year 1866, 954 pupils.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_boatswain" id="france_boatswain" href="#navy_france">SCHOOLS OF BOATSWAINS.</a></p> - -<p>The navy maintains schools called “<i>école de maistrance</i>” -(<i>maistrance</i> corps of under-officers of a ship,) where a certain -number -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page664" id="page664">664</a></span> -of workmen from the arsenals, chosen by open competition, receive the -special theoretical instruction required for the boatswain and foremen -of the various workshops.</p> - -<p>The origin of these establishments goes back as far as 1819. -A circular from the Secretary of the Navy, the Baronet Portal, of -Aug. 17th, decreed the establishment, at the ports of Brest, Rochefort -and Toulon, of special schools, in which a certain number of young -workmen, destined for the “board of shipmasters” (<i>maistrance</i>) and -chosen from among the most intelligent ones, should go through a -theoretical and practical course of ship-building. The same circular -contained a provisional regulation, giving the rules to be observed in -these schools. The number of pupils in each was limited to 12, of which -8 should be carpenters, 1 pulley-maker, 1 blacksmith, 1 locksmith, 1 -cooper, &c. These pupils should be chosen from among the most -intelligent and best-behaved apprentices and young workingmen. They must -know reading and writing, have served two years in one of the ports, and -be at least eighteen and not more than twenty years old. The supervision -of these schools was confided to a naval engineer.</p> - -<p>We have just given an outline of the programme of admission required -in 1819, because it is an official indication of the state of primary -instruction at this period; but the same regulation proves that it was -too high yet, for the minister allowed, for the first two years, the -limit of age to be extended to 25 years.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction which was to be given, comprised the first -elements of mathematics, elementary geometry, the first elements of -rectilinear trigonometry and the first elements of statics, &c. This -course of studies was to last two years, and a system of examination and -prizes was organized.</p> - -<p>It was generally supposed that such an organization would obtain -great success, and that the advantages which it presented would attract -many pupils. But such was not the <ins class="correction" title="text has ‘csse’">case</ins>. The working classes at that time were very -much neglected, and there were very few who could read or write. -Moreover the working men did not receive any pay whilst attending the -school, and thirdly, there was no opportunity for these young men to -perfect themselves in the practical exercises of their profession during -the two years they studied the theory. The necessity of making some -modification became clearer every day, and this was done by a royal -decree of Feb. 9th, 1833.</p> - -<p>Instead of choosing the pupils, competition was substituted, and as -the primary instruction had advanced, candidates were required -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page665" id="page665">665</a></span> -to be able to read fluently, to write neatly and correctly, and to be -acquainted with the rudiments of arithmetic; they must be workingmen of -the first or second class, must be 21 years old and have served for -three years in some port; finally, they must furnish a certificate of -their professional capacity, given by the foreman of their workshop, and -countersigned by the director.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction was to last two years, but the theoretical -studies were confined to the first year; the second year was exclusively -devoted to the practical application of the various professions of the -pupils, the number of whom was increased, the recruits coming to a great -extent from the naval ports. Brest was to receive 24, Rochefort 14, and -Toulon 14; 52 in all, instead of 36.</p> - -<p>In spite of the abolition of the limit of higher age, which gave a -larger number of pupils access to the school, the recruiting of pupils -still presented great difficulties. These were partly obviated by -admitting assistant boatswains, and even boatswains, who were paid by -the day. This measure was productive of very happy results; the number -of pupils was soon increased and the studies were <ins class="correction" title="text has ‘persued’">pursued</ins> with greater -vigor.</p> - -<p>The republican government, likewise, devoted its attention to these -schools. A decree ordering a reörganization, was published April -23, 1856, and is to the present day in force. The conditions of -admission were retained and extended to workingmen of the third class; -the number of pupils assigned to each post was somewhat changed; the -course of instruction was to last two years; during the first, the -pupils spent the whole morning at the school, and during the second, -only three mornings per week. Finally, it was agreed that the pupils -were to be paid for the time which they devoted to the school, just as -if they had worked in the dockyard.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION.</p> - -<p>In order to make the scientific instruction of more practical use, -the following programme was fixed for each year.</p> - -<p><i>First year.</i>—Arithmetic, logarithms, square cube roots; -2, geometry; 3, elements of descriptive geometry; 4, elements of algebra -up to equations of the second degree; 5, linear drawing; the course of -arithmetic and algebra lasted a month and a half, from 10 o’clock till -noon, instruction in drawing from 8 till 10. The two last months of -the year were employed in reviewing all that had been taught during the -year, and in preparing for the examination.</p> - -<p><i>Second year.</i>—1, Common mechanics; 2, workshop accounts; -3, drawing. The course of mechanics and workshop accounts lasts -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page666" id="page666">666</a></span> -two months. The half-day spent at the school is divided into three -parts; the first is occupied in drawing, and lasts two hours; the second -(either mechanics or workshop accounts) also two hours; the remainder of -the time is devoted to optional studies. When the course of mechanics -and workshop accounts is finished, the pupils are divided into two -sections; the first comprises the carpenters, and workmen of similar -rank; the second the mechanicians and workers in metal. During two -months and a half the professor of mathematics teaches the section that -works in wood the application of geometry to the drawing of working -plans, explains to them all the details of the drawing of the frame, the -stern, the bow and pieces, &c. He teaches them to calculate the -<i>deplacements</i> from the centre of the keel, or metre-centre. -Finally, the pupils are taken to the molding-loft, in order to trace -there a vessel in its true dimensions under the directions of a -drawing-master. The metal-workers receive instructions from the -professors of mathematics, on the property and application of steam; the -functions of the various parts of a steam-engine; the applications of -descriptive geometry to the drawing of the different parts of the -steam-engine, &c.</p> - -<p>The instruction in drawing receives in these schools all the -attention which the development of naval construction demands. During -the first year the pupils learn successively shading strokes of -different thickness, simple and dotted; the construction and use of -ladders. After this preparation, which applies to all, they execute -professional drawings; the carpenters, plans of vessels after a copy; -the mechanicians, plans of steam-engines and steam-boilers, &c. The -time devoted to drawing during the second year is employed by the -carpenters in drawing a fair copy of the complete furnishing material of -a vessel, the details of the masting, the capstan, the helm, &c.; by -the metal-workers in drawing a fair copy of the various machines. All -these courses of instruction have been attended with satisfactory -results; most of the pupils who have not been able to draw a straight -line before entering the school, on leaving can draw in a creditable -manner the working-plan of a vessel as well as of the most complicated -machines.</p> - -<p>From its foundation in 1819 till the end of 1862, the <i>Echo de -maistrance</i> at Brest has been attended by 429 pupils, viz.:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>275 pupils actually in the service, viz.: 34 pupils; 60 workingmen; -57 assistant boatswains; 100 boatswains; 24 paid boatswains.</p> - -<p>59 pupils died in the service, viz.: 5 pupils, 15 workingmen, 7 -assistant boatswains, 22 boatswains; 7 paid boatswains; 1 naval -storehouse-keeper.</p> - -<p>95 pupils left or were discharged.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page667" id="page667">667</a></span> -<p>To get an idea of the manner in which the pupils pass the examination -on leaving, it will be seen from the following table, which shows the -results in the school at Brest during the last five years, that the -instruction given has not been lost. The same is the case at Rochefort -and Toulon.</p> - -<table class="outline allcenter"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th rowspan="2">Years.</th> -<th colspan="4">Number of pupils who have attended the school.</th> -<th rowspan="2">Total number of pupils.</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th>With great success.</th> -<th>Successfully.</th> -<th>With good results</th> -<th>Without result.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1862</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>27</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1863</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>20</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>27</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1864</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>15</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1865</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1866</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="midline"> </td> -<td class="midline"> </td> -<td class="midline"> </td> -<td class="midline"> </td> -<td class="midline"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Total,</td> -<td>23</td> -<td>29</td> -<td>76</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>136</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_eng" id="france_eng" href="#navy_france">SCHOOL FOR NAVAL ENGINEERS, STOKERS, etc.</a></p> - -<p>Since the introduction of steam into navigation, it is indispensable -to have well-trained stokers and mechanicians, men who enjoy robust -health, great presence of mind, prudence and an inventive genius when -facing difficulties, skill in working metals, a knowledge of elementary -mathematics and its application to their labor. In order to prepare such -men, two special schools have been established by an imperial edict of -Sept. 24, 1860, one at Brest, on board the <i>Urania</i>, and another at -Toulon, on board the <i>Jena</i>. To be admitted to these schools, the -conditions must be fulfilled which are required for the various grades -in the <i>personnel</i> of a steam vessel.</p> - -<p>In order to recruit these schools, all the blacksmiths, braziers and -weighers, (<i>ajusteurs</i>) who belong to the annual contingent of the -army, may be sent officially, or at their own request, to the ports of -Toulon and Brest, to be incorporated in the companies of mechanics of -the navy. Civilians are admitted by contracting a voluntary engagement -as stokers. All, however, must undergo an examination in manual labor, -to show their physical capacity.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction for stokers who are candidates for the -grade of quartermaster, comprises, 1, arithmetic up to and including the -rule of three, and square roots; 2, common geometry up to and including -spherical bodies; 3, a concise knowledge of mechanics, and physics; 4, -description and classification of steam-engines for vessels; the -adjusting of their various parts, a concise knowledge of the property of -metals and their use; 5, the practical management of machines and -steam-boilers; 6, the repairing of machines.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page668" id="page668">668</a></span> -<p>It is evident that this instruction attracts to the service of the -navy many intelligent and industrious young mechanics who would not -enter it, because, not possessing the special knowledge required, they -would not run the chance of remaining for a long time in the lowest -grade, viz.: that of working stoker, the only one to which their -attainments would allow them to aspire. In following this instruction, -however, attentively and passing their examination successfully, they -obtain the rank of pupil mechanicians, and even of quartermasters. In -continuing their studies, they can rise still higher; their schools -furnish them with the means, if they wish to become second boatswains. -To the knowledge already acquired are added: 1, arithmetical -progression; 2, the whole of planimetry; 3, theoretical mechanics and -physics; 4, theory, description, regulation, and construction of -steam-engines and steam-boilers; 5, the working and repairing of -machines. By further pursuing their studies and working diligently, they -can rise from second to first boatswain, and may ultimately obtain the -position of principal mechanician, with the rank of lieutenant on -men-of-war, and even of captain on corvettes, if they became chief -mechanicians. The following table, giving the statistics of the school -at Toulon, will show the success with which these schools have been -attended.</p> - -<div class="key fullwide"> -<p>G Designation of the different grades.</p> -<p>NA Number of pupils who have attended the school during the -half-year.</p> -<p>NE Number of pupils prepared at the school, who underwent an -examination.</p> -<p>NS Number of pupils who were successful at the examinations.</p> -<p>M4 May 1864</p> -<p>N4 Nov 1864</p> -<p>M5 May 1865</p> -<p>N5 Nov 1865</p> -<p>M6 May 1866</p> -<p>N6 Nov 1866</p> -</div> - -<table class="outline numbers reduced"> -<tr> -<th rowspan="3">G</th> -<th colspan="6">NA</th> -<th colspan="6">NE</th> -<th colspan="6">NS</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smallest"> -<!-- --> -<th colspan="6">COMPETITION OF</th> -<th colspan="6">COMPETITION OF</th> -<th colspan="6">COMPETITION OF</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th>M4</th> -<th>N4</th> -<th>M5</th> -<th>N5</th> -<th>M6</th> -<th>N6</th> - -<th>M4</th> -<th>N4</th> -<th>M5</th> -<th>N5</th> -<th>M6</th> -<th>N6</th> - -<th>M4</th> -<th>N4</th> -<th>M5</th> -<th>N5</th> -<th>M6</th> -<th>N6</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For 1st Boatswain,</td> -<td>38</td> -<td>34</td> -<td>35</td> -<td>23</td> -<td>19</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>29</td> -<td>24</td> -<td>26</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>15</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2d Boatswain, (theoretical,)</td> -<td>49</td> -<td>41</td> -<td>44</td> -<td>31</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>22</td> -<td>31</td> -<td>37</td> -<td>31</td> -<td>22</td> -<td>11</td> -<td>22</td> -<td>18</td> -<td>22</td> -<td>16</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2d Boatswain, (practical,)</td> -<td>25</td> -<td>29</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>23</td> -<td>15</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>16</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pupil Mechanic</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>23</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Quartermaster, (theoretical,)</td> -<td>129</td> -<td>124</td> -<td>67</td> -<td>36</td> -<td>32</td> -<td>19</td> -<td>115</td> -<td>108</td> -<td>35</td> -<td>34</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>99</td> -<td>97</td> -<td>27</td> -<td>26</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Quartermaster, (practical,)</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -<td>—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total</td> -<td class="sum">251</td> -<td class="sum"><ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘225’">235</ins></td> -<td class="sum">181</td> -<td class="sum">97</td> -<td class="sum">67</td> -<td class="sum">58</td> -<td class="sum">205</td> -<td class="sum">191</td> -<td class="sum">113</td> -<td class="sum">72</td> -<td class="sum">28</td> -<td class="sum">51</td> -<td class="sum">151</td> -<td class="sum">149</td> -<td class="sum">64</td> -<td class="sum">49</td> -<td class="sum">18</td> -<td class="sum">44</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><i>Note.</i>—Since the 1st January, 1865, the number of -candidates being too great, the number of pupils has been reduced, but -may again be increased, when occasion demands it.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_drawing" id="france_drawing" -href="#navy_france">NAVAL DRAWING SCHOOL.</a></p> - -<p>An edict issued by Napoleon I, Sept. 27th, 1810, established at Brest -and Toulon, on board the <i>Duquesne</i> and the <i>Tourville</i>, -drawing-schools for those who wished to enter the naval service, where -theoretical and practical instruction was given. At the foundation -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page669" id="page669">669</a></span> -of the naval school at Augoulême in 1816, these drawing-schools were -transferred to the shore, became less exclusive, and admitted to their -gratuitous course all young men from these two great naval stations who -wished to adopt the naval profession. They have always been very largely -attended.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_navigation" id="france_navigation" href="#navy_france">SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION AND -HYDROGRAPHY.</a></p> - -<p>Long before the navy had acquired any importance, maritime commerce -had been immensely developed. The coasting and ocean trade required -experienced and well-informed sailors. There were therefore in the -principal seaports, gratuitous schools of navigation, whose aim was to -disseminate theoretical knowledge. These schools were well conducted -from the year 1584, when Henry III issued the first ordinance on the -subject, by which boatswains and captains of merchant vessels had to -undergo an examination of qualifications; but opportunities of -instruction were wanting at that time, and it was reserved for Louis -XIII to fill this void.</p> - -<p>During the memorable siege of La Rochelle, Cardinal Richelieu became -convinced that the knowledge of a captain, to whom the State intrusts a -merchant-vessel, ought not to be confined to the most simple rules of -the art of navigation. He consequently, in January, 1629, published a -decree, ordering the establishment of schools of hydrography, open to -all who intended to study navigation theoretically. The king himself -engaged to maintain, at his own expense, a certain number of such -schools, and encouragements were held out to all cities which would -found such schools. The professors of hydrography were detained to -assist at the examinations of captains, boatswains and coxswains.</p> - -<p>Such was the origin of the first professional instruction in -navigation. Here, as in all institutions of learning, the instruction of -manhood succeeded that of youth. If the orders of Louis XIII were not as -generally executed as they deserved, they were instrumental in producing -a certain number of learned hydrographers, some of whom became the -authors of the first treatises on navigation ever published in the -French language.</p> - -<p>A decree of Louis XIV, (August, 1681,) another by Louis XV, -(September 14, 1764,) and third by Louis XVI, (January 1, 1786,) show -that the ancient monarchy did not lose sight of this branch of -instruction. In the last mentioned decree, the Marquis of Castries, -Secretary of the Navy, united under one common law all these -establishments, whose organization was far from uniform. The professors -were in future chosen by competition. Two chairs of -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page670" id="page670">670</a></span> -“hydrographic examiners” were created, charged with the superintendance -of the instruction, to assist at the examinations.</p> - -<p>A decree of the National Assembly, which became a law, August 16th, -1791, decided that gratuitous schools of hydrography should be -established at the expense of the State, in thirty-four different -places. This decree was supplanted by others published a few years -later, further regulating the course of instruction.</p> - -<p>During the wars of the first Empire, Napoleon I never forgot to -extend the benefits of French institutions wherever his armies were -victorious. To this circumstance several foreign seaports owe their -excellent schools of navigation.</p> - -<p>The hydrographic instruction was completely reorganized by a royal -edict of August 7, 1825, under the ministry of Count de Chabrol. This is -still in force with but few modifications. One professor is charged with -giving instruction in each of the 42 schools of the Empire; two -examiners have charge of the general supervision of these schools, and -hold the annual examinations.</p> - -<p>Instruction is gratuitous, and sailors can enter from the age of 13 -upwards, but they rarely attend them before they are 22 or 23 years old. -The professors, on five days of the week, impart instruction for four -hours a day. There are two different courses; one superior and the other -elementary; the first theoretical and practical, the other essentially -practical. Wherever there is an observatory, the pupils are practiced in -observations.</p> - -<p>The programme of the theoretical instruction comprises: for ocean -voyages, elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, -elements of astronomy, navigation, use of instruments and nautical -tables, elementary knowledge of steam-engines, as applied to navigation, -French composition; for the coasting-trade, elements of practical -arithmetic, geometry, practical navigation, elementary knowledge of -steam-engines, nautical calculations. The examinations are annual, and -no one is admitted to the practical examination, unless he has reached -the age of 24, and has served five years on a French vessel. It -comprises rigging, management of sails, a knowledge of coasts, currents, -tides, and gunnery. After the practical examination has been -successfully passed, the pupil must undergo the theoretical one.</p> - -<p>For the results produced by these establishments, the average -attendance of the schools of navigation, and the number of sailors, who -have become captains or boatswains, we refer to the following -tables.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page671" id="page671">671</a></span> - -<p class="hanging"><i>Number of sailors who have attended the schools -of hydrography from 1849 to 1866; of candidates who have obtained the -rank of “captain” for sea voyages, or “boatswain” for the coasting -trade.</i></p> - -<div class="key"> -<p>AC (of the sea voyage.) Captains.</p> -<p>AB (of the coasting trade.) Boatswains.</p> -</div> - -<table class="outline numbers"> -<tr> -<th rowspan="3">Scholastic Year.</th> -<th class="smallest" colspan="4">NUMBER OF SAILORS.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th class="smaller" rowspan="2">Pupils<br>of the<br>Schools.</th> -<th class="smallest" colspan="3">ADMITTED AS</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<!-- --> -<th>AC</th> -<th>AB</th> -<th>Total.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1849-50</td> -<td>1,307</td> -<td>163</td> -<td>331</td> -<td>494</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1850-51</td> -<td>1,347</td> -<td>187</td> -<td>369</td> -<td>556</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1851-52</td> -<td>1,344</td> -<td>156</td> -<td>325</td> -<td>481</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1852-53</td> -<td>1,324</td> -<td>168</td> -<td>317</td> -<td>485</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1853-54</td> -<td>1,255</td> -<td>208</td> -<td>292</td> -<td>500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1854-55</td> -<td>999</td> -<td>151</td> -<td>178</td> -<td>329</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1855-56</td> -<td>1,116</td> -<td>148</td> -<td>182</td> -<td>330</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1856-57</td> -<td>1,804</td> -<td>253</td> -<td>493</td> -<td>746</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1857-58</td> -<td>1,907</td> -<td>252</td> -<td>426</td> -<td>678</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1858-59</td> -<td>1,568</td> -<td>258</td> -<td>354</td> -<td>612</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1859-60</td> -<td>1,525</td> -<td>234</td> -<td>278</td> -<td>512</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1860-61</td> -<td>1,424</td> -<td>253</td> -<td>263</td> -<td>516</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1861-62</td> -<td>1,422</td> -<td>213</td> -<td>244</td> -<td>457</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1862-63</td> -<td>1,424</td> -<td>229</td> -<td>252</td> -<td>481</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1863-64</td> -<td>1,571</td> -<td>279</td> -<td>276</td> -<td>555</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1864-65</td> -<td>1,410</td> -<td>309</td> -<td>260</td> -<td>569</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1865-66</td> -<td>1,205</td> -<td>270</td> -<td>278</td> -<td>548</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td>——</td> -<td class="center">——</td> -<td class="center">——</td> -<td class="center">——</td> -<tr> -<td>Total,</td> -<td>23,952</td> -<td>3,731</td> -<td>5,118</td> -<td>8,849</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ann. average,</td> -<td>1,409</td> -<td>219</td> -<td>301</td> -<td>520</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><i>Ports where schools of hydrography are established, with the -average number of pupils who annually attend every school, collected -from official documents since the year 1849.</i></p> - -<table class="outline numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th>Ports.</th> -<th>Number<br>of pupils.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dunkerque,</td> -<td>58</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Calais,</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Boulogne,</td> -<td>7</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Valerie-sur-Somme,</td> -<td>21</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dieppe,</td> -<td>11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fécamp,</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Le Havre,</td> -<td>39</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rouen,</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Honfleur,</td> -<td>11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Caen,</td> -<td>19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cherbourg,</td> -<td>70</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Granville,</td> -<td>37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Main,</td> -<td>116</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Brieuc,</td> -<td>30</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Paimpol,</td> -<td>28</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Morlaix,</td> -<td>19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Brest,</td> -<td>74</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Douarnenez,</td> -<td>9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>L’Orient,</td> -<td>94</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Vannes,</td> -<td>34</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Le Croisic,</td> -<td>27</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Nazaìre,</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Nantes,</td> -<td>77</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Les Sables-d’Olonne,</td> -<td>37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>La Rochelle,</td> -<td>11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rochefort,</td> -<td>86</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Blage,</td> -<td>27</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Bordeaux,</td> -<td>50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Bayonne,</td> -<td>17</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Jean-de-Luz,</td> -<td>16</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Narbonne,</td> -<td>29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ogde,</td> -<td>42</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cette,</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Arles,</td> -<td>16</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Martigues,</td> -<td>13</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Marseille,</td> -<td>50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>La Ciotat,</td> -<td>8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Toulon,</td> -<td>72</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Saint-Tropez,</td> -<td>20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Antibes,</td> -<td>16</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Nice,</td> -<td>9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Bastia,</td> -<td>30</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page672" id="page672">672</a></span> -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_brest" id="france_vbrest" -href="#navy_france">THE NAVAL SCHOOL AT BREST.</a></p> - -<p><span class="firstword">Napoleon</span>, in 1810-11, established -the first naval school-ships in France, the <i>Tourville</i> being -chosen for that purpose at Brest, and the <i>Duquesne</i> at Toulon. -These schools were placed under the orders of the maritime prefects of -the two ports. In 1816, these two schools were abolished by decree, and -a royal marine college was established at Angoulême. Several other -changes took place, and in 1830 the college was replaced by a naval -school on board the <i>Orion</i>, an old 74; this vessel was succeeded -by several others, all of which have received the name of the second -school-ship, the <i>Borda</i>, named after Captain Borda, a naval -officer of great scientific and practical ability. The present ship is a -noble three-decker, pierced for 120 guns, was launched in 1847, and took -part in the Crimean war.</p> - -<p>The <i>Borda</i> is stationed at Brest, and its rigging has been -reduced to that of a frigate. The forepart of the second gun-deck of the -vessel still retains something of its old character, and is provided -with six guns on each side for practice. The other parts of the vessel -have been completely altered; the decks have been cut away, so as to -form two large lecture-rooms and two school-rooms. Not only the pupils -but also their professors and most of the officers are lodged on board -the vessel. On deck are specimens of various kinds of guns in use in the -French navy, and a gymnasium. The quarter-deck, which is continued to -the mainmast, is divided, the forepart being appropriated to the pupils, -and the aft to officers.</p> - -<p>Candidates are admitted to this school after a public examination, -which occurs annually. For admission to the examination the applicant -must prove his French birth—his being at least fourteen years of -age and not over seventeen years, and his having no infirmity that -disables him for marine duty.</p> - -<p>The requirements for admission are a <ins class="correction" title="text has ‘knowlege’">knowledge</ins> of arithmetic, algebra, -geometry, plane trigonometry, applied mathematics, natural philosophy, -chemistry, geography, the English language, drawing. The candidates must -prepare a composition in French, a translation from Latin, an exercise -in English, a numeral calculation in trigonometry, a geometrical -drawing, and an off-hand sketch of a head. There are two oral -examinations on the above studies, the second of which is not attempted -if the first, which is elementary, is unsatisfactory.</p> - -<p>The commander of the <i>Borda</i> is a full captain, and the -instruction, which is practical as well as theoretical, is confided to -eleven -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page673" id="page673">673</a></span> -professors, of whom five belong to the hydrographic department, eight -are full lieutenants, and one a principal engineer. The duties of the -five hydrographic professors are thus divided:—Two teach astronomy -and navigation, two analytical and mechanical science, and the last -natural philosophy and chemistry. The duties of the other professors are -thus arranged:—Two for literature, history and geography; two for -the English language; and two for drawing. The lieutenants direct four -courses of instruction, namely, naval architecture, the theory and -practice of managing a ship, gunnery and small arms, with practice, and -nautical calculations. The engineer professor teaches the theory and -management of steam-engines and mechanics. The other officers are a -captain of a frigate, (second in command,) a chaplain, a financial and -an administrative officer, and two medical men. Besides these, there is -a captain of gunnery and several under-officers of the marine and -artillery.</p> - -<p>The school sessions commence on the first of October, and on that day -promotions of the pupils are made in the various classes. Those who have -passed two years of study in the ship are called <i>grand ancients</i>, -rank with naval aspirants of the second class, and are eligible to make -a voyage of circumnavigation in another vessel appropriated to that -purpose; pupils who have been one full year in the <i>Borda</i> are -called ancients, and the rest new boys, or in French naval language, -<i>fistots</i>. The boys have each a number, and in all the ordinary -routine of the school-ship, this takes the place of a name.</p> - -<p>The elder pupils are employed as monitors over the younger, and each -of the former has one or more allotted to him, not as a fag, but as a -scholar, whom it is his duty to teach all he himself knows. It is said -that the system succeeds admirably, and that for the first few months -the instruction of the new comer is left almost entirely to his -<i>ancient</i>; the new pupil thus escapes without difficulty many -errors of discipline into which he would otherwise inevitably fall.</p> - -<p>The discipline of the school is severe; the boys rise every morning, -all the year round, at five o’clock, stow away the hammocks in which -they sleep, attend prayers, and then commence their morning’s work.</p> - -<p>They are well fed, having coffee or chocolate in the morning, dinner -(old style) at 12 o’clock, a lunch of bread (<i>goûter</i>) at 4.30, and -supper at 7.45, with bread <i>à discrétion</i>, and about four-tenths of -a pint of wine at each of the two principal meals.</p> - -<p>The morning studies are devoted to science; those of noon to practice -with guns, or practical study, marine machinery, or drawing; -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page674" id="page674">674</a></span> -and the evening to literature, the English language, or naval -architecture. All the studies are pursued on board, with the exception -of natural philosophy and chemistry, the professor of which has at his -command in the town the collection of instruments and chemicals, as well -as the lecture-room and laboratory of the central pharmaceutical -establishment. At times, also, the pupils are taken to visit the vessels -in process of construction, and the workshops in the arsenal, and to -practice with small arms on shore.</p> - -<p>There are eight boats attached to the <i>Borda</i>, and the pupils -are practiced almost every day, and in all weathers, in rowing and -sailing, under the eye of an officer, who watches the exercises from on -board a small steam-gunboat attached to the school. The ordinary studies -of the school end between six and seven in the evening, and the pupils -turn in at nine o’clock for their eight hours’ rest.</p> - -<p>Thursday and Sunday, as usual in France, are exceptional days, when, -after nautical calculations, (which are never omitted,) the elder pupils -or ancients practice with small arms on shore, and the juniors are -drilled in the use of the sword, musket, and bayonet. After this they -have six hours’ hard work in maneuvering two small corvettes, provided -for the purpose, that belonging to the ancients being a -screw-steamer.</p> - -<p>The boys, as a rule, are at liberty on alternate Sundays, and the -most advanced every Sunday afternoon. This is a recent innovation; the -pupils used to be free scarcely more than once a month; but this gave -rise to much discontent and some disturbance, and the rule has, -therefore, been made less severe. In addition to this liberty, however, -all the lads are allowed to see their friends for a short period during -the exercises on shore on Sunday and Thursday mornings, and those who -are not free on Sunday are taken on shore for a change in the afternoon. -During the summer months the boys bathe in the sea.</p> - -<p>A peculiar custom exists in the school—the boys are allowed to -smoke during the hour of recreation after dinner, and at certain other -times; and for this reason, that as it was found utterly impossible to -stop the practice entirely, it was deemed better to recognize it in -moderation, and thus stop its secret indulgence and the attendant danger -of fire.</p> - -<p>The punishments inflicted in the school are extra drill and -confinement, either in a small cell or in a dark hole, with a regimen of -bread and water; for very grave offences, boys are dismissed or -expelled. On the other hand, the marks for good conduct are numerous; -there are several examinations in the various classes during -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page675" id="page675">675</a></span> -the nine months of the school year, and those pupils who gain the -greatest number of marks are called <i>élèves d’élite</i>, and wear a -gold anchor on their collars, or, in the case of the first twelve, two -anchors; the pupil who has gained the largest number of marks bears the -high but merely nominal rank of first brigadier, and he who enters the -school with the greatest success at the examination is called major. -A general examination takes place at the end of the year, when the -ancients who pass become aspirants in the navy, and the juniors are -raised to the upper class in the school; those who fail in the -examination are either sent back to their class, or rejected as unfit -for the naval career. The first and second prizemen, on quitting the -school, receive each a quadrant in the name of the Emperor, and the -third a telescope.</p> - -<p>The elder pupils have nearly three months’ holiday, but the junior -pass a month on board another vessel, the <i>Bougainville</i>, for what -is called the summer campaign. This vessel, which was constructed -specially for the school, is a screw dispatch-boat with engines of 120 -horse power; the summer voyage is settled by the Minister of Marine, and -includes a visit and examination of the ports of L’Orient and Cherbourg, -touching at some remarkable points of the French coast, sometimes -casting anchor off the English coast, and sometimes running as far as -Ferrol in Galicia.</p> - -<p>The <i>grand ancients</i>, when their holidays are over, that is to -say on the first of October, join the <i>Jean Bart</i>, which makes an -annual voyage of several months’ duration. This boat was built in 1852 -and made its first voyage of this kind in 1864-5. She is an 80-gun -ship, of the mixed class, having engines of 450 nominal horse-power. In -August of the present year she will have completed her fourth and last -voyage of circumnavigation, another vessel, the <i>Donawert</i>, now -being prepared to succeed her. The upper gun-deck of the <i>Jean -Bart</i> is disarmed, and converted for the use of a part of the -officers and the pupils, who number about a hundred, and occupy eight -cabins, each with two portholes; here the young men eat, and drink, and -sleep, as well as pursue their studies.</p> - -<p>The officers of the <i>Jean Bart</i> consist of a full captain in -command, a second captain, a chaplain, ten lieutenants, one having -charge of each pupil’s cabin, or <i>poste</i>, as it is called, and two -giving instruction in sailing and gunnery; a surgeon-major, who gives -instructions respecting the means of keeping a crew in health; two -assistant-surgeons, an engineer, a drawing-master, and some others.</p> - -<p>The Minister, as in the case of the summer cruise of junior pupils, -settles the course to be taken by the <i>Jean Bart</i>. Generally -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page676" id="page676">676</a></span> -the West India islands are visited in the months of March and April, -when the pupils are principally exercised in hydrographical works off -St. Pierre and Fort de France; in gunnery on board, and small-arms on -shore; in the daily management of boats for embarkation and -disembarkation; and in the management of sails in the intricate channels -of the archipelago. They are shown, moreover, how to perform difficult -operations, such as the unshipping of the rudder and bringing it on deck -for examination, lifting a mast, &c. The pupils are required to keep -written records of all such operations, and to illustrate the narrative -when necessary with drawings. When they visit foreign yards and -arsenals, they are expected to give minute accounts of what they have -seen there, and besides a daily journal, to write critical notices of -all the different machines, methods of rigging, and maneuvers, which -they have witnessed.</p> - -<p>The difficult channel of the Isle St. Sebastian, off the coast of -Brazil, that of the Bermudas, the river Hudson, and the coast of -Newfoundland, are among the places selected to initiate the pupils in -the difficulties of navigation. At Annapolis, in the Chesapeake, a visit -is paid to the National Naval School of the United States at the season -when the general examinations take place in that establishment. The -voyage usually terminates with a visit to Cape Breton and some points of -Newfoundland; the fisheries and drying-houses of St. Pierre and Miquelon -are generally visited, and the <i>Jean Bart</i> returns to Brest between -the 1st and 5th of August, having been absent ten months. A sailing -brig named the <i>Obligado</i> has lately been attached to the <i>Jean -Bart</i> as a supplementary vessel.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_arch" id="france_arch" href="#navy_france">SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AT PARIS.</a></p> - -<p>The construction of ships and engines in the French naval service is -intrusted to the Corps of Marine Engineering, (<i>Corps du Génie -Maritime</i>,) consisting of 121 officers, viz., 1 inspector-general, 10 -directors of naval construction, 40 marine engineers, and 70 assistant -engineers.</p> - -<p>This corps is recruited from the graduates of the Polytechnic, and -having passed satisfactorily the required examination for the public -service, are sent to the School of Application of Naval Engineering at -Paris, and to the dockyards, to learn their special business. The usual -number in attendance is 30, and the annual cost of the school is about -100,000 francs.</p> - -<p>The course occupies two years and a-half—three winters in Paris -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page677" id="page677">677</a></span> -and two summers in the dockyards. The pupils having a good general -education and a complete special knowledge of mathematics and -geometrical drawing, the courses are from the start eminently -practical.</p> - -<p>The instruction in Paris during the first session consists of: 1, a -course on construction; 2, on displacement and stability; 3, on strength -of materials; 4, English; 5, free-hand drawing; 6, plan-drawing of -vessels. During the second session it consists of: 1, a practical course -on steam-engines; 2, a theoretical course on steam; 3, applied -mechanics, machines in general; 4, English; 5, accounts; 6, -plan-drawing, ships and engines; 7, pictorial drawing. During the third -session: 1, course on stability, (2d part;) 2, on naval -architecture; 3, naval artillery; 4, technology of workshops, special to -the navy; 5, accounts; 6, English; 7, plan-drawing, projects for ships; -8, free-hand drawing.</p> - -<p>In the first year ship-building is taken up; in the second, the -steam-engine, and in the third the two are combined and completed. When -in the dockyards, the pupils are placed under the order of the engineer -in charge of works in execution, who sees that they are attentive to -their duty, and have proper instruction. He also examines and certifies -the journals which the pupils have to keep. The director of the school -gives each pupil detailed instruction to guide him in the choice of the -practical work he shall attend to. The first summer is devoted to the -construction of ships, the second to that of engines. The pupils select -the ports to which they will go, according to their standing in their -class.</p> - -<p>At the end of two years and a half, the pupils are examined by a -board, and if found qualified, they are appointed assistant engineers of -the third class. If they fail to pass, they may be allowed another -year—but failing in that, they are definitely rejected.</p> - -<p>The private pupils, natives or foreigners, who to the number of eight -are allowed to attend the course in Paris, may obtain permission to go -through the whole practical course in one of the imperial dockyards, but -are not subjected to the same discipline as the regular pupils. On -leaving, they receive from the director a certificate of the course gone -through, their talent and diligence.</p> - -<p>The school is under the immediate orders of a Director of Naval -Construction, who is also one of the professors, and is assisted in the -several branches taught by other professors, who are marine engineers, -and a special teacher of drawing, and another of the English -language.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page678" id="page678">678</a></span> -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_conscript" id="france_conscript" href="#navy_france">MARITIME CONSCRIPTION.</a></p> - -<p>The French naval service is supplied by a system of conscription -analogous to that for the army. All persons, who reside on the coast, -whose labor is on the sea, or on navigable rivers reached by the tide, -are enrolled on arriving at the age of eighteen, and are liable to be -summoned to the naval service until they are fifty, for an aggregate -period of seven years.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_artill" id="france_artill" -href="#navy_france">SCHOOLS OF MARINE ARTILLERY.</a></p> - -<p>There is at Brest, Toulon, and L’Orient, schools of marine artillery, -besides floating schools at Brest and Toulon, for practice at firing at -a mark at sea.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead"><a name="france_hydro" id="france_hydro" href="#navy_france">BOARD OF HYDROGRAPHERS.</a></p> - -<p>The Board of Hydrographers is located at Paris. Pupils who have -completed the polytechnic course enter the corps with the rank of -<i>élève hydrographe</i>, with the same rank and advantages as naval -architects. They are sent to the coast to make surveys, and after two -years service in the field, and in office work under special -instruction, become assistant hydrographers without further -examination.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page679" id="page679">679</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="france_naval" id="france_naval" href="#navy_france">NAVY AND NAVAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.</a></h4> - -<p class="smallhead">I. MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE.</p> - -<p>The progress of the French Navy is represented in the following -statistics taken from the Statesman’s Year Book for 1871: In 1780 the -war fleet consisted of 60 first-class ships, 24 second class, and 182 -smaller vessels,—total 266 ships, with 13,300 guns, and 78,000 -sailors. In 1805, the number was reduced by casualties and neglect to 18 -men-of-war, with 1,352 guns. In 1844 the whole force amounted to 226 -sailing vessels, and 47 steamers, with 8,639 guns and 24,513 sailors. In -1855 the navy was reorganized, by the introduction of every new -appliance of naval architecture, construction, and ordnance, with the -following results, in 1869-70:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th>Classes.</th> -<th>Number.</th> -<th>Horse-Power.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1. Iron-clads,</td> -<td>62</td> -<td>28,150</td> -<td>672</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2. Screw Steamers,</td> -<td>264</td> -<td>55,812</td> -<td>1,547</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>3. Paddle Steamers,</td> -<td>62</td> -<td>8,665</td> -<td>154</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>4. Sailing Vessels,</td> -<td>113</td> -<td>. . </td> -<td>672</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">401</td> -<td class="sum">92,627</td> -<td class="sum">3,045</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The iron-clads <i>Magenta, Solferino, Couronne, Normandie, -Invincible</i>, and the cupola ship <i>Taureau</i>, are plated, with -rifle breech-loading guns, and are not surpassed in strength and -destructive armament by the ships of any other navy.</p> - -<p>Eleven of the smaller iron-clads, besides the ordinary floating -batteries, are so constructed that when out of service they can be taken -to pieces, packed up and stored away at the arsenal of Toulon.</p> - -<p>The navy is manned by a marine conscription, which dates back to -1683. For this purpose the maritime population is divided into five -grand divisions, the centres of which are the five great Naval stations, -with 12 subdivisions, including all the great seaports. Within these -divisions all men and youths from the 18th to 50th year of age, devoted -to a sea-going life, are enrolled, to the number of about 170,000. -Except in a national emergency the government dispenses with the -services of all under 20, and over 40, as well as pilots, captains, -fathers of large families, and seamen ready for long voyages in merchant -ships.</p> - -<p>The navy was officered in 1869 by two admirals, 16 vice admirals -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page680" id="page680">680</a></span> -in active service, and 10 on the reserve list; 30 rear admirals in -active, and 19 on reserve list; 130 captains of first class; 286 -captains of frigates; 825 lieutenants; 600 ensigns; and 300 midshipmen, -or aspirants;—total, 2,218 officers, and 39,346 sailors, who, -together with engineers, dockyard laborers, surgeons, chaplains, brought -up the number in actual service in 1869 to 74,403, which did not include -28,623 marines.</p> - -<p>The commercial marine of France embraced in 1867, 15,259 vessels, -with a tonnage of 1,042,811, ranging from 30 tons to 800 tons each, and -employing over 150,000 seamen, including 40,000 officers, whose duties -required special professional training. Of these, 607 were steamers, -with an aggregate of 129,777 tons and 55,160 horse power. The value of -the commerce of France for 1867-8 was 7,500 millions of francs.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">II. NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.</p> - -<p>The French government was among the earliest to provide special -schools for the officers of its merchant service as well as for its -war-vessels. Prior even to the establishment, under an ordinance issued -by Cardinal Richelieu, of schools for the study of navigation in 1629, -Henry III., in 1584, had instituted examinations for boatswains and -captains of merchant vessels, for which preparation had to be made with -private teachers. In 1791 free schools of hydrography were authorized in -thirty-four sea-ports; out of 24,000 pupils of these schools, from 1850 -to 1866, 3,731 qualified themselves as captains of vessels in the -foreign trade, and 5,118 for service in the coasting trade. Prior to -1800, in fitness of design and skill in construction, French naval -architecture was superior to that of other countries.</p> - -<p>The system of education for the mercantile and military marine -embraced in 1866 the following schools:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p> 1. Nautical School for the Orphans of Sailors.</p> -<p> 2. The Inflexible and other School-ships.</p> -<p> 3. Naval Apprentice Schools at the government naval -stations.</p> -<p> 4. School for Boatswains and Shipmasters.</p> -<p> 5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers.</p> -<p> 6. Naval Drawing School.</p> -<p> 7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography.</p> -<p> 8. Naval School at Brest.</p> -<p> 9. School of Naval Architecture at Paris</p> -<p>10. School of Marine Artillery.</p> -<p>11. School and Board of Hydrography.</p> -<p>12. Naval School of Medicine and Pharmacy.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page681" id="page681">681</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="navy_germany" id="navy_germany"></a>NAVAL AND NAVIGATIONAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY.</h4> - -<p class="smallhead">INTRODUCTION.</p> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> organization of the North German -Confederation, and more recently of the German Empire, and the -necessities of its position, have already led to the rapid development -of a military marine, and the unity of the commercial interests of the -different States will soon expand its navigation as well as its naval -armament.</p> - - -<h5><a name="navy_germany_prussia" id="navy_germany_prussia" href="#navy_germany">1. KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA.</a></h5> - -<p>Long before Prussia was largely interested in either a military or -commercial marine, the government had provided for the systematic -training of all concerned in the construction, equipment, and running of -ships, whether destined for the defense of the country or to its -commercial interests. After enjoying opportunities of studying the -theory of their business, as well as the practical application of its -principles, they must pass an examination to test their knowledge both -of the theory and practice—with a provision that no one shall -assume the responsibility of the life and property of others without -holding a certificate of proficiency.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.</p> - -<p>There are six schools, situated at Memul, Dantzic, Pollan, Grabow -(near Stettin), and Stralsund, devoted to the education of young men who -propose to become mariners and masters of merchant vessels. -A single director, residing at Dantzic, has the superintendence of -all these schools, which have each two professors, each in charge of a -division of the school, and an assistant who devotes himself to drawing -in connection with the construction of vessels, and of charts. The -principal has charge of the higher division, in which navigation and -geography, both of the sea, and of the natural productions and -commercial facilities of different countries are taught. The lower -division deals with subjects which concern pilots—their -professional and legal duties.</p> - -<p>Candidates must have mastered the subjects of elementary instruction, -and are examined as to their ability to read, write, and compose in -their native language, and to go through ordinary arithmetical problems -with facility and accuracy. An examination of -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page682" id="page682">682</a></span> -candidates takes place every year at each school, which is conducted by -the head professor, in the presence of the director of this class of -schools.</p> - -<p>To be admitted to the examination the candidate must bring a -certificate of good character, that he is over 14 and under 40 years of -age. The school fee is ten thalers per quarter for the highest or -navigation class, and six thalers for the lower or pilot’s class. There -are 32 lessons per week in both divisions.</p> - -<p>The subjects taught in the lowest division are:—arithmetic, -plane geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, -territorial and astronomical observations, drawing of sea charts and -astronomical maps, and the English language.</p> - -<p>In the highest division, in addition to the studies of the lower, in -which the pupils are carried further on, rigging and other points of -practical seamanship, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the -commercial requirements respecting a ship’s papers, and the course of -exchange at the principal commercial ports, are taught.</p> - -<p>A final examination is held in which diplomas are awarded to those -who have completed the whole course, and of proficiency in certain -studies, either of which are of practical service in obtaining -situations, and without which certain positions can not be obtained.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.</p> - -<p>In the Trade or Polytechnic School in Berlin, provision is made for -instruction in naval construction:</p> - -<p><i>First</i>—In the mathematical foundation of the most -important physical laws; in physics, drawing, modeling, and the general -principles of construction; in practical hydraulics; the theory of -machinery, and the steam-engine.</p> - -<p><i>Second</i>—In the application of these principles to the -business of ship-designing and construction, and particularly to designs -for vessels, and the different parts of a ship in detail; to the art of -ship-building; the general displacement of water and stability; -hydrostatic calculations; general principles with regard to the form of -vessels, and the theory of sailing and steam-ships; details of -construction of wooden and iron vessels; practice; and planning and -calculating the cost and capacity of vessels.</p> - -<p>There are reviews of the ground gone over at the close of each term, -which is obligatory only on those who enjoy free places, and each -student receives a certificate at the end of his course, setting forth -all his lectures and practical exercises, with an opinion as to his -practical judgment.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page683" id="page683">683</a></span> -<h5><a name="navy_germany_austria" id="navy_germany_austria" href="#navy_germany">II. AUSTRIA.</a></h5> - -<p>Under the new army organization of 1869, the military forces of the -whole empire are divided into the Standing Army, under the control of -the Imperial Minister of War; the Landwehr, whose duties are limited to -the respective divisions from which it is drawn, under the control of -the Austrian and Hungarian war ministers; and the Landstrum, or general -levy, which is compulsory in the Tyrol and Military Frontier, and -voluntary in the rest of the empire. The Emperor is supreme chief of the -military and naval forces, and from him must emanate all concentrating -movements of troops. In 1871 the Standing Army consisted of 278,470 men -on the peace footing, and 838,700 on the war footing.</p> - -<p>The naval forces of Austria consisted in 1871, of 46 steamers and 10 -sailing vessels, viz.:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<th>Horse-power.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -<th>Tonnage.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 2 Iron-clad Line-of-battle Ships,</td> -<td>1,800</td> -<td>22</td> -<td>11,138</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 7 Iron-clad Frigates,</td> -<td>4,550</td> -<td>88</td> -<td>25,452</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 4 Screw Frigates,</td> -<td>1,500</td> -<td>149</td> -<td>9,407</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 3 Screw Corvettes,</td> -<td>860</td> -<td>50</td> -<td>4,703</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 7 First class Gunboats,</td> -<td>1,610</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>4,311</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> 3 Second class Gunboats,</td> -<td>270</td> -<td>9</td> -<td>999</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">16 Paddle Steamers,</td> -<td>2,381</td> -<td>51</td> -<td>9,442</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>10 Sailing Ves’ls, viz.:</td> -<td class="text">2 Frigates,</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>35</td> -<td>3,032</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="text">2 Corvettes,</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>1,416</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="text">4 Brigs,</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>40</td> -<td>1,176</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="text">2 Transp’ts,</td> -<td>. .</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>283</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The navy is officered and manned by 2 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals, -24 captains of steamers and frigates, 14 captains of corvettes, 106 -lieutenants, 343 ensigns and cadets, and 3,803 sailors, besides 875 -officers and men in the marine corps. On the war footing the sailors -number 3,743, and the marines 1,410. The men are recruited by -conscription from the seafaring population, although the voluntary -enlistments in the province of Dalmatia renders its enforcement -unnecessary.</p> - -<p>The total commerce of Austria, comprising imports and exports, -exceeded $400,000,000. The commercial marine includes 7,830 vessels, of -324,415 tonnage, and 27,979 seamen. The Austrian Lloyd, a trading -society established in Trieste in 1833, owns a fleet of 70 steamers, of -12,500 horse-power.</p> - -<p>To provide officials, well instructed and trained in the -administration of each department of the public service, military and -civil—war by land and sea—both for military and commercial -purposes, the government establishes schools, with studies and practical -exercises adapted to each branch.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page684" id="page684">684</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">SCHOOLS FOR THE MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL -MARINE.</p> - -<p class="heading">1. <i>Military Marine.</i></p> - -<p>There are in Austria several kinds of naval schools, as follows: One -each for sailor boys, for marines, for quartermasters, for naval pupils -of the first class, for naval pupils of the second class, a theoretical -school for naval cadets, and a superior establishment for naval -officers.</p> - -<p>1. The school for sailor boys is intended to train, as petty officers -for the navy, young men from the Slave and German provinces, admitted -between 12 and 14 years of age into the naval service. The instruction -lasts until the pupil has attained the age for the conscription; he is -then entered as a sailor and becomes a petty officer as soon as he gets -sufficiently used to the sea. The highest post he can attain is that of -upper boatswain (<i>Hochbootsmann</i>.)</p> - -<p>2. The schools for marines (<i>Zeugscorps</i>) receive men drawn from -different corps of the army. They are trained as petty officers, and a -part receive the uniform. Those who are fit to become officers receive -their promotion when they leave their corps to enter the school.</p> - -<p>3. The school for naval cadets of the first class is kept on board a -war vessel selected for the purpose. The object is to prepare for the -naval service youths of 16 or 18 years of age, who, on entering the -school have already received a complete civil technical education. The -teaching here consists, therefore, chiefly of practical seamanship, and -also of the application of previously acquired scientific knowledge to -navigation and nautical astronomy. The course occupies a year; on -leaving, the pupil is received as a naval cadet. After passing two or -three years at sea these cadets enter the theoretical school for naval -cadets.</p> - -<p>4. The school for naval cadets of the second class is intended solely -to prepare them to become officers. In this school, beside the pupils -placed there at the cost of the State, there are others maintained by -endowments, and also others who pay for their instruction. The sons of -officers and State functionaries are entitled to enter this school at -the public expense, and any Austrian subject who has the necessary -qualifications is admitted on payment. Foreigners are also admissible as -paying pupils, provided they can obtain authorization from their own -government to enter the Austrian service. To be admitted, candidates -must be between 12 and 14 years of age, of sound health without bodily -defect, and able to pass a previous examination. The instruction is -given in accordance with a determined plan, on board a vessel prepared -expressly to receive the pupils. After three years’ instruction the -pupils leave the school as naval cadets and are sent to sea. At the end -of two or three years’ active service the cadets are admitted to the -theoretical school. This school receives from 40 to 50 pupils. The -chaplain on board is charged with the religious instruction; the other -teaching is given by professors from the hydrographic schools. The naval -officers of the school-ship give the instruction in practical -seamanship.</p> - -<p>5. The theoretical school for naval cadets is on shore, and its -course occupies a year, after which the pupil undergoes the examination -prescribed for his commission as an officer. On leaving this theoretical -school the pupils are still naval cadets, but become officers when -appointed to a ship.</p> - -<p>6. The superior school for naval officers is intended for the further -improvement in mathematical and hydrographic studies, of such young men -as have shown decided talent and taste for those sciences.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page685" id="page685">685</a></span> -<h5><a name="navy_germany_empire" id="navy_germany_empire" href="#navy_germany">III. GERMAN EMPIRE.</a></h5> - -<p>The jurisdiction of the German Empire, by treaty concluded at -Versailles, and ratified by the Diet of North Germany Dec. 10, 1870, -embraces among other national interests, the Army and Navy, and the -protection of German navigation.</p> - -<p>The war-fleet of the Empire, which embraces all that had been -constructed by Prussia since 1848, consisted in June, 1870, of 38 -steamers and 7 sailing vessels, with 42,415 tonnage, and 480 guns.</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<th>Horse-<br>power.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -<th>Tonnage.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 5 Iron-clads,</td> -<td>3,700</td> -<td>62</td> -<td>15,846</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 9 Steam Frigates and Corvettes,</td> -<td>3,200</td> -<td>200</td> -<td>14,210</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 8 <span class="dittomark">Steam</span> First class -Gunboats,</td> -<td>640</td> -<td>24</td> -<td>5,858</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>14 <span class="dittomark">Steam</span> Second   “   -  “</td> -<td>840</td> -<td>28</td> -<td>5,858</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 1 <span class="dittomark">Steam</span> Yacht,</td> -<td>160</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>445</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 2 Paddle-Steamer Corvettes,</td> -<td>600</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>1,750</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 3 Frigates (sailing vessels),</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -<td>114</td> -<td>3,736</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 4 Brigs,     “</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -<td>46</td> -<td>1,927</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The German navy was officered and manned by 1 admiral, 1 -vice-admiral, 1 rear-admiral, 27 captains and 217 lieutenants, and 3,283 -seamen and boys, besides 2,760 in the marine corps. The sailors of the -fleet and the marine corps are recruited by conscription, from the -seafaring population, which numbers 80,000.</p> - -<p>The provision for naval expenditure in 1870, was for—</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td>Ministry of Marine,</td> -<td>81,250</td> -<td><i>thalers</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Administration officers,</td> -<td>65,557</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pay of seamen and marines,</td> -<td>1,086,990</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Repairs of ships,</td> -<td>890,000</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Marine hospitals,</td> -<td>71,820</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>War material,</td> -<td>1,221,317</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Miscellaneous,</td> -<td>179,796</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in2">Total ordinary expenses,</td> -<td>3,596,730</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in2">Extraordinary expenditure,</td> -<td>4,403,460</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Grand total,</td> -<td class="sum">8,000,190</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The artificial harbor and dry-docks at Wilhelmshaven, in the Bay of -Jade, on the North Sea, which was opened by the King of Prussia in June, -1869, have cost over $10,000,000.</p> - -<p>The system of professional training for officers of the Imperial Navy -is not yet matured. The Naval School at Kiel is still recognized. -Aspirants enter as naval cadets after passing an examination equivalent -to the requirements of a gymnasial maturity certificate, which in -general education is superior to the requirements of graduation of -either our Naval or Military Academy. Before entering on their -professional studies, the cadet is first sent on a cruise to test his -aptitude for sea-service. He then studies eight months at school and one -year at sea, to pass as midshipman; and one year more at school, and -three years at sea, to become sub-lieutenant.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page686" id="page686">686</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">MARINE ACADEMY AT KIEL.</p> - -<p>The German Marine Academy established in 1872, at Kiel, is designed -not for the education of cadets, but for the professional training and -improvement of officers already in the naval service of the -empire—and is of the same character as the Staff School of Berlin -for officers of the army. Those only will be received as pupils, whose -conduct and talents seem to qualify them for superior scientific -attainments, and, hereafter, for the filling of the most important -posts. These officer-pupils will be required to give proofs of their -diligence and progress by the production, from time to time, of theses -and dissertations on scientific subjects given to them by the -professors. At the same time, all naval officers will be permitted to -attend the courses of instruction when their professional duties do not -call them away.</p> - -<p>The course of study is to occupy two terms, each of twelve months’ -duration, with a vacation of three months for practical exercises.</p> - -<p>The subjects for the first term are:—Mathematics, natural -philosophy, chemistry, the theory of naval war in all its branches, -military tactics in as far as disembarkations are concerned, coast -surveying, the theory of the formation of coasts, coastal defenses, -field fortification, the constitution of military courts, the principles -of international, military, and naval law, the system of administration, -sanitary science, especially with reference to life aboard ship and in -different climates, the elements of logic, ethics, &c.</p> - -<p>The following subjects will be included in the second -term:—Nautical astronomy, geodesy, theory of maps and charts, the -history of war, with especial reference to naval war, artillery, -ship-building, the construction of steam-engines (with practical -exercises), the position and construction of naval ports, physical -geography, the elements of geology, marine botany and zoölogy, and the -general history of modern literature and civilization, &c.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<h4>Footnotes for Part VIII: Great Britain</h4> - -<p><a name="note8_1" id="note8_1" href="#tag8_1">1</a> -Two regiments created in the reigns of Richard III, and of Henry VIII, -the first styled <i>Gentlemen Pensioners</i>, or <i>Gentlemen at -Arms</i>, consisting originally exclusively of noblemen, and the latter, -<i>Yeomen of the Guard</i>, still exist. The latter is the only body -that has the <ins class="correction" -title="second ‘i’ invisible before line break">privilege</ins> of traversing London with flags -flying, drums beating, and fixed bayonets.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_2" id="note8_2" href="#tag8_2">2</a> -The Inspector of Studies at the Academy, now member of the Military -Board of Education.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_3" id="note8_3" href="#tag8_3">3</a> -These examinations will take place on the first Wednesdays in the months -of March, June, September, and December.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_4" id="note8_4" href="#tag8_4">4</a> -The examination on leaving the training ship will embrace all the -subjects of the former examination, except Latin, and in addition to -them it will include, in algebra, simple equations; the elements of -geometry, plane trigonometry, and the solution, &c., as in the -Circular No 288, dated Feb. 23rd, 1857; and in addition the use of the -globes with correct definitions of latitude, longitude, azimuth, -amplitude, and other circles of the sphere, and drawing.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_5" id="note8_5" href="#tag8_5">5</a> -The Trinity Board of Hull was established in 1537, in imitation of -Trinity House, London, incorporated by Henry VIII in 1515, (but existing -long before,) for the promotion of commerce and navigation, licensing -pilots, erecting beacons and lighthouses, &c. Both were probably in -imitation of Charles V who established at Seville, in Spain, at the -<i>Casa de Contratacion</i>, lectures on navigation, and an examination -of persons to act as pilots and <ins class="correction" -title="final . missing">mariners.</ins></p> - -<p><a name="note8_6" id="note8_6" href="#tag8_6">6</a> -According to the Registrar General’s Report for 1858, there were 13,200 -Foreigners serving in the Mercantile Marine in 1854, natives of the -following countries:—Americans, (U.S.,) 3,888; Austrians, 532; -Belgians, 198, Danes, 423; Germans, 319; Greeks, 76; Hollanders, <ins -class="correction" title="printed as shown">1,(3)</ins>; Italians, -110; Norwegians, 570; Portuguese, 564; Russians, 44; Prussians, 563; -Spaniards, 388; Swedes, 1,512; French, 479; Various, viz., South -Americans, Chinese. &c., &c.. 2,499; total, 13,200.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_7" id="note8_7" href="#tag8_7">7</a> -The school at Hull is the only navigation school at which <i>no</i> -adults are received.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_8" id="note8_8" href="#tag8_8">8</a> -I prefer this to any other plan, because the stimulus to exertion will -be greater.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_9" id="note8_9" href="#tag8_9">9</a> -The value attached to an apprenticeship varies largely with the employs, -the port, &c. Mr. Green charges 180<i>l</i> for a four-years’ -apprenticeship as a midshipman. Large shipowners at Glasgow and -elsewhere pay 35<i>l</i> for a similar term to a common apprentice</p> - -<p><a name="note8_10" id="note8_10" href="#tag8_10">10</a> -Owing to the low rate of wages referred to, large numbers of apprentices -run away every year, after they have served a portion of their time.</p> - -<p><a name="note8_11" id="note8_11" href="#tag8_11">11</a> -Official Report on Paris Industrial Exhibition of 1866, group X. -Official programmes of the several schools noticed.</p> -</div> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Errata for Part VIII (Great Britain and Naval Schools):</h4> - -<p><span class="citation">Oxford Blues, the Royal Scots, and the -Second Queen’s Royals.<sup>1</sup></span><br> -Royals.”<sup>1</sup></p> - -<p class="partial">[Footnote 1]</p> -<p><span class="citation">The latter is the only body that has the -privilege</span><br> -<i>hyphen in “priv-/ilege” invisible at</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">“to place themselves under the orders of a -director of studies</span><br> -<i>mismatched open quote in original</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">feel the effects of the change which has -been made in it.”</span><br> -<i>closing ” missing</i></p> - -<p class="partial"><span class="citation">practical trial in their -work.</span></p> -<p><span class="citation">appointments and promotion.</span><br> -<i>both . missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">will be regulated at the following rates, as -heretofore:</span><br> -followig</p> - -<p><span class="citation">elsewhere than at Eton</span><br> -Eaton</p> - -<p><span class="citation">The use of meteorological -instruments</span><br> -intruments</p> - -<p><span class="citation">and to lay them underground,</span><br> -undergound</p> - -<p><span class="citation">Facing B.L. guns. / Practical examination, -etc.</span><br> -etc,</p> - -<p><span class="citation">the Royal Warrant for Pay, Promotion,” -etc.,</span><br> -<i>printed as shown: missing open quote or superfluous close -quote?</i></p> - -<p class="partial">[Footnote 5]</p> -<p><span class="citation">and an examination of persons to act as -pilots and mariners.</span><br> -<i>final . missing</i></p> - -<p class="partial">[Footnote 6]</p> -<p><span class="citation">Hollanders, 1,(3);</span><br> -<i>printed as shown</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">and give a great deal of trouble; we want -men.”</span><br> -<i>close quote missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">a physical and military education, which -developes their strength</span><br> -<i>anomalous spelling unchanged</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">averages a little more than £6 per boy per -annum.</span><br> -<i>final . missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">But such was not the case.</span><br> -csse</p> - -<p><span class="citation">and the studies were pursued with greater -vigor.</span><br> -persued</p> - -<p class="partial">[The following table, giving the statistics of the -school at Toulon]</p> -<p><span class="citation">| 251 | 235 | 181 | 97 | 67 | 58 -|</span><br> -<i>last row of table has 225 for 235</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">The requirements for admission are a -knowledge of arithmetic,</span><br> -knowlege</p> -</div> - -</body> -</html> |