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Parts III-VII -and IX: Austria, Bavaria and other countries."> - -<title>Military Instruction: Austria, Bavaria and others</title> - -<style type="text/css"> -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -a.tag {text-decoration: none; vertical-align: .3em; font-size: small; -padding-left: .25em; line-height: .1em;} -h1 a, h2 a, h3 a, h4 a, h5 a, h6 a, p.heading a, p.smallhead a -{text-decoration: none;} - -h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; -font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; -margin-bottom: .5em;} - -h1 {font-size: 250%;} -h2 {font-size: 200%; margin-top: 3em;} -h2.part {padding: 1em 0; border-top: 4px double black; -border-bottom: 4px double black; margin: 4em auto; max-width: 18em;} -h3, h4.three {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em; -padding-bottom: 12px; -background: center bottom no-repeat url("images/underline.png"); -margin-bottom: 1em; font-weight: normal;} -h4 {font-size: 83%; margin-top: 2em;} -div.footnote h4 {font-size: 120%; 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text-indent: 0; -margin-bottom: -.5em;} -span.citation {font-size: medium; font-family: serif;} -</style> -</head> - -<body> -<div class="mynote"> -<p> -The section on Switzerland (Part IX) was printed after the section on Great -Britain (Part VIII). It has been included here, out of sequence, to balance the -file sizes. In the “Bavaria” section, and the tables at the end of the -“Austria” section, “caligraphy” is consistently spelled with one <b>l</b>. -</p> - -<p>Italy was unified immediately before the first (1862) edition -of the book. The arrangement of Part V generally reflects -pre-unification systems.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page407" id="page407">407</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partIII"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART III.</span><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.</h2> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page409" id="page409">409</a></span> -<h3><a name="austria" id="austria" href="#partIII">XV. MILITARY -SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.</a></h3> - -<h4><a name="austria_outline" id="austria_outline" href="#austria">I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Austrian Army is recruited by -conscription, the period of service being for eight years, with two -years in addition for the reserve; but such soldiers as wish it may -generally obtain leave after six years’ service. Those who serve eight -years are understood to have a claim for employment on railways and in -the custom-houses. Substitutes are allowed, but they are provided solely -by the State, and the means used for supplying them is made an element -towards securing good Non-Commissioned Officers for the Austrian Army, -in the following manner.</p> - -<p>The sum paid over by private individuals for avoiding service in the -Army is £150 (1,500 florins,) and the Government, in providing a -substitute, pays him the <i>interest</i> of this sum during his period -of service, and the <i>capital</i> when it is completed. A good -substitute is permitted to serve twice, and he may thus receive £300 -(3,000 florins) when he quits the army. Generally speaking, the -substitutes provided by the Government are good Non-Commissioned -Officers, who by these means are induced to continue a length of time in -the service.</p> - -<p>The Officers are obtained during a state of peace, either from the -Military Academies, or by direct entry as Cadets, after passing a slight -examination, into the regiments of infantry and cavalry, in which -capacity they perform the ordinary duties of soldiers, and no particular -period of service is required in this grade. The entry as Cadets is by -nomination, part by the Colonels, proprietors of Regiments; part -consisting of those having claims on the Regiments; and part of those -recommended from the ranks.</p> - -<p>Those who join the Army from the Military Academies consist -principally of the sons of military men, whose education is mainly -provided for by the State, and of others who are placed there by means -of funds provided by provinces, districts, municipalities, or private -individuals.</p> - -<p>Any Austrian subject has a <i>claim</i> for admittance, on payment of -the annual sum prescribed by the regulations.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page410" id="page410">410</a></span> -<p>There is no fixed proportion existing between the Infantry and -Cavalry officers supplied from the Military Academies, and those -entering regiments directly as cadets, but it is understood that the -former do not amount to more than one-twentieth or one-thirtieth of the -latter.</p> - -<p>The Artillery and Engineers are now entirely supplied with officers -from the Military Academies.</p> - -<p>There is no difference in the pay of officers of the same rank in the -various arms in Austria.</p> - -<p>Officers when not required are placed on half-pay, which is rather -less than the half of their actual pay whilst serving. When an officer -dies, his widow is not entitled to a pension, but the state provides for -the education of the children; and to prevent distress, an officer is -not permitted to marry unless he has a certain income, independent of -his pay, for the maintenance of his wife.</p> - -<p>The promotion in the Infantry and Cavalry is regimental, and usually -by seniority; but there is no doubt that promotion by selection also -takes place, though not in the regiment itself, the officer selected -being promoted into another regiment. The promotion in the Artillery and -Engineers is also by seniority, and by corps, and, until the Hungarian -war, was exceedingly slow.</p> - -<p>Although not actually sanctioned by the authorities, cases have -occurred in the Austrian service where officers have purchased steps -from others serving in <i>different</i> regiments to themselves in the -following manner:—if any officer is about to retire from the -service, the promotion in the regiment being by seniority, the officer -whose turn it would be to obtain the promotion would frequently sell his -right to a junior officer serving in another regiment, who would thus be -promoted into the vacancy. We were informed that this system had -formerly led to frequent duels between the officer obtaining the -promotion, and those officers in the regiment whose prospects were -directly injured, by the senior having sold his promotion, and thus -stopped their advancement.</p> - - -<h4><a name="austria_education" id="austria_education" href="#austria">II. OUTLINE OF SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p>Military education in Austria has been entirely remodeled since the -Hungarian war, and is now conducted in a very regular and systematic -manner under the sole control and supervision of the Fourth Section of -the Supreme War Department, entitled “Military Schools.”</p> - -<p>The establishment consists besides of—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>2 Majors of Infantry.</p> -<p>1 Captain of Artillery.</p> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page411" id="page411">411</a></span> -<p>2 Captains of Infantry.</p> -<p>2 Lieutenants of Infantry.</p> -<p>2 Employés belonging to the Administration.</p> -<p>6 Clerks.</p> -<p>6 Messengers.</p> -</div> - -<p>To show the great importance of the Fourth Section, it will only be -necessary to state that the disbursements of the government for Military -Education in Austria for the current year are estimated at £281,440, -(2,814,400 florins,) without taking into consideration the sums -contributed for foundations by provinces, districts, and private -individuals, or of those received for the education of paying students. -This sum of 2,814,400 florins is apportioned in the following -manner—</p> - -<table class="outline numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<th>Florins.*</th> -<th colspan="2">Number of<br>Students.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Vienna Staff School,</td> -<td>43,000</td> -<td>30</td> -<td class="ongoing text">Officers.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="smallcaps">Academies</span>—</td> -<td></td> -<td colspan="2"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Wiener Neustadt, for Infantry and Cavalry,</td> -<td>256,000</td> -<td>400</td> -<td class="ongoing text">Students.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Znaim, for Engineers,</td> -<td>157,000</td> -<td>200</td> -<td class="ongoing" rowspan="20"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Olmutz, for Artillery,</td> -<td>122,000</td> -<td>200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Trieste, for Marine,</td> -<td>73,000</td> -<td>100</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 4 Cadet Houses, at 87,000f.,</td> -<td>348,000</td> -<td>800</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="smallcaps">School Companies—</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">6 Infantry, at 33,000f.,</td> -<td>198,000</td> -<td>720</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">1 Cavalry, at 39,000f.,</td> -<td>39,000</td> -<td>60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">2 Frontier, at 35,000f.,</td> -<td>70,000</td> -<td>240</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="smallcaps">Scientific School Companies—</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 5 Artillery, at 35,000f.,</td> -<td>175,000</td> -<td>600</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 1 Engineer, at 36,000f.,</td> -<td>36,000</td> -<td>120</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 1 Pioneer, at 36,000f.,</td> -<td>36,000</td> -<td>120</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 1 Flotilla, at 22,000f.,</td> -<td>22,000</td> -<td>60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 1 Marine, at 40,000f.,</td> -<td>40,000</td> -<td>150</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> 1 <span class="smallcaps">Non-Commissioned -officers’</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Teachers’ School, Wiener -Neustadt.</span></td> -<td>17,000</td> -<td>60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1 smallcaps">12 Upper Houses of Education, at -49,500f.,</td> -<td>594,000</td> -<td>2,400</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1 smallcaps">12 Under Houses of Education, at -25,700f.,</td> -<td>308,000</td> -<td>1,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="sum">2,534,400</td> -<td class="sum">7,430</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Bureau of the Fourth Section,</td> -<td>280,000</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">2,814,400</td> -<td class="toppad">= £281,440</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablefoot">* A florin is equal to two shillings of English -money.</p> - -<p>So that the annual cost to the state for the education of an officer -student, cadet, non-commissioned officer, and boy in these various -schools is as follows:—</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Student Officer at the Staff School,</td> -<td>143</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Student at the Engineer Academy,</td> -<td>78</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><span class="dittomark">Student at the</span> -Artillery Academy,</td> -<td>61</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><span class="dittomark">Student at the</span> -Infantry and Cavalry Academy,</td> -<td>64</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page412" id="page412">412</a></span> -<span class="dittomark">Student at the</span> Marine Academy,</td> -<td>48</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Cadets at the four Cadet Houses,</td> -<td>43</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="smallcaps">School Companies—</td> -<td></td><td></td><td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">An Infantry School Company Student,</td> -<td>27</td> -<td>10</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Cavalry <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>65</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Frontier <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>29</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">An Artillery <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>29</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">An Engineer <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>30</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Pioneer <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>30</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Flotilla <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>36</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Marine <span class="obscure">School Company -Student,</span></td> -<td>26</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Non-Commissioned Officer at the Teachers’ -School,</td> -<td>28</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">A Boy at the Upper Houses of Education,</td> -<td>29</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><span class="dittomark">A Boy at the</span> Lower -<span class="dittomark">Houses of Education,</span></td> -<td>25</td> -<td>14</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>And thus, as the course of instruction is continued for four years in -the Cadet Houses, four years in the Academies, and two years in the -Staff School, the cost of training the Officers in the Austrian Army -is—</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<th>£</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>For an Officer of Artillery, about</td> -<td>420</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">For an Officer of</span> Engineers,</td> -<td>490</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">For an Officer of</span> Infantry or -Cavalry,</td> -<td>430</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">For an Officer of</span> Marine,</td> -<td>370</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">For an Officer of</span> the Staff,</td> -<td>710</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>From the Bureau of this Section at Vienna all orders for the -management, maintenance, discipline, studies, and regulation of the -various Schools and Academies are issued; and all details relating to -the progress of the several students and the results of their -examinations are periodically sent and regularly examined.</p> - - -<h4><a name="austria_education_imperial" id="austria_education_imperial" href="#austria_education">THE IMPERIAL -INSTITUTIONS FOR MILITARY EDUCATION.</a><a class="tag" name="tag3_1" id="tag3_1" href="#note3_1">1</a></h4> - -<p>The Imperial institutions for Military Education, are divided into -Three Classes. They are—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>A. Such Institutions as are immediately intended for the education of -pupils as Non-commissioned Officers; namely,</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(1.) The Lower Military Houses of Education.</p> -<p>(2.) The Upper Military Houses of Education.</p> -<p>(3.) The School Companies.</p> -</div> - -<p>B. Institutions in which it is intended to educate pupils as -Officers; namely,</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(1.) The Cadet Institutions.</p> -<p>(2.) The Military Academies.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page413" id="page413">413</a></span> -<p>C. Such Institutions as partly give a special kind of instruction, -and partly complete and carry out the previous education of Officers. -These are—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>(1.) The Institution for Military Teachers.</p> -<p>(2.) The Higher Course for the Artillery and Engineers.</p> -<p>(3.) The War School.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In the institutions of the first and second class, education as well -as instruction is given, but those of the third class are limited to -instruction; accordingly, all that is said in the following pages with -regard to the admission of pupils, and with regard to beneficial -foundations, has no reference to institutions of the third class.</p> - -<p>Although each of the first-named classes forms a complete whole in -itself, yet they stand in close mutual relation to each other, inasmuch -as the most distinguished pupils of the Lower Houses of Education pass -into the Cadet Institutions; and in the same way the most distinguished -scholars of the Scientific<a class="tag" name="tag3_2" id="tag3_2" -href="#note3_2">2</a> School Companies, viz., those of the Artillery, -Engineers, Pioneers, Flotilla, and Marine Schools, may be transferred as -attendant pupils<a class="tag" name="tag3_3" id="tag3_3" href="#note3_3">3</a> to the Academies; by this means they may obtain a right -to a position in the Army as Officers.</p> - -<p>So, on the other hand, insufficient progress may be a reason for -scholars being removed from the Cadet Institutions and the Academies -into the Upper Houses of Education and the School Companies.</p> - -<p>By these regulations a road is opened for the advancement of any -talent that may gradually develop itself; and at the same time the -pupils of the Institutions for Higher Military Education are submitted -to that process of elimination which is requisite for the success of -these Institutions.</p> - -<p>The pupils in the Institutions for Military Education are either -foundation pupils,<a class="tag" name="tag3_4" id="tag3_4" href="#note3_4">4</a> or paying pupils; the first are divided into the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page414" id="page414">414</a></span> -military or treasury foundation pupils, and the provincial and private -foundation pupils.</p> - -<p>The military or treasury places belong to the army; the claim for -these depends upon the nature of the institution and the position of the -parents. As a general rule, it may be laid down that children of -officers are expected to remain up to eleven years of age under the care -of their parents, whereas those of common soldiers may in the eighth -year of their age be taken under the protection of the State.</p> - -<p>The provincial foundations are bestowed upon the sons of the -nobility, or of distinguished <i>employés</i> of the state belonging to -the crown lands of the province. Private foundations are those -established by private individuals or corporations, and the appointment -to these depends upon the conditions laid down by the founder. The -capital or property of these foundations is generally administered by -the Supreme War Department.<a class="tag" name="tag3_5" id="tag3_5" href="#note3_5">5</a></p> - -<p>Every Austrian subject may claim admission as a paying pupil, if the -other conditions of admission are fulfilled in his case.</p> - -<p>In the Lower Houses of Education there are only military or treasury -places.</p> - -<p>In the Upper Houses of Education there are 1,800 military places; the -remaining 600 are filled up by pupils upon provincial or private -foundations, and by paying pupils.</p> - -<p>In the School Companies the number of the foundation places and -paying places is not fixed.</p> - -<p>In the Cadet Institutions and the Academies there are 900 full and -200 half military places, and 520 places for pupils on provincial and -private foundations, and for paying pupils.<a class="tag" name="tag3_6" id="tag3_6" href="#note3_6">6</a></p> - -<p>A sum to cover the expenses is fixed in the case of the pupils on the -provincial and private foundations, as also for the paying pupils, -amounting in the Houses of Education and in the School Companies to 150 -florins (15<i>l.</i>) per annum; in the Cadet Houses to 400 florins -(40<i>l.</i>) per annum; in the Academies 600 florins (60<i>l.</i>) for -each of the three first years, and 800 florins (80<i>l.</i>) for the -last year. These payments will be subject to modifications, at -considerable intervals of time, according to the price of articles of -consumption, and will be drawn in the case of the pupils on the -provincial foundations -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page415" id="page415">415</a></span> -from the funds of the respective provinces, and in the case of the -pupils of the private foundations, from the moneys belonging to the -private foundations.</p> - -<p>The capital for the provincial and private foundations must be duly -secured and sufficient in amount to cover the fixed payments for the -number of places determined upon. Supposing the sum contributed to be -insufficient, the requisite sums must be obtained by deferring any -further nominations.<a class="tag" name="tag3_7" id="tag3_7" href="#note3_7">7</a> The proper sums in discharge of these contributions -must be paid in advance, half-yearly, on the 1st of October and the 1st -of April. Those which belong to the provincial foundations, and such -private ones as are administered by trustees, must be paid into the -nearest Military Chest.<a class="tag" name="tag3_8" id="tag3_8" -href="#note3_8">8</a> In the case of those pupils who pay for -themselves, the money must be sent precisely on the above-mentioned days -to the Commandant, or Director of the School, without reference to the -day on which the pupil may have entered the school. On the other hand, -in cases where a pupil either is removed from or otherwise quits the -institution before the natural time, restitution will be made of the -corresponding proportion of the sum paid in advance.</p> - -<p>For admission into a Military Educational Institution, the boy must -first of all be of the age specified for the institution in question, -and must further possess the proper bodily growth and strength -corresponding to that age, and the prescribed amount of knowledge. Every -boy who is to be offered as a candidate for a military place must first -be registered, and this in the course of the same year for which his -admission is desired. This registration must be made by the parents or -guardians through the Commanding Officers of the Army,<a class="tag" -name="tag3_9" id="tag3_9" href="#note3_9">9</a> or Army-Corps, or -Military Government<a class="tag" name="tag3_10" id="tag3_10" href="#note3_10">10</a> within whose district they are domiciled, or in -case of their living in foreign parts, through the Austrian Legation of -the country.</p> - -<p>Applications thus made must state what is the institution, admission -into which is desired, and must be accompanied by the following -certificates:—1. Baptismal certificate. 2. Certificate -of vaccination. 3. Certificate of bodily health, by a Military -Surgeon. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page416" id="page416">416</a></span> -4. The school certificate for the last half-yearly examination: And -5. On the reverse the following declaration:—</p> - -<p>“I hereby pledge myself to surrender up my son (<i>or</i> ward) to -the Imperial Military Service, in case of his being admitted into a -Military Educational Institution; and I declare that I will under no -pretext require his return.”</p> - -<p>The object of this declaration is, on the one hand, to secure -permanent elements for the Military Educational Institutions, and to -create in the minds of the relations of the candidates the seriousness -of purpose so essential in the choice of a profession. The declaration -will also serve to retain the pupils to a course, which they have -usefully commenced, and to protect them from the consequences of hasty -decisions on the part of their friends. On the other hand, if it appears -manifest that a pupil has not the requisite inclination or qualification -for the military service, his removal from the institution ensues with -or without the request of his friends, as will be more fully explained -further on.</p> - -<p>The applications will be examined by the Commanding Officers of the -Army, or the Army Corps, or Military Government, and after their -revision the candidates will be registered and the petitioners duly -informed.</p> - -<p>Any changes which occur in the case of the registered candidate, or -in his family circumstances, between the time of registration and of -actual admission, are to be made known to the authorities before whom -the application was brought.</p> - -<p>The registers are to be submitted to the Supreme War Department in -the middle of June, so that applications can be received by the -Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military Government, -at the utmost only up to the end of May.</p> - -<p>Appointments to the military places in the Houses of Education and -the School Companies are made by the Supreme War Department; His Majesty -the Emperor reserves for himself those in the Cadet Institutions and the -Academies.</p> - -<p>Vacancies in the provincial foundation places are advertised, and -applications called for, by the Governors or by the Standing Committees -of the Estates of the respective provinces.<a class="tag" name="tag3_11" id="tag3_11" href="#note3_11">11</a></p> - -<p>All proposals made in this manner are forwarded to the Minister -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page417" id="page417">417</a></span> -of the Interior, and submitted by him for the sanction of His -Majesty.</p> - -<p>Appointments to the private foundations are made by the person -specified by the founder; decisions of this kind are submitted on or -before the 15th of June, to the Supreme War Department for their -approval of the candidates and distribution of them into the various -institutions.</p> - -<p>If a candidate in whose case the prescribed conditions of admission -are not fulfilled is nominated to a private foundation, and his -nomination consequently not approved, a new nomination must be made.</p> - -<p>Pupils who pay are appointed by the Supreme War Department.</p> - -<p>The sanction of the appointments and the distribution of the -candidates appointed in the various institutions, in the case of the -military and the paying pupils, will be made known to them by the -Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military Government; -in the case of the provincial foundations by the Minister of the -Interior; and in the case of the private foundations by the -trustees.</p> - -<p>Candidates living in a foreign country will be informed by the -Legation in that country.</p> - -<p>Upon the appointment made to an entirely gratuitous place in a -military educational institution, all payments of allowances for the -education of children cease.<a class="tag" name="tag3_12" id="tag3_12" href="#note3_12">12</a></p> - -<p>The conveyance of military foundation pupils to the school to which -they are appointed will, if not provided for by the friends of the -pupils, be made at the expense of the Military Treasury by the ordinary -means of locomotion.</p> - -<p>Trustworthy Non-commissioned Officers from the nearest detachment of -troops should be selected by the military authorities for the conveyance -and charge of the pupils; four or five being, according to the -circumstances, committed to the care of a single superintendent.</p> - -<p>The conveyance of all other pupils must be provided for by their -friends.</p> - -<p>Admission into the Military Educational Institutions takes place only -at the commencement of the school year. Candidates admitted must present -themselves in their respective institutions between the 15th and the -30th of September.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page418" id="page418">418</a></span> -<p>The Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military -Government have to take care that every candidate admitted to a military -place shall, before leaving to join the institution, be a second time -examined by an Army Surgeon, and shall only be allowed to proceed to the -institution in case of his bodily qualifications being found perfectly -sufficient.</p> - -<p>Finally, the candidate upon presenting himself must be re-examined by -the chief Medical Officer of the institution, and if he is hereby found -to be unqualified for military education, will not be received.<a class="tag" name="tag3_13" id="tag3_13" href="#note3_13">13</a></p> - -<p>Any Military Surgeon or Medical Officer who incurs the guilt of -neglect of his duty in this particular will be held responsible.</p> - -<p>Every candidate upon presenting himself will moreover undergo the -prescribed examination in his previous studies, and if his previous -education appears insufficient, his appointment will be cancelled.<a -class="tag" name="tag3_14" id="tag3_14" href="#note3_14">14</a></p> - -<p>Pupils admitted after a private education into a Military Institution -are provided by this institution with new linen, and clothes. All -clothes they bring with them are without exception to be returned to -their friends, and an acknowledgment of the return given.</p> - -<p>No pupil in any of the Military Institutions is allowed to possess -any linen or clothes except what is provided; and the friends and -relations are not to be called upon for any sort whatever of additional -contribution. An amount of pocket-money, varying with the character of -the institution, may be transmitted to the pupils through the hands of -the authorities of the school; but this is entirely at the pleasure of -the friends and relations; all necessaries being provided by the -institution.</p> - -<p>The pocket-money can only be paid to the pupil through the Commanding -Officer of the Institution or of the Company.</p> - -<p>The amount allowed must depend on the conduct of the pupil, but must -not, even in the Academies, exceed three florins (six shillings) a -month.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction given in the Military Educational -Institutions is fixed by special tables drawn up for each institution. -Special text-books, to be followed in the courses, are also -appointed.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page419" id="page419">419</a></span> -<p>The tables drawn up to regulate the course of instruction are subject -to such modifications as may be called for by the requirements of -science and by improvements in the methods of teaching.</p> - -<p>The scholars will also receive in the course of the year, more -particularly in summer, and after the close of the examination, -practical instruction suitable to the arm of the service for which they -are destined.</p> - -<p>Every September the pupils pass into the next succeeding yearly -course.</p> - -<p>In the same month the scholars quit the institutions, and are either -placed in the army or transferred to other institutions. The conditions -under which this is done are given in detail in the account of each -institution.</p> - -<p>The expenses of the conveyance of the pupils from one institution to -another are borne by the Treasury.</p> - -<p>Pupils who make no progress in scientific studies will be required to -enlist in the army<a class="tag" name="tag3_15" id="tag3_15" href="#note3_15">15</a> if old enough, and if not, will be removed to an -inferior Military Educational Institution; or if they are already in one -of the Houses of Education or School Companies, will be employed in -learning some trade which will be of use in the army,<a class="tag" -name="tag3_16" id="tag3_16" href="#note3_16">16</a> and when they -have reached the proper age, will be enlisted.</p> - -<p>Pupils whose want of bodily qualification unfits them for the army -will be sent back to their parents or guardians. Those holding military -places in the Academies, if their parents are entirely unable to provide -for them, will receive a yearly pension of 150 florins (15<i>l.</i>) -until they can be placed in some employment under the State at a salary -at least equivalent to this sum.</p> - -<p>Pupils out of the Military Houses of Education or School Companies, -who are removed for want of bodily qualification, and whose parents are -entirely unable to provide for them, will, according to their -capacities, be placed either in the Accounts Department<a class="tag" -name="tag3_17" id="tag3_17" href="#note3_17">17</a> or some -similar Military Department, in the Geographical Institution, or as -drummers or clerks in one of the higher Military Schools, or will be -taught some trade for employment in the Outfit Department,<a class="tag" name="tag3_18" id="tag3_18" href="#note3_18">18</a> or will -be made teachers. If, however, the pupil’s bodily disqualification -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page420" id="page420">420</a></span> -be of a nature to incapacitate him for any of the above-mentioned -employments, he will be removed at the expense of the Treasury into some -Civil or Military Hospital.<a class="tag" name="tag3_19" id="tag3_19" href="#note3_19">19</a></p> - -<p>If in moral respects a pupil is found to be a mischievous member of -the institution, he may at any time in the course of any year be -removed.</p> - -<p>Pupils who pay, in case of their removal being found, for whatever -reason, necessary, will be sent home to their friends, the consent of -the friends being required before they can be either engaged as soldiers -or removed to one of the lower institutions. The expenses already -incurred will be deducted from the payment made in advance, and the -balance repaid to the parents or guardians.</p> - -<p>A pupil who for whatever reason has once been removed from a Military -School can never be afterwards admitted into any one of them, and in -case of his either then or afterwards enlisting in the army, he can not, -under any pretext whatever, obtain the rank of Officer before the pupils -of the year to which he belonged. This rule, in the case of pupils who -have been transferred from a higher to a lower institution, even when -they pass out of this latter in the regular course, must be observed in -reference to the pupils of the year to which they belonged in the -institution from which they were removed.<a class="tag" name="tag3_20" id="tag3_20" href="#note3_20">20</a></p> - - -<h5><a name="austria_education_nco" id="austria_education_nco" href="#austria_education">A. SCHOOLS FOR NON-COMMISIONED OFFICERS</a></h5> - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_lower" id="austria_education_lower" href="#austria_education_nco">1. <i>The -Lower Military Houses of Education.</i></a></p> - -<p>The twelve Lower Military Houses of Education contain, as has been -said, only military places.<a class="tag" name="tag3_21" id="tag3_21" href="#note3_21">21</a> These appertain, in the first -instance, to the legitimate sons of all soldiers bearing arms,<a class="tag" name="tag3_22" id="tag3_22" href="#note3_22">22</a> whether -born in marriage of the first, or in marriage of the second degree.<a -class="tag" name="tag3_23" id="tag3_23" href="#note3_23">23</a> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page421" id="page421">421</a></span> -Subordinately to these, a lawful claim exists in the following -cases:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. Sons of soldiers serving in the Trabant Body Guard, the Court -Watch, the Outfit Commission, and other military bodies.<a class="tag" -name="tag3_24" id="tag3_24" href="#note3_24">24</a></p> - -<p>2. Sons of fathers belonging to the Reserve,<a class="tag" name="tag3_25" id="tag3_25" href="#note3_25">25</a> without prejudice, -however, to sons of soldiers in actual service.</p> - -<p>3. Sons of invalided soldiers,<a class="tag" name="tag3_26" id="tag3_26" href="#note3_26">26</a> not only in cases where the father -has already married at the date of his reception as invalided, but also -in those where marriage has been subsequently permitted.</p> - -<p>4. Sons of those who have either as substitutes or otherwise served -double time, and are now in the employment in connection with the Court -or Government, even in cases where marriage has been contracted after -quitting the service.</p> - -<p>5. Sons of men belonging to the military service, not included in the -above-mentioned cases, namely, the sons of Prima-planists,<a class="tag" name="tag3_27" id="tag3_27" href="#note3_27">27</a> -Employés, and Officers.</p> -</div> - -<p>In any large number of candidates special regard should be had to the -sons of fathers who have been killed or invalided on the field; after -these, to those who are orphans on both sides; then to the sons of -substitutes and other soldiers in actual services; and last follow in -order the sons of fathers either belonging to the Reserve or received as -Invalides, or otherwise connected with the Military Service.</p> - -<p>As the sons of Officers serving with the sword<a class="tag" name="tag3_28" id="tag3_28" href="#note3_28">28</a> have a large number -of places reserved for their benefit in the Cadet Institutions and the -Academies, their admission into Military Houses of Education, more -especially into the Lower House of Education, is only allowable when no -prejudice is caused to the above-mentioned claimants, and as a general -rule can only take place when they are orphans, or under special -circumstances.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page422" id="page422">422</a></span> -<p>The age of admission is the completion of the seventh year. Children -under this age who are orphans on both sides, or whose fathers being -widowers, have to serve in the field, will be received into the Orphan -House at Vienna, and be transferred on completing their seventh year to -the Lower Houses of Education. Children who have passed the prescribed -age for admission into the first class of the Lower Houses of Education -can only be admitted, in case of their possessing the requisite amount -of knowledge, into the classes corresponding to their age, and in case -of there being places vacant in these classes; any addition to the -prescribed numbers in the respective years is not allowable.</p> - -<p>The number of pupils in each of the Lower Houses of Education is -fixed at 100. These 100 pupils are divided into four years, each year -being as nearly as possible of the same numerical strength.</p> - -<p>The command is held by a Subaltern Officer, to whom are attached for -the religious education, the medical care, the discipline, and the -instruction—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1 House Chaplain,</p> -<p>1 Army Surgeon,</p> -<p>4 Sergeants and Instructors,</p> -<p>4 Honorary Sergeants<a class="tag" name="tag3_29" id="tag3_29" -href="#note3_29">29</a> as Assistant Instructors,</p> -<p>1 Sergeant, as House Adjutant; and</p> -<p>6 Corporals, for the discipline.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue">Additional assistance may be procured for managing -the house and attending on the pupils.</p> - -<p>To conduct the instruction (which will be almost entirely addressed -immediately to the senses of the children) class-teachers will be -provided for each yearly course; and these, with the house chaplain and -the medical officer, aided by assistant teachers, will give the pupils -instruction in the following subjects:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German. 3. Natural History. 4. Geography. -5. Arithmetic, both ordinary and mental. 6. Writing. -7. Common Drawing. 8. First Notions of the Rules of Drill. -9. Gymnastic Exercises and Swimming.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_upper" id="austria_education_upper" href="#austria_education_nco">2. <i>Upper -Military Houses of Education.</i></a></p> - -<p>These, twelve in number, form a continuation to the Lower Houses of -Education, the pupils from which are admitted here at the close of their -eleventh year.</p> - -<p>At this age foundation pupils of every kind, as also paying pupils, -may be admitted immediately from their parents’ homes, only, however, -into the first year’s course, and after passing an examination in -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page423" id="page423">423</a></span> -the subjects taught in the Lower Houses of Education, to the same extent -up to which they are taught in the second class of the ordinary -elementary school.</p> - -<p>The claim to a military place in an Upper House of Education, is -similar to that for a military place in a Lower House of Education.</p> - -<p>The number of pupils is fixed at 200 in each Upper House of -Education, divided in like manner into four yearly courses.</p> - -<p>The command is intrusted to a Captain, who is aided, for purposes of -instruction and superintendence, by—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>2 Subaltern Officers.</p> -<p>1 House Chaplain.</p> -<p>1 Army Surgeon.</p> -<p>1 Surgeon’s Assistant.</p> -<p>4 Sergeants as Teachers.</p> -<p>2 Honorary Sergeants as Assistant Teachers.</p> -<p>1 Sergeant as House Adjutant.</p> -<p>8 Corporals, for discipline.</p> -</div> - -<p>Additional assistance may be procured for managing the house and for -attendance, upon the same scale as in the Lower Houses.</p> - -<p>The instruction, as in all the Military Schools to be noticed -henceforward, will be given by teachers specially assigned to each -subject, and will include here the following subjects:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German, with written compositions. -3. One of the other Languages of the Empire. 4. Natural -History. 5. Geography. 6. History. 7. Arithmetic. -8. Military Rules and Regulations. 9. Rules of Drill, and -first notions of the Rules of Military Exercise. 10. Writing. -11. Common Drawing. 12. Gymnastic Exercises, Single-stick,<a -class="tag" name="tag3_30" id="tag3_30" href="#note3_30">30</a> -Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>After completing their fourth year course, the pupils are -transferred, according to their qualifications and their own wishes, -into the School Company.</p> - -<p>Entrance into the Marine School Company takes place at the end of the -second year’s course.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_companies" id="austria_education_companies" href="#austria_education_nco">3. <i>The -School Companies.</i></a></p> - -<p>The School Companies have the object of furnishing the different arms -of the service with Non-commissioned Officers well educated, both -practically and theoretically, and likely in the course of time to prove -useful Commissioned Officers<a class="tag" name="tag3_31" id="tag3_31" href="#note3_31">31</a> in charge of the troops.</p> - -<p>They are in all twenty in number:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>6 for the Infantry.</p> -<p>3 “ Cavalry.</p> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page424" id="page424">424</a></span> -<p>2 “ Frontier Troops.</p> -<p>5 “ Artillery.</p> -<p>1 “ Engineers.</p> -<p>1 “ Pioneers.</p> -<p>1 “ Flotilla.<a class="tag" name="tag3_32" id="tag3_32" href="#note3_32">32</a></p> -<p>1 “ the Marine Service.<a class="tag" name="tag3_33" id="tag3_33" href="#note3_33">33</a></p> -</div> - -<p>Under the general term of School Companies the School Squadrons (for -the Cavalry) are included. The term Scientific<a class="tag" name="tag3_34" id="tag3_34" href="#note3_34">34</a> School Companies -applies only to those of the Artillery, Engineers, Pioneers, Flotilla, -and Marine.</p> - -<p>The scholars in the School Companies are either pupils or -attendants<a class="tag" name="tag3_35" id="tag3_35" href="#note3_35">35</a> The pupils are taken, as already described, from the -Upper Houses of Education, after the close of their fourth year’s -course, (or, in the case of the Marine School Company, after that -of the second,) or they come direct from places of private -education.</p> - -<p>The conditions for gratuitous admission from private educational -institutions into the School Companies are similar to those for -admission into the Houses of Education, with the difference, that in the -School Companies the sons of officials in the civil service, who have -served long and meritoriously, and are ill-provided for, may also claim -military places.</p> - -<p>The candidates must be not under fifteen and not above eighteen years -of age; in the Marine School Company not under thirteen and not above -fourteen.</p> - -<p>The Attendant pupils (<i>frequentanten</i>) come from the soldiers of -the Standing Army.<a class="tag" name="tag3_36" id="tag3_36" href="#note3_36">36</a> They exist only in the School Companies of the -Artillery, Engineers, Pioneers, and Flotilla; to be admissible, they -must, as a rule, have passed with credit through the Non-commissioned -Officer Schools of the Artillery or Engineer regiments, or of the -Pioneer Corps or Flotilla Corps; they must have been not more than two -years in the service; and not at the utmost be above the rank of an -Upper Cannoneer, an Exempt, or an Upper Pioneer.<a class="tag" name="tag3_37" id="tag3_37" href="#note3_37">37</a></p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page425" id="page425">425</a></span> -<p>The admission of Attendants (<i>frequentanten</i>) can only be -allowed without prejudice to the claims of candidates from the Upper -Military Houses of Education and from places of private education.</p> - -<p>Pupils who come direct from private education must, if they propose -to enter one of the Scientific School Companies, be at least 4 feet 10 -inches;<a class="tag" name="tag3_38" id="tag3_38" href="#note3_38">38</a> if one of the other School Companies, at least 4 feet -8 inches high. And these and the Attendant pupils alike must at their -entrance into the School Companies pass an examination in the subjects -of instruction taught in the Upper Houses of Education.</p> - -<p>A perfect knowledge of German is accordingly an indispensable -condition for reception into the School Companies, and can only in the -single case of the Marine School Company be under certain circumstances -overlooked.</p> - -<p>At his entrance into the School Company every pupil takes the -military oath, and is from this day bound to eight years’ service in the -Standing Army, and two years’ service in the Reserve.</p> - -<p>Each School Company is commanded by a Captain; each School Squadron -by a Captain of Cavalry.</p> - -<p>They have attached to them for purposes of instruction and -discipline,—</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>In each Infantry School Company,</td> -<td>3 Subaltern Officers</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In each</span> School Squadron,</td> -<td>3     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In each</span> Frontier School Company,</td> -<td>6     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In each</span> Artillery     “</td> -<td>6     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>In the Engineer     “</td> -<td>6     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In the</span> Pioneer       -“</td> -<td>6     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In the</span> Flotilla       -“</td> -<td>4     “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<span class="dittomark">In the</span> Naval       -“</td> -<td>4     “</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Each institution is provided also with four Sergeants as teachers, -together with a requisite number of additional persons required for -management, discipline, and service.</p> - -<p>Religious superintendence and instruction is intrusted to a local -Ecclesiastic, and the medical duties to an Army Surgeon.</p> - -<p>Scholars in the School Companies are to receive a practical as well -as a theoretical training. This is to be regulated according to the -branch of the service for which they are detained.</p> - -<p>Each of the Infantry School Companies consists of 120 pupils, divided -into two years, the subjects of instruction being—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. One of the National Languages. 3. -Geography and History of the Austrian State. 4. Arithmetic. -5. Elements of Geometry. 6. Military Correspondence and -Management of the Internal -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page426" id="page426">426</a></span> -Affairs of a Company.<a class="tag" name="tag3_39" id="tag3_39" -href="#note3_39">39</a> 7. Pioneer Service.<a class="tag" name="tag3_40" id="tag3_40" href="#note3_40">40</a> 8. Knowledge -of the Arms of the Infantry. 9. Rules and Regulations. -10. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 11. Calligraphy. -12. Military Drawing. 13. Gymnastics, Fencing, and -Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>After the close of the course the pupils who have done remarkably -well enter the Infantry as Corporals, the pupils who have done well as -Exempts, with the corporal’s badge; those who have done moderately, as -Exempts; and those who have done either remarkably well, or well, will -be, without further examination, named as Cadets<a class="tag" name="tag3_41" id="tag3_41" href="#note3_41">41</a> as soon as they pay -down the sum required for outfit, or prove their legitimate claim to -exemption from this outlay, they themselves being consenting -parties.</p> - -<p>The arrangements of the School Squadrons, with a number of 60 pupils -in each, are analogous to those of the School Companies, special -attention only being given to instruction in riding and practical -exercise in the Cavalry service; for which purpose each Squadron is -provided with 71 horses.</p> - -<p>The first of the School Squadrons forms a Regiment of Dragoons, the -second one of Lancers, and the third one of Hussars.</p> - -<p>The subjects taught are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. One of the National Languages. 3. -Arithmetic. 4. Elements of Geometry. 5. Geography and History -of Austria. 6. Military Correspondence, and Management of the -Internal Affairs of a Squadron. 7. Knowledge of Cavalry Arms. -8. Rules and Regulations. 9. Rules of Cavalry Drill, Exercise, -and Manœuvring. 10. Knowledge of Horses and Grooming, of Bridling, -Saddling, and Shoeing. 11. Calligraphy. 12. Military Drawing. -13. Riding. 14. Gymnastics, Fencing, and Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>On leaving, the pupils enter the Cavalry in the grades corresponding -to those mentioned above for the Infantry.</p> - -<p>The Frontier School Companies, each of 120 pupils, give three yearly -courses.</p> - -<p>In all essential points, these institutions are organized on the same -plan with the Infantry School Companies. As, however, Officers and -Non-commissioned Officers on the Military Frontiers are also intrusted -with the general administration, and accordingly require of necessity a -knowledge of political administration, of jurisprudence, and -agriculture, the range of the plan of study in the Frontier School -Companies is more extensive.</p> - -<p>The following subjects are taught:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Wallachian or Illyrian Language. -3. Austrian -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page427" id="page427">427</a></span> -Geography and History. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, -Plane Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. 6. Military -Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company. -7. Arms and Munitions. 8. Pioneer Service, Road and Bridge -Making. 9. Elements of Civil Architecture. 10. Agriculture. -11. Frontier Law and Administration. 12. Rules and -Regulations. 13. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. -14. Calligraphy. 15. Military Drawing. 16. Gymnastics, -Fencing, Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pupils of the Frontier School Companies, at the close of their -third year, enter the Frontier Troops, under the conditions already -stated in the case of the Infantry School Companies.</p> - -<p>The Artillery School Companies have a course of three years, and -consist each of 120 scholars (pupils and attendant pupils.)</p> - -<p>The subjects of study are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Bohemian Language.<a class="tag" -name="tag3_42" id="tag3_42" href="#note3_42">42</a> -3. Austrian Geography and History. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. -5. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. -6. Popular Mechanics, First Elements of Natural Philosophy and -Chemistry. 7. Military Correspondence and Management of the -Internal Affairs of a Battery or Company; Computation of Estimates. -8. Artillery. 9. Field Fortification. 10. Elements of -Permanent Fortification; Attack and Defense of Fortresses. -11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill and Exercise. -13. Calligraphy. 14. Military Drawing. 15. Elements of -Descriptive Geometry. 16. Grooming, Stable Duty, Harnessing. -17. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>After the close of the complete course, pupils who have done -remarkably well enter the Artillery as Corporals, those who do well as -Bombardiers, the others as Upper Cannoneers.</p> - -<p>The most distinguished scholars, however, pass at the close of their -second year into the Artillery Academy free of cost, as Attendant Pupils -(<i>frequentanten</i>,) with the rank of Lance-Corporals, to receive -there the education which will fit them for the rank of officers.</p> - -<p>The Engineer School Company contains 120 scholars, distributed in -three yearly courses. The subjects taught are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. Austrian History and Geography. -3. Arithmetic and Algebra. 4. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, -Practical Mensuration. 5. Military Correspondence and Management of -the Internal Affairs of a Company. 6. Pioneer Service. -7. Sapping and Mining. 8. Elements of Permanent Fortification. -9. Civil Architecture. 10. Arms and Munitions. 11. Rules -and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. -13. Calligraphy. 14. Military Drawing. 15. Architectural -Drawing. 16. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>The scholars enter the Corps of Engineers in the same way as has been -described in the case of the other School Companies; the most -distinguished passing as Attendant Pupils with the rank of -Lance-Corporals, free of cost, into the Academy of Engineers.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page428" id="page428">428</a></span> -<p>The Pioneer School Company also contains 120 scholars, similarly -divided into three yearly courses.</p> - -<p>The instruction given is similar to that of the Engineer School -Company, special attention being paid to pioneering duties.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Bohemian Language. 3. Austrian History -and Geography. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane -Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. 6. Popular Mechanics. -7. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs -of a Company. 8. Land Pioneering. 9. Water Pioneering.<a class="tag" name="tag3_43" id="tag3_43" href="#note3_43">43</a> -10. Arms and Munitions. 11. Rules and Regulations. -12. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœvring. 13. Calligraphy. -14. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 15. Gymnastics, Fencing, -Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>After the close of the third year, the scholars enter the Corps of -Pioneers, under the various conditions already described. Scholars who -specially distinguish themselves will at the close of the second year be -received, free of cost, as Attendant Pupils (<i>frequentanten</i>) in -the Academy of Engineers; and after completing the four years’ course -there, be distributed as Officers in the Corps of Pioneers.</p> - -<p>The number of scholars in the Flotilla School Company is 60; and the -course of instruction three years in length. The subjects are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. Italian. 3. Austrian History and -Geography. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane -Trigonometry, Practical Mensuration. 6. Popular Mechanics. -7. Military Correspondence, and Management of the Internal Affairs -of a Company. 8, 9, 10. Flotilla Navigation, Artillery, and -Pioneering. 11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill, -Exercise, and Manœuvring. 13. Calligraphy. 14. Military -Drawing. 15. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 16. Gymnastics, -Fencing, Swimming, and Boating.</p> -</div> - -<p>The most distinguished scholars are sent, free of charge, at the end -of the second year, to the Artillery Academy, and after completing the -four years there, enter the Flotilla Corps as Officers. The others leave -at the end of three years under conditions similar to those already -described.</p> - -<p>The Marine School Company contains 150 pupils, and its course of -instruction lasts four years.</p> - -<p>The subjects are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German. 3. Italian. 4. Illyrian. -5. Natural History. 6. Geography and History. -7. Arithmetic. 8. Algebra. 9. Geometry and Plane -Trigonometry. 10. Popular Mechanics. 11. Military -Correspondence and Management of the Affairs of a Company. -12. Artillery, Arms, and Munitions. 13. Rules and Regulations, -by Land and Sea. 14. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. -15. Calligraphy. 16. Common Drawing and Machine Drawing. -17. Military Drawing. 18. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pupils will also be thoroughly exercised in boat manœuvring, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page429" id="page429">429</a></span> -in the use of sails, and of cannons, and after the end of each year’s -examination, will pass some weeks on board a sailing vessel for -practice.</p> - -<p>Pupils who either through want of capacity or of diligence fall -behind in the theoretical instruction, will at the end of the second -year be sent on board ship as ship’s boys (<i>Schiffs-junge</i>.)</p> - -<p>The other scholars go through the courses of the third and fourth -year, and then pass, on the same plan as in the Infantry School -Companies, into the Marine Infantry, or as Marine Artillerymen or as -Engineering pupils<a class="tag" name="tag3_44" id="tag3_44" href="#note3_44">44</a> of the first class, into the Navy, or into the -Arsenal Works Company, to devote themselves to Naval Architecture.</p> - -<p>The best scholars enter after four years instruction as Attendant -Pupils in the Artillery Academy, and after completing their time there -are admitted as Second Lieutenants of the second class into the Marine -Artillery.</p> - - -<h5><a name="austria_education_officer" id="austria_education_officer" href="#austria_education">B. SCHOOLS FOR -OFFICERS.</a></h5> - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_cadet" id="austria_education_cadet" href="#austria_education_officer">1. <i>The -Cadet Institutions.</i></a></p> - -<p>The object of these is to prepare pupils for the instruction in -military science given in the Academies.</p> - -<p>They are four in number, with 200 pupils in each.</p> - -<p>They contain military or treasury places, either wholly or half -gratuitous; places on provincial and private foundations; and finally -places for paying pupils.</p> - -<p>The exact number of places open to pupils on provincial and private -foundations, and to paying pupils, can not be determined, as in this -respect the Cadet Schools form a single whole with the Academies, and -the amount can only be fixed as a total for these institutions taken -together. There are altogether 1,100 of these military places, which may -be distributed in varying proportions amongst the Cadet Schools and the -Academies; the number in any one of them can not be stated as a -rule.</p> - -<p>The military foundations are reserved for the sons of Officers -serving or having served with the sword; the entirely gratuitous places -for the sons of Officers in want, and the half gratuitous places for -those of Officers provided with means of their own, or serving in higher -positions.</p> - -<p>Officers employed in the Outfit Department, Remounting<a class="tag" name="tag3_45" id="tag3_45" href="#note3_45">45</a> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page430" id="page430">430</a></span> -Department, the Department of Military Law and Jurisdiction<a class="tag" name="tag3_46" id="tag3_46" href="#note3_46">46</a> are thus -excluded, unless they have previously served with the sword. But for the -sons of these Officers, of the Military Judges, the Military Surgeons, -and other Officials, having attained the eleventh or any higher -allowance class,<a class="tag" name="tag3_47" id="tag3_47" href="#note3_47">47</a> there will be reserved eight entirely and eight half -gratuitous places in the Cadet Schools and the Academies.</p> - -<p>Appointments to the military and provincial foundations are granted -by His Majesty, the former on the recommendation of the Supreme War -Department, the latter on that of the Minister of the Interior. Among -the former are included, as already stated, the most distinguished -pupils of the Lower Houses of Education, for whose transfer to the Cadet -Schools the rules are laid down, the recommendation being annually -submitted for His Majesty’s approval.</p> - -<p>Special regard will be given to candidates whose fathers have been -killed or invalided in the field; after these, to those who are orphans -on both sides; to the sons of Officers of special merit, of Officers -with large families, and the like.</p> - -<p>Appointments upon provincial and private foundations, or as paying -pupils, will be made in the manner already stated in the general account -of the Educational Institutions.</p> - -<p>The age of admission is the eleventh year completed, and twelfth year -not exceeded, and the candidate will be expected to know the subject of -instruction prescribed for the third class of the common (<i>normal</i>) -schools.</p> - -<p>A knowledge of German, however, will not be considered indispensable. -Pupils who are not Germans will receive in the first half year of the -first course special instruction in German.</p> - -<p>The instruction continues during four yearly courses. The command is -held by a Field Officer, assisted by—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p> 1 Subaltern Officer as Adjutant.</p> -<p> 2 Captains.</p> -<p>10 Subaltern Officers.</p> -<p> 2 Ecclesiastical Professors.</p> -<p> 1 Accountant.</p> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page431" id="page431">431</a></span> -<p> 1 Army Surgeon.</p> -<p> 1 Surgeon’s Assistant.</p> -<p>12 Sergeants for Inspection.</p> -<p> 4 Orderlies, together with the requisite number of mechanics -and servants.</p> -</div> - -<p>The subjects of instruction are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German Language and Art of Speaking. -3. French. 4. Natural History. 5. Geography. -6. History. 7. Arithmetic. 8. Algebra. 9. Geometry -and Plane Trigonometry. 10. Rules of Drill and Exercise. -11. Calligraphy. 12. Common Drawing. 13. Gymnastics, -Single-stick, Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>Those pupils who satisfactorily complete their four years’ course are -transferred, according to their capacities, and as far as possible, to -their own wishes, into one of the Military Academies. Entrance into the -Marine Academy takes place at the close of the second year.</p> - -<p>Pupils who do ill, will, at the close of any one of the three first -years, be removed into the course of the following year at one of the -Upper Houses of Education; or, at the close of the fourth year, into one -of the Infantry School Companies.</p> - -<p>This removal, in the case of paying pupils, will be dependent on the -consent of the parents; failing which, they will be sent back home.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_acad" id="austria_education_acad" href="#austria_education_officer">2. <i>The -Military Academies.</i></a></p> - -<p>The object in these is to educate Officers in the higher military -subjects for the different arms of the service.</p> - -<p>There are four Academies; the Neustadt Academy, the Artillery -Academy, the Engineers’ Academy, and the Marine Academy.</p> - -<p>The scholars in each are divided into four yearly courses of nearly -equal numbers. In the Neustadt Academy each year is sub-divided into two -parallel classes, the instruction being the same in both.</p> - -<p>The pupils in the Military Academies are of the different kinds -described in the account of the Cadet Houses, and the appointments -similarly made; the Academies and the Cadet Houses in these respects -forming a single body.</p> - -<p>Candidates for admission into the Neustadt Academy, the Artillery -Academy, or the Engineers’ Academy, must be nearly, if not quite, -fifteen, and not above sixteen years old. For admission into the Marine -Academy, they must be nearly, if not quite, thirteen, not above fourteen -years old.</p> - -<p>The Academies receive their pupils in the first instance from the -Cadet Schools, after the satisfactory completion of the fourth -(or, in the case of the Marine Academy, the second) year, and then, -as -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page432" id="page432">432</a></span> -already stated under the head of the School Companies, from the -Artillery School Companies, and from the Engineer, Pioneer, Flotilla, -and Marine School Companies, after the highly satisfactory completion of -the second (or, in the Marine School, of the fourth) year.</p> - -<p>Pupils from these School Companies, before entering the Academies, -will take the Military Oath, receive the rank of Lance-Corporals, and be -admitted free of charge as Attendant Pupils into the Academies, to -receive their education for the rank of Officer. Scholars from the -general body of soldiers, who are attending the School Companies, are to -be treated, in respect of their transfer to the Academies, in the same -way as the other pupils.<a class="tag" name="tag3_48" id="tag3_48" -href="#note3_48">48</a></p> - -<p>Entrance into the Academies is confined to the commencement of the -first year.<a class="tag" name="tag3_49" id="tag3_49" href="#note3_49">49</a> Pupils admitted from places of private instruction -are examined in the subjects taught in the Cadet Schools; those who wish -to enter the Neustadt, the Artillery or Engineers’ Academy, in the -following subjects, to the extent here described:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. German:—The Art of Speaking; Prosody; the Rules of Speaking; -the various Rhetorical Styles.</p> -<p>2. Natural History:—General knowledge of the Three -Kingdoms.</p> -<p>3. French:—General grammatical rules; Translation from German -into French.</p> -<p>4. Geography.</p> -<p>5. History:—Ancient and of the Middle Ages.</p> -<p><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘5’">6</ins>. Geometry -and Rectilinear Trigonometry, with the Application of Algebra, and the -Solution of Geometrical Problems.</p> -<p>7. Common Drawing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Candidates for the Marine Academy will be required to -know,—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. The German Grammar, including Syntax.</p> -<p>2. Zoölogy.</p> -<p>3. French:—The Auxiliary Verbs; the Four Conjugations; -Reading.</p> -<p>4. General Geography.</p> -<p>5. Ancient History.</p> -<p>6. Arithmetic and Algebra as far (inclusively) as Equations of the -First Degree, with two unknown Quantities.</p> -<p>7. Common Drawing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Candidates from both institutions must also possess the degree of -religious knowledge corresponding to their age, and must write a good -current hand.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page433" id="page433">433</a></span> -<p>Pupils who are found negligent in the course of their academical -studies, will at the close of the first, second, or third year be -transferred to the classes corresponding to their age in the School -Companies, or will be enlisted in the Army as Cadets if they possess the -requisite bodily qualifications, in the manner already described.<a -class="tag" name="tag3_50" id="tag3_50" href="#note3_50">50</a></p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_neustadt" id="austria_education_neustadt" href="#austria_education_acad"><i>The -Neustadt Academy.</i></a></p> - -<p>Wiener Neustadt having been the seat of this Academy for more than a -century, the ancient name thence derived will be retained in its usual -acceptation, though the Academies for the Artillery and the Engineers -will also be placed in the same locality. The institution counts 400 -pupils, designed primarily for the Infantry of the Line and of the -Frontier, and secondly, for the Chasseurs and the Cavalry.</p> - -<p>The Director of the Academy is a Colonel or General, attached to -whom, for purposes of instruction, discipline, and general management, -there are three field and thirty-four other Officers; for religious care -and instruction, four Ecclesiastics; for medical attention, one -Regimental Surgeon, one Army Surgeon, and one Surgeon’s Assistant; for -the accounts, one Accountant, and four Accountant’s Assistants. The -large number of pupils maintained in the institution requires, moreover, -a proportionately large staff for superintendence, a numerous body of -attendants, servants, and the like; so that the whole number to be added -to that of the pupils does not fall short of 309 persons; 64 horses are -allowed for the riding lessons.</p> - -<p>The plan of study is based on that of the Cadet Schools, and embraces -the following subjects:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. French. 3. Italian. 4. Bohemian. -5. Hungarian. 6. Logic and Psychology. 7. Geography. -8. History. 9. Analytical Geometry and Higher Analytical -Mathematics. 10. Mechanics, Spherical Trigonometry, Mathematical -Geography, Triangulation. 11. Natural Philosophy, Elements of -Chemistry. 12. Practical Mensuration, taking Maps at Sight. -13. Descriptive Geometry. 14. Military Composition. -15. Positive International Law,<a class="tag" name="tag3_51" id="tag3_51" href="#note3_51">51</a> Austrian Civil Law (<i>Privat -Recht.</i>) 16. Military Penal Law and Procedure. 17. Pioneer -Service, with Field Fortification. 18. Permanent Fortification. -19. Civil Architecture. 20. Arms and Munitions. 21. Study -of Ground and Positions, and Military Drawing. 22. Rules and -Regulations, and Military Administration. 23. Rules of Infantry -Drill and Exercise. 24. Rules of Cavalry Drill and Exercise. -25. Manœuvring. 26. Riding. 27. Gymnastics. -28. Fencing. 29. Dancing. 30. Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>Pupils who show a talent for general drawing will be practiced in -it.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page434" id="page434">434</a></span> -<p>After the completion of the fourth year’s course, the pupils will be -recommended by the Supreme War Department to His Majesty for nomination -as Second Lieutenants of the second class.</p> - -<p>In their distribution into the various regiments, &c., of the -army, the choice of the pupils will, as far as possible, be -considered.</p> - -<p>The pupils upon leaving will be, without exception, fully equipped at -the expense of the State. Only in the case of the pupils who wish to -enter the Cavalry, the parents (or guardians) will be called upon -to give security for the payment of 1,000 florins (100<i>l.</i>) towards -the expenses of the first equipment, and for a monthly allowance of 25 -florins (2<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i>)</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_art" id="austria_education_art" href="#austria_education_acad">3. <i>The -Artillery and Engineers’ Academy.</i></a></p> - -<p>The arrangements of these two Academies are in many respects similar, -as required by the character of the two kindred sciences for which they -are founded.</p> - -<p>The number of scholars is fixed at 160 pupils, and 40 attendant -pupils (<i>Frequentanten</i>) in each.</p> - -<p>The command in each is intrusted to a General or a Colonel.</p> - -<p>For the smaller number of scholars, fewer instructors, -superintendents, and attendants are needed; the complete amount in each -Academy is fixed at 200 men, in addition to the scholars. Each has -thirty-two horses allowed to it.</p> - -<p>The plan of instruction is in many respects identical in each.</p> - -<p>The subjects taught in both are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. French. 3. Italian.<a class="tag" name="tag3_52" id="tag3_52" href="#note3_52">52</a> 4. Logic and -Psychology. 5. Geography. 6. History. 7. Analytical -Geometry and Higher Analytical Mathematics. 8. Descriptive -Geometry. 9. Mechanics and the Elements of the Study of Machinery. -10. Mathematical Geography. 11. Natural Philosophy and -Chemistry. 12. Practical Mensuration, taking Plans at Sight. -13. Military Composition. 14. International Law; Austrian -Civil Law. 15. Military Penal Law and Penal Procedure. -16. Military Drawing; Study of Ground and Positions. 17. Rules -and Regulations, and Military Administration. 18. Riding. -19. Gymnastics. 20. Fencing. 21. Dancing. -22. Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>Common drawing will be treated, as it is at the Neustadt Academy, as -an optional subject.</p> - -<p>In the Artillery Academy the following additional subjects will be -taught;—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Bohemian.<a class="tag" name="tag3_53" id="tag3_53" href="#note3_53">53</a> 2. Field Fortification and Permanent -Fortification. 3. Tactics of the Three Arms. 4. Artillery. -5. Sieges, Construction of Batteries; Artillery. 6. Rockets. -7. Rules of Drill and Exercise in the Artillery and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page435" id="page435">435</a></span> -Infantry. 8. Instruction in shoeing horses, in judging of their -Age, in judging of them at Sight, in Bridling, Saddling, and -Grooming.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the Academy of the Engineers the additional subjects -are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Arms and Munitions and Artillery. 2. Art of Fortification. 3, -4. Civil Architecture, Plain and Ornamental. 5. Pioneer -Service. 6. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pupils of the two Academies enter in the same way as those at -Neustadt, after the satisfactory completion of four years’ instruction, -with the rank of Second Lieutenant of the Second Class, the respective -services of the Artillery, and of the Engineers or Pioneers. Pupils for -whom no vacancies can be found enter the Infantry.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_marine" id="austria_education_marine" href="#austria_education_officer">4. <i>The -Marine Academy.</i></a></p> - -<p>This, like the other Academies, is in the charge of a Field Officer, -or a General.</p> - -<p>The pupils are 100 in number; the Teachers, other Officers, and -attendants, 88.</p> - -<p>One essential distinction here (explained by the necessity of -habituating the pupils to the sea) is the admission at an age earlier by -two years, and the proportionally earlier termination of the course.</p> - -<p>The plan of instruction combines a continuation of the studies -prescribed in the Cadet Schools, with the commencement of those -specially required for the marine service, viz.:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German. 3. Italian. 4. French. -5. English. 6. Geography. 7. History. 8. Algebra. -9. Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 10. Analytical Geometry -and Higher Analytical Mathematics. 11. Spherical Trigonometry and -Nautical Astronomy. 12. Mechanics and Natural Philosophy. -13. Descriptive Geometry. 14. Navigation. 15. Military -Composition. 16. International Law, Austrian Civil Law, Sea Law. -17. Military Penal Law, and Penal Procedure. 18. Artillery. -19. Fortification, Attack and Defense of Coast Fortifications. -20. Naval Tactics and Naval History. 21. Knowledge of Rigging, -&c. (<i>Takelungslehre.</i>) 22. Naval Manœuvres. -23. Naval Architecture. 24. Signals. 25. Rules and -Regulations. 26. Rules of Drill and Exercise. 27. Calligraphy. -28. Military Drawing. 29. Common Drawing. 30. Swimming. -31. Gymnastics. 32. Fencing. 33. Dancing.</p> -</div> - -<p>In addition to the practical instruction given in the course of the -school year, the pupils of the three first years will in the months of -August and September be sent in sailing vessels on a voyage for -practice.</p> - -<p>The pupils at the end of four years enter as Cadets into the Navy, -the Flotilla Corps, or the Corps of Naval Architecture.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page436" id="page436">436</a></span> -<p>After completing a practical course of two years, they will receive -their promotion as Second Lieutenants of the second class.<a class="tag" name="tag3_54" id="tag3_54" href="#note3_54">54</a></p> - - -<h5><a name="austria_education_special" id="austria_education_special" href="#austria_education">C. SPECIAL -SCHOOLS.</a></h5> - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_teachers" id="austria_education_teachers" href="#austria_education_special">1. -<i>The Military Teachers’ School.</i></a></p> - -<p>The object here is a double one; first, to bring up good and -serviceable teachers in the subjects of study prescribed for the -Military Houses of Education; secondly to provide at the same time -instructors in gymnastics and fencing for all the military schools and -for the troops. The institution accordingly consists of two departments, -each of thirty Attendant Pupils, receiving instruction in these two -different branches.</p> - -<p>Non-commissioned Officers are admitted after a service of at least -two years. Candidates for admission into the Teachers’ department must, -in addition, possess the required amount of knowledge in the subjects -taught in the Military Houses of Education; and, as a rule, must know, -besides German, one other of the Austrian national languages. -Proficiency in every one of the subjects will not be considered -essential. Candidates for admission to the Gymnastic and Fencing -Department will be required to show a certain amount of readiness in the -use of arms and in gymnastic exercises, and an evident capacity for -acquiring greater skill.</p> - -<p>Registration for admission is to be obtained in the usual course of -the service from the Supreme War Department.</p> - -<p>The Attendant Pupils receive, in addition to their ordinary pay, -bread and the extra allowance; and for their better subsistence also an -allowance corresponding to that granted for provision during a -march.</p> - -<p>The command is held by a Field Officer or Captain; six Subaltern -Officers and four Sergeants act as teachers, the latter as assistants in -the instruction in fencing and gymnastics, and as swimming master. The -instructor in the art and methods of teaching may be a civilian.</p> - -<p>The subjects of instruction in the Teachers’ Department -are—</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page437" id="page437">437</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. The Art and Methods of Teaching. 2. German. 3. Another Austrian -Language. 4. Arithmetic and Geometry. 5. Geography. -6. Military Composition, and the Management of the Internal Affairs -of a Company. 7. Calligraphy. 8. Common and Military Drawing. -9. Gymnastics, Fencing, and Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the Gymnastic Department,—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Staff, Rapier, Sword, and Bayonet Fencing. 2. Gymnastics and -Swimming. 3. Knowledge of Fire-arms.</p> -</div> - -<p>In both Departments a certain number of hours weekly will be devoted -to Military Exercise.</p> - -<p>Instruction in all the subjects will be given with special reference -to the methods to be pursued in teaching them in the various Military -Schools.</p> - -<p>The course in each Department lasts one year. Under certain -circumstances particular pupils in the Teachers’ Department may remain -for the further completion of their studies a second year in the -institution.</p> - -<p>In the Teachers’ Department, pupils who show no aptitude or liking -for some particular subject, may be exempted from attending the lessons -given in it, so as to allow them to give more thorough attention to -other branches.</p> - -<p>After passing the examination, the pupils are either sent immediately -to undertake duty in the Military Schools, or return to their service in -the troops, and pass, as occasion requires, into the Military Schools. -Corporals who distinguish themselves by remarkably good progress will be -promoted to the rank of Sergeant.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_united" id="austria_education_united" href="#austria_education_special">2. <i>The -United Higher Course for the Artillery and Engineers</i>,</a></p> - -<p class="continue">Has for its object the more advanced instruction -of young Officers in a scientific and technical point of view, for -service in the Artillery and Engineers.</p> - -<p>Twenty Officers, of more than usual capacity, between twenty-one and -twenty-six years of age, will be admitted from each of the two arms. -They must be unmarried, and must have served with distinction during a -period of not less than two years.</p> - -<p>Officers in whose cases these conditions are satisfied, and who -desire to be admitted to the course, apply for registration for -admission to the examination, in the ordinary form, to the War -Department.</p> - -<p>Officers who, in the month of October, are summoned to attend, may -charge their traveling expenses to the Treasury, and undergo an -examination before the Professors attached to the Course, in the -following subjects:—</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page438" id="page438">438</a></span> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Analytical Geometry and Higher Analytical Mathematics. 2. -Mechanics and the Elements of the Study of Machinery. 3. Natural -Philosophy and Chemistry. 4 Military Composition. 5. French. -6. Military Drawing, tested by the production of a Drawing of their -own doing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Candidates for the Artillery will be, moreover, examined in the -Tactics of the three Arms, and in Artillery; and those from the -Engineers, in the Art of Fortification and in Civil Architecture, both -Plain and Ornamental.</p> - -<p>The text-books used in the Academies of the Artillery and Engineers -will serve as a measure for the range of attainment required. Pupils who -passed with distinction through these Academies will thus be specially -fitted for admission into the Higher Course after they have proved, -during their time of service, their diligence in bringing the knowledge -they have acquired into actual application.</p> - -<p>On the close of this preliminary examination, the results will be -submitted to the Supreme War Department, and the recommendations for -admission laid before His Majesty.</p> - -<p>A superior Field Officer, either of the Artillery or the Engineers, -will be intrusted with the charge of the united course. The lectures -will be given by the Professors of the Academy of the Artillery and -Engineers. From the nature of the duties, partly common and partly -distinct, which devolve upon the two corps, it follows that the course -of the studies (which will be carried on during two years) will in like -manner be partly common and partly separate.</p> - -<p>The subjects of common instruction will be—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Mechanics in application to Machinery, combined with Machine -Drawing. 2. Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, combined with -practice in manipulation, in making experiments, and in analyzing. -3. Theory of Artillery, in reference to the constructions that -occur in Artillery. 4. Higher Tactics. 5. Principles of -Strategy, illustrated by the representation of campaigns, with special -attention to the use of Artillery, as well in Attack and Defense of -fortified places, as in the field.</p> -</div> - -<p>Separate instruction will be given to Artillery Officers -in—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Service in Workshops, Depôts, and Arsenals. 2. Knowledge of -Foreign Artillery, of the requisites (<i>ausrüstungen</i>) for Field -service and Sieges, and for furnishing fortified places.</p> -</div> - -<p>To Engineer Officers, in—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Ornamental Architecture, combined with Architectural Drawing. -2. The Art of Fortification, special attention being given to -working out projects.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pupils receive in addition practical guidance and supervision in -all subjects of a scientific nature connected with the Art of War.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page439" id="page439">439</a></span> -<p>The pupils of the second year undergo an examination in October. Upon -the results of the examination the War Department decides on their -promotion for the rank of Second to that of First Lieutenants.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_staff" id="austria_education_staff" href="#austria_education_special">3. <i>The -War or Staff School.</i></a></p> - -<p>The object of the War School is to give Officers of all arms an -education for higher duties, especially for those of the Staff and of -the Upper Adjutant Department.<a class="tag" name="tag3_55" id="tag3_55" href="#note3_55">55</a></p> - -<p>Any Subaltern Officer of the active army, without distinction of -arms, may claim admission into the War School, provided he is above -twenty-one and under twenty-six years old, is unmarried, and has served -as Officer uninterruptedly and with distinction two years at least with -the troops, and, provided, finally, he has passed the prescribed -preliminary examination.</p> - -<p>For admission to the examination, registration, to be obtained in the -usual form from the War Department, is requisite.</p> - -<p>The examination is conducted between October 10th and 20th, in the -War School buildings; the registered candidates will be summoned to -Vienna at the beginning of October; traveling expenses will be paid by -the Treasury. The subjects are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Algebra and Geometry, including Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. -2. Geography. 3. History. 4. Arms and Munitions. -5. Field and Permanent Fortification. 6. Pioneer Service. -7. Rules of Drill and Exercise (in detail, for the arm in -which the candidate has served, and generally for the other arms.) -8. Manœuvring. 9. Military drawing, tested by the production -of a drawing of the candidate’s own doing. 10. Military -Composition, tested by working out an exercise in the presence of the -Commission. 11. French. And finally, 12, the candidate must be able -to speak one of the national languages of the Austrian Empire, Slavonic, -Hungarian, or Italian, and must write a good current and legible -hand.</p> -</div> - -<p>The amount of knowledge required in these subjects will be regulated -by the range of the text-books prescribed for use in the Academy at -Neustadt. Regard, however, will not so much be given to the minutiæ of -knowledge possessed by the candidate, but rather to the evidence of his -having a correct judgment and quick apprehension, and the power of -expressing himself both orally and in writing.</p> - -<p>Upon the results of the examination, formally drawn up by the -authorities of the school, recommendations for admission will be -submitted to the sanction of His Majesty.</p> - -<p>The number of attendants in the War School is fixed at thirty, and -the length of course is two years.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page440" id="page440">440</a></span> -<p>The attending pupils receive, in addition to their ordinary pay, a -monthly allowance of twenty florins, rations, and allowance for two -horses; when employed in taking surveys and reconnoitring, they have an -extra allowance of thirty florins monthly.</p> - -<p>The War School is commanded by a General or Superior Field -Officer.</p> - -<p>Five Field Officers or Captains, taken as a rule from the Staff, give -lectures on the prescribed scientific subjects. One Field Officer or -Captain of Cavalry takes the duty of riding-master; and one civil -Professor that of instruction in the French language and literature. -Necessary officers, attendants, and servants take the duty of adjutants, -of the internal management, of the service, and of attending to the -thirty horses.</p> - -<p>The first year’s subjects of instruction are—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Military Drawing and the study of Ground and Positions. -2. Higher Tactics. 3. Staff and Superior Adjutant Duty. -4. French Language and Literature. 5. Riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>Those of the second year,—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Military Drawing, Ground and Positions. 2. Military Geography. -3. Principles of Strategy, illustrated by representations of some -of the most instructive campaigns. 4. French Language and -Literature. 5. Riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>The course begins on the 1st of November, and lasts to the end of -September.</p> - -<p>The Attendants at the War School must be practiced in those arms in -which they have not served. They are for this purpose distributed into -the various bodies of troops forming the garrison of Vienna, go through -the exercises and manœuvres of these troops—in the first year with -one, and in the second with the other arm. At the termination of these -periods of practice, they will be called upon to undertake the command -of a Battery, of a Squadron of Cavalry, and of a Division of -Infantry.</p> - -<p>In the month of May, the attendant pupils of the first year will go -out upon a course of practical surveying; those of the second year will -be similarly employed in reconnoitring, choosing sites for encampment, -discovering, judging of, and describing proper points for taking up -positions, forming <i>têtes-de-pont</i>, entrenched camps, and the like, -and in performing other duties falling within the service of the -Staff.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of October, the pupils of the second year will -undergo an examination, which will be conducted, both orally and by -papers.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page441" id="page441">441</a></span> -<p>Upon the results of this the Supreme War Department will determine -upon their promotion to the rank of First Lieutenants (if they are -not already of that rank,) and this without any reference to their -previous position, their position henceforth being simply determined by -their merit.</p> - -<p>The same grounds determine the cases of those who are admitted to the -Staff, or who return to their respective arms.</p> - -<p>Those who, after a satisfactory completion of the course, return to -service with the troops, will, after three years’ meritorious service, -be specially recommended for extraordinary promotion.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><a name="austria_education_control" id="austria_education_control" href="#austria_education_special"><i>Control of the Institutions.</i></a></p> - -<p>The Upper and Lower Houses of Education, the Infantry School -Companies, the Cavalry School Squadrons, and the Frontier School -Companies, are under the orders of the Commanders of the Army, the Army -Corps, or the military government in whose district they are situated. -The Artillery and Engineer School Companies are under the orders of the -General Artillery and Engineer Departments; the Pioneer and Flotilla -School Companies, under those of the Quartermaster-General’s Department; -the Marine School Company, under those of the Admiralty. Which -functionaries, however, receive from the Supreme War Department all -directions relating to organization and instruction.</p> - -<p>The Cadet Schools, the Academies, the Military Teachers’ School, the -Upper Artillery and Engineer Course, and the War School, are immediately -under the orders of the Supreme War Department.</p> - -<p>The general organization of all the military schools and places of -instruction is once for all established by the regulations sanctioned by -His Majesty. These regulations contain all that concerns the physical, -moral, and intellectual training of the pupils, and all have the one -object of rearing them up as worthy members of the Austrian army, and -faithful supporters of the throne and of the honor of their country.</p> - - -<h4><a name="austria_remarks" id="austria_remarks" href="#austria">III. REMARKS ON THE AUSTRIAN MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p>The English Commissioners in their General “<i>Report on the -Education and Training of Officers for the Scientific Corps</i>” hold -the following language:—</p> - -<p>The magnitude of the Military Education of Austria entitles it to -rank among the chief Institutions of the Empire. It has been remodeled -since the wars of 1848, 1849. It is now centralized, and wholly directed -by one of the four Co-ordinate Sections of the War -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page442" id="page442">442</a></span> -Office, which is independent of the others, and reports directly to the -Emperor. This Educational or “Fourth” Section has the control of between -300,000<i>l.</i> and 400,000<i>l.</i> yearly. It provides for the free -or nearly free education of more than 5,000 pupils. The extent and -completeness of the system will be best understood by a reference to the -clear and valuable official account of the schools.<a class="tag" name="tag3_56" id="tag3_56" href="#note3_56">56</a></p> - -<p>The military schools are divided by this document into (1) those -which educate pupils for <i>Non-commissioned Officers</i>, (2) those -which educate for <i>Officers</i>, (3) and those <i>Senior Schools</i> -which complete the education and extend the instruction of both classes. -The method of training Non-commissioned Officers is a peculiar and -remarkable part of the system.</p> - -<p>1. No less than 5,730 pupils are in process of being educated for -Non-commissioned Officers. They are received into a Military School at -seven years old, and at that early age are devoted to the army, with a -kind of solemnity, by their fathers, somewhat similar to the practice at -Woolwich Academy :—“I hereby pledge myself to surrender up my -son to the Imperial Military Service, in case of his being admitted into -a Military Educational Institution, and I will under no pretext require -his return.” This promise, as the official document states, may no doubt -be recalled if the youth finds that he has mistaken his vocation; but it -must exercise great influence (and such is its avowed object) in -retaining him in it.</p> - -<p>After passing successively through two Junior Institutions,—the -Lower Houses of Education, where he continues till eleven years old, and -the Upper Houses, where he remains till fifteen,—the boy receives -his finishing course in one of what are termed the School Companies, the -highest class of schools for training boys to become Non-commissioned -Officers in all arms of the service. These are twenty in number, and -scattered over the whole Empire, containing generally 120 pupils each, -though in one case only sixty; and with a course of either two or three -years, according to the nature of the service. The extent and the -requirements of the Empire give a striking variety to their character. -Thus, in the frontier School Companies, “the range of the studies is -more extensive, because the Non-commissioned Officers on the Military -Frontiers are intrusted with the general administration, and require of -necessity a knowledge of Political Administration, of Jurisprudence, and -Agriculture;” and thus also the Non-commissioned Officers for the -responsible Flotilla Service of the mouths of the great rivers, the -lagoons of the Po, the head of the Adriatic, and the lakes, are -carefully -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page443" id="page443">443</a></span> -educated and frequently promoted. Following the course of a pupil -through these Upper Houses and School Companies, we were much struck by -the sensible and vigorous character of the education, and the motives -supplied for exertion. In the Upper Houses the boys compete for entrance -to the School Companies which they prefer, and the more scientific -companies are a special object of ambition, because it is more usual in -these for young men to be raised by their talents to the Academies, and -thus made Officers, “free of all cost:” according to the regulations, -however, this is possible in all. It may be stated that from six to ten -pupils from each of the more scientific School Companies,—the -Artillery, Engineer, Pioneer, Flotilla, and Marine Companies,—are -yearly transferred to the Academies, to complete their education there -for the Officer’s Commission.</p> - -<p>A system of this kind, supplying at once a good education and large -opportunities of advancement, must necessarily operate as a great -encouragement to young men educating for Non-commissioned Officers; and -allowing for the social differences of the two countries, it resembles -in spirit the French system, which throws open the gates of the -Polytechnic and St. Cyr, and with them a proportion of the Commissions -in the Army, to all.</p> - -<p>This, however, is not all. The sums devoted to the education of -Non-commissioned Officers, as well as Officers, are immense, and may be -regarded as a spontaneous contribution of the National Feeling, no less -than a State provision. A system both of public and private -foundations (<i>Stiftungen</i>) prevails—part derived from the -Emperor, part from the provinces, part from private gifts and -legacies—by which 3,190 pupils are supported in the Houses of -Education and the School Companies, and 1,320 in the Cadet Schools and -Academies. The very large majority of these exhibitions supply a -<i>complete</i>, about 200 a <i>partial</i>, maintenance. And it is -curious to observe the aid to education which is so common in our own -Universities, devoted in Austria to what may be termed the great -National Institution—the Army,—and retaining all the -limitations to the descendants of Founders or Natives of provinces which -marked our own foundations. Some of these exhibitions have been founded -by foreign soldiers for their own countrymen. Thus there are two bearing -the name of the O’Gara and the O’Brady, to be held by any Irishmen of -good family, one of which is in the gift of the Roman Catholic -Archbishop of Dublin. We should add that this system is still a living -and popular one. Within three years the city of Brünn has founded such -an exhibition “for sons of Austrian subjects in Moravia, and by -preference in Brünn, in -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page444" id="page444">444</a></span> -commemoration of His Majesty’s escape from assassination in 1853.” We -ourselves heard a distinguished Officer express an intention of founding -one of these Exhibitions. The comparison with the open <i>Bourses</i> of -the Polytechnic is remarkable; but the Austrian appointments to free -places seem to be given, like the Prussian, solely as rewards for the -service of the parent.</p> - -<p>2. The education of young men for Officers is conducted upon the same -principles which regulate that for Non-commissioned Officers. The age of -admission to a Cadet School is about eleven. The pupils are pledged to -the service with the same formalities which we have noticed in the Lower -Houses of Education. Between fifteen and sixteen they enter one of the -Academies for the Line, the Artillery, the Engineers, or the Marine, and -after four years they pass to their respective services.</p> - -<p>Thus, unlike the French system, that which is followed in Austria -commits the pupil to the Army, and to a Military Education, from an -early age, resembling herein the plan of the <i>Accademia Militare</i> -of Turin. But an attempt seems to be made to combine general with -special teaching. Thus, although even in the two first years (from -fifteen to seventeen,) at Wiener Neustadt, there is some introduction of -successful practical military teaching, the chief weight is thrown upon -mathematics, history, geography, drawing, and French; special military -teaching has a greater, though far from an exclusive place, in the two -last years. The studies are high, and (as far as we could judge) -pursued carefully, and with excellent discipline.</p> - -<p>The description we have given of the system pursued in the Schools -for Non-commissioned Officers will have shown that there is a constant -appeal to emulation. The same is found at Wiener Neustadt. There is a -careful system of assigning credits during the whole school period, -which itself argues competition. The chief immediate reward, indeed, is -the choice of a regiment on leaving the school; but the prospect of -entering the Staff School stands in no distant perspective, and this is -filled with so many pupils from Wiener Neustadt, that it must be looked -upon as the sure reward of a successful Neustadter. There are other -inducements of a different character. The discipline being strict, -pupils are constantly removed from Wiener Neustadt and the other -Academies to the schools for Non-commissioned Officers, and though -sometimes allowed to enter the army as Officers, it must always be as -juniors to their contemporaries at Wiener Neustadt. We heard instances -of great strictness in this matter.</p> - -<p>The new course for the Special Arms in Austria is not yet completely -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page445" id="page445">445</a></span> -in operation. It is at present carried on separately in the Academy of -Olmütz for the Artillery, and that of Znaim, in Moravia, for the -Engineers. There are 200 pupils in each Academy, and the courses of -instruction, which are more special or technical than at Wiener -Neustadt, last four years, from the age of fifteen to nineteen. The -yearly examinations, the manner in which the marks of the monthly -examinations tell on the final one, and the careful classification of -the pupils in the order of merit, reminded us of the system of the -Polytechnic more than any other school we have seen. And an inspection -of the very high credits obtained by the first thirty pupils will prove -the diligence with which the studies are pursued. We should add that -several pupils of marked talents come from the scientific School -Companies, A further fact bears witness to the vigor of the -discipline. We have alluded to the dismissal of unpromising subjects -from the Austrian Military Schools. In the course of three years, since -the changes of 1850, it appears that nearly 100 pupils were removed from -Znaim, as not coming up to the standard required for the Engineers by -the new regulations.</p> - -<p>3. The courses of instruction in the three Academies for Infantry and -Cavalry, Artillery, and for Engineers, last for the same time, and run -(as it were) parallel to each other. Each is, or is to be, -completed by a senior department. The United Course for the Artillery -and Engineers is not indeed yet combined in the magnificent buildings -begun at Wiener Neustadt; but it is already organized in a provisional -state at Znaim for the Engineers, and the plan of instruction drawn up -is a solid one. The arrangements for the general Staff School require -more remark.</p> - -<p>In our report upon Austrian schools we have specially noticed this -School as remarkable for its thorough and open competitive character -from first to last, and its very sensible plan of study. Admission to it -is by competition, open to Officers of all arms: the pupils are not -unduly overburdened with work; perhaps, there is even room for one or -two more subjects of importance; but what is done seems to be done -thoroughly; the Officers are carefully ranked, on leaving the School, -according as the abilities they have displayed, may be considered a -criterion of their fitness for employment on the General Staff; and -<i>in this order</i> they enter the Staff Corps. The consequence is that -every Officer knows distinctly, from the time that he first competes for -admission until his final examination on leaving, that the order in -which he will enter the Staff depends entirely on his own exertions and -success at the school. It seemed -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page446" id="page446">446</a></span> -to us that this open competition produced a spirit of confidence and -energy in the students, as great, if not greater, than any we met with -elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The whole of the above system of education is directed by the Fourth -Section of the War Department. In all the schools we found traces of its -activity; and the energy and system which prevail in the Military -Teaching of Austria appear in great measure to result from its being -directed by this single head.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page447" id="page447">447</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="austria_vienna" id="austria_vienna" -href="#austria">IV. THE STAFF OR WAR SCHOOL AT VIENNA.</a></h4> - -<p class="heading">[From Report of English Commissioners in 1856.]</p> - -<p><span class="smallcaps">The Staff School</span> (Kriegs-Schule,) in -Vienna, was established in 1851, and grew out of the experience of the -Hungarian war, although a Staff-Corps had existed for more than a -century in the Austrian army, and for many years past all the -appointments in it have been made upon an examination, which was, in -fact, one of competition. The process was formerly as -follows:—</p> - -<p>An officer desirous of becoming a candidate for a staff appointment, -sent in his name to the colonel of his regiment, whose recommendation he -was obliged to obtain as a preliminary step. If supplied with this, he -began his course of staff study, and was sent for this purpose to some -large garrison town as an <i>attaché</i> to the staff. Whilst here he -went through, for two years, the course of drawing, writing military -memoirs, mapping the country, &c., and for two years more served on -active staff duty with different bodies of troops. At the end of these -four years a number of the officers thus employed in a particular -country were brought together, and examined by the chief of the staff in -the country, assisted by a board of officers appointed for the purpose. -No actual list was drawn out of the order in which the candidates -acquitted themselves, but it was understood that the best were chosen -and put upon the general staff. The work upon this was exceedingly -laborious; few except officers of real ability were candidates for it, -and patronage in it was looked upon with great dislike. On the other -hand, studies and reading were not made the first requisite; a ready -intelligence and quick eye to make an officer a -<i>Colonnen-führer</i>,—leader of a column on a march,—were -always most valued.</p> - -<p>Before describing this school, it may be as well to mention shortly -the staff-corps and the corps connected with it.</p> - -<p><a name="austria_vienna_general" id="austria_vienna_general">1.</a> The General Staff of the Austrian Army -consists of:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Twelve Colonels.</p> -<p>Twelve Lieutenant-Colonels.</p> -<p>Twenty-four Majors.</p> -<p>Eighty Captains.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page448" id="page448">448</a></span> -<p>The <i>attachés</i>, to the number of eighty,—<i>i.e.</i>, -those who are expecting appointments, may be subalterns, but they obtain -the rank of captain on joining.</p> - -<p>The chief of the staff-corps is Field-Marshal Hess.</p> - -<p>2. There has been created very lately a separate corps of adjutants -or aids-de-camp, who are charged with the administrative duties, such as -inspecting the bearing, equipment, carrying on the discipline, &c., -of the troops. This consists of—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Eleven Generals.</p> -<p>Eighteen Lieutenant-Colonels.</p> -<p>Eighteen Majors.</p> -<p>Fifty-eight First Captains.</p> -<p>Ten Second Captains.</p> -<p>Ten First Lieutenants.</p> -</div> - -<p>There is no examination for entrance into this corps. Appointments -are made by the generals, and we were told that there was some scope for -“protection.”</p> - -<p>3. There is also a smaller corps for the purpose of surveying, called -the Corps of Geographical Engineers, connected with the staff, inasmuch -as some of the staff officers draw the maps on a large scale, which it -is the business of this corps to reduce. It is usually occupied on the -Great Surveys of the Empire; at present it is employed on the Survey of -the Principalities.</p> - -<p>It consists of—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Eleven Generals.</p> -<p>One Colonel, called the Director.</p> -<p>Two Lieutenant-Colonels.</p> -<p>Two Majors.</p> -<p>Sixteen Captains.</p> -<p>Sixteen Lieutenants.</p> -<p>Four Sous-Lieutenants.</p> -</div> - -<p>The staff school consists of thirty pupils taken from all arms of the -service, fifteen being received each year, and the course of study -lasting two years. It is under the direction of a general and a -lieutenant-colonel; and, with few exceptions, such as might occur in the -time of war, no appointments on the general staff are to be given to any -officers who have not passed through the staff school.</p> - -<p>In order to enter the school for the staff corps, an officer must -have served at least two years with his regiment, and be unmarried, and -above twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. He may then forward -to the chief of the staff, through his colonel, his claim to be admitted -as a candidate at the entrance examination. Further inquiry is made, and -a good many of the names sent in are struck off the list. Such, we were -told, was the case last year when the names sent in were very numerous, -but out of these only forty-five were allowed to compete, and out of -these again only fifteen (the regular yearly number) were selected. The -competition for entrance into the school is indeed said to have been -very active ever -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page449" id="page449">449</a></span> -since it was opened. Most of the students are <i>Neustadters</i>; the -seven professors were all, with the exception of the professor of the -French language, military men, and chiefly officers of artillery, formed -in the long studies of the old Bombardier School.</p> - -<p><a name="austria_vienna_questions" id="austria_vienna_questions">The subjects</a> in which the candidates for -admission are examined are—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p> 1. Algebra and Geometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.</p> -<p> 2. Geography.</p> -<p> 3. History.</p> -<p> 4. Arms and Munitions.</p> -<p> 5. Field and Permanent Fortification.</p> -<p> 6. Pioneering.</p> -<p> 7. Rules of Drill and Exercises.</p> -<p> 8. Manoeuvring.</p> -<p> 9. Military Drawing.</p> -<p>10. Military Composition.</p> -<p>11. French.</p> -<p>12. To be able to speak one of the Austrian national languages, and -to write a good current and legible hand.</p> -</div> - -<p>The most striking features in the system of this school, both at the -entrance and throughout the course, are that it is distinctly -competitive, that it admits very young officers, and that while the work -is considerable, the subjects for study are not numerous. In these three -points it differs considerably from the Prussian Staff School, in which -the students are generally older, and the principle of competition is -not so fully carried out. In the Austrian school, the students are -placed on entering in the order which their entrance examination has -just fixed. They are examined once a month during their stay. On leaving -the school, their respective places are again determined, and they have -a claim for appointments in the staff corps in the exact order in which -they were placed on leaving the school.</p> - -<p>Their relative places on leaving the school are assigned to them, as -we were assured, very carefully, and, after much consultation in every -case among the professors; but this is not done by marks, nor by any -minute system of testing intellectual qualifications, but an estimate is -formed upon the whole work of the two years, both on the studies in the -school and the practice in the field,—of the student’s comparative -fitness, <i>as an officer, for the work of the staff</i>. “We try to -estimate the whole man,” was the expression used to us, “whether he will -make a good <i>Colonnen-führer</i>” (a good man to direct a -regiment on a march,) as was said elsewhere. This general estimate was -preferred to that of marks, on the ground that the latter might give too -much weight to the more appreciable, <i>i.e.</i>, simply intellectual -qualities.</p> - -<p>The students do not at present live within the establishment, but -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page450" id="page450">450</a></span> -are to do so when the new ones, building, are ready. They begin their -lectures at half-past seven and end at one or three o’clock on alternate -days, going to the riding-school in the afternoon on the days when their -morning’s work ends at one. Thirty horses are kept for their use.</p> - -<p><a name="austria_vienna_subjects" id="austria_vienna_subjects">The subjects of instruction</a> during the -first year consist of—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. Military Drawing and the Study of Ground and Positions.</p> -<p>2. Higher Tactics.</p> -<p>3. Staff Duties.</p> -<p>4. French Language and Literature.</p> -<p>5. Riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>And those of the second year are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. Military Drawing, and the Study of Ground and Positions.</p> -<p>2. Military Geography.</p> -<p>3. Principles of Strategy, illustrated by representations of some of -the most instructive campaigns.</p> -<p>4. French Language and Literature.</p> -<p>5. Riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>The students are occupied at the school about eight hours daily and -their chief work is military drawing and topography. We went into the -room where the students of both years were working together at drawings -and plans under an artillery officer, said to be one of the best -draughtsmen in the army. Some of the plans were modeled in soap, the -<i>hachures</i> being marked very elaborately, so that the models and -drawings might closely correspond. We also attended a lecture of the -second class in military geography. A student traced out on the -blackboard the line of the Western Alps, and was examined very closely -on the smaller passes, the rivers, and the bases of operations for -armies on both sides. The answers were very minute, and given with the -greatest readiness; and we understood the question to be taken at -random, and not to be a prepared one.<a class="tag" name="tag3_57" id="tag3_57" href="#note3_57">57</a></p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page451" id="page451">451</a></span> -<p>The student officers attending the school are called upon to serve in -those arms to which they do not belong. For this purpose they join the -troops of the garrison of Vienna during June, July, August, and -September, and if they belong to the infantry they go through all the -exercises of the cavalry in one year, and of the artillery in another. -If they belong to the cavalry, they go in the same manner through the -exercises of infantry and artillery. After going through this practice, -they have to take command of a battery, of a squadron of cavalry, and of -a division of infantry.</p> - -<p>The month of May is devoted in the first year to an expedition for -practice in surveying the country, and in the second, for making -reconnaissances, &c.</p> - -<p>October is a vacation in the first year. In the second it is taken up -with the final examination before leaving.</p> - -<p>The officers acting as professors receive 600 florins, about -60<i>l.</i> annually, besides their pay.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the final examination, if there are any vacancies -in the staff corps, the pupils receive appointments in order of merit, -and are at the same time made captains. In proof of their receiving -appointments on the earliest opportunity, we were told by Colonel -Scudier that the last ten vacancies in the staff corps were filled up -out of the twelve students who had just left the school. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page452" id="page452">452</a></span> -One of these was only a second lieutenant, and in order to make him a -captain, (the rank required for the staff corps,) the Emperor promoted -him to be a first lieutenant immediately, and to be a captain within -three days afterwards. This double promotion was on the ground of great -merit.</p> - -<p>If an officer finds no vacancy in the staff corps ready for him, he -must return to his regiment and wait as an attaché. But if a second -lieutenant, he is entitled immediately to a step of rank, and if a -lieutenant, after three years’ service he is made a captain, although he -may not even then be attached to the staff corps.</p> - -<p>There are to be eighty of these attachés to the staff. Their number -at present amounts to only thirteen.</p> - -<p>With regard to special aids-de-camp, generals are allowed to choose -their own, without examination, but with this limitation, the officer -chosen must not be a relation.<a class="tag" name="tag3_58" id="tag3_58" href="#note3_58">58</a></p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page453" id="page453">453</a></span> -<!-- <div class="in-one"> --> -<h4 class="three"><a name="austria_1869" id="austria_1869" href="#austria">MILITARY EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS IN 1869.</a></h4> - -<h5><a name="austria_1869_principles" id="austria_1869_principles" -href="#austria_1869">PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h5> - -<p>The disastrous results to the integrity of the empire and the -reputation of the army, of the military operations of Austria in 1858, -against the combined forces of France and Sardinia, and of the still -more humiliating defeat in the brief but momentous campaign of 1866 -against Prussia, forced the military authorities of the Austro-Hungarian -Empire to a thorough investigation of her military system and the -education of the officers of her armies. It was not difficult to account -for ultimate defeat in the larger armies and better prepared in all the -resources by which large armies are equipped, fed, and moved. But -military critics were not slow in discovering that better preparation -should have been made, the field should have been taken earlier, and the -forces combined and moved with great certainty and skill.</p> - -<p>In a Report by the Minister of War on the necessity of reorganizing -the educational system of the Imperial army, and in the plan for such -reorganization the author, Baron Kahn, starts with a principle which the -great Empress Maria Theresa announced when she laid in 1748 the -foundation of the earliest war school in Austria (Wiener Neustadt), and -which Frederick the Great avowedly imitated in his War Academy in Berlin -in 1764,—“In this school shall be formed <i>men</i> only, and of -them, <i>soldiers</i>.” The choice of the profession of arms must be -postponed till a good general education, reaching the moral as well as -the intellectual and physical qualities of the future officer, has been -imparted. The separation of the military pupils from their families at -an early age must be avoided, and hence the number of cadet boarding -schools for young aspirants are diminished. The intellectual preparation -required, the sharpening and hardening the mental faculties, must not be -gained by an exclusive mathematical course, in special schools, but in -the general training of the public schools, the Real Schools or -Gymnasia, of the country. A more practical knowledge of the common -studies,—of geography and national history and the whole science -of public economy and the martial resources of the empire, must be -gained before the special military instruction begins. Admission to the -higher military schools must be given only to aspirants of mature age, -of high moral qualities, and of thorough intellectual -activity—ascertained by careful examination and tested by at least -one year’s service in connection with a regiment.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page454" id="page454">454</a></span> -<h5><a name="austria_1869_reorg" id="austria_1869_reorg" href="#austria_1869">PLAN OF REORGANIZATION.</a></h5> - -<p>The military schools are divided into two classes, viz.:—</p> - -<p>(1.) Those which give a boy a general education, but prepare him at -the same time for the military profession.</p> - -<p>(2.) Those which educate boys only in military matters.</p> - -<p>In the first class may be included (<i>a</i>) all those lower class -institutions in which military orphans and sons of poor non-commissioned -officers and commissioned officers are educated; (<i>b</i>) the middle -(cadet) schools which prepare students for the military academies; -(<i>c</i>) the military academies, viz, <i>Wiener Neustadt</i>, and the -engineer and artillery academies. As pure military schools, may be -mentioned the schools for non-commissioned officers in the infantry, -engineer, artillery, and pioneer corps; the cadet and division schools -in the infantry; the higher artillery and engineer courses.</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The lower schools for the education of military orphans -of a tender age have the same system as the common schools of the like -class (<i>Normal</i> or <i>Volks Schulen</i>), where the moral qualities -are to be chiefly inculcated on Christian principles; it is therefore -necessary that children should not be taken from family influences -earlier than can be helped. It will therefore only be necessary to take -into these schools such children as are orphans, or sons of penniless -parents, or at all events those whose families can not be induced to -educate them at home even by pecuniary assistance. One school would be -enough for such boys, in which the moral education would be the first -object, as the necessary education required to prepare the scholars for -the higher schools and regimental cadet schools may be obtained by their -attending the public schools.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) As regards the middle cadet schools, they should be -abolished, as they do not agree at all with the above-mentioned -principles. Boys are torn from home at much too tender an age, and are -not brought up in the path of morality. Should a reform only of these -schools be intended, this would be so expensive that the improvement -gained would be dearly paid for.</p> - -<p>As the army is not only to be composed of drilled soldiers, but also -of generally well educated men, in order to improve their intellectual -position and the spirit of the army, and to prevent the undue growth of -drill and mere formalities, it is of great necessity that the military -schools should be brought into harmonious concert with the civil -schools. The deficiencies of the latter are less than those of the -former, and it may be expected that they will soon be removed. In -accordance with these considerations (and there are yet many more), it -is much to be recommended that these two institutions should be -abolished, not only as being right in principle, but also in agreement -with the laws of national economy.</p> - -<p>By the laying down of the system of education to be taught at the -common middle schools, as a condition of being allowed to enter a -military academy, in connection with the influences of the moral -development of the family circle, up to the fifteenth year of a boy’s -life, it is to be hoped that the general above-named principles will be -attained; and when the poor officers are allowed the means to educate -their boys aspiring for the military academies by granting them -pecuniary allowances, it may be hoped that they will not only be -contented, and will care for the moral education of their children, but -that the State also will find in the system the best means of attaining -its object.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page455" id="page455">455</a></span> -<p>As regards the higher schools, especially military ones, the -following may be observed:—</p> - -<p>There are two establishments at present:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The Military Academy and Wiener Neustadt for general -education.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The Engineer Academy, as a special school for the -engineers, and for the instruction of officers in general.</p> - -<p>The latter of the two is not efficient enough, for not more than -eight or ten persons at most are instructed as engineers in it, the rest -being detailed for the infantry, cavalry, &c. As by the -establishment and organization of division schools a sufficient supply -of officers aspirant is provided, and as the officers detailed from the -above-named academies to the line are not more efficient than the -scholars of the division schools (especially when the extra cost of the -academy education is considered), the Engineer Academy must be looked -upon as much too expensive. I agree, therefore, with those who -recommend its abolition. On the other hand, the Neustadt Academy, which -offers to its students a more general, and therefore a better founded -education, and where highly instructed officers can be educated in -larger numbers, may be allowed to remain, both in consideration of its -efficiency and in honor of its serene foundress, the great Empress Maria -Theresa, but on condition of its being reorganized in accordance with -the principles laid down by that noble lady in the following -words:—“That in this school shall be formed <i>men</i> only, and -of them <i>soldiers</i>.”</p> - -<p>The said academy must, however, seek to attain to a higher degree of -perfection than of late. The classics must be more cultivated, as also -national economy and a general civilized education. It should be -organized for a course of six years, and it should receive students, -sons of officers or military officials, who have successfully passed two -or three Latin or technical schools.</p> - -<p>The following subjects should be taught, besides the military and -mathematical sciences:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>(1.) The Latin language, sufficient to understand the Roman -classics.</p> - -<p>(2.) All human sciences; particular attention should be paid to -style, as it has been observed that since Latin has not been taught in -the Wiener Neustadt Academy, there has been a great falling off in this -respect. Rhetoric is to be taught in a practical manner, as the -knowledge of how to speak is of importance in our constitutional -era.</p> - -<p>(3.) Philosophy, two years; in the first year, psychology; in the -second year, logic to its full extent, moral philosophy, metaphysics, -and the history of philosophy.</p> - -<p>(4.) Statecraft, state and international law, and the fundamental law -of the Austrian monarchy.</p> - -<p>(5.) The rudiments of economy and national economy.</p> -</div> - -<p>As special schools for the army the following should be -retained:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) A special engineer and artillery school.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) A special school for the pioneer corps, where the special -knowledge necessary for that arm, as well as other military matters, are -taught. The scholars should be between the ages of 16 and 19 years.</p> -</div> - -<p>The students of the institutions intended for the education of the -engineers and artillery will be enrolled in their respective corps -quartered in Vienna. They will there have to pass a proper course of -high mathematics, natural philosophy, and architecture at the -Polytechnic; after they have succeeded in this, they will be either -detailed for two years’ active duty with their corps, or they may be at -once ordered to pass through a higher combined course for -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page456" id="page456">456</a></span> -artillery and engineers. If this will suffice for the due supply of -technically instructed officers, the artillery and engineer academies -may be abolished.</p> - -<p>As regards the present school for the General Staff, it may be -recommended that a general college for the whole army should be formed -from it, wherein not only the higher military sciences should be taught, -but also statecraft and national economy. It would be right to examine a -candidate before he entered the college in the rudiments of natural -philosophy and chemistry.</p> - -<p>The student may obtain the time necessary for the cultivation of -these two sciences by reducing the time till now assigned to sketching -and surveying; the more so, as the student will have already attained a -great perfection in this branch of his education by former study of it -in the public and preparatory schools.</p> - - -<h5><a name="austria_1869_system" id="austria_1869_system" href="#austria_1869">SYSTEM AS REORGANIZED IN 1869.</a></h5> - -<p class="smallhead">(A.)—ESTABLISHMENTS FOR THE EDUCATION OF -YOUTH.</p> - -<p class="heading">1. <i>Military Orphan Asylum.</i></p> - -<p>Military orphans and other deserving candidates for the army are -supported in this establishment. They are educated at the public -schools.</p> - -<p>The number of pupils is 150. They pass thence into the other -institutions, according to their talents and final destination.</p> - - -<p class="heading">2. <i>Military Technical Schools.</i></p> - -<p>At present four in number. It is proposed to reduce them to two. The -course is of three years. Number of pupils, 150 in each school. They are -educated for the Technical Academy, and to provide good non-commissioned -officers for the Artillery and Engineers. They enter at 14 and leave at -16 years of age, at the end of their third year’s course of study. Those -enter the Technical Academy who have most distinguished themselves; the -others are sent either for a two years’ course to the Division Schools, -or else to the Artillery Officers’ Aspirant Schools.</p> - - -<p class="heading">3. <i>The Military College.</i></p> - -<p>The course is for two years. This is chiefly intended as a -preparatory school for the Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt.</p> - - -<p class="heading">4. <i>The Military Academies.</i></p> - -<p>These institutions are intended to provide the army with officers -properly qualified for the various branches of the army.</p> - -<p>(1.) <i>The Wiener Neustadt Academy.</i>—The course is of four -years. Number of scholars 100 per annum, or a total of 400. The academy -is intended for the education of candidates for the Infantry Regiments -of the Line and Military Frontier, the Jagers, and the Cavalry.</p> - -<p>(2.) <i>The Technical Academy</i> (established in Vienna) for the -education of the best pupils of the technical schools for the artillery, -engineer, and pioneer services. The course is of four years; 65 scholars -in each year, or 260 total. Each year’s course of study is divided into -two sections, one for artillery pupils, one for engineer pupils.</p> - -<p>It is proposed that these officers should be attached to their -respective corps in Vienna during their course of study, and should -attend lectures at the Polytechnic at Vienna. When this course is over, -they are to be attached for two years’ service with their corps, or sent -direct to go through the higher artillery or engineer course.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page457" id="page457">457</a></span> -<p class="smallhead">(B.)—SCHOOLS ATTACHED TO REGIMENTS OR -DIVISIONS.</p> - -<p class="heading">1. <i>Regimental, Troop, and Cadet Schools.</i></p> - -<p>Besides the troop schools in each regiment or independent battalion, -there is one of the cadet schools for the education of all those, from -the rank of sergeant downwards, who aspire to the rank of cadet, or who -desire to acquire the preparatory knowledge necessary to be admitted -into the schools for officers aspirant.</p> - -<p>The number of pupils depends on the number of individuals qualified. -The course is of two years.</p> - - -<p class="heading">2. <i>Regimental Schools for Officers -aspirant.</i></p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) For the <i>Artillery</i>—The course is of two -years; 50 scholars annually.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) For the <i>Engineers</i>—A two years’ course for -each. <i>Pioneers</i>—Number of pupils according to demand.</p> - - -<p class="heading">3. <i>Divisional Schools for Officers -aspirant.</i></p> - -<p>There is a school of this sort in each of the 23 infantry and cavalry -divisions, and for the country gendarmerie.</p> - -<p>The course is of two years. Number of pupils not fixed (at present -nearly 1,200), in addition to which is the special instruction for their -respective arms; when they have successfully passed an examination at -the end of the course, they become officers aspirant.</p> - -<p class="smallhead">(C.)—ESTABLISHMENTS FOR MORE ADVANCED -PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION.</p> - -<p class="heading">1. <i>The Higher Courses for the Artillery, and</i> -(2) <i>Engineers</i>.</p> - -<p>These are intended for the formation of highly scientific officers -for the more important duties and higher command of these arms, and for -the army in general. The course is of two years. The number of officer -students is not fixed, but must depend on the number of highly qualified -candidates of the above arms. They must have served for two years with -their corps with distinction.</p> - - -<p class="heading">3. <i>War School</i> (Staff College).</p> - -<p>This institution is intended for the formation of officers for the -general staff. The course is of two years. The number of students is -80.</p> - -<p>An officer must have served at least three years with his corps with -distinction before he can be admitted, and officers who have served -longer will, as a rule, be preferred.</p> - -<p class="heading"><ins class="correction" -title="anomalous parentheses in original">(4.)</ins> <i>Course for Military Frontier -Instruction.</i></p> - -<p>This is an academy for those who are already serving in the army. The -course is of two years, and the number of pupils is regulated by the -demand. The studies are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>State organization and frontier administration.</p> -<p>Civil and military law and legal procedure.</p> -<p>Agriculture, law of commerce, and exchange.</p> -<p>Revenue law and institutions.</p> -<p>Croatian language.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading">5. <i>Central Cavalry School at Vienna.</i></p> - -<p>The object of this establishment is to prepare distinguished -regimental officers for the higher commands in cavalry, and to instruct -them in the theory and practice of that arm, and the <i>haute école</i> -of riding.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page458" id="page458">458</a></span> -<p>There are 41 students of the rank of captain (1st and 2d class), or -one from each cavalry regiment. The course is of one year. The studies -are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Theoretical and practical riding, training of unbroken horses, -service and drill regulations of cavalry, veterinary art, leaping, -fencing, pistol-shooting, rudiments of strategy and history of war, -tactics, field service, occupation of ground, surveying, army -organization, knowledge of arms, pioneer and engineer service, practical -drill, and field service and reconnaissances.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading">6. <i>Josephinum Academy for Medicine and -Surgery</i>,</p> - -<p>For the formation of students for the higher grades of the medical -and surgical departments, from the rank of first lieutenant-surgeon.</p> - -<p>This establishment ranks with the upper school of surgery at Vienna. -The number of students from the army is fixed at 242. When there is -accommodation there are, besides this, paying students.</p> - - -<p class="heading">7. <i>Military Veterinary Institution</i>,</p> - -<p>Consisting of two sections:—(1.) Veterinary. (2.) Farriery.</p> - -<p>Students who have passed the necessary examinations are entitled to -their diploma and rights in the same way as students of the civil -veterinary school in Hungary.</p> - -<p>The students of the veterinary section are field surgeons and -farriers.</p> - -<p>The students of the farriery section are non-commissioned officers -and soldiers and civilians. The number of soldier students depends upon -the requirements of the army.</p> - - -<p class="heading">8. <i>Course for the Intendance.</i></p> - -<p>This establishment, <i>when organized</i>, is intended to qualify -captains or first-lieutenants on the active establishment of infantry or -cavalry, captain auditors, and properly qualified clerks, for the -administration of the Intendance of the army now in progress of -formation.</p> - - -<h5><a name="austria_1869_courses" id="austria_1869_courses" href="#austria_1869">COURSES OF STUDY IN THE MILITARY SCHOOLS.</a></h5> - -<p class="smallhead">(I.) COURSE OF SCIENCES TO BE TAUGHT AND LECTURED -ON AT THE REGIMENTAL CADET SCHOOLS.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects.</th> -<th colspan="2">Course of Lectures during—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language and Style,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Regimental Dialect,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Caligraphy,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Style,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Arithmetic,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Algebra,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical Surveying,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mapping and Tracing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geography,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Drill and Manœuvre Regulations,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Service Regulations,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Field Service,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pioneer Service,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Arms,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Hand Drawing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics, &c.,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Target Practice,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page459" id="page459">459</a></span> -<p class="tablehead">(II.) COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT THE SCHOOLS FOR -OFFICERS ASPIRANT.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th><span class="plaintext">A.</span>—Ordinary Course.</th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Style,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Essays,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geometry and Trigonometry,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher Trigonometry and Conic Sections,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mechanics, Natural History, and Chemistry,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geometrical Drawing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical Surveying,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Mapping,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Sketching and Tracing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geography,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematical Geography,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Administration,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Drill and Manœuvre Regulations,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Service Regulations,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army Organization,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Tactics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Field Fortifications</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Permanent do.,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Arms,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Hand Drawing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Athletic Games,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Target Practice,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding, if possible,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="heading">B.—<i>Course for the Pioneer -Regiment.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>High Mathematics.</p> -<p>Higher Trigonometry.</p> -<p>Practical do.</p> -<p>Analytical Geometry.</p> -<p>Mathematical Geography.</p> -<p>Natural History and Chemistry.</p> -<p>Military Economy and Finance.</p> -<p>Geography.</p> -<p>History.</p> -<p>Construction of Arms.</p> -<p>Fortification.</p> -<p>Architecture.</p> -<p>Mechanics.</p> -<p><span class="linegroup">Drill,<br>Service,<br>Manœuvre,</span> -<span class="leftbracket">Regulations.</span></p> -<p>Pioneer Service.</p> -<p>Surveying.</p> -<p>Tracing.</p> -<p>Athletic Games.</p> -<p>Fencing.</p> -<p>Swimming.</p> -<p>Tactics.</p> -</div> - -<p class="smallhead">(III.) COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT THE PREPARATORY -SCHOOL FOR THE WIENER NEUSTADT ACADEMY.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects.</th> -<th colspan="2">Hours per Week—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Religious Instruction</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>1½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Latin,</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>7</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Greek,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German and Literature,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History and Geography,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Natural History,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>* Short-hand Writing,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>* Caligraphy,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>* Drawing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>* Athletic Games,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dancing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Swimming,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total hours per week,</td> -<td class="sum">39½</td> -<td class="sum">39½</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablefoot">* Subjects marked thus * are voluntary for -scholars of classical schools, but are compulsory at the military -schools.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page460" id="page460">460</a></span> -<p class="tablehead">(IV.) COURSE AT THE PREPARATORY SCHOOLS FOR THE -TECHNICAL ACADEMY.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects</th> -<th colspan="3">Hours per Week—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -<th>3d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Religious Instruction,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History and Geography,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mathematics,</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Analytical Geometry and Drawing,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Natural History,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Natural Philosophy,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical Chemistry,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Hand and Mathematical Drawing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Caligraphy,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Style and Finance,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery and Pioneer practice,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Service Regulations,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Drill and Manœuvre Regulations,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Management of Horses,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Athletic Games and Fencing,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total hours per week,</td> -<td class="sum">44</td> -<td class="sum">44</td> -<td class="sum">44</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablehead">(V.) COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT THE MILITARY -ACADEMY AT WIENER NEUSTADT.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>*Subjects—(Hours per Week)</th> -<th colspan="4">Years—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st,</th> -<th>2d,</th> -<th>3d,</th> -<th>4th.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Religious Instruction,</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Latin,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Greek,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German and Literature,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History and Geography,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Physical Geography,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Preparatory Philosophy,</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Philosophy,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher Mathematics,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Astronomy,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Analytical Geometry,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical ditto and Surveying,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Nat. Philos. and Fundamental Laws of Chemistry,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Theoretical Mechanics,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Review of Law and Statesmanship,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cons’l Law of Austria, and its Adm’ive Org’tion,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>European State and International Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Austrian Military Law (Criminal),</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Finance,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Arms,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pioneer Service,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History of War,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Drill Regulations,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Service do,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Manœuvre do,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>1½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry do,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Tactics,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Surveying, Tracing, and Mapping,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Athletic Games and Dancing, each 2 hours,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total hours per week,</td> -<td class="sum">42</td> -<td class="sum">41</td> -<td class="sum">41</td> -<td class="sum">41</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablefoot">* To these should be added the Bohemian and -Hungarian language for the 3d and 4th years.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page461" id="page461">461</a></span> -<p class="tablehead">(VI.) COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT THE TECHNICAL -MILITARY ACADEMY AT VIENNA.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Subjects.</i>—(<i>Courses</i>—United -Preparatory, Engineer, Artillery.)</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th colspan="2">Preparatory.</th> -<th colspan="2">Engineer.</th> -<th colspan="2">Artillery.</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smallest"> -<th>Number of hours per week—Years—</th> -<th>1.</th> -<th>2.</th> -<th>3.</th> -<th>4.</th> -<th>3.</th> -<th>4.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Zoölogy and Botany,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mineralogy,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geology,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher Math. 1, 2, 3, Higher <ins class="correction" -title="text has ‘Geodosy’">Geodesy</ins> 4th yr.</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Analytical Geometry</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Sketching,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical Geometry,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemistry of Minerals,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemical Manufacture,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>General and Technical Natural Philosophy,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mechanical Technics,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Technical and Analytical Mechanics,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Machinery and Drawing,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Description of Machinery,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Mountain Roads,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Planning and Sketching,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Road and Water Communication, &c.,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>General Architecture,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Machine Making,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Building,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ornamental Drawing,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Review of the Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Criminal Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Arms (Engineer),</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Construction</span> of Batteries -(Artillery),</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Pioneer service,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Sappers’ and Miners’ Duties,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Finance,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Drill Regulations,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Service ditto,</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>1½</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Manœuvre ditto,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry ditto,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Tactics,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Surveying and Tracing,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dancing,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total hours per week,</td> -<td class="sum">40½</td> -<td class="sum">41</td> -<td class="sum">43</td> -<td class="sum">43</td> -<td class="sum">51</td> -<td class="sum">50</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablehead">(VII.) UPPER COURSE OF STUDY FOR ARTILLERY.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects.</th> -<th colspan="2">Course—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Practical Mechanics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Construction of Machinery,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification and Field Armaments,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Science of Higher Artillery,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Geography and Statistics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher Tactics and Strategy,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>National Economy and Finance,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Organization of the Constitution, and Administration,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>State and International Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Literature,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Active Duties of the General Staff,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page462" id="page462">462</a></span> -<p class="tablehead">(VIII.) UPPER COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE -ENGINEERS.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects.</th> -<th colspan="2">Course—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>English,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemistry and Practical Technics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The Mechanism of Building,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Architecture,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ornamental Architecture,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military History,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Science of Artillery,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Strategy,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>National Economy and Finance,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Organization of the Constitution, and Administration,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>State and International Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Literature,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tablehead">(IX.) UPPER COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE WAR -SCHOOL.</p> - -<table class="austria"> -<tr> -<th>Subjects.</th> -<th colspan="2">Course—</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th>1st Year.</th> -<th>2d Year.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Literature,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Administrative Duties of the Staff,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Active Duties of the General Staff,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Tracing and Surveying,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Geography,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Higher Tactics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Strategy,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Engineer Service,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery Service,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rudiments of State and International Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rudiments of Nati’l Economy and Administrative Law,</td> -<td>0</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<h5><a name="austria_1869_staff" id="austria_1869_staff" href="#austria_1869">AUSTRIAN STAFF.</a></h5> - -<p>By recent ordinance the Special Staff Corps has been abolished. All -the officers are borne on the army rosters according to their ranks, in -particular branches of the service. No one will be allowed to enter the -Staff School until he has served three or four years with the troops, -and then captains and first lieutenants will be preferred to men of less -service or rank. Having passed through the school course they will again -join their regiments; and will then be appointed to the staff, as may be -required. The period during which they are to remain on the staff will -depend on their merits, their promotion, and the exigencies of the -service; but as a principle they would generally rejoin their troop on -promotion. There can be no doubt in the minds of those who have -practically studied the question, that the system is sound. -A special Staff Corps is never large enough to supply the demands -of an army in the field for long, especially if the war is long and very -active. The duties of a staff officer with an army actively engaged in -the field, are so numerous and arduous that an <i>enormous number</i> -are used up in the course of a campaign; and when you have only the -Staff Corps to draw from, the supply of practical officers is not equal -to the demand. The French experienced this in the Crimean War. By -educating a number of young officers endowed by nature with the -qualifications indispensable to form an <i>efficient</i> staff officer -<i>on active service</i>, and by throwing them back into their -regiments, they leaven the mass, and form a fund of selected and -instructed officers from which can be drawn as occasion may -require.—<i>Col. Crealock to Military Ed. Com.</i></p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page463" id="page463">463</a></span> -<h5><a name="austria_brigade" id="austria_brigade" href="#austria">CAVALRY BRIGADE SCHOOLS FOR OFFICERS.</a></h5> - -<p>The following memorandum gives an account of an order lately issued, -regulating Officers’ Brigade Schools in the Austrian cavalry.</p> - -<p>The object of the Cavalry Brigade schools will be to secure a supply -of efficient riding masters throughout the service capable of giving -general instruction.</p> - -<p>The Central Cavalry School will continue to be a higher military and -scientific establishment, with (in addition to the theoretical -education of the pupils) a course of instruction which insures a uniform -system of equitation and of breaking horses. A certain number of -its best pupils may be transferred, after a year’s attendance, to the -<i>Kriegs-Schule</i>, with a view to their preparation for the -staff.</p> - -<p>Cavalry Officers’ Brigade Schools educate officers of that arm, -theoretically as well as practically, in all their duties. After the -termination of the autumn manœuvres one will be formed in each brigade. -The annual course lasts six months, and should begin on the 1st of -October.</p> - -<p>It is the duty of the Brigadier to superintend the school, but it is -also that of commanding officers of regiments to inform themselves of -the progress of their officers, and consequently to visit it often.</p> - -<p>Before the 15th of August the Brigadier proposes to the Minister of -War the station at which the school should be established, also the -names of the instructors and pupils. It rests with him to make all -arrangements for setting it in operation; and as his supervision must be -continual, he should (whenever practicable) place it at the -head-quarters of his brigade. Above all, a covered riding school must be -fitted up; then a drill ground, a manège with artificial fences, and a -school, and fencing-room. Whenever possible the men and horses must be -in barracks.</p> - -<p>The best qualified officer in the brigade, of the rank of -lieutenant-colonel or major, is to be selected for Commandant, and each -school is to have two captains as instructors. One of them must have -gone through the Central Cavalry School, and must have been reported as -specially qualified to give instruction; the second must be considered -one of the best horsemen in the brigade.</p> - -<p>At the disposal of these officers there is the following -staff:—one veterinary surgeon for instruction in the anatomy, -diseases, and shoeing of horses; one sergeant in charge of the men and -horses; one sergeant for quartermaster’s duties and accounts; one -farrier; three corporals; one trumpeter; twelve men per regiment of the -brigade; and the riders of the horses attached to the school.</p> - -<p>If there is an auditor (<i>Judge Advocate</i>) available, he attends -regularly to explain the Articles of War and give lectures on military -law. Should there be none, this duty devolves upon one of the captain -instructors.</p> - -<p>Six officers from the rank of first lieutenant downwards are sent -yearly from each regiment. Each of them brings with him, besides his own -horses, the one allowed him by Government. Every regiment sends six -remount horses that have passed the first stage of breaking, and six -that have just joined.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The principal subjects of theoretical instruction are—1st, -Regulations of the army; 2d, Tactics, particularly as referring to the -handling of cavalry; 3d, Field movements, and especially outpost duty, -which are to be illustrated by examples from the history of war; the -pupils will also draw and describe a tract of country, and give written -reports upon field operations; 4th, description of the anatomy and -diseases of horses, with their management and feeding -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page464" id="page464">464</a></span> -both in the stable and the field; shoeing theoretical and practical, in -all its details; 5th, thorough practice in the use of cavalry weapons, a -general acquaintance with the arms of the artillery and infantry of the -principal military nations, and an accurate knowledge of those employed -in the Imperial army; 6th, a general knowledge of field fortification -and of the works to be executed by the Pioneer Corps in combination with -cavalry; 7th, the study of tracts of country, extending to the -observation of roads, streams, coverts, and undulations; the correct -reading and understanding of maps.</p> -</div> - -<p>The practical branch of education at these schools has for its main -object the maintenance throughout the army of the best fundamental -system of equitation, and the adoption of any improvements in the -cavalry service in general which may appear advisable. To this is added -practice in getting over long distances through every description of -country, and in judging when and where halts should be made with most -advantage to single horsemen, or to detachments of troops. These marches -are to be combined with patrolling, reconnaissances, and posting -piquets, and are to be practiced once a week.</p> - -<p>After every such march the pupils will send in a brief report and -rough sketch, either next morning or within forty-eight hours, as may be -ordered. They are to practice making this sketch on horseback as well as -on foot. They must perfect themselves in gymnastics, and in fencing and -singlestick, both on foot and horseback.</p> - -<p>The regulations issued to the Minister of War as to distribution of -hours and reports will be strictly followed, and no deviation will be -permitted except under particular circumstances. Sundays and holidays -are observed. No leave of absence, except in cases of urgent necessity, -can be granted to either instructors or pupils during the course.</p> - -<p>At the end of the season of instruction (<i>i.e.</i> at the end of -March) the Cavalry Officers’ Brigade School will be broken up; and all -persons attached to it, and their horses, will return to their -regiments.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">EXPENDITURES ON MILITARY EDUCATION.</p> - -<p>The appropriation for Military Education in Austria for 1870, was as -follows:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>For non-commissioned officers and men, 504,000 florins -(40,320<i>l</i>).</p> - -<p>For officers, 978,000 florins (78,284<i>l</i>).</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<h4>Footnotes for Part III (Austria)</h4> - -<p><a name="note3_1" id="note3_1" href="#tag3_1">1</a> -The following account is translated from “<i>Die Kaiserlich-Königlichen -Militär-Bildungs-Anstalten, mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die -Vorschriften für den Eintritt in dieselben, Zusammengestellt aus den -allerhöchst sanctionirten Reglements der Militär-Bildungs-Anstalten. -Wien, 1854</i>.” (<i>The Imperial Military Institutions for -Education</i>, with special reference to the conditions required for -admission, compiled from the regulations sanctioned by His Majesty. -Vienna, 1854)</p> - -<p><a name="note3_2" id="note3_2" href="#tag3_2">2</a> -<i>Techniche</i> (technical) is the original word. Compare its use in -another matter; there are in the Artillery two services, the ordinary -Campaigning Artillery and the <i>Technical</i> Artillery.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_3" id="note3_3" href="#tag3_3">3</a> -<i>Frequentanten</i>, who frequent, attend, or visit the school.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_4" id="note3_4" href="#tag3_4">4</a> -<i>Stiftlinge</i>, foundationers, and <i>Zahlende</i>, paying pupils, -the first, divided into, (1.) <i>Militär-Ararial</i> foundationers, who -are, as a rule, sons of Soldiers and Officers, and are maintained at the -expense of the Military Treasury, the <i>Arar</i>, or <i>Ærarium</i>; -(2.) Provincial foundationers, who are maintained by the interest of -lands or money granted in favor of young men belonging to some -particular province, Bohemia, Gallicia, the Tyrol, Upper or Lower -Austria, either by the Central Government (the State,) or by the Estates -or Parliament (<i>Stände</i>) of the province; (3.) Private -foundationers, under which name are included not only those maintained -by moneys left by private individuals, but those also whose payments -come from grants made by municipal and local corporations.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_5" id="note3_5" href="#tag3_5">5</a> -The <i>Ober-Militär Commando</i>, or <i>Commandership-in-chief</i>, the -Fourth Section of which has the charge of Military Education. -<i>Commando</i> is the German word corresponding to Commander, as -<i>Ministry</i> does to <i>Minister</i>, and may signify one or more -persons, a single Officer, or a Board of Commissioners.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_6" id="note3_6" href="#tag3_6">6</a> -Making a total of 1,620, to which may be added about 80, reserved for -<i>Frequentanten</i> from the School Companies.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_7" id="note3_7" href="#tag3_7">7</a> -The interest, that is, will be allowed to accumulate, until a sufficient -sum is provided to pay for the maintenance of a pupil.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_8" id="note3_8" href="#tag3_8">8</a> -Such as exist in most large towns.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_9" id="note3_9" href="#tag3_9">9</a> -There are four <i>Armies</i>; the First in the west, with its -head-quarters at Vienna; the Second in Italy, with its head-quarters at -Verona; and two others in the eastern provinces. Each of these is -divided into a certain number of Army Corps. The particulars may be seen -in Schematismus or Military Calendar, and briefly in the Almanach de -Gotha.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_10" id="note3_10" href="#tag3_10">10</a> -In those parts of the Empire, namely, in the so-called Military -Frontiers, the old Turkish border, where the government is simply -military.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_11" id="note3_11" href="#tag3_11">11</a> -The Governor or Lord Lieutenant (the <i>Statthalter</i>) is the ordinary -representative of the Emperor in the various provinces composing the -Empire. In his hands resides the usual administration of the government. -The provinces have also their ancient Estates or Parliaments, Standing -Committees of which might, under certain circumstances, sit at times -when the Estates were not assembled.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_12" id="note3_12" href="#tag3_12">12</a> -Small allowances, <i>e.g.</i> of 8<i>l.</i> for three years, are very -generally made to the widows of officers, and occasionally to officers -themselves, to assist them in securing a decent education for their -children.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_13" id="note3_13" href="#tag3_13">13</a> -Thus, it will be seen, all candidates appointed to the Military places -in the schools are examined three times over by a medical officer. Where -the State does not pay, in the case of provincial or private -foundations, or of paying pupils, the same amount of precaution is not -thought necessary.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_14" id="note3_14" href="#tag3_14">14</a> -The difficulties of traveling appear to be considered in Austria too -great to allow of any examination (competitive or otherwise) before the -candidates provisionally admitted actually arrive at the school to which -they are appointed; if ill qualified, they are dismissed with the Chance -of a second trial.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_15" id="note3_15" href="#tag3_15">15</a> -Will be <i>assentirt</i>, will take the oath. They are considered old -enough for this at sixteen.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_16" id="note3_16" href="#tag3_16">16</a> -Even clothes and shoes being made by soldiers; a considerable number of -soldiers were found thus employed, for example, at the Artillery Academy -at Olmütz, under the superintendence of a master workman, bearing a -non-commissioned grade, that of a <i>prima-planist</i>, for whom, see a -Note further on.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_17" id="note3_17" href="#tag3_17">17</a> -<i>Militär Rechnungs Branche.</i></p> - -<p><a name="note3_18" id="note3_18" href="#tag3_18">18</a> -<i>Monturs Commission</i>, charged with the duty of providing arms, -clothing, &c., for the army. There are several establishments in -various parts of the Empire. One of the largest is at Stockerau, near -Vienna.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_19" id="note3_19" href="#tag3_19">19</a> -Into a <i>Siechen-haus</i>, a hospital for incurable cases; or an -<i>Invaliden-haus</i>, for <i>Invalídes</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_20" id="note3_20" href="#tag3_20">20</a> -A pupil who was removed from the Academy at Wiener Neustadt might, for -example, enter the army as a simple Cadet, under the patronage of the -Colonel of a regiment, and might, but for this rule, receive rapid -promotion, and become the senior in rank of his comrades of the same -year at the School. In like manner, a pupil removed from a Cadet -Institution and transferred into a School Company, might, upon leaving -that, under certain circumstances, outstrip his late comrades at the -Cadet Institution.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_21" id="note3_21" href="#tag3_21">21</a> -That is, all the pupils are of military or quasi-military birth, and the -expense is borne by the State. Both these and the Upper Military Houses -are to be reduced, it is said, to ten.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_22" id="note3_22" href="#tag3_22">22</a> -The whole body (<i>Mannschaft</i>) of soldiers bearing arms -(<i>Feuergewehrstand</i>.)</p> - -<p><a name="note3_23" id="note3_23" href="#tag3_23">23</a> -Marriage of the first degree is that entered into with full permission. -In this the wives live in the barracks, receive a certain amount of -rations, their children are recognized, and in case of the father’s -death are admitted into the Orphan Schools. <ins class="correction" -title="text has superfluous ,">Soldiers</ins> are, however, -occasionally allowed to marry, on condition of surrendering every claim -to the above-mentioned privileges. This constitutes marriage of the -second degree.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_24" id="note3_24" href="#tag3_24">24</a> -The <i>Trabanten-Leibgarde</i> and the <i>Hofburgwache</i> are Court -troops. For the <i>Monturs Commission</i>, see a previous Note.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_25" id="note3_25" href="#tag3_25">25</a> -Soldiers enlist for eight years, and after this to the end of the tenth -year are on the Reserve.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_26" id="note3_26" href="#tag3_26">26</a> -That is, belonging to the Hospitals or Hotels des Invalides, the -<i>Invaliden-häuser</i>, of which there are several.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_27" id="note3_27" href="#tag3_27">27</a> -Prima-planists, a name derived from <i>prima plana</i>, the first leaf -of the list, is given to soldiers employed in various special duties, -especially perhaps those not of a strictly military kind. The master -tailors, master shoemakers, master farriers, are all -<i>prima-planisten</i>. The surgeon’s assistant ranks as such. The grade -is superior to that of sergeant, but those who hold it are excluded from -promotion to a commission.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_28" id="note3_28" href="#tag3_28">28</a> -This is a frequent phrase (<i>mit dem Degen dienende</i>) for active -service.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_29" id="note3_29" href="#tag3_29">29</a> -<i>Feldwebel</i>, Sergeant; <i>qua Feldwebel</i>, Honorary Sergeant, -with the title and distinction in the uniform, but without the pay.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_30" id="note3_30" href="#tag3_30">30</a> -<i>Stock-fechten</i>, or staff-fencing; a sort of military single-stick, -the staff used resembling a musket and bayonet in one piece, all of -wood.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_31" id="note3_31" href="#tag3_31">31</a> -<i>Truppen-Officiere</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_32" id="note3_32" href="#tag3_32">32</a> -For service on the Lower Danube, the Po, and the Italian Lakes and -Lagoons.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_33" id="note3_33" href="#tag3_33">33</a> -Both for service in the Fleet and in the Coast Defenses.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_34" id="note3_34" href="#tag3_34">34</a> -<i>Technische</i>, Technical or Artificer Companies.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_35" id="note3_35" href="#tag3_35">35</a> -<i>Zöglinge</i> and <i>Frequentanten</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_36" id="note3_36" href="#tag3_36">36</a> -The <i>Mannschaft-stand</i> is a term used to mean the whole body of -Private Soldiers and Non-commissioned Officers.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_37" id="note3_37" href="#tag3_37">37</a> -The Non-commissioned Officers in the Austrian service rank as -follows:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>In the Infantry, Corporal, and Sergeant (<i>Feldwebel</i>:)</p> -<p>In the Cavalry, Corporal, and <i>Wachtmeister</i>:</p> -<p>In the Artillery, Corporal, and <i>Feuerwerker</i>:</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue">But there are distinctions in addition. A private -soldier who is exempted from certain duties, e.g. from standing sentry, -bears the name of <i>Gefreite</i>, or Exempt, in the Infantry and in the -Engineers; the corresponding rank to which in the Artillery is an Upper -Cannoneer (<i>Ober-Canonier</i>,) and in the Pioneers, an Upper Pioneer -(<i>Ober-Pionier</i>.) These are in no case Non-commissioned Officers, -though in the way to become so. There are also Vice-Corporals (Lance -Corporals,) with the badge but without the pay of Sergeants, and <i>qua -Feldwebels</i> or Honorary Sergeants, with the badge but without the pay -of Sergeants.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_38" id="note3_38" href="#tag3_38">38</a> -The Austrian foot or shoe (<i>schuh</i>) of 12 inches (<i>zoll</i>) is a -little longer than the English: 80 Austrian make 83 English.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_39" id="note3_39" href="#tag3_39">39</a> -<i>Manipulation.</i> See the account of the visits to the School -Companies.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_40" id="note3_40" href="#tag3_40">40</a> -This includes pontooning.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_41" id="note3_41" href="#tag3_41">41</a> -Cadets in a regiment, <i>i.e.</i> candidates for a commission, like -those appointed on the nomination of the colonels.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_42" id="note3_42" href="#tag3_42">42</a> -Because of the large number of Bohemians in the Artillery.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_43" id="note3_43" href="#tag3_43">43</a> -Pontooning being included in the duties of the Pioneers.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_44" id="note3_44" href="#tag3_44">44</a> -The Marine Infantry do not serve like our Marines on board ship, but -only on the coast. The Marine Artillery and the Engineering pupils -(<i>Maschinen-lehrlinge</i>) serve on board.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_45" id="note3_45" href="#tag3_45">45</a> -For the Outfit Department (<i>Monturs Commission</i>,) see a previous -Note. The business of the Remounting Department or Remounting -Establishments (<i>Remontirungs Anstalten</i>) is to supply the cavalry -with horses. There are several of these great establishments for buying -and breeding horses; the largest of all is in Gallicia.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_46" id="note3_46" href="#tag3_46">46</a> -<i>Auditoriat.</i>—There is an <i>Auditor</i> or Military Judge in -each regiment. He has passed through his course as a law student, and -declared for this branch. In every province there is a central -department. These law officials rise through all the grades from -Lieutenant up to General.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_47" id="note3_47" href="#tag3_47">47</a> -One of the marks of superior rank is the amount granted for -<i>allowances</i>, for which there is a carefully graduated scale.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_48" id="note3_48" href="#tag3_48">48</a> -In the School Companies there are two different sets of Scholars, those -who have come from the Houses of Education or from private schools, and -those who <i>attend</i> after two years’ service in the Army. These are -<i>frequentanten</i> in the School Companies, but all alike, who come -from the School Companies, are <i>frequentanten</i> in the -Academies.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_49" id="note3_49" href="#tag3_49">49</a> -It appears, however, that a transfer of pupils, for example, from the -Engineers’ Academy to Wiener Neustadt, in consequence of incapacity for -Mathematics, is allowed at a later standing. After passing a year at -Znaim, a young man may enter the second year’s course at Neustadt.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_50" id="note3_50" href="#tag3_50">50</a> -The wishes of the parents are, of course, consulted in the case of -paying pupils, but it is said that their consent is very generally -given.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_51" id="note3_51" href="#tag3_51">51</a> -The Law of Nations as it exists <i>de facto</i> without consideration of -its principles.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_52" id="note3_52" href="#tag3_52">52</a> -This is at present, in point of fact, omitted for want of time.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_53" id="note3_53" href="#tag3_53">53</a> -The Artillery is recruited very largely from Bohemia and Moravia. -A knowledge of the Bohemian language (which is pretty nearly the -same as Moravian) is therefore essential for an Officer in the command -of Artillerymen.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_54" id="note3_54" href="#tag3_54">54</a> -Literally, “as <i>Frigate-Ensign</i>, or Second Lieutenant of the second -class,” the former being in rank the same as the latter. The order of -rank is,—</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>Captain</td> -<td>of a Man-of-War</td> -<td class="center">equal to a</td> -<td>Colonel in the Army.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>of a Frigate</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>Lieutenant Colonel ditto.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>of a Corvette</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>Major ditto.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">Lieutenant</td> -<td>of a Man-of-War</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>First Captain ditto.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>of a Frigate</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>Second Captain ditto.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2">Ensign in a Man-of-War</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>First Lieutenant ditto.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"><span class="dittomark">Ensign</span> in a -Frigate</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td>Second Lieutenant ditto.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the Corps of Naval Architecture the ordinary military titles are -used.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_55" id="note3_55" href="#tag3_55">55</a> -The Higher <i>Adjutantur</i> or the Aide-de-Camp Department.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_56" id="note3_56" href="#tag3_56">56</a> -See <i>Ante</i>, p 412-441.</p> - -<p><a name="note3_57" id="note3_57" href="#tag3_57">57</a> -It may be desirable to give some specimens, taken from the official -account of the school, of the questions put at the examinations for -admission,</p> - -<p>I. <i>Viva voce.</i></p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>1. Mathematics:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Give an explanation of geometrical series, and a proof of the general -formula.</p> - -<p>How is the circumference and area of a circle determined? How are the -trigonometrical functions of the different quadrants of the circle -indicated?</p> -</div> - -<p>2. Geography:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>What is meant by the <i>backbone</i> of Europe? What states does it -pass through?</p> - -<p>The source of the Elbe; its principal feeders?</p> -</div> - -<p>3. History:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Describe generally the wars of Charles V.</p> - -<p>The political consequences of the Battle of Leipzig.</p> -</div> - -<p>4. Arms and Munitions:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>What is the material of sword blades? how are they made and -proved?</p> - -<p>How are gun carriages made for field and siege guns?</p> - -<p>What kinds of hollow shot are used in the Austrian artillery, and on -what do their effects depend?</p> -</div> - -<p>5. Field and Permanent Fortification:—</p> -<div class="in-one"> - -<p>How is a trench made?</p> - -<p>How is a parapet built?</p> - -<p>What does a front of fortification consist of? what is the -disposition of the several lines? what parts protect the principal -rampart? what is the form of the flanks? and how is the main ditch -made?</p> - -<p>What is meant by detached works? where are they placed?</p> - -<p>What are the best arrangements for the successful defense of a -fortress?</p> -</div> - -<p>6. Pioneer Service:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>How are two beams of the same dimensions fastened together in the -same direction?</p> - -<p>How are suspension bridges put up?</p> -</div> - -<p>7. Rules for Drill and Exercise:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Infantry.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Wheeling during a march.</p> - -<p>Forming of close battalion column.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Cavalry.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Marching in files and fours.</p> - -<p>Forming line from the flank to the front and rear.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Artillery.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Intervals and distances in a battery.</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>II. Paper Work.</p> -<div class="inlist"> -<p>In Mathematics:—</p> -<div class="in-one"> -<p>1. Prove that in every triangle the square of the one side is equal -to the sum of the squares of the two other sides, less twice the product -of these two, multiplied by the cosine of the angle they inclose.</p> - -<p>2. If the hypothenuse is 33, and one angle 25° 48’ 12”, find the -other angle and the perpendicular, &c.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a name="note3_58" id="note3_58" href="#tag3_58">58</a> -The following shows the nature of the Report presented by the examiners -upon an Officer examined for admission. It is called the -<i>Prüfungs-Act</i>, and is sent into the Supreme War Department, that -is, to the Fourth Section.</p> - -<p>Form No. I. gives the name, age, rank, and length of service of the -Candidate (Lieut. R. H.)</p> - -<p>Form No. II.:—<ins class="correction" -title=". missing"><i>a.</i></ins> Oral Examination.</p> - -<table class="plaintext half"> -<tr> -<td class="in1">1. Mathematics,</td> -<td>Very good.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">2. Geography,</td> -<td>Very good.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">3. History,</td> -<td><p>Very good, knowledge thorough, statements logical.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><p>4. Arms and Munitions,</p></td> -<td><p>Excellent; acquainted with the very details.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><p>5. Field and Permanent Fortification,</p></td> -<td>Both satisfactory.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><p>6. Pioneer Service,</p></td> -<td>Very good.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><p>7. Drill and Exercise Rules—</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in2">Infantry,</td> -<td>Very good.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in2">Cavalry,</td> -<td>Not thorough.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in2">Artillery,</td> -<td>Good.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">8. Manœuvring,</td> -<td>Excellent.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">9. French,</td> -<td><p>Translates without difficulty from French into German, and German -into French. Not much practice in speaking.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1"><p>10. National languages,</p></td> -<td><p>Speaks good Bohemian.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>b.</i> Paper Work—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">1. Mathematics,</td> -<td>&c. &c.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><i>c.</i> Accomplishments—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Writing.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">Military Drawing.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="smallcaps">Remarks.</span>—Lieutenant R. H. is a -pupil of the Neustadt Academy, of much natural talent, and quick -apprehension. His way of expressing himself is quick and logical, and -shows a clear head. He has a fair military bearing, and prepossessing -appearance. He gives every hope of proving a useful Officer of the -Staff, and deserves admission into the War School.</p> - -<p>Form No. III. gives the questions actually put, as in the note on the -preceding page.</p> - -<p class="center">(Signed) . . . . -. .</p> -</div> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Errata for Part III (Austria):</h4> - -<p class="partial">[Footnote 23]</p> -<p><span class="citation">Soldiers are, however, occasionally allowed -to marry,</span><br> -Soldiers, are,</p> - -<p><span class="citation">6. Geometry and Rectilinear -Trigonometry,</span><br> -5.</p> - -<p class="partial">[Footnote 58]</p> -<p><span class="citation"><i>a.</i> Oral Examination.</span><br> -<i>missing . after “a”</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">(4.) <i>Course for Military Frontier -Instruction.</i></span><br> -<i>anomalous parentheses in original</i></p> - -<p class="partial">[(VI.) COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT THE TECHNICAL -MILITARY ACADEMY]</p> -<p><span class="citation">Higher Geodesy 4th yr.</span><br> -Geodosy</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page465" id="page465">465</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partIV"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART IV.</span><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA AND OTHER STATES.</h2> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page467" id="page467">467</a></span> -<h3><a name="bavaria" id="bavaria" href="#partIV">MILITARY SYSTEM -AND SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA.</a></h3> - - -<h4><a name="bavaria_system" id="bavaria_system" href="#bavaria">I. MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">Bavaria</span>, with a population in 1867 -of 4,824,421, on an area of 29,347 English square miles, maintained in -1869-70, an armed force of 56,760 men on a peace footing, and of 92,500 -when placed on a war footing.</p> - -<p>The armed force consists of the permanent army, the army of reserve, -and the landwehr, or militia. The strength of the permanent army at the -end of 1869 was as follows:—</p> - -<table class="plaintext"> -<tr> -<td>16 Regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions,</td> -<td class="number">28,304</td> -<td>men.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>10 Battalions of Yager infantry,</td> -<td class="number">5,870</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>20 Regiments of cavalry, each of 5 squadrons,</td> -<td class="number">7,290</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>52 Batteries of artillery, with train,</td> -<td class="number">6,361</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>10 Companies of engineers, with train,</td> -<td class="number">1,212</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 4 Companies of sanitary troops,</td> -<td class="number">624</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 6 Detachments of victualing troops,</td> -<td class="number">288</td> -<td> “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total strength of permanent army,</td> -<td class="number sum">49,449</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The army of reserve numbered over 30,000 men, and is to be made more -efficient. The landwehr is only organized in the large towns. The army -is recruited by conscription. All men, from the age of 21 are liable to -serve, but the sons of the nobility (<i>hohe adel</i>) are exempt, and -they with the sons of superior employés in the service of the state have -the privilege of entering the military school of cadets. Those who are -drawn for the army are held liable to active service for eleven years, -but are kept under arms, when on the peace footing, only three years, -passing three years more in the Reserve when called out for actual -training, and held for service for the remaining five years in the -landwehr. No substitutes are allowed.</p> - -<p>By the treaties of 1870, in time of war, the supreme command of the -army of Bavaria passes to the Emperor of Germany, and in the further -development of the Imperial policy, the military system of Bavaria as -well as of the other German States, will be merged in that of Prussia. -The following account of the system of Military Education, as it was in -1869, is taken from the Report of the Military Education Commission for -1870.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page468" id="page468">468</a></span> -<h4><a name="bavaria_education" id="bavaria_education" href="#bavaria">II. MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p>There are four establishments for Military Education in -Bavaria—1. The Cadet Corps. 2. The War School -3. The Artillery and Engineer School. 4. The War Academy.</p> - - -<h5><a name="bavaria_education_cadet" id="bavaria_education_cadet" -href="#bavaria_education">I. THE CADET CORPS.</a></h5> - -<p>The Cadet Corps was by a royal decree of May 14th, 1864, placed on -the same footing with regard to instruction and final examination as the -Real Gymnasium, and by a further decree of April 2d, 1868, the -signification and value which are attached to an <i>Absolutorium</i>, or -certificate of final examination, of a Real Gymnasium, were equally made -to apply to an <i>Absolutorium</i> of the Cadet Corps.</p> - -<p>There are three classes.</p> - -<p>For admission into the first class, candidates must be acquainted -with the following subjects:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Religious Instruction.</i>—(<i>a.</i>) For Catholics: First -chapter on Belief (<i>von den Glauben</i>) with preceding introduction, -from page 33 to page 96.</p> - -<p>The larger Catholic Catechism for all Bavarian bishoprics.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) For Protestants: The heads of the Christian doctrine, -with the ecclesiastical explanation of the same, as well as the most -important passages of the Bible contained in the catechism.</p> - -<p><i>German.</i>—Grammar: formation of sentences; change in the -form of sentences; copying from dictation small stories, narratives, and -letters; facility in orthography and correct punctuation.</p> - -<p><i>Latin.</i>—Elementary rules: easy translations from Latin -into German, and from German into Latin.</p> - -<p><i>French.</i>—Tolerably correct reading.</p> - -<p><i>Mathematics.</i>—Vulgar fractions; decimals; rule of three; -interest; exercises in mental calculations.</p> - -<p><i>Geography.</i>—Europe generally, and Germany in particular, -with especial regard to mountain chains and river districts.</p> - -<p><i>Caligraphy.</i>—German and English characters.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Second Class.</i></p> - -<p>For admission into the second class candidates must be acquainted -with the following subjects:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Religious Instruction.</i>—(<i>a.</i>) For Catholics: -A knowledge of the second chapter on the Commandments (<i>von den -Geboten</i>), pages 100 to 159 inclusive.</p> - -<p>The larger catechism for all Bavarian bishoprics.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) For Protestants: All the knowledge obtained from the -so-called preparatory instruction for confirmation -(<i>Praeparanden-Unterricht</i>).</p> - -<p><i>German.</i>—Same as in first class.</p> - -<p><i>Latin.</i>—Syntax: verbal and written translations from -German to Latin, and from Latin to German, out of Cornelius Nepos.</p> - -<p><i>French.</i>—Grammar: translation; reading; orthography.</p> - -<p><i>Greek.</i>—Syntax up to verbs in μι; written and verbal -translations from German to Greek, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Greek -characters.</p> - -<p><i>Mathematics.</i>—System of weights and measures; fractions; -decimals; mental arithmetic.</p> - -<p><i>History.</i>—Greek and Roman history, including the period -up to Clovis, king of the Franks.</p> - -<p><i>Geography.</i>—The world in general. Europe excepted.</p> - -<p><i>Caligraphy.</i>—German and English characters.</p> -</div> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page469" id="page469">469</a></span> -<p class="heading"><i>Third Class.</i></p> - -<p>Candidates for immediate admission into the third class must not have -exceeded their fifteenth year, and must produce certificates of all the -classes of the Latin school.</p> - -<p>At their examination for admission they must show that they are -acquainted with all the subjects required in the examinations for the -first and second class; and also with the following subjects:</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Religious Instruction.</i>—(<i>a.</i>) For Catholics: -A knowledge of the third chapter on Means of Grace <i>(von den -Gnadenmitteln)</i>, page 160 to page 228.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) For Protestants: Candidates must not only be thoroughly -acquainted with the so-called preparatory instruction for confirmation, -but must have been confirmed.</p> - -<p><i>German.</i>—Composition: translation from Cornelius Nepos. -Reading aloud.</p> - -<p><i>Latin.</i>—Complete Syntax. Written and verbal translations -from German to Latin; Cæsar’s Commentaries; select passages from Roman -historians; prosody; versification.</p> - -<p><i>French.</i>—Translations: German into French, and <i>vice -versâ</i>; orthography and reading.</p> - -<p><i>Greek.</i>—Rudiments of grammar.</p> - -<p><i>Mathematics.</i>—Algebra; geometry.</p> - -<p><i>History.</i>—German history (from Clovis, king of the -Franks), especially that of Bavaria.</p> - -<p><i>Geography.</i>—Europe; including political and statistical -relations.</p> - -<p><i>Caligraphy.</i>—German and English characters.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Admission to the Army from the Cadet -Corps.</i></p> - -<p>On leaving the Cadet Corps—</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Students who have obtained from the Examination -Commission a certificate of “especially qualified” are named candidates, -first class, for the rank of officer.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Students who have obtained a certificate of “qualified” -are sent to a division of the army as candidates, second class, for the -rank of officer.</p> - -<p>Further, those who have displayed a “marked proficiency,” not only as -regards scientific acquirements but also as regards conduct and military -capacity, maybe appointed by the Education Commission to the rank of -sub-lieutenant.</p> - -<p>These last, however, in common with the candidates mentioned under -heads (<i>a.</i>) and (<i>b.</i>) are required, after six months’ -service in a division of the army, to pass through the military -scientific course in the War School, and at the end of the course to -undergo an examination. The same conditions are alike in force for the -young nobility entering the army from the <i>Pagerie</i> with the -<i>Absolutorium</i> of a gymnasium.</p> - - -<h5><a name="bavaria_education_war" id="bavaria_education_war" href="#bavaria_education">II. THE WAR SCHOOL.</a></h5> - -<p>There are two courses, viz.:—(<i>a.</i>) The preparatory -course. (<i>b.</i>) The military scientific course.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page470" id="page470">470</a></span> -<p>All persons desirous to obtain commissions as officers, whether -compelled to enter the army, or volunteers, must undergo the preparatory -course at the War School, unless they are in possession of an -<i>Absolutorium</i> of a Latin or Real Gymnasium.</p> - -<p>Candidates for the preparatory course (<i>a.</i>) must pass an -examination for admission, and as a qualification for admission must -have served an entire year satisfactorily in a division of the army.</p> - -<p>After the completion of the preparatory course these students are -named candidates, second class, for the commission of officers, and as -such enter the military scientific course.</p> - -<p>The following enter the second course:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Students with the <i>Absolutorium</i> of a Real -Gymnasium, or coming from the <i>Pagerie</i>.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Students who passed the preparatory course -successfully.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Those to whom military service is compulsory, and -volunteers, both possessing the <i>Absolutorium</i> of a Bavarian -gymnasium, and being desirous to become officers. These candidates must, -however, perform six months’ service satisfactorily, and on termination -of this service they are named candidates, second class, for the -commission of officers.</p> - -<p>At the expiration of the military scientific course there is a -general examination of all candidates before the “Commission of High -Studies and Examinations,” and decision is given—</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Respecting efficiency for the position of officer.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Respecting the army rank of those who have passed their -examination without reference to former rank -(<i>Chargen-verhältnisse</i>).</p> - -<p>Very distinguished conduct before the enemy can alone exempt -candidates from this examination.</p> - -<p>Candidates examined are classed by the above Commission under the -following heads; “<i>especially qualified</i>,” “<i>qualified</i>,” and -“<i>not qualified</i>;” and no candidate for the commission of officer -can be named officer without the certificate of “<i>qualified</i>.”</p> - -<p>Candidates, who have shown the necessary efficiency to entitle them -to be appointed officers, are named candidates, first class, for the -commission of officer, or, in consequence of the diminished number of -officers in the active army, are promoted to be sublieutenants.</p> - -<p>Only those candidates for the commission of officer, who have -received the certificate “especially qualified” in the above final -examination of the military scientific course, can present themselves -for admission into the War Academy.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page471" id="page471">471</a></span> -<h5><a name="bavaria_education_art" id="bavaria_education_art" href="#bavaria_education">III. THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEER SCHOOL.</a></h5> - -<p>In this school, consisting of two courses, each lasting a year, an -opportunity is afforded to all candidates, first class, for commissions -as officers to devote themselves to technical military science, and to -pursue the special studies having reference to the military operations -in question; and, in this school, only those candidates for the -commission of officer are received, who have successfully passed the -military scientific course, and who, at the examination passed before -the “Commission of High Studies and Examinations,” have been pronounced -“<i>qualified</i>” not only to remain in the Artillery and Engineer -regiment, but especially qualified to enter the Artillery and Engineer -School.</p> - -<p>Immediately after passing the second course of the War School, and -before admission into the Artillery and Engineer School, these -candidates must serve six months in an Artillery or Engineer -regiment.</p> - -<p>Candidates pass over from the first to the second course without a -general examination, and should a doubt exist respecting the efficiency -of any of the candidates, such candidates will be required to undergo a -special examination before the “Commission of High Studies and -Examinations,” who will decide, in the case of such candidates, whether -they are to go through the course a second time, or retire from it.</p> - -<p>The same regulations apply for the second course, and the -appointments as sub-lieutenants of Artillery or Engineer students are -determined according to the number of officers required in those -corps.</p> - -<p>Candidates for the Engineers are required, after passing through -their school, to undergo a six weeks’ course of design, during which -period each candidate must without assistance make a complete Drawing of -an edifice.</p> - - -<h5><a name="bavaria_education_academy" id="bavaria_education_academy" href="#bavaria_education">IV. THE WAR -ACADEMY.</a></h5> - -<p>The War Academy has for its object the higher scientific and -practical education of officers, in every branch of the military -profession, on the staff, as also of the higher adjutants. It aims also -at the development of all military scientific subjects.</p> - -<p>The War Academy has three courses, each lasting nine months, and the -intervals are employed in practical exercises.</p> - -<p>The number of students in one course must, as a rule, not exceed -twelve, and every upper or sub-lieutenant who has served not less than -four years with the troops, can attend the academy.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page472" id="page472">472</a></span> -<p>Officers are only admitted into this school who possess the requisite -knowledge of their respective branches of the military service.</p> - -<p>Further, their conduct must have been highly satisfactory; they must -be sound in health, and their pecuniary affairs must be in good order, -and they must combine prominent mental qualifications with a tendency to -higher scientific attainments.</p> - -<p>The “Commission of High Studies and Examinations” decides by -examination as to the necessary qualifications for admission; then -follows a summons, issued by the Ministry of War, to attend the War -Academy, and each time only for one year.</p> - -<p>Officers who, on the decision of the Examination Commission, do not -display sufficient capacity or zeal, or whose military behavior or moral -conduct has not been satisfactory, will not be summoned to attend the -next course.</p> - -<p>The scientific education of those admitted into the War Academy -consists also in—</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Attending lectures at the University and the Central -Polytechnic School.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Higher lectures upon military scientific subjects.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Exercises in living languages.</p> - -<p>The practical education embraces the duties of staff officers and of -higher adjutants, acquaintance with the different branches of military -service, also corporal activity, and especially exercises on -horseback.</p> - -<p>Officers who, on the decision of the Examination Commission, have -during the three courses of the War Academy displayed zeal, talent, and -application, will, on leaving the academy, have their names sent in to -the King for especial notice.</p> - -<p>Each of the military schools has its own commandant. The Cadet Corps -is commanded by a First Lieutenant of Infantry, the War School by a -Major of the Quartermaster-General’s Staff, the Artillery and Engineer -School by a Major of the Engineer Staff, and the War Academy by a -Colonel of the General Staff, to whom an Adjutant is attached.</p> - -<p>With regard to the systematic process of education pursued in the -military schools, and to the application of the different means employed -to impart instruction, these establishments are placed under the -superior direction of the “Inspection of Military Schools;” in all other -respects, they are under the control of the Ministry of War, and the -professors employed in them are selected according to their special -qualifications.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page473" id="page473">473</a></span> -<h3><a name="saxony" id="saxony" href="#partIV">ROYAL MILITARY -SCHOOL AT DRESDEN</a><a class="tag" name="tag4_1" id="tag4_1" href="#note4_1">1</a></h3> - -<p class="heading">1.—<i>Organization and Admission.</i></p> - -<p>The Royal Military School at Dresden was reorganized in 1867, after -the war, and organized like the schools of the same rank in Prussia. -Formerly it consisted of two separate schools, the artillery school and -the <i>Cadettencorps</i>, both completing the education of their pupils; -but now a higher academy in Prussia must be attended for finishing the -professional education, either in Berlin, Erfurt, &c.</p> - -<p>By the new “regulative,” the <i>Cadettencorps</i> in Saxony consists -of six classes, and has (1,) 20 free scholars; (2,) 84 half-free -scholars; (3,) 20 not free scholars—in all, 124. Besides these, -“volunteers” may be admitted; but, if foreigners, without any claim to -being admitted afterwards to the royal army.</p> - -<p>For admission to any of the 124 places, the sons of officers of the -army, killed or invalid, or of such subalterns as have served 25 years, -and of civil officers of high merits, are preferred to others.</p> - -<p>The aspirant must have completed his 11th year of age, and not be -over 18 years of age.</p> - -<p>In general the boys must have, if 11 years old, the requisite -knowledge of Quinta; if 12, of Quarta; if 13, of Quarta; if 14, of -Tertia; if 15-17, of Secunda, of a gymnasium, (college.)</p> - -<p>On admission, every pupil has to pay 100 thalers for a full -equipment, for books, &c.; and to bring with him 12 shirts, 18 pairs -of stockings, 18 handkerchiefs, 6 drawers, 1 pair of house shoes, 2 -white cotton night-jackets.</p> - -<p>During his stay every pupil has to pay, (besides 25 thalers for books -when transferred to III,) annually, (<i>a</i>,) 50 thalers, if a -free scholar; (<i>b</i>,) 110 if half free; (<i>c</i>,) 210 if -not free; (<i>d</i>,) 260 if a Saxon “volunteer;” and, -(<i>e</i>,) 300 if a foreign “volunteer.”</p> - - -<p class="heading">2.—<i>Course of Instruction.</i></p> - -<p>The course of instruction in the Military School embraces six years, -with six classes, of which, as was said before, VI, (the last,) V, IV, -and III correspond to V, IV, and III in a gymnasium, II and I to lower -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page474" id="page474">474</a></span> -and upper Secunda, with the only difference, that instead of Greek, -instruction is given in English and in the elements of a military -education. It will be, therefore, sufficient to mention the course of -instruction in the highest class as given in the new regulation.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p> 1. Religion. (The number of lesson hours is not stated.)</p> - -<p> 2. Latin: Written exercises; Livy, Ovid, Virgil.</p> - -<p> 3. German: History of literature; explanation of dramatic -pieces; free discourses, with a verbal résumé, and debates.</p> - -<p> 4. French: Translations; extemporalia; compositions; exercises -in speaking.</p> - -<p> 5. Mathematics: Progressions; logarithms, and their -application; applying of algebra to geometry; trigonometry; elements of -stereometry.</p> - -<p> 6. English: Oral and written exercises; free discourses on -historical and geographical subjects; review of the same in English; -reading of poetry.</p> - -<p> 7. History: Modern history; review of universal history; -history of Northern Germany.</p> - -<p> 8. Geography: Mathematical and physical geography; review of -political geography, with particular regard to Northern Germany.</p> - -<p> 9. Natural philosophy: Electricity, magnetism, sound and -light.</p> - -<p>10. Drawing of plans; finishing the designs of the survey.</p> - -<p>11. Surveying: Topographical surveying on a large scale; drawing of -grounds; <i>croquiren</i>.</p> - -<p>12. Free-hand drawing. (Not obligatory.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Those cadets to whom, in consequence of the examination at the end of -the course, the testimonial of maturity for ensigncy can be given, are -presented to his Majesty as “characterized” ensigns, whilst all others -who do not answer the demands have to perform, in some other way, their -legal service in the army.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page475" id="page475">475</a></span> -<h3><a name="holland" id="holland" href="#partIV">V. MILITARY -SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN HOLLAND.</a></h3> - -<h4><a name="holland_system" id="holland_system" href="#holland">I. MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> regular army of Holland is -divided into two portions—one of which takes all the ordinary -duties of the Dutch possessions beyond the seas, while the other serves -entirely in Europe. In the event of war, the Home army is liable to be -sent to the support of the Colonial army; but except in such emergency, -the officers and men of each portion are as distinct, almost, as though -they composed parts of the military forces of two independent countries. -The entire military force consists of the regular army of about 52,000 -men, which can be swelled to twice that number in an emergency, by -militia conscripts and reserve levies.</p> - -<p>The Dutch Colonial Army consists of regiments of cavalry and -artillery, as well as of infantry, of which the depots for recruiting as -well as of arms, ammunition, and ordnance, are at home. But the service -companies, when they have once embarked for their colonial stations, -return no more as armed bodies—and even as individuals, neither -officers nor men return until they have taken part in the avocations of -colonial life.</p> - -<p>The army of Holland, both in its European and colonial branches is -recruited by voluntary enlistment. The term of service is six years, -beyond which, however, the soldier not disqualified by loss of health, -may remain. The service is not particularly attractive; neither the pay -being large, nor promotion from the ranks rapid, or certain, the -recruits are not drawn from the most intelligent, and enterprising -classes. Still, as discipline is strictly enforced, and the natural -courage of the Batavian race is good, there is seldom any outbreak or -disorder.</p> - - -<h4><a name="holland_education" id="holland_education" href="#holland">II. MILITARY EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p>The officers, as a body, are well educated, and belong to the higher -class of society, and before admission to the service, they must prove -their qualifications by a rigid examination, which is practically -competitive, as promotion is determined by the order of merit, as shown -in the results. Preparation for the examination -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page476" id="page476">476</a></span> -could be made, till recently, (1.) either by joining the Cadet Corps as -a volunteer, and after a specified term of service in the field, -undergoing an examination in the studies, and practical knowledge -required; or (2.) by going successfully through a regular course in the -Military Academy at Breda. The army is now officered exclusively from -the graduates of the Military Academy.</p> - - -<h4><a name="holland_breda" id="holland_breda" href="#holland">III. MILITARY ACADEMY AT BREDA.</a></h4> - -<p>The Military Academy at Breda, prepares officers for every branch of -the service, and is well equipped in respect to buildings, and -appliances of illustration and practice, as well as with numerous -professors for doing its work as thoroughly as any school can which -receives its pupils so young.</p> - -<p>Within an extensive redoubt, separated from the town by a rampart and -wet ditch, stands an old palace which the late King set apart as a -college for officers. Here are good stables and an ample stud, a -swimming school, and an extensive plateau, with cannon of every calibre, -which supplies the means of drill applicable to each branch of service. -The accommodation within doors is excellent. Youths, sleeping in long -dormitories, are yet separated one from another by curtains, within -which stand each inmate’s iron bedstead, his little dressing-table, his -basin, jug, clothes-press, and all other matters necessary to -cleanliness and comfort. There is a spacious hall or day-room, besides a -convenient dining-room, a good library, a well-stocked model-room, a -small but judiciously selected museum of arms, with a good collection of -minerals and fossils, of chemical and mechanical apparatus, &c. -Finally, the class-books used in the place are compiled and arranged by -the professors, and, in every branch of science and learning touched by -them, appear well adapted to the purposes for which they are -intended.</p> - -<p>The establishment of the Breda Military Academy, when full, -includes—besides the Governor, a major-general, and the -Commandant, a colonel—an adjutant, a quarter-master, three -captains of infantry, three of artillery, one of engineers, one of -cavalry; five first lieutenants of infantry, two of cavalry, three of -artillery, one of engineers; two second lieutenants of infantry, one of -cavalry, one of artillery, and two of engineers—two medical -officers and an apothecary. There are besides, of civilian professors -and teachers, seven; and the place is capable of accommodating one -hundred and ninety-two cadets. These, whether intended for the European -or colonial branch of the service, live and pursue their studies -together. The course comprises four years, during the first two of -which, all the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page477" id="page477">477</a></span> -cadets are educated together without reference to the specific corps or -services for which they may be intended: but with the commencement of -the third year, such as may be selected for the artillery or engineers -pass into distinct classes, while the remainder go on, by a less -abstrusely scientific course, to commissions in the cavalry or -infantry.</p> - -<p>The qualifications for admittance into the Academy are not -extravagantly high. Youths seem to be eligible who can read, write, and -spell their own language correctly—who are able to construe an -easy Latin author, and exhibit some acquaintance with the French; who -are advanced in arithmetic to vulgar fractions, can demonstrate an easy -proposition in geometry, and are masters of the fundamental processes of -algebra. During the two first years all are well instructed in history, -geography, mathematics, fortification, the theory of projectiles, -plan-drawing, the French and German languages. After this they break up, -and pursue their peculiar studies in different rooms under different -teachers. Their progress is tested by severe periodical examinations; -according to the results of which, they are either advanced or held -back. But as no second trial is granted in the examination for -admittance, so two failures at any of the examinations which follow, -insure dismissal from the Academy. Finally, prayers are read daily to -the cadets in a large hall, where also, if the weather be unfavorable, -one of the ministers from the town attends on Sunday to celebrate public -worship. When the weather is fine the young men march to -church—Protestants under their own officers to a Protestant place -of worship—Roman Catholics under like surveillance to a Roman -Catholic chapel.</p> - -<p>Although the army is to some extent officered from the ranks for -meritorious service, or from those who have performed duty in the field -under a peculiar system of cadetship, as well as from the graduates of -the Military Academy, it is proper to add, that no promotion can be -made, or commission issued, until a satisfactory examination has been -passed. The prospect of this examination keeps up the habit of -professional study and reading, as well as a feeling of honorable -rivalry among officers of the same grade.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page478" id="page478">478</a></span> -<h4><a name="holland_education_nav" id="holland_education_nav" href="#holland_education">NAVIGATION SCHOOLS FOR THE MERCANTILE -MARINE.</a></h4> - -<p>There are ten special Navigation Schools (besides a nautical division -in the Academy at Groningen) located in the principal commercial ports, -and among the sea-going population. They are generally under the -management of local mercantile societies, but subject to government -inspection, and final examination, on which the rank of the graduates as -first, second, and third mate, depends.</p> - -<p>The pupils are admitted on examination in the elementary studies, -physical ability, and aptitude for sea-service.</p> - -<p>The course in the best schools embraces, besides a review of the -elementary branches, a knowledge of geography, especially of the climate -and products of different countries; mathematics, including -trigonometry, nautical astronomy, practical use of instruments at sea, -and the calculation of latitude and longitude, a knowledge of the code -of signals, the laws of storms and tides, mercantile laws and usages, -and practice in letter-writing, keeping the ship’s books, and -chart-drawing.</p> - -<p>Opportunities of practice are secured on vessels in port, in -coasters, and even long voyages to the West and East Indies.</p> - -<p>Ability to hold the rank of mates depends on the results of the final -examination, and promotion from one position to a higher depends on -successive examinations, after leaving the schools.</p> - -<p>The statistics of attendance at these schools in 1867 were as -follow:</p> - -<p>Rotterdam, 133 pupils; Leyden, 87; Amsterdam, 87; Amsterdam, 18; -Harlingen, 59; Nes, 19; Schiermonnikoog, 84; Vundam, 37; Groningen, <ins -class="correction" title="; invisible">85;</ins> Delfzye, 68; -Nautical section of the Groningen Academy, 39.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<h4>Footnote for Part IV (Bavaria, Saxony, Holland)</h4> - -<p><a name="note4_1" id="note4_1" href="#tag4_1">1</a> -Document.</p> - -<p><i>Bericht über</i> (report on) <i>die Kgl. Turnlehrer -Bildungsanstalt, von Dr. Kloss</i>, 1864, pp. 34, (with a representation -of the grounds and buildings.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Erratum for Part IV (Bavaria, Saxony, Holland):</h4> - -<p><span class="citation">Groningen, 85; Delfzye, 68;</span><br> -<i>semicolon ; after “85” invisible</i></p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page479" id="page479">479</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partV"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART V.</span><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN ITALY.</h2> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page481" id="page481">481</a></span> -<h3><a name="italy" id="italy" href="#partV">MILITARY SYSTEM AND -INSTRUCTION IN ITALY.</a></h3> - -<h4><a name="italy_system" id="italy_system" href="#italy">I. -MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">As</span> the provinces, duchies, kingdoms, -and dominions into which the territory and population of old Italia, in -the progress of centuries after the utter destruction of the Western -Empire, were divided by conquests, alliance and cessions of reigning -families (brought and kept in power by force of armies), were merged, -one after another, under the government of the House of Savoy, the -military system of Sardinia was extended over the entire kingdom of -Italy as now recognized.</p> - -<p>The actual strength of the Italian army as constituted in 1869, was -as follows:</p> - -<table class="outline numbers"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<th colspan="2">Peace Footing.</th> -<th colspan="2">War Footing.</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<td class="center">Men.</td><td class="ongoing center">Horses.</td> -<td class="center">Men.</td><td class="ongoing center">Horses.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infantry of the line (80 regiments, 8 of which are grenadiers,</td> -<td>128,020</td> -<td class="ongoing"> </td> -<td>245,680</td> -<td class="ongoing"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Bersaglieri (40 battal’ns) riflem’n,</td> -<td>16,165</td><td class="ongoing center">—</td> -<td>26,495</td><td class="ongoing center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cavalry (4 regiments of the line, 7 of lancers, 7 light horse, and 1 -of guides—115 squadrons)</td> -<td>18,167</td><td class="ongoing">13,569</td> -<td>19,000</td><td class="ongoing">14,102</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery (1 regiment of pontonniers, 3 foot, 5 mounted, with 80 -batteries)</td> -<td>9,646</td><td class="ongoing">4,260</td> -<td>16,086</td><td class="ongoing">11,234</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Six artisan companies, also attached to the artillery</td> -<td>1,174</td><td class="ongoing center">—</td> -<td>1,589</td><td class="ongoing center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Two regiments of sappers of the engineers (36 companies)</td> -<td>4,132</td><td class="ongoing">48</td> -<td>6,793</td><td class="ongoing">396</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Three regiments of train corps <ins class="correction" title="opening ( missing">(24</ins> companies)</td> -<td>2,460</td><td class="ongoing">960</td> -<td>9,240</td><td class="ongoing">11,340</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>One administrative corps (7 companies)</td> -<td>3,173</td><td class="ongoing center">—</td> -<td class="center" colspan="2">——</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total</td> -<td class="sum">189,541</td><td class="ongoing sum">19,027</td> -<td class="sum">335,870</td><td class="ongoing sum">37,562</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The time of service in the standing army is 10 years, on the implied -condition of the men being sent on furlough, in time of peace, for -one-half the period. A certain number, distinguished as “soldati -d’ordinanza,” to which class belong the Carabinieri and some of the -Administrative troops, have to serve eight years complete, and are then -liberated. In the army of reserve, the time of service -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page482" id="page482">482</a></span> -is 5 years. Every native of the kingdom is liable to the conscription, -and to be enrolled either in the standing army or the reserve. An -exemption in favor of young men studying for the priesthood, was -repealed by a law which passed both houses of parliament in May, -1869.</p> - -<p>The distribution of the standing army over the kingdom was as follows -in the middle of 1869. There were 8 battalions of infantry at and near -the capital, 5 at Genoa, 5 at Turin, 9 at Alessandra, 12 in Tuscany, and -120 in the valley of the Po, from Milan to Ancona. The troops in the -valley of the Po were supported by 24 squadrons of heavy and 36 -squadrons of light cavalry, and 248 pieces of artillery. At Naples there -were 18 battalions of the line, 2 of marines, and 3 of bersaglieri; in -the Neapolitan provinces, 39 battalions of the line, 20 of bersaglieri, -and 32 squadrons of cavalry. There were, finally, 32 battalions of the -line in Sicily.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">II. NAVY.</p> - -<p>The navy of the kingdom of Italy consisted, at the commencement of -1869, of 99 ships of war, armed with 1,032 guns. They were classed as -follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers"> -<tr class="smaller drop"> -<th>Steamers.</th> -<th colspan="2">Iron-clads.</th> -<th colspan="2">Screw.</th> -<th colspan="2">Paddle.</th> -<th colspan="2">Sailing<br>Vessels.</th> -</tr> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th></th> -<th>No.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -<th>No.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -<th>No.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -<th>No.</th> -<th>Guns.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Frigates, 1st class,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>79</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>296</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Frigates,</span> 2d class</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>118</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>36</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>32</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Iron-clad Ram</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Corvettes, 1st class</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>36</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>94</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>32</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>52</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Corvettes,</span> 2d class</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>34</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>38</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Corvettes,</span> 3d class</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gunboats, 1st class</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span class="dittomark">Gunboats,</span> 2d class</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Transports,</td> -<td>13</td> -<td>24</td> -<td>20</td> -<td>40</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">22</td> -<td class="sum">272</td> -<td class="sum">35</td> -<td class="sum">508</td> -<td class="sum">33</td> -<td class="sum">122</td> -<td class="sum">9</td> -<td class="sum">130</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Horse Power,</td> -<td class="sum" colspan="2">13,380</td> -<td class="sum" colspan="2">9,940</td> -<td class="sum" colspan="2">7,850</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="mynote"> -The headers in this table, with “Steamers” over the first column, were -printed as shown.</p> - -<p>The navy was manned in 1869 by 11,193 sailors, 650 engineers and -assistants, 1,211 officers (2 admirals, 5 vice-admirals, 12 rear -admirals, and 104 captains), and 2 regiments of marines with 234 -officers and 5,688 soldiers.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">III. EDUCATION OF OFFICERS.</p> - -<p>The system of military education of the old kingdom of Sardinia has -been enlarged and extended by the government of the Kingdom of Italy so -as to embrace the military schools of Naples, without any change in its -principles or details.</p> - - - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page483" id="page483">483</a></span> -<h3><a name="sardinia" id="sardinia" href="#partV">MILITARY SYSTEM -AND EDUCATION IN SARDINIA.</a></h3> - - -<h4><a name="sardinia_outline" id="sardinia_outline" href="#sardinia">I. GENERAL OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM, AND MILITARY -EDUCATION.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> wars in which Sardinia has -recently been engaged, have led to the re-organization of her armies, -and to the extension and improvement of institutions for military -instruction, but time enough has not yet elapsed to perfect the -system.</p> - -<p>One-third of the officers are promoted from the ranks; the remaining -two-thirds, that is, all who enter as officers, must pass through the -Royal Military Academy, and before being commissioned as Captain in the -Artillery and Engineers, must have completed the special course in the -Complementary School. Admission to the Royal Staff Corps is conditioned -on attendance on the lectures of the Staff School, and the results of a -competitive examination. The following is a brief outline of the system -of military instruction now in operation.</p> - -<p>1. The character of the education may be described generally as -partly resembling that of Austria, partly that of France. It commences -very early. Every Officer who enters the Army as such must have passed -through the great Military School, the <i>Accademia Militare</i>. The -minimum age of entrance is fourteen. The admission is by nomination and -not by competition; and the demand has always been under rather than -above the requirements of the Army. “Bourses” or Exhibitions to assist -pupils in their education, have been established on the Prussian and -Austrian, rather than on the French principle. They are granted by the -King on the recommendation of the Minister, in consideration of the -claims of deceased Officers, or other public servants, and without -reference to the merits of the pupils, preference being given to the -candidates whose circumstances most require assistance. From twenty-five -to thirty of these <i>Bourses</i> (or rather <i>Demibourses</i>, -for no pupils receive entire support such as is given in France,) are -given annually. We are informed that a decree will appear almost -immediately, throwing open <i>ten</i> out of this number to public -competition. The entire sum expended upon them is 70,000 francs, about -2,800<i>l.</i> per annum.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page484" id="page484">484</a></span> -<p>Passing from this outline of the principles of Sardinian Military -Education, as exhibited in the <i>Accademia Militare</i>, which may be -termed the General Seminary of the Sardinian Army, we shall briefly -allude to the <i>three</i> remaining Institutions, in which Officers -receive instruction and training at later periods of their career.</p> - -<p>2. Admission into the Artillery and Engineer School may be considered -the reward of the most distinguished pupils of the <i>Accademia -Militare</i>, who after spending their last year in that Institution in -the study of the higher mathematics, chemistry, and architectural -drawing, are transferred for the completion of their education to the -School of the Artillery and Engineers.</p> - -<p>3. The Staff School, the formation of which dates from 1850, is -chiefly frequented by Officers of the Infantry and Cavalry, who must be -below the age of twenty-eight years upon their entrance. It is carried -on upon the competitive system, the Officers being ranged according to -merit in their Final Examination, the ablest entering the Staff Corps in -that order.</p> - -<p>4. Regimental Schools for Officers also exist, and in every Brigade -or Division, Officers are taught <i>topography</i>, under the -supervision of the Chief of the Staff of the Division. Care is taken to -make this teaching uniform throughout the Army; and it may be regarded -as preparatory to that of the Schools at Ivrea and Pinerol, which accord -with the principle of the Prussian Division Schools in requiring that -every Officer shall have received professional instruction; but as -regards other points, and particularly the period for attending them, -these Schools are peculiar to the Sardinian Army. In time of peace, no -Officer, excepting those of the Special Arms, can obtain a Company -without having studied for a year in one or the other of these Schools, -and having passed an examination on leaving it. The Instruction given is -mainly practical, Field Fortification, the Secondary Operations of War, -and Topography, being the branches of Military Science taught.</p> - -<p>These Institutions appear to have been <i>primarily</i> established -with a view to the instruction of Officers and Non-commissioned Officers -throughout the Army, and in order to prevent Regiments or Corps from -following some peculiar system of their own. The same motive seems to -have led to the gradual reduction in number of the Prussian Division -Schools. <i>Secondarily</i>, however, these Schools have been made -available for the purpose of organizing and drilling the reserve of the -Sardinian Army, a large body of Conscripts assembled for a few weeks in -the autumn of each year in a camp -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page485" id="page485">485</a></span> -about twelve miles from Turin. This object seems to have been attained -most successfully.</p> - -<p>Quite recently a class has been added to the school at Ivrea for the -exclusive education of Non-commissioned Officers aspiring to a -commission; and for the sake of economy this class is to be common to -Infantry and Cavalry.</p> - -<p>It is consequently from this body of officers that teachers are -derived for the topographical classes established in each Regiment or -Brigade. The Staff School having been recently founded, and a period of -active war having intervened since its institution, can not be supposed -to have completely organized its system of instruction. We have -elsewhere mentioned that Topography, the Art of War, and Fortification, -are the branches of military study most attended to; but we have reason -to believe that its plan of instruction will be extended. It may not be -superfluous to mention the high appreciation in Sardinia of the Austrian -General Staff, as tending to confirm our own estimate of the excellence -of the Austrian Staff School. We have been recently informed, on the -best authority, that some of the most distinguished Sardinian Officers, -who, from their service in the Crimea and elsewhere, have been able to -compare the merits of different Staff Corps, consider the Austrian -General Staff “the best in existence.”</p> - -<p>As regards the System of Examinations, there is a Standing Board -consisting of from <i>five</i> to <i>seven</i> Officers, presided over -by a Lieutenant-General, which superintends all the more important -Examinations of the Military Schools, such as those upon leaving the -School, &c. The constant Examinations within the School, when the -Cadets are being moved from one class to another, are conducted by the -Professors.</p> - -<p>The expense of Military Education in the Sardinian States amounts to -18,000<i>l.</i> annually. The Military Schools are all under the -direction of the Minister of War.</p> - -<p>5. Two Institutions peculiar to the Sardinian Service are the -<i>Schools for Officers</i>, one or other of which it is necessary that -every Officer under ordinary circumstances should attend for a year -before being promoted to the rank of Captain. One of these is for the -Infantry, at Ivrea; the other for the Cavalry, at Pinerol. In saying -that <i>every</i> Officer must attend these Schools, we except that -proportion of <i>one-third</i> who are promoted annually from the ranks, -and whose attendance apparently has not hitherto been required.</p> - -<p>Details respecting the organization and instruction of these schools -will be found under the following heads.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page486" id="page486">486</a></span> -<h4><a name="italy_royal" id="italy_royal" href="#italy">II. THE -ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY AT TURIN.</a></h4> - -<p>The <i>Accademia Militare</i> was originally designed by Charles -Emanuel, for the instruction of sons of officers of the army and of the -nobility in the use of weapons, in horsemanship, dancing, mathematics, -and belles-lettres. In the course of time, the institution was converted -to its present purpose, of training Officers for the Sardinian Army.</p> - -<p>The regular course of study in this school lasts apparently for six -years, shortly to be reduced to five years, and the earliest age at -which it is <i>possible</i> now to enter is fourteen, the <i>usual</i> -age of admission being fifteen or sixteen. Formerly, boys entered at -eleven and twelve, but this practice has lately been altered, to the -regret of many Officers, who prefer the plan so commonly adopted abroad, -of training Officers to their business as soldiers from very early -years.</p> - -<p>The peculiarity of this school is that during a portion of the course -it educates Officers for all Arms in common. The most talented pupils -are then selected by examination for the Artillery and Engineers, which -are the two favorite services, and indeed the most aristocratic corps in -the Sardinian army. The number of the pupils is limited to 200, but it -is rarely complete; at present there are 180 pupils. About half of these -pay for themselves a yearly sum of 1,200 francs, 48<i>l.</i>, the -remaining half are supported, or partly supported by the Government. The -system of <i>demi-bourses</i> prevails here as in France.</p> - -<p>The pupils are divided into four classes, according to the years of -the course; a fifth class, contains those who have been just selected -for the Artillery and Engineers, who work by themselves, chiefly at the -higher kinds of drawing and the Differential and Integral Calculus, and -Mechanics. These senior pupils are Officers, and have each their -separate room. German is taught, and there is a Course of Italian -Literature, &c., but no Latin is taught in any part of the school. -The system of working (at least with the higher boys) is in rooms -where eight or ten are united, and apparently there is something of the -<i>Répétiteur</i> system.</p> - -<p>The arrangements of the house are excellent. The pupils appear to be -strictly confined to barracks during the week, but allowed to go out on -Sundays. The discipline is said to have been relaxed of late years, and -this is attributed by old Officers to a cause which will appear curious -in England, viz., to the pupils having <i>any</i> holidays at all. This -innovation upon the simplicity of the Piedmontese system of education -was alleged to have encouraged distinctions -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page487" id="page487">487</a></span> -between the richer and poorer pupils, and thus to have injured both the -economy and the <i>Camaraderie</i> of the school. Great stress was laid -here, as at other Military Institutions, on a strictness of discipline -very unusual in England. The boys begin their work at half-past five -o’clock, and work till seven; then they go to chapel for a short time, -and breakfast and recreation follow immediately after. Both are -concluded by eight, when they return to their studies for an hour and a -quarter; then a quarter of an hour’s relaxation is allowed, and the -studies are resumed until eleven o’clock. An hour is then devoted to the -schools of fencing, riding, gymnastics, or dancing. From twelve to a -quarter before two o’clock is allotted to dinner and recreation, and -then another hour is spent in the fencing, riding, gymnastic, or dancing -schools. A quarter of an hour’s recreation is again granted, and -from three to half-past four o’clock study is resumed. A quarter of -an hour’s recreation follows, and half an hour is then given to military -exercises, succeeded by another quarter of an hour’s interval for rest. -Two hours are then devoted to study—from half-past five to -half-past seven o’clock. An hour is afterwards allowed for chapel, -supper, and retiring to rest.</p> - -<p>A monthly account is taken of their work, and the marks then given -exercise an influence upon their places in the examinations which take -place every year.</p> - -<p>The following tables give a full view of the work of the pupils -during their six years’ course.</p> - -<p class="tablehead">DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF STUDY IN -THE DIFFERENT YEARS OF THE COURSE, AND GENERAL TIME TABLE FOR THE -SCHOOLS.</p> - -<div class="key fullwide"> -<p>M Months</p> -<p>W In each Week.</p> -<p><i>Rows referring to “Year” were printed in a column headed -Classes.</i></p> -</div> - -<table class="italy"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<th>SUBJECTS OF STUDY.</th> -<th colspan="2">Lessons</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>First Year.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cathechism,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Arithmetic,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Plane Geometry,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Algebra, 1st Part,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Solids,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Elocution,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>History of Italian Literature,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Caligraphy,</td> -<td>7</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Soldiers’ Drill,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Squad Drill,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army Regulations,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dancing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Figure Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1">N.B.—This class will be abolished at the -cessation of the present scholastic course.</td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Second Year.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cathechism,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Algebra, 1st Part,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Solids,</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Literature,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Battalion and Company Drill,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chasseur Drill,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Garrison and Divisonal Duty,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Law on Recruiting,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Figure Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Dancing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Soldiers’ Drill,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Caligraphy,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th> -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page488" id="page488">488</a></span> -Third Year, General Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Sacred History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rectilinear Trigonometry,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geography and Ancient Mediæval History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Literature,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Literature,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>War in Detail,</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Company & Battalion Drill,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chasseur Drill,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rifle Practice and Gymnastics,</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topographical Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Third Year, Special Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Sacred History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Algebra 2nd Part,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rectilinear Trigonometry</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Spherical Trigonometry</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Algebra Applied to Geometry,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Descriptive Geometry (the first 10 numbers),</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Geography and Ancient Mediæval History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Literature</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Literature</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>War in Detail</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Company & Battalion Drill</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chasseur Drill</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rifle Practice and Gymnastics</td> -<td>1</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topographical Drawing</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Fourth Year, General Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ecclesiastical History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>War in Detail,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Art of War, 2nd Part,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Physical Mechanics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topography,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Modern History, History of the Country,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army Regulations,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Accounts,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Literature,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Literature,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Landscape Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topographical Drawing,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Fourth Year, Special Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ecclesiastical History,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Infinitesimal Calculus,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Descriptive Geometry, 2nd Part,</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fortification,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>War in Detail,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Modern History, History of the Country,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topographical Drawing,</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Accounts,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Landscape Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Fifth Year, General Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ethics</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Physical Mechanics</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topography</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Art of War</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Landscape Drawing</td> -<td>3</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Italian Literature</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>French Literature</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Army Regulations</td> -<td>4</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Military Accounts</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<th>Fifth Year, Special Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ethics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Calculus,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Physics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Topography,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Art of War,</td> -<td>5</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Artillery,</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Landscape Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Descriptive Geometry, 2nd Part,</td> -<td>6</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page489" id="page489">489</a></span> -<p class="tablehead">PUPIL SUB-LIEUTENANTS.</p> - -<table class="italy"> -<tr> -<th>Sixth Year, Special Services.</th> -<th>M</th> -<th>W</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Ethics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Rational Mechanics,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Analysis,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Chemistry,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Architectural Drawing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>German Language,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Gymnastics,</td> -<td>2</td> -<td>1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Fencing,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Riding,</td> -<td>8</td> -<td>3</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="smallhead">GENERAL TIME TABLE FOR SCHOOL DAYS.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>From 5 to 5½, Rising, Dressing, &c.</p> -<p> “ 5½ to 7 A.M., Study.</p> -<p> “ 7 to 8, Chapel, Breakfast, -and Recreation.</p> -<p> “ 8 to 9¼, School of Science -and Literature.</p> -<p> “ 9¼ to 9½, Recreation.</p> -<p> “ 9½ to 11, School of Science and -Literature.</p> -<p> “ 11 to 12, School of Fencing, Riding, -Gymnastics, Dancing, &c.</p> -<p> “ 12 to 1¾, Dinner and Recreation.</p> -<p> “ 1¾ to 2¾, P.M., School of Fencing, -Riding, Gymnastics, Dancing, &c.</p> -<p> “ 2¾ to 3, Recreation.</p> -<p> “ 4¾ to 5¼, Military Exercises.</p> -<p> “ 5¼ to 5½, Recreation.</p> -<p> “ 5½ to 7½, Study.</p> -<p> “ 7½ to 8½, Chapel, Supper, Dormitory.</p> -<p> “ 3 to 4½, School of Science -and Literature.</p> -<p> “ 4½ to 4¾, Recreation.</p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="italy_art" id="italy_art" href="#italy">III. -ARTILLERY AND ENGINEER SCHOOL AT TURIN.</a></h4> - -<p>The <i>Artillery and Engineer School</i> (<i>Scuola -Complementaria</i>,) which is established in a large building in one of -the suburbs of Turin, is a School of Application, intended to complete -the special education of the Young Officers of the Artillery and -Engineers, which the Cadets of those Corps have previously entered upon -during their four last years in the <i>Accademia Militare</i>. Its -course of studies occupies nominally two years, but really only eighteen -months, after which the final examinations begin, and the pupils receive -leave of absence. The Students do not live in barracks here, but the -Inspector of the School seemed to think it desirable that they should do -so. The exercises of the day commence, at eight o’clock every morning, -with an hour’s riding. A lecture then follows, which lasts for an -hour and a half, from nine till half-past ten. The rest of the morning -is left free till twelve o’clock, when the pupils return to the school -till three, and where they study together in large classes in the same -room; they have afterwards some military exercises till five, and are -then free for the evening.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page490" id="page490">490</a></span> -<p>The number of pupils at the school is twenty; from ten to fifteen for -the Artillery, the rest for the Engineers. The subjects of study will -show what difference exists in the studies of the two Corps, and we were -told that very little preference was shown in the choice of the Students -for one over the other. The Engineers do not appear to be at all -employed in civil works; indeed, the Government does not allow them to -be so, as there are sufficient fortifications in the kingdom of Sardinia -to afford them constant employment. The pay of the two Corps is equal, -and is very little above that of the Infantry, and the same as that of -the Cavalry. The Artillery and Engineers (the <i>Armi dotti</i>) appear -to be decidedly the favorite and aristocratic corps of the Sardinian -army. They rarely enter the Staff Corps, and the reason assigned for -this is their unwillingness to quit their own arm of the service. The -position of the pupils on entering the Corps is fixed by the Final -Examination alone, and is not influenced by marks previously given for -industry and application during the course, as is the case in some of -the French and German schools—at the Polytechnic, for instance, -and at Znaim. The only value of a high position in the Final Examination -is that it gives seniority in the Corps.</p> - -<p>The direction of the school is intrusted to a Field Officer of -Artillery, assisted by two Captains, one from the Artillery, and the -other from the Engineers. His authority extends to instruction and -discipline.</p> - -<p>The scientific instruction is given by professors (effective and -supplementary) and by Officers belonging to the various Artillery -divisions and establishments, who, together, constitute a Council of -Instruction, of which the Director is President.</p> - -<p>The examinations to which the Officer Students are subjected are held -by a Commission, nominated by the Secretary of War.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Regulations respecting the Professors, -&c.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The Professors and Instructors are personally responsible for the -teaching of the subjects contained in the programmes and regulation for -the discipline of the students in School, for the daily drawing up of -the notes and execution of the drawings, and for the constant presence -of the students during the time of the instructions and lectures.</p> - -<p>The Military Professors and Instructors will maintain constantly -among the students the spirit of subordination and military discipline -in all its force.</p> - -<p>The Professors not possessed of military rank, when reproof is not -sufficient to keep the students to their duty, will report the matter to -the Director and to the Captains attached to the direction of the -School, in order that more vigorous measures may be adopted.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of every lecture, the Professors will satisfy -themselves that the students have finished the notes preceding it, and -the regulated tasks and drawings.</p> - -<p>The Professors will also have the power of visiting with arrest -students who -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page491" id="page491">491</a></span> -are negligent in the execution of the notes and tasks, and those who -exhibit a constant indisposition to work, reporting it to the Director -of the School.</p> - -<p>When the lectures are upon difficult subjects, it is the duty of the -Professors sometimes to visit the students during the hours of study, -for the purpose of explaining difficulties.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of every lecture, the Professors will dictate to the -students a summary of the lesson which they are about to explain.</p> - -<p>At the commencement of their course of lectures, they will point out -to the students the books and treatises to be followed.</p> - -<p>At fixed intervals, as they shall judge it most convenient, the -Professors will suspend the course of their lectures to satisfy -themselves by questions of the attention given and the progress made by -the students.</p> - -<p>At the opening of their course, the Professors will notify to the -Director of the School the hours which suit their engagements best for -the giving of the lectures; these hours will be subsequently maintained -unchanged throughout the duration of their course. These hours can only -be selected out of those fixed in the general time table.</p> - -<p>In case of any lectures having to take place out of the lecture-rooms -of the School, they will give notice in time to the Director.</p> - -<p>If they should consider any change in the programme necessary, they -will give notice in writing to the Director of the School, so that he -may be able to submit their propositions to the General Commandant.</p> - -<p>The Instructors will exact of the students, in the execution of the -practical instructions and in the explanation of them, a demeanor -perfectly military, and a tone of voice appropriate to the circumstance. -All the students, without exception, should render themselves capable of -executing the practical tasks and explanations now mentioned with the -greatest perfection.</p> - -<p>The Professors, as well as Instructors, in concluding their course of -lectures, will transmit to the Director of the School a statement -showing the degree of instruction acquired by the students, and their -conduct in School; the credit for the instruction and for conduct will -be given by means of two distinct integral numbers, selected from two to -ten.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Duration of the Course and Subjects.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>The course of the Complementary School will be terminated in a year -and a half.</p> - -<p>The students belonging to two successive promotions will participate -in the same instructions during the last six months of the first course, -and the first six of the second course.</p> - -<p>The subjects which will be taught to the Officer-students of the -Complementary School are,—</p> - -<p><i>a.</i> Mineralogy and metallurgy.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> Introduction to applied mechanics, and application of -mechanics to machinery.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Theory of the combustion of powder; of the movement inside -the bore; of the resistance of ordnance; of the volume, weight, and -center of gravity of ordnance; projectiles.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> Use of artillery in war, construction of batteries, service -in the field.</p> - -<p><i>e.</i> Permanent fortification.</p> - -<p><span class="linegroup"><i>f.</i> <i>Course of construction and of -military and civil architecture</i>.<br><i>g.</i> -<i>Topography.</i><br><i>h.</i> <i>Geodesy.</i></span> -<span class="leftbracket">For Engineer-Officers only.</span></p> - -<p><i>i.</i> Military bridges and passage of water.</p> - -<p><i>l.</i> Classified nomenclature, and drawing of artillery -materials.</p> - -<p><i>m.</i> Manufacture of powder, fire-works, arms, ordnance.</p> -</div> - -<p class="heading"><i>Practical Instructions.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Practical instruction will be given every day to the students of the -Complementary School.</p> - -<p>The object of this instruction is to render the Officers themselves -familiar -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page492" id="page492">492</a></span> -with the execution of the operations, and with the proper method of -instructing Non-commissioned Officers and soldiers of Artillery.</p> - -<p>These instructions, which will be, as far as possible, executed and -explained by the Officers of the School, will consist of—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Gymnastics.</p> - -<p>Riding, according to the regulations in force.</p> - -<p>The pack of the infantry soldier, armament, infantry instruction.</p> - -<p>Classified nomenclature of the various parts of horse furniture, -convenient adaptation of them; pack of the cavalry soldier.</p> - -<p>Principles of the physiology of the horse, and of veterinary science; -care of horses.</p> - -<p>Nomenclature and use of the field, mountain, siege, garrison, and -coast material.</p> - -<p>Lading of field and siege carriages, and mountain mules.</p> - -<p>Service of field, mountain, siege, garrison, and coast artillery.</p> - -<p>Driving and sectional drill, battery and brigade drill.</p> - -<p>Regulations for marches, encampments.</p> - -<p>Charges and compositions in use in the field, in sieges, and in -garrisons.</p> - -<p>Judging distance drill, practice; remedies applied to materials in -the field.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<h4><a name="italy_staff" id="italy_staff" href="#italy">IV. THE -STAFF SCHOOL.</a></h4> - -<p>The Staff School at Turin has only existed since the year 1850. -Previously to that time the Staff was supplied by picked scholars from -the <i>Accademia Militare</i>.</p> - -<p>The whole Staff Corps of the Sardinian Army only consists of -thirty-six Officers, viz., twenty-four Captains, and twelve of higher -rank; no one of a lower rank than Captain being admitted even as -attached to the corps, a regulation which appeared to be considered -inconvenient.</p> - -<p>Officers are required to have served four years before their -admission, as is the case in the Austrian Staff Schools, and they must -not have exceeded their twenty-eighth year. Again, as in Austria, the -Officers on leaving the school are ranged strictly in the order of -merit, as tested by a final examination; and the ablest obtain -appointments to the Staff in the same order. The Sardinian School has, -however, some peculiarities, partly arising from the higher position -which the Special Arms (<i>Armi dotti</i>) of Artillery and Engineers -hold in Sardinia than in Austria or Prussia. The method of admission is -as follows:—</p> - -<p>An Officer requests his Colonel to recommend him for admission to the -Staff School. Great caution seems to be observed in giving this -recommendation; but having obtained it, an Officer has no further -difficulty in entering the School. In consequence of the small numbers -of the Staff Corps, the demand for entrance is not very great, and there -is accordingly no competitive examination. The numbers in the School -have, during the first five years of existence, varied -greatly—from fourteen or sixteen to four or six. A year -(or rather eleven months) is the time occupied by the studies; -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page493" id="page493">493</a></span> -the first six months being given to theory, the last five to practice. -The time thus occupied lasts from ten till three in the afternoon.</p> - -<p>The amount of knowledge required for admission into the School is -stated, in the “Note” of Colonel Petitti, to be an acquaintance with -Geometry and Algebra, as far as Equations of the Second Degree.</p> - -<p>The practical work consists in the usual surveys of countries, plans, -&c. The young Officers are taken by the Inspecting Colonel of the -School into the country, and worked hard for four or five months. There -have hitherto been only places for one or two of these Officers on the -Staff at the end of the year, and these (as has been already -mentioned) have always been the most distinguished pupils of the School. -The rest become teachers in the regimental schools. Officers leaving the -Staff School do not appear to have a right to a step immediately -(as in Austria) by virtue of their having been at the School; but -the Sardinian system of making all the appointments above the rank of -Major by selection gives them a prospect of advancement. Examinations -are held in the School every three months, at which the Professors give -marks of proficiency; these are combined with those obtained in the -final examinations in determining the position of the pupils.</p> - -<p>The Professors in the Staff School are all military men. The building -is very good, and, although small, contains a library, instruments, -museum, and all the apparatus for maps.</p> - -<p>Among the conditions which must be met favorably to be admitted to -the Royal Staff Corps are the following:—</p> - -<p class="continue"><i>Physique:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If the constitution is robust, sufficiently strong, or weak.</p> - -<p>If the sight is good, acute, or short.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Intellectual Qualities:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If the intelligence is prompt, clear, reflective, and the mind -orderly or confused.</p> - -<p>If he is ready of speech, or uncommunicative.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Moral Qualities:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If he is honorable, and of a good disposition, with much or little -expansion of character.</p> - -<p>If of conciliatory or rough manners.</p> - -<p>If peaceable, quick, or irascible.</p> - -<p>If active, resolute, authoritative, timid, or feeble.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Education:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>What degree of instruction he has arrived at in mathematics, in the -theory and practice of surveying.</p> - -<p>What ability in plan-sketching and topographical drawing.</p> - -<p>If he cultivates any other branch of knowledge connected or -unconnected with the Institute itself, and what.</p> - -<p>If he is master of the Italian and French languages, so as to speak -and write them with facility and correctness.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page494" id="page494">494</a></span> -<p>If he is acquainted with, and if he can speak, other languages.</p> - -<p>If he is addicted to study.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Conduct:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If his behavior is dignified, as becomes a soldier and a citizen.</p> - -<p>If he enjoys the good-will of his superiors, the esteem of his -comrades and inferiors.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Mode of discharging his Duty:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If he discharges his duty with exactness and zeal, or remissly and -ill.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Particular Aptitude:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>If he is more especially fitted for the duties of the surveying, -topographical, or military branch of the service.</p> - -<p>If he has shown aptitude for teaching.</p> - -<p>If he is adapted for progress in the Corps, or in the Infantry or -Cavalry services.</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue"><i>Miscellaneous Information:</i>—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>N.B.—Under this head will be inserted those notices which, -finding no place under the preceding heads, contribute towards a fuller -information respecting those Staff Officers who, in consequence of -circumstances and duties special and unconnected with the service of the -corps, may afford ground for special mention.</p> -</div> - - -<h4><a name="italy_regiment" id="italy_regiment" href="#italy">V. -REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS OF IVREA AND PINEROL.</a></h4> - -<p>The requirement of professional study from Officers after entrance -into the Army is a point almost peculiar to the Sardinian service. The -<i>principle</i> of the Prussian Division School is, indeed, almost the -same as that of the two Schools we are about to describe; but the -examination for which the Division Schools prepare is a qualification -for obtaining a commission, and not (like that of the Sardinian Schools) -for subsequent promotion. And this difference is partly owing to an -obvious cause, the slowness of promotion in the Prussian Service. If the -Division Schools and their examination were placed before the promotion -to a Captaincy, the candidates attending the School would be in most -cases nearly forty years of age.</p> - -<p>Some instruction in Topography is given to the Officers of every -Regiment in the Sardinian Army, under the direction of the Chief of the -Staff of the Division. Care is taken to render the teaching uniform -throughout the Army, and it may be considered as a preparation for the -more systematic instruction given in the Schools of Ivrea and Pinerol. -The former of these is intended for the Infantry; the latter for the -Cavalry. Every Officer, excepting those of the Special Arms, must have -passed a year of study in one or other of these Schools, as well as a -subsequent examination, before he can obtain a Captaincy.</p> - -<p>The studies are mainly practical, as may be seen from the “Prospectus -of Instruction” annexed. Topography, Field Fortification, and Secondary -Operations are the only branches of Military Science -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page495" id="page495">495</a></span> -in which instruction is given; and upon these much care appears to be -bestowed.</p> - -<p>One-third of the Officers of the Sardinian Army are promoted, as has -been mentioned, from the ranks. Accordingly, a class has been recently -added to the School of Ivrea, intended exclusively for the Education of -those Non-commissioned Officers who aspire to a Commission. This class -is to be common to Infantry and Cavalry.</p> - -<p>The following extracts from the Regulations of the Minister of War, -will exhibit the practical character of instruction in this class of -schools.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Prospectus of Instruction to be given to -Lieutenants in the Military School of Infantry</i>.</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Soldiers’ Drill, Squad, Company, Battalion, and Chasseur ditto, -&c.</p> -<p>Fencing with the Bayonet.</p> -<p>Exercise of the various Arms, &c.</p> -<p>Musketry Practice.</p> -<p>Regulations of Discipline, Garrison and Field Regulations, Army -Accounts.</p> -<p>Secondary Operations of War.</p> -<p>Topography.</p> -<p>Field Fortification.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>School of Topography.</i></p> - -<p>It is decided that such instruction [in Topography,] shall take place -from the commencement of March till the end of July.</p> - -<p>This will be obligatory on Officers who have not passed the age of -thirty years.</p> - -<p>Those Corps, however, who may think that they can thus employ -themselves in the winter also for the hour or so which may remain over -after the other occupations of the Officers, shall have the power of -establishing, from the beginning of November, a school, in which drawing -and other preliminary acquirements may be taught.</p> - -<p>This School will be attended especially by beginners and the less -educated, who will thus be able better to profit at the beginning of -March by the lectures given to the Officers more advanced in this -study.</p> - -<p>The Schools will be instituted for regiments or brigades, according -as the General commanding the Division shall determine, upon the report -of the Chief of the Staff, regard being had to the Director who can be -assigned to them and the opportunities afforded by the situation.</p> - -<p>In cases, however, where it may be convenient, they can institute -Divisional Schools as well, which will be attended by the Officers of -the different corps already more advanced in the study.</p> - -<p>There they will be exercised, by direction of the Chief of the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page496" id="page496">496</a></span> -Staff, in the various subjects taught in the School, especially in the -application upon sketches of themes of secondary operations of war, and -will be taken into the field to execute surveys on the spot with the -instruments and by the eye.</p> - -<p>In this case, in the Regimental Schools, the less educated officers -will be trained under the direction of Officers who have given proof of -sufficient capacity.</p> - -<p>The Officers of the Detachments of Cavalry or of the Rifles, for whom -it may not be convenient to establish separate schools, will attend -those schools of their garrison to which they are assigned by the -General Commandant of the Division upon the proposition of the Chief of -the Staff.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as this Ministry is careful to provide the Schools of -Topography with the instruments necessary for the practical training -upon the ground, it makes known henceforward the implements with which -they must be provided, at the charge of the Treasury, in cases where -they do not already possess them, viz.:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p>Small tables, with desks. Seats or stools. Slate, with stand. 2 -pieces of Indian ink. 2 ditto of French blue. 2 ditto of gum. 2 tablets -of carded wool. 1 case of mathematical instruments. 2 plane rulers of -one metre each, besides some rulers of various dimensions, the necessary -paper for themes, &c. 2 pen-knives. Some pencils. 1 paper of steel -pens for drawing. Half a bundle of crows’-quills. Chalk for the slate, -and sponge. Inkstand, with ordinary ink. 2 crayons (<i>coulé</i>) of No. -2. 2 ditto of No. 4. 2 pieces of Indian rubber.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">GENERAL SYLLABUS OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE INFANTRY -OF THE LINE.</p> - -<p class="heading"><i>Months of November, December, January, February -and March.</i></p> - -<p>Recruits will be kept separate from the seniors during these five -months in all the instructions (except the drills.)</p> - -<p>They will be instructed progressively once a day in soldiers’ and -squad drill.</p> - -<p>They will attend daily the gymnastic exercise and the school of -reading and writing.</p> - -<p>N.B. As they shall progress by degrees in the various branches of -instruction, they will take their part in the service, at first on duty -where arms are not required, and afterwards with their arms, as much as -possible always upon public holidays.</p> - -<p>Seniors will have to attend the school of reading, writing, -arithmetic, and gymnastics daily.</p> - -<p>The recruits as well as the seniors will be prepared for the practice -range, during the months of February and March, by aiming at the butt -and firing at the candle.</p> - -<p>The Officers, especially the juniors, will be encouraged to exercise -themselves in gymnastics, and to frequent the School of Topography.</p> - -<p>The Captains will be taught riding as much as possible where they are -in garrison with Cavalry.</p> - -<p>In the months of February and March the Officers will be further -prepared in the appropriate theory, with a view to the instruction of -the following months, and all without exception will have to practice -firing with the rifle.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>April and May.</i></p> - -<p>There will be no further distinction made between the recruits and -seniors.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page497" id="page497">497</a></span> -<p>They will pass successively through soldiers’, squad, and company -drill, bayonet exercise, and rifle practice at the butt.</p> - -<p>The school of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and gymnastics, will -be continued at least for the lower classes.</p> - -<p>The Captains will give instruction to their companies, especially in -bad weather, on the subject of packing necessaries, and on the general -behavior of the soldier under different circumstances on and off duty, -showing them also the manner of making reports in a few clear and -concise words.</p> - -<p>The Officers will be prepared by the appropriate theoretical training -for the instruction of the following months.</p> - -<p>The School of Topography will be continued as much as possible for -the Officers who desire to attend it.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>June, July, August.</i></p> - -<p>They will pass successively through battalion drill and regimental -and brigade manœuvres.</p> - -<p>The rifle practice at the butt will be continued.</p> - -<p>The <i>Chasseur</i> exercise will be taught.</p> - -<p>The swimming school will proceed with the utmost possible -activity.</p> - -<p>The school of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and gymnastics will -be continued at least for the lowest classes, as much at least as the -instructions in other subjects, and especially swimming, permit.</p> - -<p>The Generals of Brigade will explain theoretically to the superior -Officers and Captains, and these latter to their own companies, the -nature of service in the field.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>September.</i></p> - -<p>By frequent marches instruction will be given in field service, -practical in its nature, and separate for every arm.</p> - -<p>Manœuvres and evolutions appropriate to the ground will be gone -through.</p> - -<p>The troops will be disposed for the defense of a village or a -position, of a stream, or the like.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>October.</i></p> - -<p>The instruction in the field will continue as much as possible, and -especially in the garrisons where troops of different arms are -quartered, one part of the force can be opposed to the other, and, where -the service of the place permits it, by calling in the assistance of the -National Guard, the garrison will be able entirely or in part to absent -itself for two or three days.</p> - - -<p class="smallhead">GENERAL RULES RELATING TO THE INSTRUCTIONS.</p> - -<p>1. As far as is possible the soldiers should receive at least two -lessons in the day.</p> - -<p>2. In the months of April, May, June, July, and August, the drill in -the <i>place d’ armes</i> will take place only once a day, the other -will be in the barrack or the neighborhood.</p> - -<p>3. The Officers should give the instructions themselves, and should -never appear as idle spectators before the soldier.</p> - -<p>The subalterns will themselves conduct the soldiers’ and squad drill, -and the bayonet exercise.</p> - -<p>The Captains will be careful to instruct their own companies. At the -rifle practice all the Officers of the Company should be present and -interest themselves for the good working of so important a subject of -instruction.</p> - -<p>4. During recreation times, and in all those kinds of instruction -which do not require silence and immobility, the Officers will be -careful to converse with their inferiors, and to study their character -and qualities, praising and encouraging the good to do well, and -visiting with words of blame more or less severe those who are -ill-regulated in their conduct.</p> - -<p>5. In order to interrupt as little as possible the course of the -instructions, the Colonels and Generals of Brigade will avail themselves -of the festivals accurately to review the men before and after mass.</p> - -<p>6. In forts the Infantry will be exercised at the service of guns -according to -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page498" id="page498">498</a></span> -the directions which will be given to the Officers of Artillery -commanding in them.</p> - -<p>7. Some Non-commissioned Officers in every regiment will be trained -as the carpenters for making cartridges.</p> - -<p>8. In the interior of the barracks the men will be encouraged to -amuse themselves, and be gay, rather than to loiter about in idleness. -It will be most advantageous to introduce singing to music, as was done -in the camp of 1846.</p> - -<p>9. In the month of August, Staff Officers will be dispatched to the -principal garrisons who, being attached to Generals of Brigade and -Division, will prepare with them the projects and plans for the field -instructions of the months of September and October. These Staff -Officers are further particularly charged to study the environs, and to -point out in reports for that purpose the most important military -positions, and the mode of occupying them.</p> - -<p>10. Appropriate instructions concerning the rules to be observed in -the rifle schools, concerning the swimming school, and the exercises in -the field, will be forwarded at the proper time.</p> -</div> - - -<h4><a name="italy_arsenal" id="italy_arsenal" href="#italy">VI. -SCHOOL OF ARTILLERY IN THE ARSENAL.</a></h4> - -<p>Men, who are destined to work in the arsenal, receive here practical -instruction in their art. The arsenal contains, 1st, a chemical and -metallurgical laboratory, in which analysis, &c., are performed; 2d, -a mineralogical collection, containing 1100 specimens of minerals, and -many models of crystalization, besides a complete collection of -specimens from the territory of Genoa; 3d, a collection of philosophical -apparatus, containing 600 different machines and instruments, partly -from Puxy and Dumotier of Paris, and partly from Zest and Brabante of -Turin; 4th, a library containing the best books on Mathematics, Natural -Philosophy, Astronomy, Geology, Geography, &c.; 5th, a foundry of -cannon, which includes the foundry properly so called, the atelier of -modelers, the hall of models, the ateliers of trepans and of engravers; -6th, the lithographic establishment; 7th, the machine shop; 8th, a -manufacture of all kinds of arms for the army and navy; 9th, the atelier -of bombardiers; 10th the manufacture of gunpowder, and refinery of -saltpetre; 11th, a forge for gun-barrels.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page499" id="page499">499</a></span> -<p class="smallhead"><a name="italy_genoa" id="italy_genoa" href="#italy">SCHOOL OF NAUTICAL INSTRUCTION AT GENOA.</a></p> - -<p>The course of instruction in the Nautical Institute at Genoa -embraces:—I. Nautical Astronomy and Navigation; II. Mechanics and -Steam Engine; III. Maritime and Commercial Law; IV. Geography and -Meteorology.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>I. Nautical Astronomy and Navigation.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Introduction:</i> 1. Nautical art in general; different sciences -attached; need of varied knowledge for captains; special applications of -mathematics to navigation. 2. Method to be pursued in carrying on -nautical studies.</p> - -<p><i>Plane Navigation:</i> 3. Figure and dimensions of the earth; -equations in equal spheres of a circle traced on the same. -4. Methods for determining the course of the ship; the compass. -5. Demonstrations of the principles on which the solution of -problems of navigation rest, reduction tables. 6. Given two of the -four quantities, how to find the other two in determining the position -of a ship. 7. Reduction of a straight course; degree of confidence -to be placed in results. 8. Maritime charts; how constructed; -resolution of problems.</p> - -<p><i>Nautical Astronomy.</i> 9. Elementary notions of astronomy; -special objects in teaching this science to seaman. -10. Astronomical tables in use among different nations, and how to -use them. 11. Instruments for reflexion, and principles of -construction; verification, rectification, and use of the sextant, -octant, and artificial horizon; corrections to be made on the heights -and angular distances observed; depression; refraction; parallax, -semi-diameter. 12. Examination of the principal problems relative -to the measure and transformation of time. 13. The chronometer; -absolute state of the chronometer; diurnal variations; comparison; use -of chronometers. 14. Compass; its construction and verification; -determination of the declivity; tables of deviation; correction bars. -15. Different methods for determining the latitude and longitude at -sea. 16. The tides, their fundamental theory; calculations -regarding them. 17. Hydrographic charts; topographical instruments, -and different projections.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>II. Mechanics and Steam Engine.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Introduction:</i> 1. Necessity for the use of mechanics and -physics for the shipmaster, naval constructor and machinist. -2. Method of giving such instruction to seamen.</p> - -<p><i>Mechanics:</i>—Motion considered geometrically; composition; -decomposition. 3. Transformation of motion. 4. Force; -composition and decomposition of force; equilibrium. 5. Center of -gravity, and how to find it; application of the same, on the theory of -the ship. 6. Theory of simple machines; principal machines. -7. Principle of force. 8. Blows. 9. Resistance of -materials; experimental elements of resistance, and elasticity of the -principal substances in use in naval construction. 10. Mechanic of -fluids; demonstrations of its principal theorems; application of the -same to the stability of the ship.</p> - -<p><i>Steam Engines:</i>—11. General notions on steam; mechanical -element of heat; thermometers; tension; expansion; condensation of -steam. 12. Steam engines generally; examination and description of -its organs, and its different forms and applications. 13. Marine -steam engines, and different systems on which they are constructed. -14. The boilers and their different types. 15. Combustibles -and their different kinds. 16. Different systems of propulsion. -17. Mixed Navigation. 18. Historical summary of the origin and -progress of machine and steam power.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>III. Maritime and Commercial Law.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Introduction:</i> 1. Necessity of general culture to shipmasters; -study of the native tongue; foreign languages; history; methods of -gaining such instruction. 2. Necessity of the study of public -maritime and special law, and commercial law; method of giving such -instruction.</p> - -<p><i>International Public Maritime Law:</i> 3. The sea, and the laws by -which it is governed; freedom of the sea; restrictions to this -principle. 4. International maritime jurisdiction; treaties; -reciprocity; consular agents. 5. War, embargoes and reprisals; -letters of marque; capture; neutrality; blockade; contraband of war. -6. The latest modifications.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page500" id="page500">500</a></span> -<p><i>Internal Public Maritime Law:</i> Territorial sea; harbors and -shores; administrative division of the boundaries of states, and docks. -9. Laws applicable to wooden and iron ships, sailing and -steamships. 10. Nationality of the ship. 11. Law applicable to -the <i>personel</i> of seamen. 12. Customs, laws, sanitary and -police, as regards navigation. 13. Wrecks and recovery. -14. Maritime crimes and penal mercantile jurisdiction.</p> - -<p><i>Private Commercial Maritime Law:</i> 15. Ownership of ships; -privileges of ships. 16. Contract of freight; insurance and -bottomry bonds; averages; jettison and abandonment. 17. Duties and -responsibilities of the master toward the freighterer, the shipper, the -crew, and the passengers. 18. Legal relations arising from -commercial operations; bills of exchange; partnership and agency.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="heading"><i>IV. Geography and Meteorology.</i></p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>Introduction:</i> 1. Necessity of this knowledge to seamen. -2. Relations between geography and meteorology. 3. Historical -development. 4. Fundamental principles of geography, astronomy, and -mathematics, and methods of instruction.</p> - -<p><i>Physical Geography and Meteorology:</i> 5. Fundamental principles -of geology; physical configuration of the earth; forces which determine -the formation of continents and islands; extension of lines, &c. -6. Description of different parts of the globe. 7. Physical -geography of the sea; its extensions, divisions, depths, soundings, -temperature, phosphorescence, colors, tides, currents, storms. -8. Descriptive hydrography—oceans, their divisions and -dependencies; the rivers and lakes in different parts of the globe. -9. The atmosphere—its extension, temperature, and the -thermometer; different thermometric scales; atmospheric density and -pressure; the barometer—different barometric scales; the -winds—general, periodical, variable; hurricanes; storms; law of -storms; watery luminaries and electric meteors; signs and forecasts of -the weather. 10. Magnetism—magnetic action; declension of the -magnetic needle; the compass. 11. Geographical distribution of -minerals, plants, and animals, utilized by man. 12. Man as a -geographical modifying agent.</p> - -<p><i>Political Description:</i> Statistical and commercial geography. -13. Divisions, population, wealth, finances, commerce, and other -statistical data of different states, in different divisions of the -globe.</p> -</div> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Errata for Part V (Italy):</h4> - -<p class="partial">[The actual strength of the Italian army ...]</p> -<p><span class="citation">Three regiments of train corps (24 -companies)</span><br> -<i>opening ( missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">[GENERAL TIME TABLE FOR SCHOOL -DAYS.]</span><br> -<i>part of this list is printed out of sequence, with the lines for 3 -and 4¾ placed after those for 5¼ and later</i></p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page501" id="page501">501</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partVI"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART VI.</span><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN RUSSIA AND OTHER STATES.</h2> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page503" id="page503">503</a></span> -<h3><a name="russia" id="russia" href="#partVI"> -VIII. MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN RUSSIA.</a></h3> - -<h4><a name="russia_system" id="russia_system" href="#russia">I. -MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Emperor is commander-in-chief of -all the forces, by sea and land, assisted by the Staff-Office, the -members of which are expert linguists, as well as scientific experienced -and military officers. The army is under a Minister of War, assisted by -a colleague and a military council. The office of Master of Ordnance is -generally filled by a grand prince. The regular force, or army of -occupation consists of about 783,000 men, which can be easily swelled to -at least 1,200,000, as the whole male population are liable to serve -when summoned. The army is mainly recruited by conscription, which falls -on the serfs and laboring population, as the nobility, officials, clergy -and merchants are exempted. The term of service is twenty years for the -guards, <ins class="correction" -title="hyphen invisible">twenty-two</ins> for the line, and twenty-five for the train -and military servants. But few pensions are granted to discharged or -furloughed soldiers, although veteran soldiers are frequently appointed -to situations as doorkeepers, watchmen, overseers, &c., in -government establishments and public institutions.</p> - -<p>Promotion by seniority, imperial favor, and good conduct on the -field. Every officer must be educated and trained to his business, and -serve from the lowest to the highest rank. Non-commissioned officers, -musicians, assistant veterinary surgeons, head workmen in the military -workshops and factories must all be trained for their special duties. -A large portion of these classes are the sons of soldiers, who have -been surrendered by their parents to the government, who receive them at -the age of six or twelve, by special arrangement. They are termed -<i>cantonists</i>. Among the special military schools of a technological -character are, eleven for garrison artillery; three for armories; three -for powder mills; three for arsenals; one for riding masters; one for -fencing; one for accountants; one for topographical drawing, &c.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page504" id="page504">504</a></span> -<h4><a name="russia_school" id="russia_school" href="#russia">II. -MILITARY SCHOOL FOR OFFICERS.</a></h4> - -<p>The officers of the Russian army obtain their first commission after -passing through the Military Schools or Cadet Corps, or if qualified in -scientific and other instruction, ascertained by open examination, by -serving as privates six months, and as sergeants or ensign two years. -Applicants for the Staff Corps, must have served as officers two years, -must be recommended by their superior, and have been two years in the -Staff School—and there pass an honorable examination in military -history and strategy. The following statistics are taken from the -<i>Kalender</i> of the St. Petersburg Academy, for 1859.</p> - -<p>I. Under a Commission or Board of Military Instruction, which reports -directly to the Emperor, there are</p> - -<table class="plaintext reduced"> -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> 3 Military Schools of Special Application, -viz.:</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">1</td> -<td>The Nicholas Academy of the Staff,</td> -<td class="center">with</td> -<td class="number">22</td> -<td>teachers and</td> -<td class="number"> 250</td> -<td class="center">scholars.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1" colspan="2">1 The Nicholas Upper Engineer -School,</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">50</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">126</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1" colspan="2">1 The Michael Artillery School,</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 32</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 117</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="in1" colspan="2">1 Page Corps, or College</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 41</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 159</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">1</td> -<td>Ensign’s School of the Guards,</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 31</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number"> 206</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">22</td> -<td>Cadet Corps or Military Colleges,</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">723</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">7440</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="sum">27</td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">899</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="sum">8,298</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The Cadet Corps, or Military Schools, receive their pupils young, and -impart a general as well as a scientific education, preparatory to -entering the Special Schools of Application either for Engineer, or -Artillery, and later in years and experience, the Staff School. These -Special Military Schools are not surpassed by any of the same class in -Europe.</p> - -<p><a name="table_error" id="table_error" href="#errata_VI">II.</a> Under the Ministry of War there are the following -Scientific Establishments and Schools.</p> - -<table class="plaintext reduced"> -<tr> -<td>22 Military Schools, with</td> -<td class="number">326</td> -<td>teachers and</td> -<td class="number">10,000</td> -<td>scholars.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 3 Lower or Element. Artillery Schools,</td> -<td class="number">22</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">166</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 1 Topographers’ School, with</td> -<td class="number"> 13</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">140</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 1 Medico-Chirurgical Academy, with Military Hospitals,</td> -<td class="number"> 35</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -<td class="number">978</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> 3 Veterinary Schools,</td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="number"> 1,020</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">12,304</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The Military Schools<a class="tag" name="text_error" id="text_error" href="#errata_VI">*</a> are of an elementary and -technological character, and are intended to supersede a class of -schools known as the <i>Cantonist</i> Schools.</p> - -<p>The experience of the Crimean War demonstrated to the world, the wise -forecast of the Russian government in providing for the thorough -scientific and practical training of the officers of her great armies as -was confessed by the “<i>London Times</i>,” in the bitter -disappointments of the English people with their own officers.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page505" id="page505">505</a></span> -<h4 class="three"><a name="russia_petersburg" id="russia_petersburg" href="#russia">THE IMPERIAL STAFF SCHOOL AT ST. -PETERSBURG.</a></h4> - -<p class="center">[Extracts from Governmental Regulations.]</p> - -<h5><a name="russia_petersburg_general" id="russia_petersburg_general" href="#russia_petersburg">I. GENERAL -DIRECTIONS.</a></h5> - -<p><span class="firstword">A Military</span> Academy, the highest -institution of its class, is founded in St. Petersburg, to educate -Officers for the service of the General Staff, and to promote the -diffusion of Military Science in general. Its special functions -are—</p> - -<p>1. To prepare Officers for the special service of the General -Staff.</p> - -<p>2. To furnish to a certain number of Officers from the Artillery and -Chief Engineer School a course of Grand Tactics and Strategy, on the -same principles and to the same extent as it is furnished to the -Officers preparing for the Service of the General Staff.</p> - -<p>3. To apply all the means indicated in these Regulations to the -diffusion of Military Science.</p> - -<p>From forty to fifty Officers shall be educated in the Academy for the -special service of the General Staff, and about ten from the Artillery -and from the Chief Engineer School.</p> - -<p>The Military Academy is under the immediate control of the Chief of -the Staff of His Imperial Majesty, and is under the direction of a -President appointed by the Emperor.</p> - -<p>A Council, presided over by the President, considers and determines -all important questions relating to Studies and Economic -Administration.</p> - -<p>A Vice-President, appointed by the Emperor, is associated with the -President to assist him in the performance of his official duties.</p> - -<p>The Officers receiving an education for the General Staff are placed -under the control of four Staff Officers appointed by the Emperor.</p> - -<p>The subjects of Study and the Scientific Course are divided into two -Sections, the Theoretical and the Practical.</p> - -<p>The number of Professors, Adjuncts, and Teachers is determined -according to circumstances by the Academic Council, with the approbation -of the Chief of the Staff of his Imperial Majesty.</p> - -<p>The Salaries of the Officials for the internal service of the Academy -are fixed in the List annexed to these Statutes.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page506" id="page506">506</a></span> -<p>It is the most sacred duty of the whole Staff of the Academy, and in -particular of the Chiefs and Professors, never to lose sight of its -object; and while they devote themselves to extend the knowledge of the -student Officers, to impress upon them, by teaching and example, the -precepts of the purest morality, the true and exact performance of their -professional duties, an unconditional obedience to their superiors, and -an inviolable devotion to the throne and their country.</p> - -<p>The Academy has a peculiar Seal.</p> - - -<h5><a name="russia_petersburg_admission" id="russia_petersburg_admission" href="#russia_petersburg">II. ADMISSION -TO STUDENTS.</a></h5> - -<p>Only Superior Officers can enter into the Academy, and these up to -the rank of Staff Captain if they serve in the Guards, Artillery, or -Engineers; up to the rank of Captain, if they belong to an Army -Regiment.</p> - -<p>The Directors of the Noble Guard School, of the Page Corps, of the -First, Second, Pant, Moscow, and Finland Cadet Corps, have the right to -propose in the proper quarter, for admission into the Academy, the most -distinguished Officers who have left these military institutions.</p> - -<p>The Officers proposed for admission into the Academy must be at least -eighteen years old, and be distinguished for capacity, industry, -diligence, morals, and good conduct.</p> - -<p>Officers from the Regiments and Artillery Brigades must present -testimonials of blameless morals, conduct, and zeal for the Service from -the Chief of their Division. Officers from the Engineer Battalions must -present similar testimonials from the Chiefs of their Brigades.</p> - -<p>Those who give testimonials are strictly responsible for their truth, -as are the Chiefs of the Military Schools for the capacity and -qualifications of the Officers they propose.</p> - -<p>Admission into the Academy depends upon a strict examination in the -following subjects:—</p> - -<div class="in-one"> -<p><i>a.</i> Languages:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Russian, German, or French.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>b.</i> Mathematics:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Arithmetic, Algebra to Equations of the Second Degree, Plane and -Solid Geometry, and Plane Trigonometry.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>c.</i> Military Sciences:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>The Principles of Intrenchment, Fortification, and Artillery.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>d.</i> Evolution:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Evolutions of a Battalion of Tirailleurs, of a Squadron, of a Whole -Line, of a Scattered Front (<i>Zerstreuten Fronte</i>,) and, lastly, the -Service of Outposts.</p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page507" id="page507">507</a></span> -<p><i>e.</i> History:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>General History of the World to the sixteenth century in its chief -epochs, particularly in reference to Russia; special Histories of the -European States in modern times.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>f.</i> Geography:</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p>Universal Geography, and particularly that of the Russian Empire and -the neighboring States.</p> - -<p>Besides this, a clear conception of Situation, Plans, and -Topographical Charts is required.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<h5><a name="russia_petersburg_method" id="russia_petersburg_method" -href="#russia_petersburg">III. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION.</a></h5> - -<p>The Scientific Course is divided into two Sections,—The -Theoretical and the Practical. The Theoretical part of the higher -Military Sciences is expounded by the Professors, their Adjuncts, and -the Teachers. Those Officers who belong to the Practical Section -exercise themselves under the guidance of the Professors.</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p><i>a.</i> In Written Exercises on any proposed Military Subject.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> In the composition of Military Descriptions -(<i>Beschreibungen</i>,) of every kind.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> In the Art of taking Military Surveys of a Country, and of -judging the Tactical Nature of a Ground.</p> -</div> - -<p>In each Section there are from twenty to twenty-five Officers -destined for the Service of the General Staff, and from four to five -from the Artillery and Chief Engineer School.</p> - -<p>These Officers, according to their capacities and attainments in the -Military Sciences, enter either into the Theoretical Section or into -both the Theoretical and the Practical Section at the same time, and -remain in each a year.</p> - -<p>The complete Academic Course in both Sections extends over two -years.</p> - -<p>The following subjects are taught:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p><i>a.</i> Russian literature, with particular reference to the -composition of Military Essays in a faultless style, and to the style of -the Military Chancery (writing department of the War Office.)</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> General ideas on Artillery, and more precise details on the -same subject as a Special Arm; its use in the open field and in -sieges.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Petty Tactics in the employment of a single Division, with -which all Officers must be thoroughly familiar, as this is indispensable -to all. To this is joined the theory of the formation of columns, of -their use, of the effect of the fire of Infantry, and lastly, the -explanation of all evolutions with the three arms which are usually -employed for movement, deployment, or forming in order of battle.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> The Elements of Topography and Geodesy, of Military -Drawing, and the art of measuring situations by the eye.</p> - -<p><i>e.</i> Military coup d’œil (<i>Scharfblick</i>,) and the art of -judging the tactical nature of ground.</p> - -<p><i>f.</i> Castrametation, or the art of encamping, and the theory of -positions.</p> - -<p><i>g.</i> Logistic, or all that relates to the details of marches, -either in presence of the enemy, or in the movement of troops from one -place to another.</p> - -<p><i>h.</i> Intrenchment and fortification, as far as regards the -attack and defense of intrenched camps and fortified places, and the -effect of intrenchments and fortifications on the operations of an -active army.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page508" id="page508">508</a></span> -<p><i>i.</i> Grand Tactics, embracing the various systems of the Order -of Battle; and the formation and employment of the Three Arms, and -treating of unexpected engagements or the sudden collision of two -hostile Divisions.</p> - -<p><i>k.</i> The Military Geography of Europe, particularly that of the -Russian Empire and the neighboring States.</p> - -<p><i>l.</i> Military Statistics, or knowledge of the land and sea -Forces and warlike means of all the European States.</p> - -<p><i>m.</i> Strategy in all its extent; with a criticism on the last -wars, and an indication of the events which demonstrate the influence of -this science on the success of a campaign.</p> - -<p><i>n.</i> A general view of military history in its most remarkable -periods, from the earliest times to Peter the Great, and a more complete -view of the Military History of modern times.</p> - -<p><i>o.</i> The literary History of the Military Sciences, with a -criticism on the best ancient and modern writers on the History of War; -and a special reference of those who may contribute to the further -education of the Officers after their departure from the Academy.</p> - -<p><i>p.</i> Duties of the General Staff Officer in times both of peace -and war.</p> - -<p><i>q.</i> The art of riding.</p> -</div> - -<p>The officers of the Practical Division are employed on the same -Sciences; not, however, during the hours of lecture, but by practicing -under the direction of the Professors, and according to the regulations -of the Academic authorities.</p> - -<p>The subjects they are employed upon are principally the -following:—</p> - -<div class="inlist"> -<p><i>a.</i> Topographical and Tactical description of ground after -inspection.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> Military Geography and Statistics.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Logistic.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> Grand Tactics.</p> - -<p><i>e.</i> Strategy.</p> - -<p><i>f.</i> Military History.</p> - -<p><i>g.</i> Literature of the Military Sciences.</p> - -<p><i>h.</i> Designing plans of battles and manœuvres, as exercises in -Topography, Logistic, and Tactics.</p> - -<p><i>i.</i> Historic reports, and keeping the usual journal of the -General Staff.</p> - -<p><i>j.</i> All that belong to the survey of a country, and the -practical working of the Artillery and Siege operations.</p> -</div> - -<p>Teachers are appointed for those officers who require to be perfected -in the French or German language.</p> - -<p>All the sciences are taught in the Academy in the Russian language; -and an exposition in French or German is only allowed when dictated by -circumstances, and then a special permission must be first obtained from -the Chief of the Staff of his Imperial Majesty.</p> - -<p>The Officers of the Practical Section are also required to use their -native tongue in their written exercises, except in one or two composed -in a foreign language by the direction of the authorities.</p> - -<p>In summer, the Officers of the Theoretical Section repair to -regiments to which they are directed to learn the camp service. The -Officers of the Practical Section make surveys and reconnaissances, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page509" id="page509">509</a></span> -mark out camps and proportionate intrenchments on a given ground. At the -time of grand manœuvres, they are associated with Officers of the -General Staff, and have the opportunity of witnessing the practical -exercises of the Artillery and Sappers, in order to be able to make a -report as eye-witnesses on the effect of Artillery and Siege -operations.</p> - - -<h5><a name="russia_petersburg_local" id="russia_petersburg_local" -href="#russia_petersburg">IV. LOCAL REGULATIONS.</a></h5> - -<p>All Officers receiving an education in the Academy are entered on the -rolls of their Regiments, Artillery Brigades, and Sapper Battalions, as -supernumeraries and detached Officers, without, however, losing their -standing or right of promotion by seniority, their pay, servants’ -rations, or any other advantages enjoyed by Officers present with their -troop.</p> - -<p>Those Officers who enter the Academy from the Regiments of the -Garrison of St. Petersburg continue, while they belong to it, to perform -the front service of their Regiments; those who come from the Artillery -and Sapper Brigades, or from Regiments not stationed in St. Petersburg, -are attached for the front service to one of the Regiments of the -Garrison of St. Petersburg; the necessary arrangements are made by the -authorities of the Guard Corps.</p> - -<p>The Officers of the Artillery and Chief Engineer School, having only -to attend the Course of Grand Tactics and Strategy, retain their posts -while studying in the Academy.</p> - -<p>Four Staff Officers, appointed by the Emperor, have the immediate -control of the Officers preparing themselves for the service of the -General Staff; they are to exercise a vigilant supervision over them, -and to report on their conduct to the Vice-President; they are the organ -by which all orders reach the Officers, and they form a Court of the -First Instance in matters relating to the Service.</p> - -<p>One day in the week is devoted to drill, and every day two officers -mount guard with the first division of the garrison of St. -Petersburg.</p> - -<p>The Officers are to devote exclusively to study the leisure hours at -their command after the performance of front and garrison duties; and -are to observe, in all respects, the Statutes of the Academy.</p> - -<p>To facilitate, economically, the residence of the Officers in St. -Petersburg, they receive, with the exception of those belonging to the -Guard, besides their usual pay and an allowance for quarters according -to their rank, an annual allowance of 500 roubles, which is paid in the -Academy.</p> - -<p>Officers ordered to survey a country, or to make a reconnaissance, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page510" id="page510">510</a></span> -receive their traveling expenses from the Commissariat, according to the -distance to which they are sent, and in proportion to their rank: their -board expenses are not allowed.</p> - - -<h5><a name="russia_petersburg_promotion" id="russia_petersburg_promotion" href="#russia_petersburg">V. REGULATIONS -RESPECTING PROMOTION.</a></h5> - -<p>The course is terminated, and Students finish their career, in -October annually.</p> - -<p>At the same time, Officers are removed from the Theoretical section -to the Practical, making place for candidates who wish to enter the -former.</p> - -<p>At their departure from the Academy the Officers receive from the -Academic Council testimonials of conduct and scientific attainments, -with a memorial of the rewards which they receive at leaving.</p> - -<p>On leaving the Academy the Officers have to act as follows: those who -belonged to the Artillery, or Chief Engineer School, repair to their -highest Commanding Officer; the rest, who were educated for the service -of the General Staff, return to their Regiments, Artillery Brigades, or -Sapper Battalions, on whose rolls they remain as supernumeraries and -Officers reckoned as of the General Staff, until they are formally -transferred to the latter.</p> - -<p>The rewards to which Officers can acquire a claim at leaving the -Academy are the following:—The most distinguished is promoted to -the lowest rank (on the Staff,) and receives a golden medal; he is -only entitled to this if all the teachers give him the full number -balls, and unanimously recognize him as most conspicuous for -attainments. Besides this, he must have written a satisfactory essay on -a given theme, relating to some important war, and have been blameless -in moral conduct during his residence in the Academy. The student who is -recognized as second, both in attainments and behavior, and has also -obtained the full number of balls, is rewarded with the great silver -medal, and receives double pay for a year. The student who obtains the -third place in attainments and behavior, and the full number of balls, -receives the little silver medal, and double pay for a year. Each medal -bears the name of its possessor. Besides this, the names of all those -who obtain one of the three above-mentioned rewards are engraved on -marble tablets, which adorn the walls of one of the halls of the -Academic building.</p> - -<p>Should any of the Students feel no inclination for the service of the -General Staff, even after a successful termination of the Theoretical -Course, he may always request to be dismissed to his Regiment, Artillery -Brigade, or Sapper Battalion.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page511" id="page511">511</a></span> -<p>Every Officer who at his departure from the Academy obtains a -testimonial of having accomplished the object of his admission, and in -consequence is provisionally destined for the service of the General -Staff, if he continues after his return to his Regiment to educate -himself for his vocation, and distinguishes himself by observance of a -strict discipline, by conduct and zeal for the service, is rewarded at -the end of a year by being completely transferred to the General Staff; -and if he belonged to the Young Guard, the Artillery, or a Sapper -Battalion, his right to promotion immediately commences; not so if he -belonged to Troops of the Line.</p> - -<p>Every year, on the 1st of January, the Chief of the Regiment, -Artillery Brigade, or Sapper Battalion in command of an Officer reckoned -as of the General Staff, forwards his form and his conduct list to the -Quartermaster-General of the General Staff, who lays it before the Chief -of the General Staff. At the same time the above-mentioned papers are -communicated to the Chief in command of the Officer.</p> - -<p>Besides this, the above-mentioned Chief makes a similar report on the -zeal for the service and moral conduct of the Officers twice a year, -namely, on the 1st of March and the 1st of September; and at the same -time reports exactly on the way in which he performs the service of the -front.</p> - -<p>No Officer reckoned as of the General Staff is to be charged with the -duties of Paymaster service in his Regiment, or employed as -Quartermaster; and if any General wishes to select him for his Adjutant, -he must first communicate with the Quartermaster-General of the General -Staff.</p> - -<p>If the General Staff is increased in time of war, or if any work on -which it is employed requires to be accelerated in time of peace, the -Chief of the General Staff commissions the Quartermaster-General to -select the requisite number out of the Officers who are reckoned as of -the General Staff. The latter then makes the selection, and announces -the names of the Officers selected to their highest Commanding Officer. -As soon as the object proposed is accomplished, these Officers return -back to their commands. Such a selection, however, can only fall upon -those who have spent at least two years with their commands after their -departure from the Academy. If in the meantime an Officer has become -Chief of a Battalion or Squadron, he shall not be transferred from this -post before the lapse of a year. As soon as any of these Officers, or, -in general, any Officer, who has left the Academy, reports himself at -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page512" id="page512">512</a></span> -his Corps, his Chief immediately announces his arrival to the -Quartermaster-General of the Staff.</p> - -<p>To familiarize the Officers reckoned of the General Staff with the -rules of the Art of War while they remain with their commands, and to -practice them in the duties which belong to Officers of the General -Staff, the Quartermaster-General is directed to charge them with such -duties as may develop their talent, without, however, removing them for -that purpose from the service of the front. These commissions of the -Quartermaster-General are communicated through their superior Officers, -who are directed not only to watch over their performance of these -commissions, but also to assist them therein to the utmost of their -power.</p> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4><a name="errata_VI" id="errata_VI">Errata for Part VI -(Russia):</a></h4> - -<p><span class="citation">twenty years for the guards, twenty-two for -the line,</span><br> -<i>hyphen invisible</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">[<a href="#table_error">II.</a> Under the -Ministry of War there are the following ...]</span><br> -<i>In the printed book, the last two lines of this table were out of -place. The “1,020 scholars” item was aligned with the overflow of the -“Medico-Chirurgical Academy” entry, and the total (12,304) was aligned -with “3 Veterinary Schools”.</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation"><a href="#text_error">The Military -Schools</a> are of an elementary and technological ...</span><br> -<i>In this and the following paragraph, the first letter of each line is -invisible.</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">in the bitter disappointments of the English -people</span><br> -<i>hyphen in “dis-/appointments” invisible at line break</i></p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/page504.png" width="380" height="140" alt="partial page image"></p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page513" id="page513">513</a></span> - -<h2 class="part"><a class="error" name="partVII"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART VII.</span><br> -NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK.</h2> - -<h3><a name="sweden" id="sweden" href="#partVII"> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.</a></h3> - -<h4><a name="sweden_system" id="sweden_system" href="#sweden">I. -MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> Swedish army is composed, -according to official data in Martin’s Year Book, of five distinct -classes of troops, viz.:</p> - -<p>1. The <i>Indelta</i>, or national militia, paid and kept, not by the -Government, but by the landowners, and, to some extent, from the income -of State domains expressly reserved for this purpose. Every soldier of -the <i>Indelta</i> has, besides a small annual pay, his <i>torp</i>, or -cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his own during -the whole period of service, often extending over forty years, or even -longer. In time of peace, the troops of the <i>Indelta</i> are not -called up for more than a month’s annual practice, and for the rest of -the year are free from military duty. In time of war, an extraordinary -<i>Indelta</i> has to be raised by landowners, who, on this account, -enjoy certain privileges, including non-contribution to the cost of the -peace establishment. When the soldier dies, his widow turns over the -holding to his successor, whom the owner of the land is bound to provide -within three months. In the location of the officers, regard is had to -the situation of the men who compose the company, regiment, and larger -divisions.</p> - -<p>2. The <i>Beväring</i>, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy, -from the male population between the age of 20 and 25 years. The law of -conscription, which admits the right of purchasing substitutes, was -introduced into Sweden in 1812. About 19,000 men are drafted annually, -one-tenth of which number, on the average, find substitutes for -themselves, at a cost of from 10<i>l.</i> to 25<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>3. The <i>Värfvade</i>, or enlisted troops, to which belong the royal -life-guards, the hussars, the engineers, and the artillery. The men may -engage for either three, or six, or twelve years; but the greater number -are for six years, peculiar inducements being held out for this -term.</p> - -<p>4. The volunteers, first organized in the year 1861, by the -spontaneous desire of the population of the kingdom. In time of peace -the volunteers are individually free, and bound by no other but their -own rules and regulations: but in time of war they may be -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page514" id="page514">514</a></span> -compelled to place themselves under the command of the military -authorities.</p> - -<p>5. The militia of Gothland, consisting of twenty-one companies of -infantry, organized in a similar manner to the <i>Indelta</i>, yet quite -independent of the latter. They are not compelled by law to serve beyond -the confines of the Isle of Gothland, and have a separate command from -the other troops.</p> - -<p>The armed forces of Sweden, not counting the Volunteers, consist -altogether of—</p> - -<table class="plaintext reduced"> -<tr> -<td> -<i>Indelta</i>,</td> -<td class="number">33,405</td> -<td>rank and file.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<i>Beväring</i>,</td> -<td class="number">95,295</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<i>Värfvade</i>,</td> -<td class="number">7,692</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Militia of Gothland,</td> -<td class="number">7,921</td> -<td class="center">“   “</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">144,313</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the organization of the army, as here enumerated, 85,000 men -belong to the infantry of the line; 6,000 to the cavalry; 5,000 to the -artillery, and the rest to the irregular militia. The number of -volunteers was returned at 40,848 in 1869, but about one-third of these -formed part also of the <i>Indelta</i>. In the parliamentary session of -1862, and again in the sessions of 1865 and 1869, the Government brought -bills before the Diet for a reorganization of the whole of the army, on -the basis of extending the conscription, reforming the <i>Indelta</i>, -and doing away, to a great extent, with the <i>Värfvade</i>. But neither -of these propositions was adopted by the representatives of the people, -whose habits are not easily set aside.</p> - - -<p class="heading"><i>Navy.</i></p> - -<p>The Navy of Sweden was reorganized in 1866-67, being divided into two -distinct parts; the first to serve as an ordinary fleet of war for -aggressive as well as defensive purposes, and the second stationary, and -solely devoted to coast defense. It consisted in 1869 of—</p> - -<table class="plaintext reduced"> -<tr> -<td class="number">6</td> -<td>Iron-clads, of 638 horse-power, and</td> -<td class="number">10</td> -<td>guns.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">21</td> -<td>Unarmored steamers, of 2,810 horse-power and</td> -<td class="number">127</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">16</td> -<td>Sailing vessels, with</td> -<td class="number">376</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="number">158</td> -<td>Gunboats and floating batteries,</td> -<td class="number">551</td> -<td class="center">“</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total" colspan="2">Total, 201 vessels, of 3,458 -horse-power</td> -<td class="sum">1,064</td> -<td class="toppad">guns.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The iron-clads are built after the American model; one a turret ship, -called the “John Ericsson,” is partly covered with steel armor. There -were 6,453 sailors and marines in active service, and 28,000 men were on -furlough or attached to the fleet of reserve and coast defense.</p> - -<p>The expenditure for the army in 1869 was 9,528,600 <i>riks -dalers</i>, and for the navy 3,963,800. The indebtedness of the state is -about $41,000,000, mostly contracted in aid of a system of railways.</p> - - - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page515" id="page515">515</a></span> -<h3><a name="norway" id="norway" href="#sweden">MILITARY SYSTEM -AND EDUCATION IN NORWAY.</a></h3> - - -<h4><a name="norway_system" id="norway_system" href="#partVII">I. -MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> armed forces of Norway, as -organized by law in 1866, consisted in 1869 of the following:</p> - -<p>1. The regular army, with reserve, raised partly by conscription and -partly by enlistment, which must never exceed 12,000 men in time of -peace, and can not be increased above 18,000 men without the special -consent of the Storthing. The average number in time of peace for ten -years past, is about 6,000. The term of service is seven years, but the -men are on duty only 42 days in the first year, and this past, they are -sent home on furloughs, with an obligation to meet for annual practice -of 24 days during the following six years.</p> - -<p>2. The Militia or <i>Landvaern</i>, which consists of all able-bodied -male citizens 18 years of age, who for three years must, at stated -periods, be trained in the use of arms and field exercises, and at the -end of this time, be enrolled in</p> - -<p>3. The final Levy, or <i>Landstorm</i>, where he is liable to be -called out in time of war, until he is 45 years of age.</p> - -<p>The normal strength of the armed forces of Norway in 1869 was -returned at 47,714 on a peace footing, and 112,225 on a war footing, and -required an appropriation of 1,215,500 <i>specie dalers</i>, making the -cost of the Norwegian soldier (on the average of 6,000 men under -arms), $155 per annum.</p> - -<p>The King has permission to keep a guard of Norwegian volunteers, and -to transfer, for the purposes of common military exercises, 3,000 men -annually to Sweden; otherwise a soldier of Norway can not set foot in -Sweden; or one of Sweden, in Norway.</p> - -<p>The naval force consists of 20 vessels, of 2,280 horse-power, and 168 -guns, manned by 2,248 sailors, who are volunteers out of 60,000 men in -the maritime conscription, which includes all seafaring men of the -seaports, between the ages of 22 and 35.</p> - -<p>Three of the vessels are iron-clad monitors.</p> - -<p>In order to utilize the vessels of the navy they are attached to the -postal service, and are employed in carrying the mails and passengers, -under a special minister, charged with the mail service. The navy and -post service cost in 1869, 1,172,815 <i>speciedalers</i>.</p> - - - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page516" id="page516">516</a></span> -<h3><a name="denmark" id="denmark" href="#partVII">MILITARY SYSTEM -AND EDUCATION IN DENMARK.</a></h3> - - -<h4><a name="denmark_system" id="denmark_system" href="#denmark">I. MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> armed forces of Denmark as -organized in 1870, consists of—</p> - -<p>1. The Regular or active army, and—2. The army of Reserve.</p> - -<p>By the law of 1867, every male citizen who has completed the age of -21, is liable to service for eight years in the former, and to be -enrolled ready for special call for eight years more in the latter.</p> - -<p>The Kingdom is divided into five territorial brigades, and each -brigade in four territorial battalions, in such way that no town except -the capital, will belong to more than one battalion. Each territorial -brigade furnishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and one -regiment of cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished, one half by -the two first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three -other divisions. The forces therefrom comprise 20 battalions of infantry -of the line, with 10 depot battalions and 10 of reserve; 5 regiments of -cavalry, each with 2 squadrons active, and 2 depots; and 2 regiments of -artillery, in 12 battalions. The total strength of the army, exclusive -of the reserve, is 36,782 rank and file, with 1,068 officers, on the -peace footing, and 47,725 men, and 1,328 officers on the war footing. -About one half of the enrolled regular army are usually on furlough. The -drilling is divided into two periods; the first lasts six months for the -infantry; five months for the field artillery and the engineers; nine -months and two weeks for the cavalry; and four months for the siege -artillery and the technic corps. Each corps must drill each year during -thirty to forty days.</p> - -<p>The navy comprises the following vessels, all steamers:</p> - -<p>Six <i>iron-clads</i>, with an aggregate of 2,455 horse-power, and -with 65 guns—two of which are turreted, armed each with two of -Armstrong rifled cannon; 12 <i>unarmored vessels</i> of 1,820 -horse-power, and with 192 guns; 7 gun-boats of 480 horse-power and 38 -guns; 6 paddle-steamers, of 1,060 horse-power and 38 guns. The navy in -1869 was manned by 901 men, and officered by 15 commanders, 34 captains, -and 67 lieutenants.</p> - -<p>The budget for 1869 provided 3,783,978 <i>rigsdalers</i> for the -army, and 1,676,681 for the navy.</p> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Erratum for Part VII:</h4> - -<p><span class="citation">PART VII. / NORWAY, SWEDEN AND -DENMARK.</span><br> -<i>heading supplied from Table of Contents</i></p> -</div> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page687" id="page687">687</a></span> -<h2 class="part"><a name="partIX" id="partIX"></a> -<span class="smaller">PART IX.</span><br> -MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS<br> -<span class="subhead">IN SWITZERLAND.</span></h2> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page689" id="page689">689</a></span> -<h3><a name="switzerland" id="switzerland" href="#partIX">MILITARY -SYSTEM AND MILITARY INSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND.</a></h3> - -<p class="center">[Extract from “A Plan for Military Education in -Massachusetts.” By E. Dwight.]</p> - -<h4><a name="switzerland_outline" id="switzerland_outline" href="#switzerland">1. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p><span class="firstword">In</span> the year 1847 seven of the -cantons of the Swiss Republic seceded from the Confederacy. Among them -were the three forest cantons, the original nucleus around which the -whole Republic had been formed, the birth-place of William Tell and -Arnold, of Winkelreid. The seceders held the strongest military position -in Europe, but the loyal cantons put on foot an army of 100,000 men, -well armed, drilled, and officered. The city of Friburg was taken, and -in thirty days from the first proclamation of the commanding general the -war was ended and order was restored.</p> - -<p>In 1856, a quarrel having arisen with the king of Prussia, -Switzerland placed on foot an army of 200,000 men well provided with -<ins class="correction" title=". invisible">artillery.</ins> Thus -the military system of Switzerland has proved itself effective; and as -there is no standing army whatever, and the state is a confederacy of -cantons under democratic forms of government, we may find something in -their system applicable to our own case.</p> - -<p><a name="switzerland_area" id="switzerland_area">Switzerland -covers an area</a> of about 15,000 square miles, equal to that of -Vermont and New Hampshire together, of which a large portion is covered -by lakes, forests, mountains, ice and snow, leaving only thirty-one per -cent of the land fit for agricultural purposes, not including the -mountain pastures. Possessing a population of only two millions and a -half of people, it is surrounded by military powers of the first class, -and must needs be strong to be free. France, Austria, and Prussia are -not always as good friends as they are near neighbors, and the little -Republic must ever be ready to ward a blow and return it. The -constitution of Switzerland declares that every citizen is a soldier. -“Tout Suisse est soldat.” Military service is required between the ages -of twenty and forty-four. The substitution of one man for another is -forbidden, but exemption from service is allowed to certain persons, -such as officers of the government and of public institutions, -clergymen, students of theology, members of the police, pilots and -others. In some cases a man is excused from the more active service, but -required to pass through the regular course of military -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page690" id="page690">690</a></span> -instruction and to serve in the reserve of the army when called upon. -Such are the only son, or one of the sons, of a widow; or of a widower, -provided the father be over sixty years old, and the son necessary to -his support; a widower, the father of children in their minority, who -has no resources except the work of his own hands; one of two or more -sons when they make common household with their parents, if the family -could not be supported by other brothers not subject to service; married -men, or widowers having at least two children. These exceptions do not -apply to officers.</p> - -<p>The Council of State of each canton appoints yearly a “Commission on -Furlough and Discharge,” consisting of ten members, of whom two are -medical men, two officers, one a corporal, one a soldier, and the others -members of the council. The commission acts under oath; grants exemption -for physical defects or want of height; or passes men from the active -service to the reserve. A man who at the age of twenty has not -attained the height of five feet and one inch can be furloughed for two -years; and if, at the end of the third year, he has not reached this -height, discharged from all service. Men who have been convicted of -disgraceful crimes, or have suffered penal sentence, are declared -unworthy of bearing arms; and if once deprived of their civil rights can -not hold a commission.</p> - -<p><a name="switzerland_militia" id="switzerland_militia">The -militia</a> is divided into the federal contingent and the landwehr. The -federal contingent consists—<i>First</i>, of the elite, which -includes three per cent of the whole population, taken from those -between the ages of twenty and thirty-four. The time of service in the -elite is eight years. <i>Second</i>, the reserve, being one and a half -per cent of the population and not above the age of forty. The landwehr -includes men up to the age of forty-four. The landsturm, or <i>levy en -masse</i>, consists of the whole male population, capable of bearing -arms, between the ages of twenty and fifty, and not included in the -classes before described. The male population of Switzerland is -1,140,000, of which thirty-seven per cent, or 422,000, are between -twenty and forty-four years of age. One-fourth of these are exempt or -found unfit for service, leaving 316,000 perfectly fit. In 1853 the -number of men required for the federal contingent was 104,354,<a class="tag" name="tag9_1" id="tag9_1" href="#note9_1">1</a> but -according to official statements the number of men in all branches of -the service, well armed and instructed, amounted to 125,126. The excess -of men supplied, over those required, arose from the public spirit and -general desire for military instruction existing among the people. Add -to these 125,000 the landwehr, which numbered 150,000, and we have a -total of 275,000 effective men, well armed, drilled, and officered.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page691" id="page691">691</a></span> -<p><a name="switzerland_army" id="switzerland_army">The federal -army</a> is composed of the following arms: engineers, including sappers -and pontoniers; artillery, including rocket batteries; cavalry, -riflemen, light infantry, and infantry. There is besides a medical corps -for the service of the ambulances and hospitals. But as uninstructed men -are of little or no value, the federal law upon military organization -provides that the cantons shall see to it that the infantry of their -contingent is completely instructed according to the federal rules, and -though the application of this principle in its details is left to each -canton, yet the following rules are laid down: recruits are not received -into the federal elite until they have gone through a complete course of -instruction which lasts at least twenty-eight days for infantry, and -thirty-five days for light infantry. The confederation charges itself -with the instruction of the engineers, artillery, cavalry, and riflemen. -This course lasts twenty-eight days for riflemen and forty-two days for -the three other arms, but these recruits have previously been drilled in -the school of the soldier by their cantons, and the riflemen have -received preparatory instruction in firing at a mark.</p> - -<p>In the larger cantons—that of Zurich for -instance—divisions of recruits in succession are put into barracks -and well drilled practically and theoretically for fifty-six days, -either consecutively or at two periods of the same year, as may best -suit the youths. In the second year after entering the elite, and for -each year afterwards, the infantry is called out for drill during three -days, by half battalions at least, with preparatory drill of three days -for the “cadres,”<a class="tag" name="tag9_2" id="tag9_2" href="#note9_2">2</a> the commissioned and non-commissioned officers forming -skeleton corps. Days of entry into service are not counted as days of -drill, and in case of interruption the days of drill are increased by -two days. The reserve is called out for drill during two days of each -year, with a preparatory drill of one day for the “cadres.”</p> - -<p>In the corps of engineers, artillery, cavalry, and riflemen, the -elite is called out every alternate year for the engineers and -artillery, and every year for the cavalry and rifles. The drill lasts -four days for the <ins class="correction" -title="close quote missing">“cadre”</ins> of engineers and artillery, and immediately after -ten days for the cadres and companies united, or twelve days for both -together. For the cavalry the drill lasts seven days for dragoons and -four days for “guides;” for riflemen, two days for the cadres, and -immediately afterwards four days for cadres and companies united. The -reserve is called out for a drill of half the length of that of the -elite.</p> - -<p>To complete the instruction of the soldier the cantons in their turn -send their men yearly to the federal camps where the troops to the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page692" id="page692">692</a></span> -number of three or four thousand, are kept under canvas for two weeks. -Larger numbers of men, forming bodies of 5,000 and upwards, are also -mustered and cantoned in the villages, and during several days exercised -in the grand movements and manœuvres of war, chiefly for the instruction -of commanders and officers of the staff.</p> - -<p>To keep up the efficiency of every department of the service the -whole is subjected to the yearly inspection of colonels of the federal -staff appointed by the central government. The inspection of infantry is -confided to ten colonels who serve for three years. There is also an -inspector in each of the arms of engineers and artillery, the latter -having under his direction an administrator of materiel charged with the -inspection and surveillance of all the materiel of the confederation. -This administrator directs and superintends the workmen employed in the -factories of the confederation for the manufacture of powder and -percussion caps, as well as arms, gun-carriages, &c. The colonel of -cavalry and the colonel of rifles direct all that relates to their -respective arms, and recommend the necessary improvements. If these -inspectors detect in the contingent of any canton any want of perfection -in drill, they have the power to order such additional drill as may -bring the men up to the proper standard.</p> - -<p>Great care is taken in the instruction and selection of officers. The -officers of infantry, up to the grade of major, are appointed by the -cantonal authorities; the higher officers by the federal government. But -no officers can be appointed to the special arms of engineers, -artillery, and cavalry, except such as have gone through a course of -instruction at a military school appropriate to each arm. No one can -become a non-commissioned officer who has not served at least one year -as a soldier, nor a commissioned officer except after two years’ -service. Candidates for promotion must pass a public examination, before -a commission, both in theoretical and practical knowledge. Promotion is -given, according to seniority, up to the grade of first lieutenant. -Captains are chosen from among the lieutenants without regard to -seniority. To be appointed major, eight years’ service as an officer is -required, of which, at least, two years as captain. For a -lieutenant-colonel, ten years’ service as officer, of which, at least, -four as major of the special arm. For a colonel, twelve years’ service -as an officer is required, of which, at least, four years as -“commandant,” or in a higher grade. In the Swiss service there is no -higher rank than that of colonel. When a colonel has been appointed -commander-in-chief of the army, he receives for the time being, the -title of general, which he afterwards retains by courtesy.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page693" id="page693">693</a></span> -<p>We are indebted to Professor L. Simonson, of Trinity College, -Hartford, Conn., for the following communication respecting the cadet -system in schools not specially military and the practice of target -shooting in Switzerland, by which a military spirit is fostered -throughout the entire population and the highest skill in the use of the -rifle is attained by a large number of individuals, who are thus -prepared for any sudden call to arms.</p> - - -<h4><a name="switzerland_cadet" id="switzerland_cadet" href="#switzerland">2. THE CADET SYSTEM.</a></h4> - -<p>The Swiss boy learns target shooting and practices gymnastic and -military exercises at a very early age. He imbibes with his mother’s -milk the thought that his first duty is to become a defender of his -country.</p> - -<p><a name="switzerland_helvetic" id="switzerland_helvetic">These -boy-soldiers</a> are styled <i>Cadets</i>, and are a fruit that can -spring up and ripen on democratic soil only. The first armed corps of -the kind we find in Berne near the end of the 16th century. But the -general practice of military exercises among them dates back only about -eighty years, when the <span class="smallcaps">Helvetic Military -Association</span> began to advocate the formation of <i>Corps de -Cadets</i> in all parts of Switzerland. From that time the most -efficient and eminent officers devoted themselves enthusiastically to -this cause. The first corps sprang up in Aarau, Sursen and Olten. Aarau -possessed for a long time the best drilled, largest and finest corps, -and in the canton of Argovia generally the system has struck deeper root -than elsewhere; but well drilled corps can be found in any of the larger -places, as in Zofingen, Lenzburg, Brugg, Baden, and a dozen other -places. It was an old custom for the cadets to parade in the federal -cities—Zurich, Berne and Lucerne—in honor of the assembling -of the Swiss Diet, (Tagsatzung.) As far back as 1770 we find a boy-corps -of infantry and artillery in Zurich, yet towards the end of the last -century the organization was partially broken up, until the political -renovation of the canton in 1830 re-organized the corps anew. Besides in -the capital, we find corps in Winterthur, Uster, Wald, Stäfa, Meilen, -Horgen, Wädenswyl, and other towns on the lake shores. Berne, Biel, -Thun, Burgdorf, and many other Bernese villages, for thirty or forty -years have practiced their school-boys in the exercise of arms. The -state takes special care to give the students of the University of Berne -and of the two normal schools a thorough military training. The cantons -of Lucerne, Solothurn, Basle, Schaffhausen, St. Gall, Appenzell, Glarus, -Tessin, Friburg, Neufchâtel, and the countries of Vand and of the -Grisons, possess each of them one or more cadet-corps. Military drill, -as well as gymnastic exercises, forms part of the regular -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page694" id="page694">694</a></span> -school routine of all middle and higher schools of the above-named -cantons. Provision is now made to extend this discipline over all -schools, making it obligatory on every pupil who is not disabled by -bodily defects. Military practice commences at the age of eleven and is -continued to the age of eighteen or nineteen. Federal or cantonal -officers and instructors drill the youth two afternoons in the week, the -more advanced only once a week. The youth thus disciplined, learn not -only to obey but also to command. The officers of every corps are -promoted from the rank and file, and in this manner are excellently -fitted to become afterwards officers in the federal army. All cadets -when they are enrolled at a later period into the militia, are by law -exempted from drill. The arms are furnished by the state or community; -the uniform, which the pupil may wear in or out of service, must be -procured by himself.</p> - -<p>Most of the cadet-corps consist of infantry, (sharp-shooters and -musketeers;) many have, however, artillery also, as in Zurich, their -guns throwing balls of two and four pounds weight. In Argovia and some -other cantons there are even grenadiers and sappers. Cavalry exist in -theory only. A gun with bayonet and cartridge-box, here and there -also a knapsack and sword form the equipment of the foot-soldier. The -uniforms are various and fanciful. The Zurich Cadets distinguish -themselves by their simple and tasteful appearance; they wear a dark -blue coat with white metal buttons, grey pants, and dark blue cap with -the cockade. Every corps has one or more smaller or larger flags. Many -cantons have excellent bands of music; others, as Zurich, have only -drummers and their indispensable drum-major, and sing martial songs -while marching.</p> - -<p><a name="switzerland_festival" id="switzerland_festival">It is a -universal custom</a> to close the school year in autumn by a festival, -the shining point of which is the military parade and field manœuvre. -The Swiss juvenile festivals have gained quite a reputation at home and -abroad. In the Argovian communities all the school children, the females -as well as males, festively adorned, participate. The corps of the whole -canton and even of several cantons are often united in the field -manœuvre; on such an occasion the enthusiasm and emulation of youth -reach the highest pitch. Thus the Bernese Cadet Corps in 1821 had a -common drill parade in the neighborhood of the capital, and many others -have since come off. In 1816 about 1,000 Argovians went into camp at -Lenzburg, and all of them will joyfully remember this merry festival. -A still greater notoriety was gained by the hot sham fights at -Wettingen, which came off in 1821, and in which the Argovian, Zurich and -Winterthur cadets operated together. -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page695" id="page695">695</a></span> -Two brigades consisting of 1,560 men, all told, with seven cannon fought -there for the positions between Wettingen and Baden; the most glorious -affair of the day was the heroic defense and final storming of the -Wettingen bridge. <a name="switzerland_1856" id="switzerland_1856">Yet all other manœuvres</a> of that sort have been -thrown into shadow by the great Swiss cadet feast in September, 1856. It -will not be forgotten by the thousands, who participated either as -actors or spectators, even if there should be at some future day a -re-union of all the corps of Switzerland. Ten cantons participated in -that festival. Argovia furnished 974 men; Zurich, 805; St. Gall, 472; -Schaffhausen, 186; the Grisons, 166; Ausserrhoden, 155; Lucerne, 148; -Thurgovia, 111; Glarus, 60; and Tessin even sent over the St. Gothard a -contingent of eighty-four. Thus 3,161 young heroes, in various but -generally tasteful uniforms, with bands of music, one hundred and -twenty-four drums, numerous banners, and ten cannon, entered the -festively-adorned Zurich from all sides. Divided into two little armies -drawn up in battle array between Oerlicon and Schwamendingen, they -fought over the celebrated battle of June 4th, 1799, in which the French -under Massena, were defeated by the Austrians under Archduke -Charles.</p> - -<p>The youths in Zurich as well as in other cantons, have no reason to -complain that their physical development is neglected in favor of the -mental; nay, we might rather fear that the first is at times too much -exaggerated, considering the tender age of the majority of the boys. The -pupils of the canton Gymnasium and Industrial School, many of whom are -foreigners, Germans especially, practice gymnastic exercises throughout -the whole year; the military drill is limited to the summer course only. -In the month of August, from time immemorial, the boys, all and every -one, practice target-shooting. The smaller boys only are allowed to rest -the gun on the stand; the older must shoot without any support whatever. -The cities and individuals furnish prizes for those who hit the centre -of the target. In September the cadets—the infantry as well as -artillery—hold their target-shooting; in October they drill in the -field, (“Vorkämpfli,”) and then comes off the annual School Festival -with its gymnastic exercises and the combined manœuvre in field.</p> - -<p><a name="switzerland_1860" id="switzerland_1860">At the sham -fight</a> on the 1st of October, 1860, the enemy as usual existed in -fancy only; they fired, however, as if he were flesh and blood. They had -the task of pursuing the imaginary foe from Windicon to the Höckler. The -division marched over the covered bridge at Aussersihl, detached then a -column to the woody heights in order to outflank the enemy, while the -principal body marched along the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page696" id="page696">696</a></span> -Sihl and drove the enemy from the clearings into the thick woods. Both -divisions re-united at the Höckler Bridge and marched to the great -“Wollishofer Allmend,” where they practiced firing. This is a beautiful -spot for the deployment of troops; the sound of every shot is returned -in manifold echoes from the surrounding heights. The Zurich and federal -troops also encamp, practice, and shoot on this “Allmend.”</p> - -<p>The annual festival of one canton school came off on the day for -gymnastic and military exercises. The printed programme distributed -among the pupils contains the order of exercises, the plan of the -manœuvre, and some useful hints in large type, as, “Clear the -road”—“Smoking is prohibited to the pupils during the -festival”—“Not too fast”—“Do not forget the -ramrod”—“Always 120 paces distance.” At 6 o’clock, A.M., the -drummers beat the reveille, proceeding from the guard-house in three -different directions. If the weather is unfavorable, the reveille is not -beaten, the school begins at the usual hour, and the next fair day is -chosen for the feast. The beaming sun dispersed, however, on this -occasion, the autumnal morning mists, and universal joy beamed from all -faces. On the first day the public gymnastic exercises came off, and -after supper the decisions of the umpires were proclaimed and prizes -distributed.</p> - -<p>The second day the whole corps, numbering about five hundred, hastens -at 7 o’clock, armed and equipped, to the barracks, and marches from -there to the open space near the railroad station, where from 8 to 10, -Colonel Ziegler, the Secretary of War, accompanied by members of the -Board of Supervisors, is occupied with the general inspection of “his -young comrades.” At 12½ the corps assembles again near the barracks, -where they receive their ammunition, and at 1 o’clock they turn out to -the manœuvre. The corps is divided into two small armies, each of which -consists of a centre, right and left wings, and a reserve. The enemy -under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Von Escher, marches over -Riesbach and Zollicon into his position. The federal troops under -Commandant Nadler, take their way over Hirslanden and the Balgrist. The -left wing of the enemy, meanwhile, had taken possession of the heights -above the Zollicon, and his main body is marching on the right bank of -the lake upon Zurich. The enemy makes a halt, and receives the report of -his scouts, that the “Burghölzli” and the heights of the Balgrist have -been taken possession of by the federal army for the purpose of impeding -the further advance of the hostile troops over Hirslanden. The federals -at 3 o’clock attack the enemy in his position on the mountain, but they -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page697" id="page697">697</a></span> -are beaten back, notwithstanding their heroic endeavors, and are -compelled to retreat since the enemy changes his defensive position into -a general charge. The federals retire in good order, and the enemy -purchases every inch of ground at a great sacrifice. Though he succeeds -in cutting off a side column, his losses must be great until he can -silence the murderous fire of the federal battery which has taken a very -favorable position on the “Oberrieder Heights,” and after having done so -he advances to the lowlands.</p> - -<p>The fight offers many a picturesque scene. Nowhere such a -diversified, broken battle-ground can be found as in the Swiss -fore-lands. Especially in the neighborhood of Zurich one is at a loss -which to choose. There are every where covers and ambuscades for -riflemen; the infantry find numerous advantageous positions, and many -heights easily accessible which command vales and plains are at the -command of the artillery. The leaders have hard work to restrain the -ardor of the boy-soldiers, especially of those in the broken chain of -the sharp-shooters. Finally the signal shot is fired, followed -immediately by many others. It is a real feast to observe how the -skirmishers, while running from one cover to the other, crouch together -as much as possible; how skillfully they take advantage of every little -mound, and how they endeavor in their attack to avail themselves of -every protection. This or that one seems a perfect little Zouave; some -even show the disposition of a Turcos. One loads his rifle lying flat on -his back, another springs forward like a tiger. To be commanded to the -chain of the skirmishers is considered special good fortune, for there -the individual is something by himself, can move at will, and is -supplied with plenty of ammunition. Yet, the main body also of the army, -which is obliged to fight in closed lines and strict order, is allowed -to vent its fury in firing by single files and by battalions in -thundering vollies. At the command to fire a hundred muskets at once, -but a single peal as of thunder is heard, and the smoke of the powder -fills the air with the sweetest of savors. For a change we turn to the -artillery. Though they do not possess any rifled cannon, they are -nevertheless intent upon aiming their guns accurately, and the little -self-possessed gunners who serve the pieces would prove dangerous -adversaries to any foe. They mount and dismount a piece as quickly as -any trained artillery-man, and where the ground offers great -impediments, one can see the stronger boys carrying their own -pieces.</p> - -<p>The “Father of the Cadets,” Colonel Ziegler, is present at the sham -fights as an impartial umpire, walking continually on the battle-field, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page698" id="page698">698</a></span> -and smiling as one or the other section makes a good hit. As soon as the -retreating federal troops have gained a favorable position, they stop -short, concentrate their forces, and brave any further advance of the -enemy who, after he has made some further unsuccessful attempts, is -convinced that the federals are a match for him, and even stronger than -himself, makes a halt, and the battle ends. The white cross in the red -field (the federal banner) remains, of course always master of the -field.</p> - -<p>Many a manœuvre has ended without any accident, yet sometimes a -hot-blooded cadet forgets the ramrod, and wounds a soldier from the -hostile lines or a spectator, for the people mingle without fear among -the combatants. Every Swiss is a soldier, and the crack of the guns is a -congenial sound to him. The European diplomatists who met in Zurich in -the Fall of 1860 for the settlement of the peace of Villafranca, were -all present at the manœuvres, and undoubtedly depicted the cadet system -to their respective governments in glowing colors, recommending the -general adoption of the system. We now ask our governors and our people -in general—“Shall we be the last?” A noble ardor may -accomplish a good deal, yet <i>strength</i> combined with will can -accomplish far more—almost every thing.</p> - -<p>After the parties have fought an hour and a half in the sight of the -Alps and the glittering lake, and rested a little while, they march in -brotherly union with glowing faces, to the sound of the drum, or singing -patriotic songs, from the heights down to the shore road, enter -Tiefbrunnen, and stack their arms in pyramids on the green sward of its -hospitable pleasure-grounds. Then after the labor and heat of the day, -the young soldiers hasten at double-quick step, and with Goliath-like -appetite, to the garden of the neighboring inn, which stands on the -shore of the beautiful lake, and give fearful battle to a second enemy -in the form of loaves, sausages, etc.; the blood of the grape runs like -water, and so indefatigable are they in continually repeated onslaughts, -that in a short time the forces of the enemy have wholly disappeared. -The state bears the expenses, in order that the poorest boy may be that -day as rich as his upper-ten comrade. Shouts and hurras spice the good -things still more. Meanwhile it has grown dark, the cadets take to their -arms again, and by the light of numerous torches, Colonel Ziegler -proclaims and distributes the prizes. The name of every victor is -received with the beat of the drum and thousands of hurras. The results -of the target shooting in 1860 were not so satisfactory as in former -years. The artillery gained 65 prizes in one hundred shots, the foot 28; -while in 1859 the former received 86, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page699" id="page699">699</a></span> -and the latter 33, in the average of all distances. The first two prizes -were again taken by Glarus boys. This little people, renowned through -its marksmen, has for the last seven years monopolized the first -prizes.</p> - -<p>Finally the warlike band marches home and the officers and -instructors meet again at a social supper, which lasts until after -midnight. Thus ends the manœuvre of Swiss boys.</p> - -<p>The Swiss militia system may be our model. It will insure our -internal peace and national independence. It will unite the citizens of -all states into one band of brothers. Every people rears troublesome -individuals. Switzerland had to contend with internal difficulties, -factions, etc., as we have now, but the majesty of the law was upheld by -the masses, and while the rebels were beaten in the field, the people of -the different sections met again in friendship. And so, we trust, it -will be with us. The day may not be distant when we shall want the -strength of our whole beloved Union to maintain our position among the -great nations of the earth. United we need not fear the world in -arms.</p> - -<p>The Swiss are the most peaceable and industrious people, and at the -same time the most warlike and ever-ready. In the idea of the Swiss, the -citizen is inseparable from the soldier, lest the free man should become -the slave of a domestic or foreign tyrant. The first advantage of this -idea is, that Switzerland has not a standing army, and yet it can call -into the field at any moment 200,000 well trained men in the flower of -their age; a like number could be raised of younger men under twenty-one -and above forty-five. 200,000 men is eight per cent of its population, -according to which we could have about 2,200,000 citizen soldiers, not -on paper only, but real soldiers. If we institute the cadet system the -next generation will be a warlike one, and no American will even think -of making a law, exempting the citizen from his first duty to appear in -person for the defense of his liberties and independence. The whole -amount of the Swiss military <i>Budget</i><a class="tag" name="tag9_3" id="tag9_3" href="#note9_3">3</a> is between four and five -millions of francs, equal to ten millions of dollars for our 2,200,000 -men—a trifle indeed.</p> - -<p>From time to time the governors of neighboring states could unite the -cadet-corps of different sections and invite the corps from distant -states to send a contingent for a grand manœuvre. Such a proceeding -would tend more to cement the band of brotherhood among the states than -many artificial means. It would at the same time promote the good morals -of the boys, if the governors were to select the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page700" id="page700">700</a></span> -best delegates from their states. Every obdurate, mischievous individual -should be expelled from the ranks, since the state must not suffer a bad -subject to enjoy the honor of serving his country. What a wonderful -change will take place in the disposition of our youth; when accustomed -to the discipline of a soldier, many a bad habit will disappear -entirely. They will become punctual and orderly in the execution of -their duties in general, their step elastic, their carriage erect, their -bodies strong, their chests large, their cheeks rosy, a joy to their -parents and a pride to our people. The lad who leaves his city or his -state, if furnished with a regular certificate from his drill-master, -can enter a company in the place of his future residence, and be no -longer a stranger but a brother-soldier—the member of a mighty -association. He enters the circle of well educated boys at once, and is -thus saved from the danger of associating with such as might corrupt his -good habits. There are thousands of advantages to him and the country, -and not a single disadvantage. Why shall we not seize upon the subject -at once? Let our small state have the honor to be the first, as we -already have the best regulated system of schools—primary, -secondary, and higher institutions. Forward! forward!</p> - -<p>In a subsequent article we shall give a description of a “Swiss -Shooting Festival.” It is an ancient custom with the Alpine people, but -since the system of cadet corps has become perfected, these festivals -have come off with a splendor that had never before been dreamed of. -They unite the men of all sections and have gained quite a fame in -Europe.</p> - -<p>We implore all statesmen and teachers to take the system of <ins -class="correction" -title="text has ‘mili-/itary’ at line break">military</ins> drill and organization in schools into due -consideration; not as a mere experiment, but as something that has -proved an excellent success in a sister republic.</p> - - -<h4><a name="switzerland_target" id="switzerland_target" href="#switzerland">3. TARGET SHOOTING.</a></h4> - -<p>Having made military exercises a part of the regular routine of -schools and the education of youths, and identified the vocation of the -soldier with the privileges of citizenship and the safety of the state, -the policy of the Swiss government, both cantonal and federal, has been -directed so as to make the pastimes of neighborhoods and the national -festivals minister to the general culture of a military spirit, and of -the highest individual skill in the use of arms. To these ends target -shooting is encouraged in various ways, and the festivals of the -sharp-shooters are more generally and enthusiastically attended than any -other national anniversary. We give below an account of a festival of -this kind, which was held in Zurich in July, 1859.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page701" id="page701">701</a></span> -<p class="heading"><i>A Festival of the Swiss Sharp-shooters.</i></p> - -<p>The Frenchman has his rose festivals; the Italian his barcaroli; the -Spaniard his bull-fights; the Englishman, since his cock-fights and -boxing in the street are prohibited, has nothing left to him, for -horse-racing as well as the Parliament belongs to the aristocracy -only.<a class="tag" name="tag9_4" id="tag9_4" href="#note9_4">4</a> Germany has its popular festivals, though the -potentates have suppressed even these harmless popular gatherings in -several parts of the country.</p> - -<p>In southern Germany and in the north-west you may still find the -old-fashioned popular festivals. But Switzerland is their field; there -in the land of freedom they flourish in the utmost freshness. They -arouse and foster in the people the consciousness that they are a -people—a nation; they awaken and strengthen the national spirit; -they unite all citizens, whether they sit as legislators in the Diet, or -till the ground in some unknown corner of the republic.</p> - -<p>The festival begins at 6 o’clock, A.M., with the firing of -cannon—one shot for each of the twenty-two cantons into which -Switzerland is divided. The sharp-shooter festivals are the oldest of -the Swiss popular festivals—the original fruits of a free warlike -people. They are customary in every canton, in every community. But the -<i>Swiss</i> sharp-shooter festival means that in which the whole -country unites, and it has existed now for many, many years, always -fresher and more beautiful, representing not only the united citizens of -the Swiss cantons, but of Switzerland as a political power.</p> - -<p>Such a festival takes place every second year. Then, thirty thousand -free, warlike men, the best marksmen from all parts of the land, the -“élite” of Switzerland’s defenders, assemble with their rifles, which -they handle with more skill than any other nation. They represent in -fact the best men of their nation, the bodyguard of law and order, the -rampart against hostile aggressions, and the stay of popular commotions. -In such a noble assembly many a wise word is spoken, many an idea -exchanged and corrected. The actions of the administration are subjected -to a sharp but judicious and just criticism; you will not hear there -ostentatious speeches, nor see noisy demonstrations. They do not pass -resolutions such as we are wont to see in our country—a small -clique of petty politicians announcing to the people that: <i>The People -of the State, . . . . resolved, etc.</i>; but calmly they -reason and reflect on what would be beneficial to all sections of the -country, and after having reconciled the opposing interests of all, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page702" id="page702">702</a></span> -they go home and work each in his circle for the realization of their -ideas. There is a principle—not of blind opposition to actions, -whether good or bad, simply because they proceed from another -party—but the principle of doing justice to all, of upholding the -rights of all, and of reconciling opposing interests. A people that -has been educated in such principles and acts in accordance with them -has reached the perfection of republicanism, and need not fear either -internal or external foes. Every American patriot may take example from -this little Alpine race; and since every one, man or woman, is by nature -an educator, whether as director of a household, or as a teacher of -other men’s children, let us all unite in educating the growing -generation in the right way, and our beloved country shall never again -see brothers in arms against brothers.</p> - -<p>Many a corrupt official has feared the criticism of the assembly of -the Swiss sharp-shooters, and whatever “the men have resolved at the -festival,” is usually adopted by the people and carried through in a -judicious, constitutional way.</p> - -<p>At the above-mentioned day Zurich was all in a glee; the city adorned -with flags, triumphal arches and evergreens, the streets thronging with -people in Sunday dress who had come from far and wide to participate in -the popular feast. The shrill sound of an engine is heard, and soon -after the first company of guests from abroad forms in line at the -railroad station. It is the delegation from the Bremen sharp-shooters, -who have come from the far north of Germany to meet their brethren of -the south. They are enthusiastically received by the crowd, the mayor -addresses them and gives them a cordial welcome to the land of freedom. -After one of their number has replied to the speech, the mayor leads the -guests to a tent and invites them to partake of some refreshments; the -best of native wines from the “Rathskeller” are offered, and many a -toast spices the nectar.</p> - -<p>An hour later the flag of the Swiss sharp-shooters is received and -unfolded, while shouts and the roar of cannon rend the air. As we stated -before, the festival of the United Sharp-shooters comes off once in two -years, city and canton taking their turns. Two years before, in July, -1857, it had been celebrated in Berne, and the flag had remained there -until now, when a deputation from Berne delivers it to the -sharp-shooters of Zurich, to be kept by them for the next two years; and -so on.</p> - -<p>As soon as the banner is unfurled the procession is formed, and the -banner and guests are escorted to the City Hall, preceded by bands of -music playing national airs. What a glorious sight! Man and nature -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page703" id="page703">703</a></span> -seem to revel together in joy. The bright morning sunshine gleams from -the polished rifles and a thousand flags wave in the light breeze, while -the procession is accompanied by crowds of men and women, boys and -rosy-cheeked girls who, dressed in white and decked with red ribbons, in -the national costume and colors, add an element of bewitching beauty to -the scene.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile other companies of riflemen have arrived, and the lake is -still covered with festively-adorned gondolas that are continually -adding to the crowd of guests. At 10 o’clock the procession is again -formed. It leaves the city and moves toward the “Seefeld,” a large -meadow on the shore of the lake, a short distance from the city. Here an -immense hall has been erected. Behind it are arranged the targets and -shooting-stands, and opposite we see a neat structure in the form of a -temple, with many large windows, in which are exhibited the prizes, -disposed in the most attractive manner. These prizes are of the value of -104,407 francs, and are the contributions of all parts of the -world—every corner where a few Swiss are to be found, having -furnished some small gift in honor of the national festival.</p> - -<p>The procession halts in front of the temple. The Bernese deliver into -the hands of the Zurich delegation the flag of the Swiss Rifle Corps, -and Colonel Kurtz, of Berne, thus briefly addresses them: “When two -years ago this flag was delivered into our safe keeping, peace reigned -all around us; and but just now our country has come forth victoriously -from a crisis in which we have shown, as, we had never done before, that -we are <i>one</i> band of brethren.<a class="tag" name="tag9_5" id="tag9_5" href="#note9_5">5</a> What we have hoped for is now realized, -and we can carry this flag—the banner of the largest association -in Switzerland—to the beautiful lake whose blue waters play around -our sister town. We of Berne have held this flag in peace. Who knows -whether you will be as fortunate, or whether you will be forced to plant -it on the highest pinnacle of your good city, as a sign that the -fatherland is in danger and calls upon her sons to defend her. -Relentless war rages now on our borders;<a class="tag" name="tag9_6" id="tag9_6" href="#note9_6">6</a> we know not whether the storm will -pass over, or the thunderbolt strike in our midst.”</p> - -<p>Dr. Dubs replies in a brilliant speech: “We receive this banner and -shall defend it. We are ready now for a joyous feast, and as ready at -any time for the war-dance. Let the trumpet sound and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page704" id="page704">704</a></span> -Zurich’s men will be the first in the field to lead you on to victory or -death!” etc.</p> - -<p>Thus was the festival opened. A dinner had been prepared in the hall, -to which all marksmen, whether from home or abroad, were invited. This -hall is a wooden structure of large dimensions, open at the sides, with -a wide passage running through the middle, intersected by several narrow -ones. In the middle of the building is a magnificent fountain. The whole -remaining space is filled with tables and benches of unvarnished pine, -at which 6,000 persons may be conveniently seated and served, -A platform hung with Swiss banners is so placed that the speakers -can be heard through the whole hall, and many a wise word has been -thence spoken that met a ready response from both present and distant -brethren. Behind this platform is raised a lofty gallery for the music. -Here the bands play soul-stirring chorals and national tunes, and when -the “Marseillaise,” or other similar air is heard, a chorus of thousands -of voices accompanies enthusiastically the instruments. It is in fact a -feast of the people; unity, peace and joy reign everywhere. There may be -seen men of different religious and political creeds, embracing each -other in brotherly concord. Men whose language is Italian from the -southern cantons, and men who speak French from the west, and German -from the northern, eastern, and middle cantons, form <i>one</i> family, -though their localities, institutions, and interests may differ widely. -The words which Schiller, in his well-known historical drama, “Tell,” -causes Rösselmann to express—</p> - -<div class="verse"> -<p>“By this fair light, which greeteth us before</p> -<p> Those other nations that, beneath us far,</p> -<p> In noisome cities pent, draw painful breath,</p> -<p> Swear we the oath of our confederacy!</p> -<p> We swear to be a nation of <i>true brothers</i>,</p> -<p> Never to part, in danger or in death!</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue">These words have become true in our age.</p> - -<p>At 1 o’clock the firing of a cannon announces the commencement of the -target shooting. The marksmen press to the stands, and their shooting -continues from morning till evening, with only an intermission of an -hour for dinner, for an entire week. As we have before said, the -shooting-stands are erected at the end of the hall, but in a separate -building. Ninety-six stands are arranged in one line, each with its own -target, so that nearly a hundred shots may be fired at once. Behind each -stand there is sufficient space for loading the rifles, and all the -necessary apparatus. There are smaller buildings near by for the -repairing of arms, and a regular field-hospital, completely furnished, -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page705" id="page705">705</a></span> -to supply medical or surgical aid to such as may fall suddenly sick or -be wounded. The medical fraternity of Zurich have offered their services -in turn, and two physicians of their number are always present day and -night. The shooting is directed towards the lake and large quantities of -firewood are piled up like a rampart around the grounds, so that an -accident is almost impossible. Navigation on the lake within a certain -distance is also prohibited. The safety of the people is thus secured, -and an accident can happen only at the stands or to a careless -target-man. Only two injuries in all have been reported—a -finger-wound received by a marksman, and the loss of an eye to a -target-man by a splinter from the target.</p> - -<p>More than thirty thousand tried their skill during the ten days of -the festival. On the 7th of July 74,000 shots were fired, and about -61,000 on the 11th, though many of the people had already gone home. The -rifles and targets are of various kinds. The Swiss have rifles for field -service, and also target rifles—the latter being much the heavier. -No support whatever is used with either. The distance of the target is -proportioned to the calibre of the rifles, the “field targets” being -over a thousand, and the “stand targets” about six hundred feet distant. -Both the stand and field targets are sub-divided into “Stich” and -“Kehrscheiben;” the former a single fixed target, the latter made double -and turned around after each shot, so as to be immediately ready for -another marksman. The “Kehrscheiben” are designated by the letters in -the order of the alphabet; the “Stichscheiben” have names attached to -each, such as “the Stand,” “Fatherland,” “Industry,” “Titlis,” -“Pilatus,” “Rigi,” “Gotthard,” <ins class="correction" -title="open quote missing">“Jungfrau,”</ins> “Splügen,” “the Field,” &c. No more -than one shot may be fired by the same marksman at any of the -“Stichscheiben,” with the exception of the “Fatherland,” at which two -are allowed. The number of shots at the “Kehrscheiben” is not limited, -but all must be paid for—the “Kehrscheiben” at the rate of about -thirty centimes, (six cents;) the “Stichscheiben” a little more. -Commutation tickets, however, may be obtained.</p> - -<p>The prizes are very various, but the most valuable are appropriated -to the “Stichscheiben.” The first prize this year was a large silver -basin, of exquisite workmanship, together with 2,500 francs ($500) in -money, given by the Swiss in Paris, to be won at the target -“Fatherland.” The lowest prize is five francs, and this can be won only -by those who succeed in hitting the bull’s eye, the size of which varies -in the different targets. In the “Stichscheiben” for the target rifle it -measures ten inches in diameter, but in the “Kehrscheiben” -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page706" id="page706">706</a></span> -only two and a half, while in the “Kehrscheiben” for the field rifle it -measures six inches. Every six hits in the centre of the “Kehrscheiben” -gains a prize of five francs, to which is added on the twenty-fifth -successful shot, a silver cup or watch. He who hits the bull’s eye fifty -times receives another prize of one hundred francs. Special prizes are -also given to the best marksman <i>of the day</i>, for the first and -last hits <i>of the day</i>, and for the greatest number of hits during -<i>the whole festival</i>, etc. The prizes of the day may be obtained -immediately; the others are distributed publicly at the close of the -festival.</p> - -<p>Let us now give a glance at the “Gift Temple.” This neat structure is -made wholly of glass, save the roof, in order that the rich prizes may -be more conspicuously exhibited. Here are gifts and prizes for the -successful shooters, consisting either in articles of value or in money, -that have been contributed by the cantonal governments and communities, -and by individuals at home or abroad. The government has also had new -Swiss five-franc pieces coined for this purpose, bearing on their face -the figure of a rifleman instead of Helvetia. There is many a piece of -fine workmanship among the gifts, of which we can here only mention the -silver basin with the 2,500 francs, the first prize of the “Fatherland,” -and a beautiful drinking horn of massive silver, richly embossed, -presented by some friends in Leipsic. The Bremen sharp-shooters also -brought with them twelve “Römer,” large cups of massive silver, gilt -within, which were admired and coveted by all the disciples of Bacchus. -This was not, however, the only present from the old Hanse-town. The -senate had opened the celebrated “Rathskeller” and sent some of their -Hock of the vintage of 1684, the Nestor of German wines, to their -brothers in Bacchus. The greater part of these gifts consisted in silver -cups, and pitchers, and gold and silver watches.</p> - -<p>During the festival the houses of Zurich continued adorned with -flags, transparencies, and evergreens, which were every day entwined -with fresh flowers. Near the festive hall a triumphal arch had been -erected, on which stood a colossal figure of William Tell in the act of -menacing Gesler with the arrow, after having shot the apple from the -head of his boy. Some of the critics would have us believe that Tell is -not Tell, that no such person ever existed, but that he is a purely -mythical character—the creation of Schiller’s imagination. Yet it -matters little to the Swiss whether the hero was, or was not; all these -thousands of marksmen who daily pass that triumphal arch are possessed -by one thought, and many can not refrain from shouting, “Hurrah for -Tell, father of the marksman! The Swiss of to-day is as -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page707" id="page707">707</a></span> -skillful an archer, as daring and as free as thou wast!” Myth or not, -Tell is the man of the people, the Washington of Switzerland—or, -rather, Washington is the Tell of America; and these words of the dying -Attinghausen—</p> - -<div class="verse"> -<p>“Hold fast together, then—for ever fast.</p> -<p> Let freedom’s haunts be one in heart, in mind!</p> -<p> Set watches on your mountain tops, that league</p> -<p> May answer league, when comes the hour to strike.</p> -<p> Be <i>one</i>—be <i>one</i>—be -<i>one</i>”—</p> -</div> - -<p class="continue">are never forgotten in these days by the -inhabitants of Switzerland.</p> - -<p>Around the hall there has sprung up a village of wood and canvas, and -while the men are engaged with their rifles, the women and children -crowd to see the circus, the menageries, rope-dancers, puppet-shows, -“the giant Kentuckian,” “General Tom Thumb,” &c., and while every -one amuses himself, there is no rioting, no impropriety, no beggary, no -placards bidding us to “Beware of Pickpockets;” the people are as sound -as their institutions.</p> - -<p>At 8 o’clock in the morning the target shooting commences, closing at -8 in the evening. The target and signal men are promptly at their -stations, and the members of the different committees for keeping order, -arrive one by one. The marksmen are impatiently awaiting the signal -shot. Spectators gather in from all sides. The signal is given, and in a -moment the sharp crack of ninety-six rifles is heard. The firing is kept -up incessantly till noon, when the sound of the cannon again calls to -dinner. At about 10 o’clock the first steamers have landed their -passengers from “beyond the water,” and the first trains have come in, -bringing new guests to supply the place of those who leave, so that new -faces and new acquaintances greet us every day. Here a fresh company of -sharp-shooters from distant Ticino approaches, marching to the sound of -music and preceded by their flag, and receive their welcome—there -another company from Neufchâtel is escorted to the station and takes its -departure homeward.</p> - -<p>One of the most joyous occurrences of the festival—a silvery -gleam in the general sunshine—was the reception of the marksmen -from the four forest towns, Lucerne, Switz, Uri, and Unterwalden. They -numbered full seven hundred men, noble specimens of the native Swiss, -all picked men—“Kernmannen.” They were preceded by four of their -number attired in the ancient national costume, who carried the very -same bugles that for the last five centuries had called their -forefathers to arms. The ancient banners followed. As they passed under -the triumphal arch and beheld their father, Tell, their shouts, hurrahs, -and vivas, knew no bounds. Their ranks were broken and -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page708" id="page708">708</a></span> -each threw himself upon the breast of the nearest stranger—nay, -brother. The very men that perhaps were adversaries in public life, or -opposed to each other in political principles, were here united; the -love of fatherland was a common bond of union. Thus, also, Schiller -speaks through the mouth of Meier:</p> - -<div class="verse"> -<p>“I know him well. There is a suit between us,</p> -<p> About a piece of ancient heritage;</p> -<p> Herr Reding, <i>we are enemies in court;</i></p> -<p> <i>Here we are one</i>.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Thus is it in Switzerland. Will it ever be so with us? Come, ye -educators of the people and of the young, preach this principle from the -pulpit, and make it the corner stone of your instructions in the school -and at the firesides of your homes!</p> - -<p>At the signal for the noon intermission the firing immediately -ceases, and in a few minutes 6,000 hungry and thirsty people are seated -at the one hundred and fifty tables in the hall; the rest disperse to -the eating-houses in the neighborhood and in the city. The dinner is -enlivened by toasts which, however, are never of a personal character. -No homage is done to the individual; to the country, to the fatherland -alone, is homage due in a republic. Toasts are heard in German, in -French, in Italian—yet all tongues unite in the glorification of a -common country. Separate tables are set for the different cantons, but -so arranged that the more distant cantons are usually the nearest -together—Ticino near Berne, Geneva near Basle, Zurich near Vaud. -In the middle of the hall are the tables for the committees and the -honorary guests.</p> - -<p>On the second day of the festival the delegations of marksmen hold a -general conference, and though they enter the hall with opposing -opinions and feelings, yet before they part all differences are settled, -all contradictions are reconciled, and their resolutions are usually -endorsed by the whole people. There is no tendency to disunion, no -necessity for secession, for each one endeavors to satisfy the wishes of -the other; the public weal is considered, not the interest or -aggrandizement of the individual or of the canton.</p> - -<p>On Sunday, the 10th of July, a public service was held on the meadow. -It was a solemn ceremony, attended by all the different creeds that hold -fellowship together. On the next day the members of the Diet, which was -then in session at Berne, visited Zurich. The banished duchess of Parma, -who lives in the neighboring Swiss town, Pappenschwyl, was also the -guest of the citizens. She and her children sat with them at the rough -pine board and partook of the same -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page709" id="page709">709</a></span> -viands. After the dinner she said, with tears in her eyes, “The Swiss do -not know how happy they indeed are.”</p> - -<p>On Tuesday, July 12th, the last shot was fired, and on the following -day the prizes were distributed. This ceremony took place on the grounds -before the gift temple. President Dubs opened with a speech, in which he -said: “We are distributing now the prizes to those who have proved -themselves the best marksmen. An equal chance is given to all; let all -practice with their weapons and emulate their lucky companions. -I am convinced that all who have hit the centre of the target will -be able to pierce the breast of the enemy, should war be unavoidable.” -The first prize, the silver basin from Paris, with the 2,500 francs, was -won by a manufacturer, Durrer, of Unterwalden; the second, the silver -horn from Leipzig, by a farmer named Glogg, of Obermeilen; the third, -the twelve silver cups from Bremen, jointly by Professor Dr. Hug, of the -University of Zurich, and Mr. Baer, of Männedorf, the best shot in -Switzerland, who had hit the target four hundred and eighty-seven times -during the festival.</p> - -<p>The whole was closed with a serenade, given by the marksmen to -President Dubs, the chief magistrate of the confederacy, as well as -president of the festival. The next day the remaining guests departed, -the garlands and banners disappeared, the people returned to their -business, all external show had vanished; but the feeling that -Switzerland’s sons have again renewed the bonds of their brotherhood -still survives in the breasts of that simple, quiet people—our -republican brethren of the Alps.</p> - - -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page710" id="page710">710</a></span> -<h4><a name="switzerland_officers" id="switzerland_officers" href="#switzerland">SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION FOR OFFICERS.</a></h4> - -<p>The Federal system of Military Instruction for officers, in 1871, -embraced—</p> - -<p>I. A Central Military School at Thun, to which all officers appointed -to the General Staff repair to be instructed in their duties.</p> - -<p>II. A School of Officers at Thun, in which all officers appointed to -their respective regiments are instructed in their duties.</p> - -<p>III. A School of Cantonal Instruction, held in Basle, to which the -infantry instructors resort from every canton to learn their duties, -undergo inspection, and preserve a common rule.</p> - -<p>IV. A School of Young Officers, held at Solothurn and at St. Gallen, -turn by turn, to which the several Cantons send their young officers who -have just received their commissions, and to which all candidates for -commissions repair for examinations.</p> - -<p>V. Comissariat School, to which is joined a Medical and Ambulance -School generally, at Thun.</p> - -<p>VI. A Shooting School, for officers who give instruction to the Cadet -Corps and other organizations in the several Cantons.</p> - -<p>To these school organizations with their practical exercises must be -added the opportunities afforded by the Cantonal reviews and field -manœuvres, to which the young Swiss officer brings much valuable -experience in his previous school and cadet drill.</p> - -<p>The events of the late French-Prussian war tested the efficiency of -the Swiss military organization and instruction. The French declaration -was announced in Paris in the afternoon of Friday, July 15, 1870, and -responded to by a counter declaration from Berlin on Tuesday, the 19th. -But the Federal Council of Switzerland (which lay between the -combatants, and might become the first theatre of belligerent -operations), was summoned by President Dubs to consider the situation; -and within an hour, the Cantons had been regularly summoned to complete -their regiments with men, arms, horses, guns, and all stores and tools -required for actual service, and five divisions of the Elite (the first, -second, sixth, seventh, and ninth), were ordered to assemble in their -several Cantons. The first division, under Colonel Egtoff, was to secure -the bridge at Basle and occupy the two banks of the Rhine. The first -news which the men of Aargau had of the impending war was late on Friday -night. By noon on Saturday squads of men were falling into the ranks in -front of the town-hall of the cantonal capital—companies were -formed—guns were got out—sappers, engineers, and guards were -in readiness—officers were at their posts. In the -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page711" id="page711">711</a></span> -afternoon the first Swiss troops were in march for Basle, and by -midnight the first regiment of Aargau were on the bridge; and by Sunday -night the first division, under Col, Egtoff, with 8,296 men, and 692 -horses, besides the staff and guides; and the second division, under -Colonel Salis, with 8,319 men, and 632 men at the same hour had -assembled at Basle and held the roads and streams which led to Bonn. By -Tuesday night, before the Prussian manifest was known in Bonn, the five -divisions of the first Swiss army, with their eleven batteries of -artillery mounting 96 field pieces, and a total force of 37,423 men, and -3,541 horses and 104 staff and guides, were under arms and at their -respective rendezvous; and the President was authorized by the Council -to announce to all concerned, “that any troops belonging to belligerent -states, whether regulars or volunteers, who violate the territory of the -Swiss nation, will be repelled by force.”</p> - -<p>Out of the officers whose men were first in the field, the Federal -Council placed Colonel Herzog, of the Aargau detachment of the Federal -army, in chief command, and by Saturday night the General’s -head-quarters were established at Alton (the center of the Swiss -railways), where he organized his staff, issued his instructions to -organize two hospitals, one for wounded men, and the other for horses, -and at the same time ordered magazines of stores and clothes to be -established in his rear, and the forces to be moved up to the front. All -railway companies were ordered to report their stock of engines, -carriages, and open wagons, and telegraphic communication was -established for night as well as day service, and engineers were sent -out to study every pass and point by which an enemy in any strength was -likely to enter the territory of Switzerland. When all danger to the -Cantons had passed away in the victories of the German arms, Gen. Herzog -was directed to raise his camps, and send to their several Cantons their -respective troops. Later in the war, when it was authentically known -that Bourbaki was moving an army of 150,000 strong, to sweep across the -Rhine; and still later, that the Germans meant to push the French, in -either whole or part, across the Swiss frontier, and put them out of -service for the rest of the war—General Herzog satisfied the -President and the Council, and the Minister of War, of the impending -danger, and on Thursday, Jan. 19th, the third, fourth, and fifth -divisions, with two batteries of mountain guns, well prepared for winter -service in a district lying under snow, were ordered out; and in one -week from that date, these forces were distributed through the various -passes in the Jura, from Basle to Geneva, with orders to repel, or -<span class="pagenum"> -<a name="page712" id="page712">712</a></span> -receive—to fight, or feed and lodge, according to the spirit in -which the broken detachments of the French army should present -themselves. For the enormous number (83,301), who laid down their arms, -food and beds were distributed in the Swiss Cantons, by less than 20,000 -citizen troops, without the forfeit of a single life. And when their -work was done, these citizen soldiers laid aside their arms and uniforms -and returned to their shops and industries of various kinds, to earn -their daily bread, without forgetting for a moment their civic rights -and household duties.</p> - -<p>If the occasion had required it, as it did in the war of Secession in -1856, each Canton would have contributed 30 men from every 1,000 -inhabitants, to the Elite, and 15 men to every 1,000 to the Reserve; and -in case of danger to the Union, every male Switzer, from the age of -nineteen to forty-five, not included in either of the above forces, -would have obeyed the summons of the national authority for the -Landwehr, adding 97,934 to the ranks, besides volunteering above and -below the military age, to the number of 100,000 men, who, in case of a -defensive war, could have been relied on,—all familiar with -military tactics, and accustomed to obey as soldiers, as well as to the -use of arms.</p> - -<p>According to recent official statistics the strength of the several -armies of Switzerland is as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers reduced"> -<tr class="smaller"> -<td></td> -<th>Elite.</th> -<th>Reserve.</th> -<th>Landwehr.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>1. Engineers,</td> -<td>900</td> -<td>630</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>2. Artillery,</td> -<td>6,513</td> -<td>4,254</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>3. Cavalry,</td> -<td>1,937</td> -<td>932</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>4. Carabineers,</td> -<td>4,600</td> -<td>2,460</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>5. Infantry,</td> -<td>55,994</td> -<td>26,448</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>6. Sanitary Service,</td> -<td>144</td> -<td>78</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Armorers,</td> -<td></td> -<td>30</td> -<td class="center">. .</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="total">Total,</td> -<td class="sum">70,088</td> -<td class="sum">34,832</td> -<td class="center sum">97,934</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The system of recruiting, drilling and brigading, is -local—which brings neighbors and friends into camp and field -companionship, and inspires a sense of trust and coöperation.</p> - -<p>The cost of the reliable military force is as follows:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers reduced"> -<tr> -<td>Cantonal expense,</td> -<td>4,508,901</td> -<td><i>frs.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Federal expense,</td> -<td>5,486,396</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">9,995,297</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Contrasted with the cost of education the figures stand thus:</p> - -<table class="plaintext numbers reduced"> -<tr> -<td>Communal expenses,</td> -<td>5,000,000</td> -<td><i>frs.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Cantonal expenses,</td> -<td>5,157,756</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Federal Polytechnic,</td> -<td>287,611</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="sum">10,445,367</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>And for this sum Switzerland makes a near approach to universal -education in schools of different grades, adapted to all classes.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<h4>Footnotes for Part IX: Switzerland</h4> - -<p><a name="note9_1" id="note9_1" href="#tag9_1">1</a> -Infantry, including Rifles, 89,366; Artillery, 10,366; Cavalry, 2,869; -Engineers, 1,530.</p> - -<p><a name="note9_2" id="note9_2" href="#tag9_2">2</a> -The officers, non-commissioned officers, and corporals, constitute what -is called the “cadre.”</p> - -<p><a name="note9_3" id="note9_3" href="#tag9_3">3</a> -Federal and cantonal.</p> - -<p><a name="note9_4" id="note9_4" href="#tag9_4">4</a> -The rifle shooting, cricket matches, and other popular sports of England -seems to be overlooked by Professor Simonson.</p> - -<p><a name="note9_5" id="note9_5" href="#tag9_5">5</a> -He alludes here to the Neufchatel difficulty. This canton had been -heretofore under the sovereignty of Prussia, and a handful of royalists -made the attempt to sever it from all connection with the confederacy. -The people defeated them and voted themselves independent. Switzerland -assisted them and Prussia gave up whatever rights she might have -had.</p> - -<p><a name="note9_6" id="note9_6" href="#tag9_6">6</a> -The Italian.</p> -</div> - -<div class="correction"> -<h4>Errata for Part IX (Switzerland):</h4> - -<p><span class="citation">200,000 men well provided with -artillery.</span><br> -<i>final . invisible</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">The drill lasts four days for the -“cadre”</span><br> -<i>closing ” missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">to take the system of military drill and -organization</span><br> -<i>text has “mili-/itary” at line break</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">Never to part, in danger or in -death!</span><br> -<i>expected close quote missing</i></p> - -<p><span class="citation">“Gotthard,” “Jungfrau,” -“Splügen,”</span><br> -“Gotthard,” Jungfrau,” “Splügen,”</p> -</div> -</body> -</html> |