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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***</div>

<div class="titlepage">

 <h1>CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS</h1>


 <p class="center">
   BY <br />
   <span class="middle">EDWARD N. CLOPPER, Ph.D.</span><br/>
    SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
 </p>


 <p class="center spaced">
   <span class="special">New York</span><br/>
   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
   1913<br/>

   <span class="small italic">All rights reserved</span>
 </p>

 <p class="figcenter spaced">
   <img src="images/logo.png" width="20%" alt="logo" title="logo" />
 </p>

 <p class="center spaced">
   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
   <span class="small">NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO</span> <br />
   <span class="small">DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO</span><br />
 </p>

 <p class="center spaced">
   MACMILLAN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
   <span class="small">LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA</span><br />
   <span class="small">MELBOURNE</span>
 </p>

 <p class="center spaced">
   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br/>
   <span class="small">TORONTO</span>
 </p>


 <p class="small center spaced">
   <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912,</span><br/>
   By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
 </p>

 <p class="small center">Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
   January, 1913.</p>


 <p class="small center spaced">
  <span class="special">Norwood Press</span><br/>
  J. S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br/>
  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 </p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>


<p>This volume is devoted to the discussion of
a neglected form of child labor. Just why
the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should
have been ignored in the general movement for
child welfare is hard to understand. Perhaps
it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
workers have always been far more conspicuous
than any other child laborers, and it seems that
this very proximity has been their misfortune.
If we could have focused our attention upon
them as we did upon children in factories, they
would have been banished from the streets
long ago. But they were too close to us. We
could not get a comprehensive view and saw
only what we happened to want at the moment&mdash;their
paltry little stock in trade. Now that
we are getting a broader sense of social responsibility,
we are beginning to realize how blind
and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment
of them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>

<p>The first five chapters of the book review
present conditions and discuss causes, the next
two deal with effects, and the final ones are
concerned with the remedy. The scope has
been made as broad as possible. All forms of
street work that engage any considerable number
of children have been described at length, and
opinions and findings of others have been freely
quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
results of the policy of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>laissez-faire</i></span> as applied
to this problem. Simply because these little
boys and girls have been ministering to its
wants, the public has given them scarcely
a passing thought. It has been so convenient
to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake
of the children, such work would better be done
by other means. Although good examples have
been set by European cities, we have not introduced
any innovations to clear the streets of
working children.</p>

<p>The free rein at present given to child labor
in our city streets is productive of nothing but
harmful results, and it is high time that a determined
stand was taken for the rights of children
so exposed. A few feeble efforts at regulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
have been made in some parts of this country,
but this is an evil that requires prohibition
rather than regulation. There is no valid
reason why just as efficient service in streets
could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it
would be far more suitable and humane to
reserve such work for old men and women who
need outdoor life and are physically unable
to earn their living in other ways. We could
buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
stand just as easily as we get it now from an
urchin who shivers on the street corner. It is
only a question of habit, and we ought to be
glad of the change for the good of all concerned.</p>

<p class="right">
E. N. C.<br />
</p>

<p>
Cincinnati, 1912.<br />
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>





<h2>CONTENTS</h2>


<table id="toc" summary="Content">
 <tr>
  <th>CHAPTER</th>
  <th>&nbsp;</th>
  <th>PAGE</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
   <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
   <td class="middle">The Problem of the Street-working Child&mdash;Public Apathy&mdash;Relation to Other Problems</td>
   <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
  <td class="middle">Extent to which Children engage in Street Activities in America and Europe</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">24</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
  <td class="middle">Newspaper Sellers</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">52</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
  <td class="middle">Bootblacks, Peddlers and Market Children</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">83</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
  <td class="middle">Messengers, Errand and Delivery Children</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">101</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
  <td class="middle">Effects of Street Work upon Children</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
  <td class="middle">Relation of Street Work to Delinquency</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">159</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
  <td class="middle">The Struggle for Regulation in the United States</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
  <td class="middle">Development of Street Trades Regulation in Europe</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">214</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="middle">Conclusion</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#CONCLUSION">243</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="middle">Bibliography</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">245</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="middle">Appendices</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#APPENDICES">255</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="middle">Index</td>
  <td class="right"><a href="#INDEX">277</a></td>
 </tr>

</table>








<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD&mdash;PUBLIC
APATHY&mdash;RELATION TO OTHER
PROBLEMS</span></h2>


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span>The efforts which have so far been made in
the United States to solve the child labor
problem have been directed almost exclusively
toward improvement of conditions in mines
and manufacturing and mercantile establishments.
This singling out of one phase of the
problem for correction was due to the uneducated
state of public opinion which made
necessary a long and determined campaign along
one line, vividly portraying the wrongs of children
in this one form of exploitation, before general
interest could be aroused. Within very recent
years this campaign has met with signal success,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
and many states have granted a goodly measure
of protection to the children of their working
classes as far as the factory, the store and the
mine are concerned. The time has now come
for attention to be directed toward the premature
employment of children in work other than that
connected with mining and manufacturing, for
there are other phases of this problem which involve
large numbers of children and which, up to
the present, have received but little thought from
students of labor conditions. The three most
important of these other phases are the employment
of children in agricultural work, in home
industries and in street occupations. This
volume will deal with the last-named phase&mdash;with
the economic activities of children in the
streets and public places of our cities, their
effects and the remedies they demand.</p>

<p>The street occupations in which children
commonly engage are: newspaper selling, peddling,
bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
service, running errands and the tending of
market stands. The first three are known as
street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy
that the children who follow them are little
"merchants," and are therefore entitled to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers
and bootblacks who work independently of any
employer. Many children are employed by
other persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods
and polish shoes, and such children technically
are street traders no more than those who run
errands, carry messages or deliver parcels.
Consequently the term "street trades" is limited
in its application, and by no means embraces
all the economic activities of children in our
streets and public places.</p>

<p>Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition
of street trading, declaring that it is "any
business or occupation in which any street,
alley, court, square or other public place is used
for the sale, display or offering for sale of any
articles, goods or merchandise."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> This covers
neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.</p>

<p>In Great Britain the expression "street
trading" has been officially defined as including:
"the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
and other articles; playing, singing, or performing
for profit; plying for hire in carrying luggage
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> or messages; shoe blacking, or any other like
occupations carried on in streets or public
places."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>

<p>Street traders and street employees may be
classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Classification of street traders and street employees by occupation">
 <tr>
  <th>Street Traders<br /> (Working for Themselves)</th>
  <th>Street Employees <br /> (Working for Others)</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td>Newspaper sellers<br />
      Peddlers<br />
      Bootblacks (on street)</td>
  <td>Newspaper sellers (on salary) <br />
      Peddlers (on salary)<br />
      Bootblacks (in stands)<br />
      Market stand tenders<br />
      Messengers<br />
      Errand children<br />
      Delivery children</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>This classification is based upon the well-known
economic distinction between profits
and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction
has been applied to juvenile street
workers, for it has operated to the great disadvantage
of the "traders." This class has been
practically ignored in the general movement for
child welfare, on the ground that these little
laborers were in business for themselves, and
therefore should not be disturbed. Recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
the conviction has been dawning upon observant
people that, in the case of young children at
least, the effects of work on an independent
basis, particularly in city streets, are just as bad
and perhaps even worse than work under the
direction of employers. The mute appeal of
the street-working child for protection has at
last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now
being put forth, regardless of whether he toils
for profits or for wages.</p>

<p>This alleged distinction between street trading
and street employment should be clearly understood,
as any movement designed to remedy
present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive
to avoid the great mistake of protecting
one class and ignoring the other. On the one
hand there is said to be an army of little independent
"merchants" conducting business
affairs of their own, while on the other there is
an array of juvenile employees performing the
tasks set them by their masters. For purposes
of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made
to defeat in part the beneficent aim of the great
campaign for child welfare, but nevertheless it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen
years of age at work in factories and mines
are often properly called "slaves," and their
plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny
workers in the streets are referred to approvingly
as "little merchants" and are freely patronized
even by the avowed friends of children, who
thereby contribute their moral support toward
continuing these conditions and maintaining
this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood.
As an instance of this remarkable attitude,
there was proudly printed in the Pittsburgh
<i>Gazette-Times</i> of April 11, 1910, the picture of
a four-year-old child who had been a newsboy
in an Ohio town since the age of <i>thirty months</i>,
and this was described as a most worthy achievement!</p>

<p>That the term "child labor," whose meaning
has so long been popularly restricted to the
employment of children in factories, mills,
mines and stores, is properly applicable to the
activities of children in all kinds of work for
profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
states which prohibit employment of children
under fourteen years of age "in any gainful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
occupation." But unfortunately the courts
have rigidly construed the word "employ"
to mean the purchasing of the services of one
person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
bootblacks and others who work on their own
account, do not enjoy the protection of such
a statute because they are not "employed."
Under this interpretation a fatal loophole is
afforded through which thousands of boys and
girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
to prevent their <i>labor</i> rather than their mere
employment. It is for this reason that, in
states having otherwise excellent provisions
for the conservation of childhood, we see little
children freely exploiting themselves on city
streets. This situation has been calmly accepted
without protest by the general public, for,
while the people condemn child labor in factories,
they tolerate and even approve of it on the street.
They labor under the delusion that merely
because a few of our successful business men
were newsboys in the past, these little "merchants"
of the street are receiving valuable
training in business methods and will later
develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
glaring example of this attitude was given by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
a monthly magazine<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> which fondly referred
to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
from whose ranks will be recruited the
coming statesmen, soldiers, financiers, merchants
and manufacturers of our land."</p>

<p>It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow
conception has prevailed, as it raises the tremendous
obstacle of popular prejudice which
must be broken down before these child street
workers can receive their share of justice at
the hands of the law. The only fair and
logical method of approach toward a solution
of the child labor problem in all its phases is
to take high ground and view the subject broadly
in the light of what is for the best interests of
children in general.</p>

<p>The state recognizes the need of an intelligent
citizenship and accordingly provides a system of
public schools, requiring the attendance of all
children up to the age of fourteen years. In
order that nothing shall interfere with the
operation of this plan for general education,
the state forbids the employment of children
of school age. In respect of both these mandates,
the state has really assumed the guardianship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
of the child; it has accepted the principle
that the child is the ward of the state and has
based its action on this principle. A guardian
should be ever mindful of the welfare of his
wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should
carefully shield its children from all forms of
exploitation as well as from other abuses.</p>

<p>However, in the matter of the regulation of
child labor, a curious anomaly has arisen&mdash;no
one may employ a child under fourteen years
in a <i>factory</i> for even one hour a day without
being liable to prosecution for disobeying the
law of the state, because such work might interfere
with the child's growth and education;
all of which is right and indorsed by public
opinion, but&mdash;merely because a child is working
independently of any employer, he is allowed
to sell newspapers, peddle chewing gum and
black boots for any number of hours, providing
he attends school during school hours! Could
anything be more inconsistent? To this extent
the state, as a guardian, has neglected the welfare
of its ward.</p>

<p>This lack of consideration for street workers
was emphasized in a British government report
a number of years ago. Referring to the statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
provisions for preventing overwork by
children in factories, workshops and mines, the
report declared: "But the labour of children
for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
although many of them work longer
than the factory hours allowed for children of
the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
compulsory educational training, which
makes a considerable demand on their energies.
We think this is inconsistent. In the interests
of their health and education, it seems only
reasonable that remedies which have proved so
valuable in the case of factory children should
in some form be extended to cover the whole
field of child labour."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>

<p>To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation
as well as planting; to effect a cure, a
patient requires nursing as well as prescription.
So with the aim of the state&mdash;to insure a
strong, intelligent citizenship, its children must
be cared for, as well as provided with schools.
If a patient is not nursed while the physician
is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if
children are not protected out of school hours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
the purpose of the school is defeated. No
manufacturer would allow his machinery to run,
unwatched, outside regular work hours, for
he knows how disastrous would be the consequences;
yet this is precisely what the state
is doing by ignoring the activities of children
in our city streets&mdash;the delicate machinery of
their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild
out of schools hours, and the state seems to
think nothing will happen! These thoughts
impel us to the conclusion that the state must
watch over the child at least until he has reached
the age limit for school attendance, and in the
matter of labor regulation its care must not
be confined to the prevention of one form of
exploitation while other forms, equally injurious,
are permitted to flourish unchecked.</p>

<p>Legislation regulating street trading by children
in this country is now in the stage corresponding
to that of the English factory acts in
the early part of the nineteenth century,&mdash;the
first meager restrictions are being tried. Several
of the street occupations, viz. messenger service,
delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
included among those prohibited to children
under fourteen years by state child labor laws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
because to engage in such work children have to
be employed by other persons. These occupations
are covered by the provision common to
such laws which forbids employment of such
children "in the distribution or transmission
of merchandise or messages." The street
"trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by
legislation in the United States, for there exist
only a very few state laws and city ordinances
relative to this matter, and these of the most
primitive kind. The public does not yet realize
the injustice of permitting young children to
engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
activities. It was slow to appreciate the
dangers involved in the unrestricted employment
of children in factories, mills and mines, but
when the awakening finally came, the demand
for reform was insistent. This gradual development
of a sentiment favoring regulation characterizes
also the problem of street employment; the
present stage is that of calm indifference, ruffled
only by occasional misgivings. Even this is an
encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
passed through the same experience, and
emerged triumphant, crystallized in statute form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>

<p>It is hard to understand how the public
conscience can reconcile itself to the chasm
between the age limit of fourteen years for messenger
service and freedom from all restraint
in newspaper selling&mdash;both essentially street
occupations. Child labor laws are framed in
accordance with public sentiment, hence the
people by legislative omission practically indorse
street trading by little children while condemning
their employment in other kinds of work.
Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable
position that it is right to allow a child of
tender years to labor in the streets as a newsboy
without any oversight or care whatever, and
that it is wrong for him to work in the same field
as a messenger, or an errand boy, or a delivery
boy, although such occupations are subject to
some degree of supervision by older persons.
In other words, it is held that little children are
capable of self-control in some street occupations,
but not able to withstand the dangers of other
similar street work, even under the control of
adults! After having described the conditions
prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys,
Mr. Scott Nearing says: "There are many
causes leading up to this condition. Beneath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
all others lies the fundamental one&mdash;the lack
of public sentiment in favor of protecting these
children. Closely allied to this is another almost
equally strong&mdash;the lack of public knowledge
of the true state of affairs."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>

<p>The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed
out the fact that street trades are quite untouched
by child labor legislation in the city
and also in the state, declaring that in Illinois
a boy or girl too young to be permitted to do
any other work may haunt the newspaper
offices, the five-cent shows, the theaters and
saloons, selling chewing gum and newspapers
at all hours of the night.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>

<p>Among the arguments advanced in support
of the unsuccessful effort to secure legislation
on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a
merchant in his or her own right, and therefore
before the law is not considered a wage earner,
although there is merely a fine-spun distinction
between the child who secures <i>wages</i> as the result
of his work and one who obtains his reward in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
the form of <i>profits</i>. The effect on the child
of work performed under unsuitable conditions,
at unsuitable hours and demanding the exercise
of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
wise determined by the form in which his earnings
are calculated. That the results of street
trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
and girls is universally recognized."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Miss
Jane Addams has deplored this situation in a
public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant
and does not come within the child labor regulations
of Illinois. The city of Chicago is a
little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
who are not reached by the operation of the state
law."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>

<p>Even in the few localities where regulation
of street trading has been attempted, the delusion
that there is some essential difference between
child labor in factories and child labor
in streets persists in the legislation itself. The
latter form of exploitation is assumed to merit
a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is
hedged about by much less stringent rules.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
Attention is invited to this inconsistency by
the report of a recent investigation in New York
City: "We have in New York 4148 children
between 14 and 16 years employed in factories
with their daily hours of labor limited from
8 <span class="smcap lowercase lowercase">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, while in mercantile establishments
there are 1645 more of similar age limit,
none of whom can work before 8 in the morning
or after 7 in the evening. But on the streets
of New York City we have approximately
4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little
fellows too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers.
That means 4500 legalized to work
at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save
during the school year, when they are supposed
to attend school from 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) any day
and every day, seven days to the week if they
so desire to do."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Broader Aspects of the Problem</h3>

<p>Let us consider the matter from another
point of view and discuss the opportunities for
constructive work rather than confine our atten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>tion
to the need of the merely negative remedy
of restrictive legislation.</p>

<p>The street is painted as a black monster by
some social workers, who can discern nothing
but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
woven into the life of every city dweller, for his
contact with it is daily and continuous. If it
is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as this is
impossible, we must study it to see what it
really is and what needs to be done with it.
It is the medium by which people are brought
into closer touch with one another, where they
meet and converse, where they pass in transit,
where they rub elbows with all the elements
making up their little world, where they absorb
the principles of democracy,&mdash;for the street is
a great leveler.</p>

<p>Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject
"What is Philadelphia Doing to Protect Her
Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity,
the channel of the common life, the thing
that makes the city.... I fancy that the
civic renaissance which must surely come, ...
will never get very far until we have awakened
to a realization of the dignity of the street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>&mdash;the
common street where the city's children
play, through which the milk wagon drives,
where the young men are educated, along which
the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>

<p>An English writer has expressed a similar
thought: "We have spoken of the street as a
dangerous environment from which we would
gladly rescue the children if we could, and so
it undoubtedly is in so far as it supplants the
influence of the home, tends to nullify that of
the school and lets the boys and girls run wild
just when they most need to be tamed....
It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and
evil, so complex an influence in the growth of
boy and girl, of youth and man, among our
great city population, that it is necessary to
attempt to analyze it a little more exactly.
It is for the majority the medium in which the
social conscience is formed, and through which
it makes its power felt. In it the all-powerful
agents of progress, example, imitation, the spread
of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
incessantly at work."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>

<p>It is only natural that such a general agency
for communication should have been abused.
Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to
such a result, with no restrictions imposed upon
street intercourse. The very popularity of the
games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
led to their abuse and consequent disrepute
in the eyes of many persons who were blinded
to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by the
abuses to which they were subjected. The
marked success attending the proper use of
all these amusements in social settlements and
parish houses stimulates the imagination as to
what might be accomplished with the street if
its abuses also were eliminated.</p>

<p>It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily
upon the street, for the street can exert
no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this
abuse that should be suppressed. This immediately
raises the question as to what constitutes
this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real
purpose of the street is to serve as a means of
communication, a passageway for the transit
of passengers and commerce. It was never
intended for a playground, nor a field for child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor a depository
for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct
the public. These fungous growths from civic
neglect ought to be cut away. "A place for
everything and everything in its place" would
be an efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy:
playgrounds for the children, workshops for the
idlers, reduction plants for the garbage and
asylums for the beggars. With these reforms
effected and carefully maintained, the street
would soon become much more wholesome and
attractive.</p>

<p>These considerations have been advanced
to indicate the intimate relation which exists
between the problem of the child street worker
and many other problems with which social
workers are now struggling. Child labor in
city streets must be abolished, but at the same
time coöperation with other movements is
necessary before a satisfactory solution of the
problem can be assured.</p>

<p>For example, it would be a short-sighted
policy to prohibit young children from selling
goods in home market stands without reporting
to the housing authorities cases in which large
families live in one or two filthy rooms, display<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ing
and selling their wares in the doorway and
from the window. Our Italian citizens are not
committing race suicide, but in spite of their
numerous progeny they crowd together in extremely
limited space, combining their home life
with the customary business of selling fruit.
Their young children assist in tending the stands
on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk
selling baskets to passers-by; at closing
time their goods are often stored in the same
room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots
being brought out from some dark hiding place.
In such circumstances the mere prevention of
child labor is not sufficient&mdash;the housing conditions
also should be remedied so as to give
the children a more suitable place in which to
play, study and sleep, a better home in which
to use their leisure.</p>

<p>Again, a movement to prohibit street work
by children should give impetus to that which
seeks to make the public school a social center,
and especially to that for public vacation schools.
Many of the homes of city children very
largely lack the element of attractiveness which
is so essential in holding children under the
influence of their parents, and this want must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
be filled as far as possible by making the school
an instrument not merely for instruction, but
also for the entertainment and socializing of
the entire neighborhood.</p>

<p>Again, the regulating of street trading should
be undertaken jointly with the movement to
supply adequate playground facilities. Playgrounds
are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary.
Children must have some suitable place
for recreation. It is not a function of the street
to furnish the space for play, and as children
cannot and should not be kept at home all the
time, it follows that ground must be set apart
for the purpose. On these points a British
report says: "We have no doubt that insanitary
homes and immoral surroundings, with the want
of any open spaces where the children could
enjoy healthy exercise and recreation, are strong
factors in determining towards evil courses in
the cases of the children of the poor."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The
need for more playgrounds in Chicago was
partially supplied by having one block in a congested
district closed to traffic during August,
1911, so that children could play there without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
risking their lives, from eight in the morning
to eight in the evening. In providing this
emergency playground, Chicago has set an
example that will undoubtedly be imitated by
other cities.</p>

<p>In this way the abolition of child labor in
city streets would result in benefit not only to
the children, but to the entire community as
well. It would promote a general civic awakening
that would make each town and city a better
place to live in, a better home for our citizens
of the future.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET
ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND EUROPE</span></h2>


<p>There are no reliable figures either official
or unofficial showing the number of children
engaged in street activities in any city of the
United States or in the country at large. The
figures given by the United States Census of
1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers
of observation. It solemnly declares that in
that year there was a grand total of 6904 newspaper
carriers and newsboys, both adults and
children, in the entire United States, of whom
69 were females.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In all probability there was a
greater number at that time in some of our larger
cities alone. In the group called "other persons
in trade and transportation" only 3557 children
ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
this group embraces nine specified occupations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
of which that of the newsboy is only one.
Besides these, many other occupations (in
which 63 per cent of the total number of
persons reported are engaged) are not specified.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
Consequently the number of newsboys ten to
fifteen years old reported by the enumerators for
the entire country must have been ridiculously
small.</p>

<p>Again, the total number of bootblacks ten
years of age and upwards in the country was
reported as 8230, they being included in the
group called "other domestic and personal service."
Only 2953 children ten to fifteen years
of age were reported in this group, which includes
five specified occupations, of which that
of the bootblacks is only one, and many others
(in which 67 per cent of the total number of
persons reported are engaged) which are not
specified.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>

<p>The inadequacy of these figures to convey any
idea whatsoever as to the extent of child labor
in street occupations in this country is painfully
apparent; they are quoted here merely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
show the poverty of statistics on this subject.
Their inaccuracy is practically conceded by the
report itself in the following words: "The limitations
connected with the taking of a great
national census preclude proper care upon the
question of child employment. There is great
uncertainty as to the accuracy of a mass of
information of this character taken by enumerators
and special agents, who either do not
appreciate the importance of the investigation
or find it impracticable to devote the time to
the inquiry necessary to secure good results."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>

<p>There is reason to hope for more reliable data
from the 1910 census; but unfortunately the
figures will probably not be available until 1913.
The enumerators employed by the Federal
government for the Census of 1910, were instructed
to make an entry in the occupation
column of the population schedule for every
person enumerated, giving the exact occupation
if employed, writing the word "none" if
unemployed, or the words "own income" if
living upon an independent income. It was
stated positively that the occupation followed
by a child of any age was just as important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
for census purposes as the occupation followed
by a man, and that it should never be taken for
granted without inquiry that a child had no
occupation.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>

<p>However, upon inquiry by enumerators at
the time of the census taking as to the occupation
of children, many parents undoubtedly
replied in the negative, even though their children
may have been devoting several hours
daily outside of school to street work, under the
impression that this was not an occupation.
Consequently it is safe to assume that the
figures for street-working children in the United
States according to the Census of 1910 when
published will be under the true number.
Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect conditions
far better than did the figures for 1900.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Chicago</h3>

<p>It is only from the reports of occasional and
very limited local investigations that material
as to the actual state of affairs can be obtained.
Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced
into the Illinois legislature at its session of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
1911, providing that boys under ten years and
girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
from selling anything in city streets, and some
material was gathered to be used in support
of this measure. In connection with what has
already been said in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, it is interesting
to note that although the provisions of this bill
were very mild, and strong efforts were put
forth by social workers to secure its passage, it
was not allowed to become a law largely because
of the absence of public opinion and partly
because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
and others who were afraid that their
interests might suffer through the granting of
protection to such little children.</p>

<p>In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were
found to be trading in the streets in addition to
attending school in the following percentages:&mdash;</p>


<div class="listcontainer">
<ul class="not">
<li>65 per cent of 5th grade children</li>
<li>35 per cent of 4th grade children</li>
<li>15 per cent of 2d grade children</li>
<li>12 per cent of 1st grade children</li>
</ul>
(Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
</div>

<p>All of these children were attending school
twenty-five hours a week, and many cases of
excessive work out of school hours were found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
Some allowance should be made for possible
exaggeration on the part of these children, but
nevertheless it is certain that many of them
were working to an injurious extent. The hours
given were as follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="listcontainer">
<ul class="not">
 <li>1 boy over 50 hours</li>
 <li>4 boys over 40 hours</li>
 <li>5 boys over 35 hours</li>
 <li>7 boys over 30 hours</li>
 <li>18 boys over 20 hours</li>
</ul>
</div>

<p>Their average earnings per week were found
to be as follows:<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Average earnings of street-trading children">
 <tr>
  <td class="left">5th grade children</td>
  <td class="right">$1.18</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">4th grade children</td>
  <td class="right">.85</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">3d grade children</td>
  <td class="right">.60</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">2d grade children</td>
  <td class="right">.43</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">1st grade children</td>
  <td class="right">.36</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>In referring to the weekly income of the
children from this source, the Handbook of the
Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that
it was "a pitiable sum to compensate for the
physical weariness and moral risk attending
street trades in a large city. School reports
show that street trades, when carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
young children, lead to truancy, low vitality,
dullness and the breaking down of parental
control. Since the children are on the streets
at all hours, careless habits are developed which
often lead to moral ruin to both boys and girls."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>

<p>An instance was related wherein the teacher
of a fifth grade in a Chicago school asked those
of her pupils who worked for money to raise
their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26
acknowledged that they were little breadwinners!
One boy said he worked ten hours a
day besides attending school; others had less
striking records, spending from twenty to forty
hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
blacking boots and pursuing the various
other street occupations which the Illinois law
leaves open to children of all ages.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>

<p>Referring to the economic and home conditions
surrounding young children in Chicago
and the many phases of danger to their moral
well-being, the Vice Commission of that city
reported that its agents had found small boys
selling newspapers in segregated districts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
that one night an investigator had counted
twenty newsboys from eleven years upwards so
engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
newsboys, many little boys and girls were found
peddling chewing gum near disorderly saloons
where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
examples of employment in vicious environment
are cited, principally of the peddling of newspapers
and chewing gum by young children at
all hours of the night in the "red light" districts,
about saloons and museums of anatomy.
Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were
seen offering their wares and heard to join in
obscene conversation with the patrons of these
resorts.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>

<p>A folder published in Chicago by the advocates
of street-trade regulation calls attention
to these conditions, and states, with regard to
little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice
regions: "It is not surprising if some of them,
becoming so familiar with the practices of the
district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
The Juvenile Protective Association
reports one little girl who entered the life of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
after having sold newspapers for years in the
district."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>

<p>Another element of this problem, seldom
considered, is described also in this folder&mdash;the
vagrants, who constitute a large and growing
class deserving the attention of both city
and citizen. "Three classes of persons, who
add little to the general circulation, while detracting
much from the tone of the business
and working a real injury to themselves, are
engaged in selling newspapers; these are the
small boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young
girl. The business of selling newspapers in
Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant'
cannot prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in
our midst. He can be found on State Street
at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one
newspaper under his arm&mdash;not attempting to
sell it, but using it as a bait to beg from the
passers-by. He can be found in the <i>American</i>
news alley, sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred
strong, sleeping on bags, under boxes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
on the floor of the newspaper restaurant.
With this boy, and with all those who are obviously
too young to be permitted to engage in
street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are
to preserve the attitude the American city
takes toward the dependent child."</p>

<table class="lined w50" summary="Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders">
<caption><span class="smcap">Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders</span></caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w5" />
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w5" />
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w20" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th colspan="4">Place of Birth</th>
  <th>Number</th>
  <th>Percentage</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td rowspan="3" class="bl left">America</td>
  <td rowspan="3" style="font-size:550%; text-align:right; padding: 0em; vertical-align: top;">&#123;</td>
  <td>Boston</td>
  <td class="br right">1,556</td>
  <td rowspan="3"  class="br right">1860</td>
  <td rowspan="3" class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">70</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td>Elsewhere in Mass.</td>
  <td class="br right">171</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td>Other states</td>
  <td class="br right">133</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Russia</td>
  <td class="br right">473</td>
  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">17</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Italy</td>
  <td class="br right">161</td>
  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Other foreign countries</td>
  <td class="br right">162</td>
  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Not given</td>
  <td class="br right">8</td>
  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">&nbsp;</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="4" class="br bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="br bl bb bt right">2664</td>
  <td class="br bl bb bt right"><span class="vorkomma">100</span>.<span class="nachkomma">0</span></td>
 </tr>
</table>


<h3 class="italic">Boston</h3>

<p>In Boston, during the year 1910, there were
issued to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks
from eleven to thirteen years of age inclusive,
2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were
issued to newsboys, while 114 were issued to
bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of these license<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were
twelve years old, and 860 were thirteen years
old. It is interesting to note that nearly three
fourths of these children were born in the
United States; the table on <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a> shows their
distribution among nationalities.</p>


<h3 class="italic">New York City</h3>

<p>The actual number of children engaged in
street activities at any given time is less than
the number of licenses issued during the year,
inasmuch as not all such children persist in
pursuing this work, many of them working only
a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
tasks which they have been licensed to perform.
This is borne out by the experience of investigators
in New York City; the report of a study
made there recently says: "We are told by
the department of education issuing newsboy
badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
when we secured the addresses of some of these
from their application cards ... we found that
not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
lived at listed addresses. Many such were
bogus numbers, open lots, factories, wharves,
and in some cases the middle of East River<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
would wash over the house number given.
When we did find a correct address, the children
so located in six cases out of ten were not following
the trade. In some instances they never
sold papers, obtaining badges simply because
other boys were applying for them, and after
receiving a badge tucked it away in a drawer
or maybe sold it or gave it away."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Cincinnati</h3>

<p>In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909,
1951 boys from ten to thirteen years of age
were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
being about 15 per cent of the total number of
boys of these ages in the city. Their distribution
according to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Licensed newspaper sellers Cincinnati">
 <tr>
  <td class="left">10 years</td>
  <td class="right">424</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">11 years</td>
  <td class="right">466</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">12 years</td>
  <td class="right">539</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">13 years</td>
  <td class="right">522</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">Total</td>
  <td class="right bt">1951</td>
 </tr>
</table>



<p>The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks,
peddlers or market children, as no
licenses were issued for such occupations, al<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>though
they are specifically covered by the municipal
ordinance regulating street trades.</p>

<p>The above data were available only because
there has been some attempt in Boston, New
York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment
of children in street occupations; as in the great
majority of cities and states there is absolutely
no regulation of this kind, there are of course
no figures to indicate conditions.</p>


<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>

<p>In almost every city of the United States
having a population of more than 10,000, there
is to be found the padrone system, which is
operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking
business which the Greeks control.
The peddling of flowers, fruit and vegetables
in Chicago and New York is partly subject to
the same methods. The labor supply furnished
by this system for peddling and bootblacking
consists generally of children from twelve to
seventeen years of age.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>

<p>The Immigration Commission states in its
report that there are several thousand shoe-shining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
establishments in the United States
operated by Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks,
and that with few exceptions they are
under the padrone system.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> A few boys under
sixteen years of age are employed under the
Greek padrone system as flower vendors, and
these are found chiefly in New York City.
They are hired by florists to sell flowers in the
streets and public places&mdash;largely old stock
that cannot be handled in the shops. These
boys usually live in good quarters, are well fed
and receive their board and from $50 to $100
a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling,
they deliver flowers ordered at the shops. The
boys employed by the padrones to peddle
candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in
basements or in filthy rooms; here they are
crowded two, three and sometimes four in one
bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid
catching cold. The fruit and vegetables still
on hand are stored for the night in these bedrooms
and in the kitchen. In each peddling
company there are usually three or four wagons
and from four to eight boys.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>


<h3 class="italic">Minor Street Occupations</h3>

<p>There are a few so-called street trades in
which a relatively small number of children are
engaged which so far have not been mentioned
in this volume. These are the leading of blind
persons and the accompanying of beggars in
general, little children being found valuable
for such work because they help to excite the
sympathy of passers-by. A few children also
are employed as lamplighters to go about
towns lighting street lamps in the evening and
extinguishing them in the early morning. A
class of street boys who have as yet received
no name in this country, but in England are
called "touts," haunt the neighborhood of railroad
depots and lie in wait for passengers with
hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train
for a small fee.</p>

<p>Some children are used as singers or performers
upon musical instruments, but this is
in reality only another form of begging. The
writer found one instance of a young boy who
was employed by the public library of one of
our large cities to gather up overdue books
about the city and to collect the fines imposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
for failure to return the same. Very frequently
in the course of his work this boy had to enter
houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady
patrons of the public library, reading light literature,
and are quite negligent in the matter
of returning the books within the prescribed
time. Immediately upon the librarian's learning
of the situation, he was relieved of this duty,
and a man was detailed to perform the task.
Such special occupations as these do not constitute
a real factor in the problem because of
the small number of children involved, and
hence they are omitted from consideration.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Great Britain</h3>

<p>Turning to Europe we find much more information
on this subject. In Great Britain
the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an
inquiry to be made into the extent of child
labor among public school pupils, and the education
department sent schedules to the 20,022
public elementary schools in England and Wales
for the purpose of determining the facts. A little
more than half of the schools returned the
schedules blank, stating that no children were
employed; this introduced a large element of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
error into the return, as many of the schoolmasters
misunderstood the meaning of the
schedules, and consequently quite a number of
children who should have been included were
omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules
which were filled and returned showed that
144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
one fourth girls) were in attendance full time
at the public elementary schools of England and
Wales and known to be employed for profit
outside of school hours.</p>

<p>The ages of these children reported as employed
were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Age of working pupils in England and Wales">
 <tr>
  <td colspan="2" class="left">Under 7 years</td>
  <td class="right">131</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">7</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">1,120</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">8</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">4,211</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">9</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">11,027</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">10</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">22,131</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">11</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">36,775</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">12</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">47,471</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">13</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">18,556</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">14</td>
  <td class="left">and over</td>
  <td class="right">1,787</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="2" class="left">Not given</td>
  <td class="right">817</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
 </tr>
</table>



<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>The standards or school grades in which these
working children were enrolled and the total
enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>&mdash;</p>

<table class="lined" summary="School grades into which working children were enrolled">
 <tr>
  <th colspan="2">Working Children</th>
  <th>Total Enrollment</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">No Standard</td>
  <td class="right br">329</td>
  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">1st standard</td>
  <td class="right br"> 3,890</td>
  <td class="right br">2,875,088</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">2d standard</td>
  <td class="right br">11,686</td>
  <td class="right br">723,582</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">3d standard</td>
  <td class="right br">24,624</td>
  <td class="right br">679,096</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">4th standard</td>
  <td class="right br">36,907</td>
  <td class="right br">590,850</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">5th standard</td>
  <td class="right br">37,315</td>
  <td class="right br">421,728</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">6th standard</td>
  <td class="right br">21,975</td>
  <td class="right br">212,546</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">7th standard</td>
  <td class="right br">6,382</td>
  <td class="right br">66,442</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">Ex-7 standard</td>
  <td class="right br">382</td>
  <td class="right br">7,534</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">Not stated</td>
  <td class="right br">536</td>
  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="leftindent bl bb">Total</td>
  <td class="right br bb bt">144,026</td>
  <td class="right br bb bt">5,576,866</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>The occupations followed by these children
were divided into three main groups, and each
of these groups was further divided into three
classes. These divisions and the number of
children in each were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>&mdash;</p>


<table class="lined" summary="Occupations of working pupils">
 <tr>
  <th colspan="2">Piecework, chiefly Boys</th>
  <th colspan="2">Time-work, chiefly Boys</th>
  <th colspan="2">Domestic Employment, girls only, with One or Two Exceptions</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Selling newspapers</td>
  <td class="br rightbottom">15,182</td>
  <td class="leftnarrow">In shops or running errands for shopkeepers</td>
  <td class="rightbottom">76,173</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Minding babies</td>
  <td class="br rightbottom">11,585</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Hawking goods</td>
  <td class="br rightbottom">2,435</td>
  <td class="leftnarrow">Agricultural occupations</td>
  <td class="rightbottom">6,115</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other housework, including laundry work, etc.</td>
  <td class="br rightbottom">9,254</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Sports, taking dinners, knocking-up, etc.</td>
  <td class="br bb rightbottom">8,627</td>
  <td class="leftnarrow bb">Boot and knife cleaning, etc. (house boys)</td>
  <td class="rightbottom bb">10,636</td>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Needlework and like occupations</td>
  <td class="br bb rightbottom">4,019</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>The return revealed a surprising variety of
occupations followed by these children&mdash;about
200 different kinds in all.</p>
<table class="intext" summary="Working hours per week">
 <tr>
  <th class="harmonized">Hours per Week</th>
  <th class="right harmonized">Number of Children</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Under 10</td>
  <td class="right">39,355</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">10-20</td>
  <td class="right">60,268</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">21-30</td>
  <td class="right">27,008</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">31-40</td>
  <td class="right">9,778</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">41-50</td>
  <td class="right">2,390</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">51-60</td>
  <td class="right">576</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">61-70</td>
  <td class="right">142</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">71-80</td>
  <td class="right">59</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Over 81</td>
  <td class="right">16</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Not stated</td>
  <td class="right">4,434</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Total</td>
  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>The number of hours per week devoted by
these children to the various employments will
be found in the above table; it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
remembered that these hours were given to work
in addition to the time spent at school.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>

<p>It was recognized that the figures given by
this parliamentary return did not represent the
real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
were sufficiently startling to show the need of
further investigation. Accordingly in 1901 there
was appointed an interdepartmental committee
which after careful study reported that the
figures in the parliamentary return were well
within the actual numbers, but that the facts
it contained were substantially correct.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> This
committee estimated the total number of children
who were both in attendance at school
and in paid employments in England and Wales
at 300,000;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> it declared that cases of excessive
employment were "sufficiently numerous to
leave no doubt that a substantial number of children
are being worked to an injurious extent."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>

<p>Referring to the amount of time devoted by
the children to gainful employment outside of
school, the committee reported, "On a review<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
of the evidence we consider it is proved that in
England and Wales a substantial number of
children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
being worked more than twenty hours a week
in addition to twenty-seven and one-half hours
at school, that a considerable proportion of
this number are being worked to thirty or forty
and some even to fifty hours a week, and that
the effect of this work is in many cases detrimental
to their health, their morals and their
education, besides being often so unremitting
as to deprive them of all reasonable opportunity
for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing
on so large a scale, we think that some remedy
ought to be found."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The committee estimated
the total number of children selling newspapers
and in street hawking at 25,000.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>

<p>With reference to conditions in Edinburgh,
an English writer says, "Of the 1406 children
employed out of school hours in Edinburgh,
307 are ten years of age or under. Four of them
are six years old, and eleven are seven years
of age. We hear of boys working seventeen
hours (from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) on Saturday.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
For children to work twelve, thirteen and fourteen
hours on Saturday is quite common. The
average wage seems to be three farthings an hour,
but one hears of children who are paid one shilling
and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>

<p>In New South Wales boys are permitted to
trade on the streets at the age of ten years, and
up to fourteen years may engage in such work
between the hours of 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> except
while the schools are in session; after they are
fourteen years old they may trade between
6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Such children are licensed,
and during the six months ending March 31,
1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of
them being to children under fourteen years of
age; 92 per cent of these children were engaged
in hawking newspapers, the others being scattered
through such occupations as peddling
flowers, fruit and vegetables, fish, fancy goods,
matches, bottles, pies and milk.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Germany</h3>

<p>In December, 1897, the German Imperial
Chancellor, referring to the incomplete census<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
returns as to child labor, requested the governments
to furnish him with information as to
the total number of children under fourteen
employed in labor other than factory labor,
agricultural employment and domestic service,
and the kinds of work done. In this circular
he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
occupation is unsuitable for children, where
the work continues too long, where it takes
place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration;
in such cases it is not only dangerous
to the health and morality of the children, but
school discipline is impaired and compulsory
education becomes illusory. For children cannot
possibly give the necessary attention to
their lessons when they are tired out and
when they have been working hard in unhealthful
rooms until late at night. I need
only instance employment in skittle alleys
late in the evening, in the delivery of newspapers
in the early morning and the employment
of children in many branches of home
industry. The most recent researches undertaken
in different localities show that the
employment of children in labor demands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
earnest attention in the interests of the rising
generation."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>

<p>Inquiries extending over almost the whole
German Empire were accordingly made by the
different states from January to April, 1898.
It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen
years were employed in labor other than
factory labor, agricultural employment and
domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of
the total number of children of school age
(8,334,919).</p>

<p>With regard to the effects of such work, this
German report says: "As the children who carry
around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
one inn to another, they are exposed to evil
influences, and are liable to contract at an early
age, bad habits of smoking, lying, drinking....
The delivery of newspapers is a particularly
great strain on the children, as it occupies them
both before and after school hours."</p>

<p>Seven divisions of these children were made
according to occupation, four of them relating
to street work. Under the heading <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Handel</i></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
were included children in many kinds of work,
among them hawking fruit, milk, bread, brooms,
flowers, newspapers, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Austragedienste</i></span>
were included only the delivery and
carrying around of bread, milk, vegetables,
beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars,
bills, coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing,
clothes, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</i></span>
were included only errand boys and messengers;
under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit</i></span> were included,
among other occupations, blacking
boots, leading the blind, street singers and
players, etc.</p>

<table class="lined w80" summary="Situation in Germany">
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w50" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w10" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th>&nbsp;</th>
  <th>Boys</th>
  <th>Girls</th>
  <th>Sex not stated</th>
  <th>Total</th>
  <th>Percentage</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Handel</span> (retail trade)</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">7,507</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">4,540</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">5,576</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">17,623</td>
  <td class="bl br rightbottom">3.31</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Austragedienste</span> (delivery service)</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">67,188</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">36,966</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">31,676</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">135,830</td>
  <td class="bl br rightbottom">25.52</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</span> (general  messenger service)</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">23,321</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">2,134</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">10,454</td>
  <td class="bl rightbottom">35,909</td>
  <td class="bl br rightbottom">6.75</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sonstige  gewerbliche Thätigkeit</span> (other forms of labor)</td>
  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">6,281</td>
  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">2,387</td>
  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">3,119</td>
  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">11,787</td>
  <td class="bl br bb rightbottom">2.21</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Austria</h3>

<p>The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an
investigation of actual conditions in Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
new law that would regulate child labor not
only in factories, but also in home industries,
in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe,
Mr. C. W. A. Veditz refers to the findings of
this investigation in a number of the provinces.
In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
but still attending school, 169 were
engaged in peddling and huckstering; in delivering
goods and going errands 1554 children were
employed, being generally hired to deliver
bread, milk, meats, groceries, newspapers, books,
telegrams, circulars&mdash;in fact, all manner of
goods.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> In the province of Upper Austria
children are paid from two to seven crowns
(40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for delivering
newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg
the pay varies from twenty to fifty hellers
(4 to 10 cents) a day for delivering bread or
newspapers.</p>

<p>In the province of Lower Austria, "referring
now to the other main occupations in which
school children are employed outside of industry
proper, the report [of the investigation] shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
that ... those working in trade and transportation
usually help wait on customers in
their parents' stores; a number, however, sell
flowers, shoe laces, etc., or huckster bread,
butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
to and from railway stations. Most of those
put down as delivering goods are engaged in delivering
bread, milk, newspapers and washing."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in
Vienna earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents)
a day during the week, and on Sundays as much
as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods
and run errands are also usually employed by
non-relatives and receive wages in money.
Those who deliver milk, and who work one half
to one hour a day, generally receive twenty
hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly;
in exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents),
and in some instances only food and old clothes.
For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and
some meals, or fifty hellers to two crowns
(10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
For delivering papers, which requires one to
two hours a day, children receive two to ten
crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For
delivering of washing, thirty hellers (6 cents)
for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to two
crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children
who carry dinner to mill laborers, requiring
one half to one hour daily, get eighty hellers
to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month.
Messengers for stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of
two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents) per errand, or,
if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one
crown (4 to 20.3 cents) a week."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>

<p>"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers,
etc., in which many children are employed in
Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy
arrival at school in the morning and for the
fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
mental alertness."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">NEWSPAPER SELLERS</span></h2>


<p>By far the majority of the children in street
occupations are engaged in the sale or delivery
of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
such an extent that he is taken as a matter
of course. As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "For
more than one generation, it has been almost
invariably assumed that there must be little
newsboys." Ever since he became an institution
of our city life, the public has been pleased
to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman
of penetrating mind and keen sense of
humor. There seems to be a tacit indorsement
of the newsboy as such.</p>

<p>Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys
to be found in all large cities&mdash;(1) the corner
boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission,
(4) those who sell for themselves, and
(5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of
the business is handled by the first three of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
classes, which are always associated together
and found on the busy corners of the downtown
sections of all our cities. The choice localities
for the sale of newspapers, namely, the corners
in the downtown sections where thousands of
pedestrians are daily passing, come under the
control of individuals by virtue of long tenure
or by purchase, and their title to these corners
is not disputed largely on account of the support
they receive from the circulation managers of
the newspapers. In former years the proprietorship
of the corner was settled by a fight, but
now it undergoes change of ownership by the
formal transfer of location, fixtures and goodwill
in accordance with the most approved legal
practice.</p>

<p>In Chicago a system of routes has been
established by the newspapers which send wagons
out with the different editions published each
day to supply the men who control the delivery
and sale of newspapers in the various districts.
These route men employ boys to deliver for
them to regular customers and also to sell on
street corners on a commission basis. In Boston,
ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
employed by the publishers at a fixed salary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
to distribute the editions by wholesale among
the twenty odd places in the city from which
the street sellers are supplied.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work</h3>

<p>The following individual cases will serve
to illustrate the various forms this business
takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65
for his corner in Cincinnati about five years
ago; he now earns from $4 to $5 a day clear
and would not sell the location for many times
its cost. He works there from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to
6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on week days, starting an hour earlier
on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the
morning newspapers over a route to regular
customers. Two boys of about twelve years of
age work for him, to one of whom he pays
25 cents a day and to the other 30 cents a day;
their duties are to hawk the different editions
and to dispose of as many copies as possible by
hopping the street cars and offering the papers
to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> daily on
week days. If they do not hustle and make a
large number of sales, they lose their job.</p>

<p>A corner in another part of the city is "owned"
by a thirteen-year-old boy who earns about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two
boys working for him on commission, to whom
he pays one cent for every four papers sold;
they average about 15 cents a day apiece for
three hours' work. When questioned, these
commission boys admitted that they could
make more money if working for themselves,
but in that case would have to work until all
the copies they had bought were sold, while on
the commission plan they did not have to shoulder
so much responsibility.</p>

<p>Regulations made by the circulation managers
of newspapers concerning the return of unsold
copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
Naturally these regulations are made with an
eye to extending the circulation. Corner boys
are allowed to return only one copy out of
every ten bought, being reimbursed by the
office for its cost. Consequently they urge their
newsboy employees and commission workers
to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply
purchased. The independent sellers are never
permitted to return any unsold copies, except
in the case of certain energetic boys who can
be relied upon to work hard in any event. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
are known as "hustlers," and owing to their
having won the confidence of the circulation
manager they are granted the special privilege
of returning at cost all copies they have been
unable to sell.</p>

<p>In Boston, beginners are often on a commission
basis; "in this way they secure the advice and
protection of the more experienced while serving
their apprenticeship. These <i>strikers</i>, as they
are called, keep one cent for every four collected;
few of them earn more than 25 cents a day, while
many of them earn less than 10."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>

<p>An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been
a newsboy for several years now controls a
comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where
he nets from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about
three hours. This boy's father and mother
are both living.</p>

<p>Submission to older persons is natural among
children, and an interesting instance of tyranny
over small boys by adults was found in the case
of a newspaper employee who works inside the
plant and employs several young boys to sell
newspapers on the streets for him. These boys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
together earn about $1.30 when working about
seven hours, but only half of this amount goes
into their pockets, the other half being paid
to their "employer." In New York City certain
busy sections having points of strategic
value are under the control of men who employ
small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance,
usually the price of admission to a moving-picture
show. However, under certain circumstances,
these little fellows often display a sturdy
spirit of independence. An amusing instance
is innocently recorded by an old wartime report
of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided
to give the boys a free dinner on Sundays, on
condition that they attend the Sunday School;
but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say
that they were able and willing to pay for the
dinner."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>

<p>Independent newsboys must not stand in
the territory controlled by another; they must
select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
hither and yon, selling where they can. Under
the unwritten law of this business a boy who
chances to sell in another's territory must give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper
in exchange; this results the same as if
the corner boy himself had made the sale. The
earnings of these independent boys range from
15 to 65 cents daily out of school hours, while
on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></p>

<p>An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy
for three years, selling on his own account,
disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
in the middle of a busy square, earning from
50 cents to $1.25 a day even when attending
school. His mother and father are both living.
Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old
boy who devotes all his time to the trade,
his net income averaging about $7.50 per week.
His attitude toward regular work is both interesting
and significant; he hopes to get a better
job, but says that although he has hunted for
one, so little is offered for what he can do
($2 to $3 per week) that it would hardly suffice
for spending money. Discussing this difference
between factory wages and street-trading profits,
an English report says: "Working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
to 7 or 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, with intervals for gambling,
newsboys over 14 years old can make from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
10<i>s.</i> to 14<i>s.</i> a week if they have an ordinary
share of alertness. In a factory or foundry,
working from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, a boy earns about
13<i>s.</i> a week. The comparison needs no comment.
The excitement of their career tends to make
them more and more reluctant to work steadily....
Many newsboys protest that they want
more permanent work, but they rarely keep it
when it is found for them."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The life of the
streets lacks the discipline involved in steady
work and fixed earnings.</p>

<p>As an example of the route boy there is a
fourteen-year-old lad in Cincinnati who has a
list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25
cents daily, delivering after school hours. He
declares that he finds it much easier to work
on a route than to sell on the corners or at
random.</p>

<p>The morning papers employ a man as circulation
manager for the residence districts who
controls all the corners in those sections. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to
it. These older boys are not to sell their corners
nor to dispose of them in any way, nor are they
allowed to have any one working for them;
they must "hop" all the street cars passing their
corners and are expected to put forth every
effort to accomplish a great number of sales.
They get their supply of copies at the branch
office at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, hurrying then to their corners,
where they remain until nearly noon, averaging
in this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly
all of the afternoon papers sold in the residence
districts are delivered by route boys; after
having gone over their routes, some of these
boys go to the busier localities and sell the
sporting extra during the baseball season until
about seven o'clock.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Environment</h3>

<p>Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of
street trading by the New York Child Welfare
Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and
Wages declaring that "The ordinary newsboy
is surrounded by influences that are extremely
bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his
work; (2) of the character of street life; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
(3) of the lack of discipline or restraint in this
work. The occupation is characterized by
'rush hours,' during which the boy will work
himself into exhaustion trying to keep pace with
his trade, and long hours in which there is
little or nothing to do, during which the boy
has unlimited opportunities to make such use
of the street freedom as he sees fit. During
these light hours newsboys congregate in the
streets and commit many acts of vandalism.
They learn all forms of petty theft and usually
are accomplished in most of the vices of the
street. In building up their routes, the boys
often include places of the most degrading and
detrimental character. On the economic side,
the loss is due to failure of the occupation to
furnish any training for industrial careers."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>

<p>The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the
questionable character of their food form one
of the worst features of street work and are a
real menace to health. Many newsboys are in
the habit of eating hurriedly at lunch counters
at intervals during the day and night, while
some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
York City their diet has been found to consist
chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as frankfürters,
mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches,
cakes and 'sinkers'."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The use of stimulants
is common, and the demand for them is to be
expected because of the nervous strain of the
work. Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable
extent by street-trading children, but
coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest
cities, where "night gangs" are found, from
four to six bowls of coffee are usually taken
every evening. Tobacco is used in great
quantities and in all its forms; many boys even
appease their hunger for the time by smoking
cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are
addicted to the habit. Evidence that this is
not a recent development among street workers
is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a
century ago, which, with reference to newsboys,
says "many of them soon spend their gains in
pool rooms, low places of amusement and for
the poisonous cigarette."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>

<p>An English report on the street traders of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
Manchester says: "Drunkenness is rare among
these boys ... they are in many ways attractive;
but the closer our acquaintance grows
with them the more overwhelming does this
propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it
may reasonably be said that the whole career
of the street trader is one long game of chance....
They tend to become more and more
unwilling to work hard; they are the creatures
of accident and lose the power of foresight;
they never form habits of thrift; and their word
can be taken only by those who have learnt how
to interpret it."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>

<p>There are tricks in newspaper selling as well
as in other trades, and children are not slow to
learn them. A careful observer cannot fail
to note that certain newsboys seem always to
be without change. Their patrons are generally
in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
from a nickel, even priding themselves on their
unselfishness in thus helping to relieve the supposed
poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
the cupidity of boys and leads them to believe
that honesty is not the best policy. The temptation
for newsboys to develop into "short
change artists" is an ever present one, for the
bustle of the street creates a most favorable
condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet
in spite of the many temptations which assail
them, numbers of newsboys are scrupulously
exact in the matter of making change, even under
the most trying circumstances. Another
common form of deceit, used to play upon the
sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall
by boys of all ages in offering a solitary newspaper
for sale and crying in plaintive tone,
"Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
person readily falls a victim to this ruse,
and as soon as he has passed by, the newsboy
draws another copy from his hidden supply and
repeats his importuning. Commenting on these
features of street trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill,
United States Commissioner of Labor, has said:
"Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic
virtue, the newsboy trade is a training in either
knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere else are the
wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
early learned that dishonesty and trickery are
more profitable than honesty, and that sympathy
coins more pennies than does industry."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Hours</h3>

<p>Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous
in its effects upon growing children, and the
newspaper trade is one that engages the labor
of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the
night. This fact is not generally known. A
prominent social worker recently said: "I
was astounded to find the other day that my
newspaper comes to me in Chicago every morning
because two little boys, one twelve and the
other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night.
These little boys, who go to school, carry papers
around so that we get them in the morning at
four o'clock all the year around. They are
working for a man with whom we contract for
our newspapers. I was quite shocked in St.
Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or
six years of age selling newspapers near the
railroad station in the worst part of town after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental
talk about newsboys' societies doing so much
for newsboys, but they do not seem to care
anything for work of this kind."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In passing
it may be remarked that in the city of Toledo
there is an active association organized for the
benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages
street work by boys of from eight to seventeen
years. The manager insists that such work
affords the means of alleviating the poverty in
the families of these boys, but upon inquiry
it was found that he had never heard of the
provision for the financial relief of such cases
of child labor, which is made by the Ohio law,
and which had been, at the time, most successfully
administered for three years by the Board
of Education of his own city.</p>

<p>The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday
editions distributed on Saturday night, consequently
the newsboys are up all night so as to
assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence
of public opinion in the matter, this abuse flourishes
unrestricted, and the children's health is
sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
of the Chicago Vice Commission reported having
seen boys from ten to fifteen years of age selling
morning papers at midnight Saturday in the
evil districts of the city.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>

<p>The early rising of newsboys to deliver the
morning week-day editions also contributes to
the breaking down of their health. The old
adage is a mockery in their case. There is
abundant testimony relative to the evil effects
of such untimely work. "Children who go to
school and sell papers get up so early in the
morning that they are so stupid during the day
they cannot do anything. That was clearly
demonstrated to me during my experience in
teaching school."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>

<p>Another teacher said: "I have had instances
in school where children have gone to sleep
over their tasks because they got up at two or
three o'clock in the morning to put out city
lights and to sell papers. In those instances
we wanted the parents to take the children away
from their work. Where they would not do it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
we prosecuted them for contributing to the
delinquency of their children."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>

<p>The delivery of newspapers by young boys in
the strictly residence sections of cities appears
to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
work should be under restriction as to hours,
because otherwise the boys would continue
to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order
to reach the branch offices in time to get the
newspapers fresh from the press. In fact,
every phase of street work should be under
control. Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector
of schools to the Essex County Council, has
testified that among the most injurious forms
of labor performed by boys is the early morning
delivery of newspapers and milk.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In his
Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr.
C. W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before
school in the morning must be condemned, because
it fatigues the children so that they become,
to say the least, intellectually less receptive."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>

<p>In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
Philadelphia,"<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Mr. Scott Nearing gives a
graphic account of conditions in the City of
Brotherly Love. Although this description was
written some years ago, local social workers
find that the same conditions still obtain, as
there is neither law nor ordinance to bring
about a change. In this city the closing of
the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
of Saturday night's work. The last
editions of the evening newspapers are offered
at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After
the theater, the restaurant patrons are available
as customers until midnight. Then the morning
papers begin to come from the press, and the
newsboys abandon their begging and gambling
and rush to the offices for their supplies. A
load of forty pounds is often carried by the
smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets
in the early morning hours. The cream of the
business is done at this time, for most of the
purchasers are more or less intoxicated and
therefore inclined to be generous with tips and
indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
takes in as much money on Saturday night and
Sunday morning as during the entire remainder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys
in a group just as the policeman was chasing
them out of Chinatown at half-past three
Sunday morning; the youngest boy was clearly
not over ten and the oldest was barely sixteen."
At this hour the officers of the law interfere
and quell the revels of the district. The open
gratings in sidewalks through which warm air
comes from basements, are then sought, and here
the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when
they go abroad again to cry the Sunday papers.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Home Conditions&mdash;Poverty</h3>

<p>One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent
toward the street worker is that it takes
for granted that the child is making a manly
effort to support a widowed mother and several
starving little brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence
Kelley calls this "perverted reasoning"
and scores the public which "unhesitatingly
places the burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance
upon the slender shoulders of the
child."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Poverty has been made an excuse for
child labor from time immemorial by those
who profit by the system. Newspapers are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend
their circulation and incidentally give them free
advertising in the streets&mdash;hence they see
nothing but good in the newsboys' work and
fight lustily to defend what they claim to be the
mainstay of the widows. That this popular
impression and appealing argument are false
and without justification has been shown by
students of the problem everywhere. The
following table gives the family condition of
Cincinnati newsboys:&mdash;</p>


<table class="intext" summary="Family condition of Cincinnati newsboys">
 <tr>
  <td class="leftint">Both parents dead          </td>
  <td class="right">12</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Father dead               </td>
  <td class="right">239</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Mother dead                </td>
  <td class="right">69</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">Both parents living      </td>
  <td class="right">1432</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="left">  Total                  </td>
  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>Through a special inquiry it was found that
in only 363 cases out of this total were the
earnings of the children really needed. These
1752 children, ten to thirteen years of age, were
licensed from July to December, 1909; their
distribution as to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Licensed Cincinnati newsboys under 14">
 <tr>
  <td class="right">10       </td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">303</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">11</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">348</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">12</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">564</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="right">13</td>
  <td class="left">years</td>
  <td class="right">537</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Upon investigation of the home conditions of
several hundred newsboys in New York City it
was declared that "in the majority of cases parents
are not dependent on the boys' earnings.
The poverty plea&mdash;that boys must sell papers to
help widowed mothers or disabled fathers&mdash;is,
for the most part, gross exaggeration."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>

<p>Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys,
Myron E. Adams says, "A careful investigation
of the records of the Charity Organization
Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated,
the names of but sixteen families are
found, and of these ... only four received
direct help, such as coal, clothing or food."<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>

<p>Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the
boys want to go on the streets in order to have
the pocket money which this life affords, and
the ignorant or indifferent parents make no
objections, but take the street life as a matter
of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
often as is generally supposed, there is real need
for the selling."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>

<p>The British interdepartmental committee
appointed in 1901 to inquire into the employment
of school children, denounced the tolerance
of street trading on the ground of necessity:
"We think that in framing regulations with regard
to child labour and school attendance ... the poverty
of the child or its parents
ought not to be made a test of the right to
labour.... We do not think it is needed;
we think that all children should have liberty
to work as much and in such ways as is good
for them and no more."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>

<p>Another argument in favor of street trading
advanced by those who are interested in maintaining
present conditions, is that it affords a
splendid training for a business career because
of the competition that rages among the boys.
This is doubtless true, as far as it goes, but the
great difficulty is that street trading leads
nowhere. It is a blind alley that sooner or
later leaves its followers helpless against the
solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An
occupation that fits a boy for <i>nothing</i> and is
devoid of <i>prospects</i>, is a curse rather than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
blessing in this day of specialization. In spite
of the division of labor so elaborately realized
to-day, a boy or girl who enters any of the
regular industries has at least a fighting chance
for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest,
capable and diligent he will be promoted to a
better position in time if misfortune does not
overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine
is in a fair way to become a miner. The lad who
works in a machine shop has the opportunity
to make a machinist of himself. The girl who
begins as a wrapper in a dry goods shop may
become a saleswoman, and then possibly a
buyer for her department. Yet in most states
children may not enter upon such work until
they have reached the age of fourteen years,
while some states prohibit boys under sixteen
years from being employed in mines or in connection
with dangerous machinery either in machine
shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught
us that these restrictions are right and just,
and we now have no hesitancy in barring young
children from such employment, regardless of
the training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt
many forms of street work from the operation
of the law? Why do we allow little children to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys,
bootblacks and peddlers in the essentially
dangerous environment of the street? Such
employment offers but a gloomy future&mdash;the
useless life of the casual worker. There is no
better position to which it leads, no chance for the
discovery and development of ability, no reward
for good service. It seems incredible that we
have been so engrossed with throwing safeguards
about the children in regular industries that we
have altogether neglected the street worker, for the
arguments against child labor in factories, mills,
mines and retail shops apply with even greater
force to the work of children in our city streets.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Better Substitutes</h3>

<p>There is no reason why newsboys should not
be replaced as the medium for the sale and
delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples,
the tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated
for regular work. In London, the <i>Westminster
Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, the <i>Evening
Standard</i> and the <i>Globe</i> (all penny papers)
are sold in the streets by old men; the <i>Westminster
Gazette</i> pays them a wage of 1<i>s.</i> for selling
eighteen copies and after having disposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
of this number they are given a commission of
8<i>d.</i> a quire of twenty-six copies, a few men
selling from six to eight quires a day. This
newspaper has followed this method for many
years, and its general manager declares that it
is the most satisfactory system that they have
been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of
responsibility, while old men cling to their
posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
<i>Westminster Gazette</i> employed some boys as
carriers and that the whole subject lay somewhat
heavily on his conscience because, "practically
speaking, these boys have no future ... a
few of them may become cyclists carrying the
newspapers ... in a few years their usefulness
as cyclists has gone ... then they
simply drift away, we don't know where, but
we do know that they drift to places like Salvation
Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their
living is always one of the mysteries of London....
But they have learned nothing from us,
nothing that gives them any usefulness for any
other occupation.... The great majority
become casual labourers dependent entirely
on casual work.... It is a life in which very
little is gained, although one would suppose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
that the open air would be of great benefit.
But one must remember the insufficient food
that these street traders have, and the bad
conditions of living and the irregular hours.
Many of these boys, of course, are up all hours
of the night.... It is quite as bad for a boy
in the long run to be engaged as a carrier distributor
as for him to sell newspapers in the
street. There is no possible argument for the
system except that one's competitors do it, and
that so long as they do it we must do the same....
We get practically all our men from
Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary
man whom we employ is over fifty years of
age and runs up to about seventy years....
I think if the police would give us every facility
for introducing kiosks it would be a great improvement
upon the present system. If boys were
prohibited from selling newspapers altogether
on the streets, it would automatically send the
public to the kiosk; ... the public get into the
habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>

<p>It should be remembered in connection with
the above statements that the <i>Westminster
Gazette</i> is a penny paper, and its manager was
of opinion that the half-penny papers could not
afford to employ men because they depended
largely for their circulation upon the persistence
of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention
of people in the streets; he believed that the
use of old men would curtail their circulation
because men are not so active as boys. On the
other hand, news agents protested against the
competition of street traders and maintained
that they alone were fully able to meet the
demands of the public. The departmental
committee of 1910 reported: "There can, we
think, be little doubt that an active child is an
effective agent in promoting the circulation of
half-penny papers, and that if the employment
of children were forbidden, newspapers would
have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and
less mobile character. But we see no reason
to think that purchasers of newspapers need be
put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
would be in a position considerably to extend
their business, and it might reasonably be
expected that the system of employing old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
men as salesmen would also be developed. It
appears to us economically unjustifiable to use
children to their own detriment for work which
can be done by other means."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>

<p>Referring to the great possibilities for good
involved in confining the sale and delivery of
newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
and are unable to provide for themselves in
other ways, the Secretary of the New York
Child Labor Committee says: "Where such
cities as Paris and Berlin do entirely without
newsboys&mdash;corner stands taking their places&mdash;it
would seem that the least that can be done
in American cities is to adopt some adequate
system of regulation. In this connection, the
opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
give work to the aged and handicapped&mdash;who
otherwise would have to be supported by private
charity&mdash;should not be overlooked."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">The Newsboys' Court</h3>

<p>In an effort to control to some extent the tendency
of newsboys to become delinquent and to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
imbue them with a sense of personal responsibility,
an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.</p>

<p>During the year 1909, about three hundred
newsboys were taken before the juvenile court
of that city charged with violation of the local
license rules. As the docket of this court was
crowded, these newsboy cases were necessarily
delayed, and as a result of this situation the boys
conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys'
court which should have jurisdiction in all cases
of failure to observe the rules governing their
trade. The following year a petition was presented
to the Boston School Committee which
was favorably acted upon by that body, and
accordingly on the regular election day of that
year the newsboys cast their ballots to select
three juvenile judges of the court. These
three boys, together with two adults appointed
by the School Committee, compose
the court. Election of these boy judges is
held annually, and all licensed newsboys who
attend the public schools are qualified electors.
The court is empowered to investigate and
report its findings with recommendations to
the School Committee in all cases of infraction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
law the School Committee is authorized
to regulate street trading by children under
fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are
subject to purely local supervision. The supervisor
of licensed minors, also an appointee of
the School Committee, can, in his discretion,
take complaints in his department before the
newsboys' court instead of the juvenile court.
The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for
their attendance at each official session of the
court. The charges made before the Trial
Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called,
range from selling without a badge or after
eight o'clock in the evening or on street cars,
to bad conduct, irregular school attendance,
gambling or smoking. The disposition of these
cases varies from reprimands and warnings to
probation or suspension of license for a definite
period, or complete revocation of license.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Summary</h3>

<p>Although the work of selling newspapers has
been, to some extent, subdivided and systema<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>tized
by circulation managers, it has so many
features highly objectionable for children that
a radical departure from present methods of
handling this business should be taken. We
know that the work of the newsboy lacks the
oversight and discipline of adults, that it
exposes the children to the varied physical
dangers lurking in the streets, that the early
and late hours cause fatigue, that the opportunities
for bad companionship are frequent, that
irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend
to weaken their constitutions, that it offers no
chance for promotion and leads nowhere. We
know further that the presence of the newsboy
in our streets cannot be justified on the ground
of poverty. It has been demonstrated in other
countries that children are not essential to the
sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has
been shown that selling at stands and the use
of men instead of children in the streets are
both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot
such practices be introduced into the United
States? There can be but little doubt as to
the advisability of this step, but the innovation
will certainly not be made voluntarily by the
newspapers. The law must force the issue by
prohibiting street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN</span></h2>


<h3 class="italic">Bootblacks</h3>

<p>The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing
from our cities, but he is still found
in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few
other places. He is being supplanted by the
worker at stands, which are conducted almost
invariably by Greeks. As a result of this
change the bootblacking business will soon cease
to be a street occupation; it is discussed here
because of the abuses it involves and because
it is unregulated in many states, owing to its
omission from the list of employments covered
by child labor laws.</p>


<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>

<p>The New York-New Jersey Committee of
the North American Civic League for Immigrants
reports that: "The condition of Greek boys
and young men in such occupations as pushcart
peddling, shoe-shining parlors and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
flower trade is one of servitude and peonage.
It has been found that many boys apparently
from fourteen to eighteen years of age arrive
here alone, stating that they are eighteen years
old, but in reality less than this, and that they
are going to relatives. They have been found
working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days
a week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and living with the
'boss' in groups varying from five to twenty-five
under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding
and irregularity of meals wholly undesirable
for young boys. They are isolated from learning
English or from American contact, and receive
for their work from $7 to $15 a month and
board and lodging. The majority of the flower
peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
with the result that the boys who work for
them are arrested for violating the law. Boys
who have been in the country from three
months to a year state they have been arrested
several times&mdash;their first experience in this
country&mdash;and are already hardened so that they
think nothing of paying fines."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>

<p>The bootblack business is the chief industry
to which the Greek padrone system is applied.
The United States Immigration Commission
found<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> that boys employed as bootblacks live
in extremely unwholesome quarters. Wherever
the room is large enough, several beds are
gathered together with three and sometimes four
boys sleeping in each bed. In some places the
boys merely roll themselves up in blankets and
sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are
opened for business about 6 o'clock in the morning,
consequently the boys are obliged to rise about an
hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping quarters
are located at considerable distance from the
stands, they have to get up as early as 4.30.
Arrived at the stands, they remain working until
9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later.
The boys eat their lunch in the rear of the establishment,
this meal consisting generally of bread
and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after
the boys reach "home," and after having eaten
it they retire without removing their clothes.
Even after their excessively long work day, two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
of the boys are required to wash the dirty rags
used for polishing the shoes daily so they can
be used the next day.</p>

<p>These boys are compelled to work every day
in the year without vacation. The Immigration
Commission found that they are under constant
espionage, as at every stand the padrone places
relatives who both work for him and act as
spies on the other boys. Their employer
instructs them to make false statements to
questions asked by outsiders relative to their
ages or conditions of work; many padrones also
censor the letters written by the boys to their
parents or others and examine all incoming
mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other
places.</p>

<p>The majority of them cannot read or write
their own language, and are unable to secure
any education in this country because of their
long work hours. According to the Immigration
Commission their mental development is perceptibly
arrested by the physical fatigue they
suffer as a result of their long-sustained work
without recreation. They receive no good
advice, nor do they hear anything that would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
tend to elevate them morally. The Commission
does not hesitate to brand these conditions
as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
the constitutions of these boys laboring in
shoe-shining establishments under this system
are appalling. It attributes these effects to
the following causes: long hours, close confinement
to their work in poorly ventilated places,
unsanitary living conditions, unhealthful manner
of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
work, inadequate nourishment due to the
"economy" of the padrones who furnish the
food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the
inhaling of injurious chemicals from the polish
they use, the filthy condition of their bodies
resulting from their failure to bathe and the
lack of proper clothing for the winter season.</p>

<p>The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself
a physician, in a letter to the Immigration
Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
1910, declared that as a result of his experience
in examining and treating boy bootblacks he
was convinced that all boys under eighteen years
of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining
establishments, develop serious chronic stomachic
and hepatic troubles which predispose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
them to pulmonary disease; he further declared
that because of the conditions under which they
work the majority of them ultimately contract
tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would
be more humane and infinitely better for young
Greeks to be denied admission into the United
States than to be permitted to land if they are
intended for such employment. Similar statements
are made by other Greek physicians of
Chicago.</p>

<p>The importation of Greek boys for use as
bootblacks in the United States started about
1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
monopoly of the industry by taking it away
from the Italians and the Negroes, confining it,
however, to stands or booths. Most of the
early padrones have become financially independent.
Their success attracted other Greeks
to this industry, and in a short time almost every
American city with a population of more than
10,000 had bootblack stands operated by them.
Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to flourish.</p>

<p>The Bureau of Immigration helped to have
a number of padrones indicted and convicted
for offenses against the conspiracy statute and
the Immigration Act, and these prosecutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
made the importers very careful as to their
manner of procedure. They now bring the
boys here through the instrumentality of relatives
in Greece in such a way that the padrones
are almost beyond the reach of our criminal
statutes.</p>

<p>In some cases it has been found that on leaving
Greece for this country the boys are told to
report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or in some
other western city, hence they do not know their
final destination. The saloon keeper has his
instructions from the padrones and acts as their
distributing agent. Padrones who operate in
places distant from ports of entry easily avoid
detection in this way.</p>

<p>In most cases these padrones derive an income
from each boy of from $100 to as high as $500
a year. The Commission explains this as follows:
The wages paid by the padrones now to
Greek boys in shoe-shining establishments range
from $80 to $250 per year, the average wages
being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys
are bound by agreement to turn their tips over
to their padrones: in most cases as soon as the
tipping patron has departed the boy deposits
his tip in the register, while in other places tips<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
are put into a separate box to which the padrone
holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed
the sum of 50 cents per day, while in large
cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
therefore, receives in return from tips alone
nearly double the amount of wages paid. By
deducting the wages and the annual boarding
expenses for each boy&mdash;an expenditure seldom
exceeding the sum of $40 per year&mdash;there is
still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for
the privilege of allowing the boy to work in
his place. In other words, from the total
amount of tips&mdash;money that belongs to the
boy by right&mdash;the padrone is enabled to pay the
boy's annual wages and still have a respectable
sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
profits of his business.</p>

<p>Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay
the steamship passage of boys with the understanding
that they are to go to the United States
and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse
him for the passage money advanced. A mortgage
is placed on the property of the boys'
father as security, purporting that the father
is to receive in cash an amount equal to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
one year in the United States, but as a matter of
fact a steamship ticket and $12 or $15 in money
are all that is given. The cash is to serve as
"show money" to help secure admission to
this country past the immigration officers at
the ports of entry. Advertising is systematically
carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece
with a view to exciting the interest of the parents
so that they will send their boys to the United
States, and no efforts are spared in letting it
become known that there is a great demand here
for boy labor at the bootblack stands. The
padrones themselves even go to Greece every
two or three years, and while there manage to
become godfathers to the children of many
families; this relationship gives them great
influence, and through it they are able to secure
many boys for their service.</p>

<p>Concerning the prevention of these abuses,
the report says: "In the investigations conducted
by the Bureau of Immigration many
conferences were held with United States
attorneys in various jurisdictions with the view
of instituting proceedings against padrones,
if possible, under the peonage statutes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
attorneys generally agreed that under the evidence
submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
establishments are peons, but as the
elements of indebtedness and physical compulsion
to work out the indebtedness are missing,
peonage laws cannot apply.</p>

<p>"Our immigration laws as now on the statute
books provide specifically for the exclusion of
boys under sixteen years of age only when not
accompanied by one or both of their parents.
This provision cannot apply to those boys that
come in company with their parents, nor to
those who have their parents in the United
States, nor to such as successfully deceive
immigration officers by posing as the sons of
immigrants in whose charge they come. If
held for special inspection at the ports of entry,
these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
that they are destined to an occupation unsuited
to their tender years. In the absence of any
such evidence, the boards of inquiry generally
admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard
matter to trace them and almost impossible
to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
the boys understand that they will be punished
by deportation. This knowledge makes them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
persistent in withholding any information as
to the manner of their entry into the United
States."<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>

<p>Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who
was working at a stand in an Indianapolis
office building confessed to a truant officer that
he was twelve years old, whereupon the chief
truant officer of the city went to the place, but
on his arrival the boy had changed his mind
and declared that he was fourteen years old, and
every one connected with the stand supported
the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
officer proceeded with the case and found that
the boy had been in this country only about
six months, his parents being still in Greece.
An older brother had a position as a railroad
porter but did not stay with the little fellow
even on the few occasions he was in the city.
The boy lived at the home of the proprietor
of the stand, whose relationship to him was a
combination of employer and guardian. This
man operated four stands in the city, and his
dozen or more other employees all lived at the
same place. The chief truant officer charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
the man with having worked the boy from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> seven days in the week, which was
admitted before the Juvenile Court by the
defendant, who also volunteered the information
that the boy worked until 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on holidays
and on Saturdays. Of course the boy was
being kept out of school.</p>

<p>In its issue of August 12, 1911, the <i>Survey</i>
published a letter from a correspondent concerning
a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case
was of a pale, thin, under-sized Greek lad who
worked at a large stand in a local office building.
He explained that he worked every day in the
week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, including Sundays,
and that on Saturdays the hours were lengthened
to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, adding that he had not
been absent from his stand one day in four years
except at one time when he was sick in the
hospital.</p>

<p>A letter which was written by a Greek in
Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4, 1911, to the editor
of the Syracuse <i>Post-Standard</i> was printed in
the same magazine.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This letter recites the
wrongs of the bootblacks and is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
below because of its value as one of the rare
protests which come from the victims of the
system:&mdash;</p>

<p>"Before I came to this country from Greece,
I heard that this country is free, but I don't
think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
the shoe shiners. In this city are too many
shoe shiners' stands, and the boys which work
there&mdash;they work fifteen hours a day, and
Sunday, and almost eighteen on Saturdays.
They make only from $12 to $18 a month and
board, but we don't have any good board neither,
but our patrons give us bread, tea and a piece
of cheese for dinner, supper, but no breakfast.
We don't have any time to go to the church,
not in school, and without them we won't be
good citizens. They won't let us read newspapers,
because they are afraid if we learn
something we will quit, but we can't quit
because we can't speak English, and we can't
find another job. Now I don't mean the boys
working in the barber shops. They make
$10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard
as we do. We wish to work as they do. We
want the public and Mr. Mayor to cut the
hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
we want time for school, and weekly work, not
monthly. I think I wrote enough."</p>


<h3 class="italic">Peddlers and Market Children</h3>

<p>The licensed peddlers of Boston are under
orders not to engage little children to sell for
them with or without compensation. "These
peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of
this city by inviting children to help them in
the business, frequently for no other compensation
than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>

<p>The peddling of chewing gum is a common
form of street occupation for children. In
reality it is merely begging in disguise. The
Chicago Vice Commission reports that its
agents found boys under fourteen years of age
selling gum late at night in the segregated
districts of the city. At intervals of from two
to three hours their investigators returned to
the same neighborhood and found these little
children still engaged in this very questionable
form of work. One agent reported having
seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
company of a small boy of about eight years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
selling chewing gum in front of a saloon in the
vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
night.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>

<p>The following table gives the sex, age, nationality,
standing in school, orphanage and occupation
of seventeen children found by one
person in a single trip through the markets of
Cincinnati:&mdash;</p>

<table class="lined" summary="Seventeen market children in Cincinnati">
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Boys</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Girls</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Age</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Grade</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Nationality</th>
  <th colspan="2">Father Living</th>
  <th colspan="2">Mother Living</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Selling</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th>Yes</th>
  <th>No</th>
  <th>Yes</th>
  <th>No</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">9</td>
  <td class="bl">2d</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1 </td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">10</td>
  <td class="bl">4th</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">10</td>
  <td class="bl">3d</td>
  <td class="bl">German</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">10</td>
  <td class="bl">2d</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">10</td>
  <td class="bl">4th</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">10</td>
  <td class="bl">3d</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">11</td>
  <td class="bl">4th</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">11</td>
  <td class="bl">3d</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">11</td>
  <td class="bl">6th</td>
  <td class="bl">German</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">12</td>
  <td class="bl">4th</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">12</td>
  <td class="bl">3d</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">12</td>
  <td class="bl">4th</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">12</td>
  <td class="bl">6th</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">13</td>
  <td class="bl">5th</td>
  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">14</td>
  <td class="bl">3d</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">14</td>
  <td class="bl">8th</td>
  <td class="bl">American</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl">1</td>
  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
  <td class="bl bb">14</td>
  <td class="bl bb">4th</td>
  <td class="bl bb">Italian</td>
  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br bb">fruit</td>
 </tr>


</table>



<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>Of these seventeen children nine were Italians,
six were Americans, two were Germans. Five
of the children, all of whom except one were
Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the
passers-by in markets. Six of the children,
all of whom except one were Italian, were
selling fruit. Six of the children were selling
vegetables and herbs, all of them being Americans
and Germans. The occupational characteristics
of these different peoples are shown
by their children, the Italians predominating
in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale
of the products of their market gardens, the
Americans, all of whom were boys, in the sale
of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
cultivated on their home farms.</p>

<p>Of these seventeen children nine were in their
normal grades at school, while eight were backward
and none ahead of their proper grades.
This large percentage of retardation is due principally
to the lack of time for preparation of
school lessons on the part of these children, as
much of their afternoons and evenings is taken
up either with the work of selling in the markets
or with the work of assisting with the garden
duties at home. Of the eight backward chil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>dren,
four were Italians and four were Americans.
One of the backward Italian girls was fourteen
years of age and had left school three weeks
prior to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six
children; her father was dead, and she was working
for her mother in their fruit store selling
the fruit from early morning until midnight
every day in the week except Sunday. As she
was the oldest child in the family, it is of course
easily seen that her retardation in school was
largely due to her having been kept at work in
the shop during the afternoons and evenings
while she was still attending school. An American
boy, who, although twelve years of age, was
only in the third grade at school, was employed
by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in
spite of the fact that his father had a store and
was fully able to support the child properly.
This boy was found, as were many other such
children, selling baskets in the market at eleven
o'clock at night after having been there since
early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old
Italian boy was only in the fifth grade; he was
selling baskets in one market in the morning
and in another market during the afternoon and
evening; both of his parents were living, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
his father had a "city job." There were six
children in the family, two of whom were older
and employed. The entire family of eight persons
occupied two rooms.</p>

<p>It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve
of the children were living, only five being dead;
while the mothers of fifteen were living, only two
being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan.
In the great majority of cases it was not necessary
for these children to work so prematurely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN</span></h2>


<p>Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged
during the day in the unobjectionable task of
delivering telegrams to residences and business
offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
occupation quite suitable for children and to
give it no further thought. However, the
character of the work done by the messenger
boy changes radically after nine or ten o'clock
at night. At that hour most legitimate business
has ceased, and the evil phases of city life begin
to manifest themselves. From that time on
until nearly dawn the messenger's work is largely
in connection with the vicious features of city
life. The ignorance of the general public as to
the evil influences surrounding the night messenger
service is strikingly illustrated by what
one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
that if his father knew what kind of
work he was doing, a strap would be laid across
his back and he would be compelled to abandon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
it. But the father did not know; he thought
his boy was simply delivering telegrams.</p>

<p>The delivery of telegrams forms but a small
part of the boy's work at night, because few
messages are dispatched after business hours.
Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers
to go on errands. The boys wait upon the
characters of the underworld and perform a
surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry
notes to and from the inmates of houses of prostitution
and their patrons, take lunches, chop
suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women,
procure liquor after the closing hour, purchase
opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to drug
stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles
used in their trade, and perform other tasks
that oblige them to cultivate their acquaintance
with the worst side of human nature. One
instance was found in which the boy was required
to clean up the room of a prostitute and
to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the
messenger boy is a badge of secrecy and enables
him to get liquor at illegal hours or to procure
opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
be refused; hence these boys are thrown into
associations of the lowest kind, night after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
night, and come to regard these evil conditions
as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest
boys on the night force become the favorites
of the prostitutes; the women take a fancy to
particular boys because of their personal attractiveness
and show them many favors, so that
the most promising boys in this work are the
ones most liable to suffer complete moral
degradation.</p>

<p>Messenger service not only gives boys the
opportunity to learn what life is at night in
"tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
work actually <i>forces</i> them into contact with the
vilest conditions and subjects them to the fearful
influences always exerted by such associations.
Some believe that this evil could be
prevented by forbidding the office to allow
messenger boys to go on such errands, but this
is not practicable for two reasons: first, because
an essential feature of the messenger service is
secrecy&mdash;the office does not inquire into the
nature of the errand to be performed, and even
if it did so, a false statement could easily be
made by the patron over the telephone; and
second, it would be necessary to send a detective
along with the boy on each trip to see that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
observed the rules. Boys are eager to run
errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
being the extra income assured, as these women
give tips with liberal hand.</p>

<p>Like other street occupations, the messenger
service is a blind alley; it leads nowhere. A
very few boys are promoted to the position of
check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer
still have an opportunity to learn telegraphy.
Some of the boys become cab drivers because
they have familiarized themselves with the city
streets; others become saloon keepers because
they have become well acquainted with this
method of making a livelihood; some are
attracted by the life of "ease" which opens
before them and enter into agreement with
prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist;
others have the courage to get away from these
influences and secure work as office boys or in
some other line entirely different from the messenger
service.</p>

<p>A considerable number of the inmates of state
reform schools were formerly messenger boys,
indicating that this service is one of the roads
to delinquency. As the immoral influences
surrounding this work are especially active<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
among youths, the age limit for such employment
at night should be made high enough to prevent
their being so exposed. New York State was
first to declare that if this work is to be done at
night it must be done by men, and has fixed
the age limit at twenty-one years. The late
Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
Court, speaking before the Conference of
Juvenile Court Officers held in that city in November,
1910, said that messenger boys, and
newsboys who sell papers in the downtown
streets, were the boys most frequently charged
with delinquency before his court, and declared
that twenty-one years was low enough as an
age limit for night messenger service.</p>

<p>Other temptations assail the messenger boy
in his work, and are frequently yielded to. The
old practice of raising the amount of charges
on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and
is still an ever present problem to the companies.
When a boy has been detected in this petty
crime and is questioned about it, he too often
adds to the one misdeed the other equally grievous
one of lying, whereupon his dismissal
usually follows.</p>

<p>Under the direction of the writer an investi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>gation
of the night messenger service was made
in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
following cases being typical of the conditions
found in all cities. In one of the larger towns
of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger boy
was interviewed one night by an agent of the
National Child Labor Committee who had
called up the telegraph office by telephone
requesting that a messenger be sent to him.
Early in the course of conversation, of his own
volition, the boy referred to houses of prostitution.
Upon being asked what he knew about
such places, he replied: "Too much&mdash;I am
there half the night. You see they call for
messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes
I get them drinks, opium, medicines from drug
stores or anything they want. No matter
what they ask us to do&mdash;it's our business
to go ahead and do it." The boy led the agent
to a disreputable negro district and described
his activities in this region. "No night passes
without my making a dollar down here," said
he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium,
and I get it for them; they give me a little jar,
and I have it filled up for them. It costs them
$1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more
information, whereupon the boy offered to get
some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
gave the boy one dollar and told him he might
keep the change; in ten minutes he returned
with a card of opium which was subsequently
analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the
kind ordinarily prepared for smoking purposes.
This experience was repeated again and again
by agents of the National Child Labor Committee
in different cities and proved beyond the
shadow of a doubt that these young boys are
forced into familiarity with the most degrading
conditions.</p>

<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
the same town told the agent that there were
but few business calls at night, and that nearly
all of their work was in connection with houses
of prostitution. This boy spoke of the money
he received in tips from inmates and patrons
of these houses, of his receiving liquor and
cigarettes from them, and remarked, "I do
not have to do this work, but I like it; this job
is too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of
things." This little fellow described some extremely
revolting scenes of which he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
witness in these houses, and upon being asked
whether his manager was aware of the kind of
places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
does, for he gets the message over the telephone,
then he calls one of the boys and sends him to
the house."</p>

<p>Another messenger in the same city, who was
seventeen years old and had been in this service
for four years, working daily until half past
two in the morning, said, in talking about the
use of drugs by prostitutes, "When they are
so full of dope that they don't know what to
do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes
I have had them send me out to a drug store
for paris green; they want to kill themselves,
they are crazy with opium; of course I take
their money and never show up again." This
boy also bought a small package of opium for
the agent. He declared that he knew every
house of prostitution in the city and was well
acquainted with their proprietresses. To prove
this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such places,
putting down the streets and numbers at once
from memory. These were subsequently referred
to persons familiar with the city and
verified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>

<p>It is very distressing to read the testimony
of a fourteen-year-old messenger boy of another
city who had been thrown by his work so much
in contact with evil conditions that he had
come to regard these as normal. Although
only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith
in womankind. In walking through the segregated
district with the agent, this boy called
out in advance the number of each house of
prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with
the whole region. In his childish, schoolboy
hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of the
bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly
from memory the names of the proprietresses,
the names of the streets and numbers of the
houses.</p>

<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
this city related many disgusting details of his
experiences in the service at night&mdash;of prostitutes
smoking, cursing and sprawling on the
floor dead drunk. He stated that he had never
smoked before he became a messenger, but that
when he saw the women using tobacco in all
the houses, he thought there could be no harm in
it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
a day. I get twenty for a nickel and smoke
all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep.
I once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in
one of the houses&mdash;but no more opium for
me." When asked whether his manager knew
that he was sent to these houses, he replied:
"Sure he does, he's the one that sends us;
if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the
women, too, because he jokes with them over the
telephone when they call up for a boy."</p>

<p>A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when
asked what he did with the money he received
as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows
during the day and buy different things; I
suppose if my people knew the kind of work I
was doing, I would get a thick leather strap over
my back. They have an idea that the messenger
business is just taking telegrams to reputable
people. There are very few business calls at
night at our office; almost all of them come from
houses of prostitution. This is going to be a
very busy week with us because a convention
starts to-morrow, and the delegates will want
us to take them to the houses."</p>

<p>Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
years of age, although he had been in the service
of one company for four years and had previously
been discharged from another company
for having defrauded a patron. This lad was a
typical boy of the street; his features were
drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his
walk could be described best as a drag. "I
know every single house of prostitution in this
city," said he. "I have been in every one.
I get drinks in most of them, and many a time
I was drunk for a whole day in some woman's
room." This boy, having been in the service
several years, spoke of the ravages dissipation
had wrought on the women of the underworld.
He had known many of them when they were
just starting in their life of shame, and remarked
their rapid decline. Voluntarily he spoke of
the venereal diseases from which he had suffered.
He said that he had been discharged from his
first job as a messenger for having defrauded
patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked,
he said: "A woman wanted me to carry a
package to some place and asked me what it
would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she
wouldn't pay it because it was too much. I
told her to speak to the manager and gave her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
the telephone number where my pal was waiting
for the call. She asked him whether he was
the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
asked how much the charge was, and he answered
one dollar. Then I went on the errand, and we
split the difference. Somehow the manager got
wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation
was a continuous flow of vulgarity. When
the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew
from his pocket two sets of dice and said they
were "ready at any time to do business. When
the first of the month comes around, I am
generally short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once.
When I have no ready cash, I play on account
of my salary."</p>

<p>An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have
been in this business here for five years, and a
night never passes that I don't go to a house of
prostitution; that's our main business at night.
They could not afford to have a messenger
service in this town at night if it were not for
the red light district. We have to do all their
work, because they trust us." This boy spoke
of the venereal diseases other boys in the service
had, and admitted that he had contracted
them twice himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>

<p>Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy,
who has been in the service four years and is
afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
infection, said among other things, "There are
lots of messengers who are kept by women.
The boys work only for appearances. I knew
two messengers who worked with me who were
kept by two prostitutes for a year, then they
gave up the job at the same time and took the
prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked
for them. One of these boys is only about
nineteen years old now. You don't learn
anything in the messenger business except to
knock down (overcharge a patron) and to go
around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills
a fellow. I know, because I went down the line,
and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied:
"You don't suppose I want to work for $3 or
$4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good
money and having a good time." He said that
he made from $40 to $75 a month according to
the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he
got it. Most of it went in gambling.</p>

<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another
city who works from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, in speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
of the use of whisky in houses of prostitution,
said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
messengers, and we stand in with them; the
more a house sends for whisky the better they
stand in with the saloon keeper. If the proprietress
gets locked up, she will always be bailed
out by the saloon keeper, but if she don't buy
enough stuff from him, he will refuse to do it.
When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring
up for a messenger from the station house, and
they send me to the cell where the woman is,
and she always gives me a note to take to the
saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her
out." This boy said his manager knew the kind
of places he visited, but was not in the office all
night. During the late hours of the night the
telegraph operator and the clerk were left in
charge, and the boy remarked that they had
told him to try to get a woman into the office
if he found one on the street, and related instances
in which this had been done. He was
paid a salary of $22 a month.</p>

<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this
town is paid $17 a month salary and makes
$10 or $12 a month in tips.</p>

<p>A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
after having related some of his experiences in
the segregated district, said: "I tell you, it's
mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I
suppose a fellow has to learn these things somehow,
and I may as well learn them in the messenger
service as in any other way. I smoke
perique so I can sleep in the daytime."</p>

<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same
city, employed from noon to midnight, had
been in the service only one week when interviewed
by the agent; among other things he
said: "All the last week I have been doing nothing
but go to the red light district. I didn't know
what this messenger business was until I got
into it, and I am going to quit just as soon as I
see a little more of that kind of thing."</p>

<p>In a certain Indiana city there was found a
"kid line" messenger service, so called because
the proprietor was a mere boy who was formerly
in the service of another messenger company.
He had two day boys, but at night answered the
calls himself. He was fourteen years old and
told the agent that he had lived in the "red
light" district more than at his home on account
of the number of calls he had to answer there,
but of course this was exaggeration intended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
convey the fact that most of his business was
with that region. When he entered into business
for himself, he went to all the prostitutes
in the "red light" district and told them that
he was commencing on his own account and
that he wanted them to be his customers. "I
get a good deal of their business. I get it because
I know how to treat them. I can get them beer
on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses.
I know all the women and can introduce you
to any of them, and can get you any amount
of beer or whisky that you want. When I
was working for the&mdash;&mdash; messenger company
there was another boy on the force who tried
to take all the good calls; he divided his tips
with the manager, so he was sent to all the
houses where good tips were given. There was
one prostitute who liked me pretty well and
gave me ten or fifteen cents for myself every time I
went to her house. I started to answer a call there
one night, and the other boy ran after me. We
got to the place at the same time and had a
fight in the hall; the men and women in the
place gathered around us and offered to give us
two dollars each if we would scrap for them,
so we started right in, and before I was through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
with him he had two black eyes and his face
was bleeding, then he pulled out a knife, but
they took it away from him, and the next day
I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the
houses who is a chambermaid and wants me
to live with her, and maybe I will but I'm
afraid my mother will get wise."</p>

<p>The fifteen-year-old messenger of another
office showed the agent the list of about one
hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
every one of which came from the "red light"
district.</p>

<p>After weighing such evidence we can readily
comprehend the justice of the opinion rendered
by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but
the messenger service is debauching.... And,
saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing
boy would itself incline him to like these
calls to houses of prostitution, but they quickly
learn also that women who live in these sections
are more generous with their earnings in the
way of tips than are the people in the more
respectable sections of the city.... It can
be said that all the boys who go into the messen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>ger
service do not go to the bad, but it can be
said with equal truth that it ruins children by
the dozens, and that if any boy comes out of
this service without having suffered moral shipwreck
he can thank the mercy of God for it,
and not the protecting arm of the community
that stands idly by and makes no attempt to
save him from temptation."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>

<p>In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law
for the District of Columbia which provided,
among other restrictions, that no messenger
boy under sixteen years should be employed
between 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>,&mdash;<i>sixteen years</i>, the
beginning of the period of adolescence, when
boys have the greatest need of protection from
the vices running riot in cities!</p>

<p>The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several
pages of its report to a recital of the experiences
of messenger boys in connection with their
work in the segregated districts. One of the
telegraph companies maintains a branch office
close to one of these districts, where eight boys
from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
as messengers. These boys are called upon to
work at all hours of the day and night, their
tasks being the same as those of the messengers
in other cities. A number of specific instances
of the wretched environment into which these
boys are thrown, are given. One of them who
works from midnight until 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> was sent by a
prostitute to a drug store for a package of cocaine
hydrochloride, for which he paid $5.78, receiving
$1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
Another messenger was sent out on a similar
errand by another prostitute two weeks later
and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle,
the cost to the druggist being 19 cents. A
few days later a boy was called by another prostitute
who confided to him that she had discontinued
the use of messenger boys for purchasing
"dope" because she found that they talked
too much and could not be trusted, adding that
she now had a newsboy, who sold papers at a
near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her. A
woman who lives in an apartment house and is
the owner and proprietor of houses of prostitution
in the restricted district, is in the habit
of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
who calls a messenger boy to deliver it to her
residence. This messenger opened one of the
packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine,
sniffed a little of it himself. He confessed that
he had done this quite often since, and it appeared
that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
from it. The same messenger is sent about
three times monthly by a certain man to a Chinaman,
from whom he buys a package of opium
for $4. On returning from one of these trips
he watched the man open the package, take a
quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
this point the messenger was told to leave the
room. Another messenger boy has been employed
at this particular branch office for more
than three years, although he is now only
seventeen years old; his earnings average
about $10 per week, including tips. He is
of small stature, not mentally bright and at
present is afflicted with syphilis of three
months' duration. Another messenger is a
boy of foreign parentage, only fifteen years of
age, who said he had recently been called quite
often to a certain house of prostitution where an
inmate gave him a box with a note to a druggist;
the contents cost $1.75, but upon returning to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
the woman he would declare that he had paid
$2.50, thus obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses,
and in addition a tip of half a dollar. On one
of his trips for this prostitute he had opened
the note and found that it was a requisition for
cocaine; on returning he placed some of the
contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
sensation and never repeated it. He is in the
habit of picking up discarded cigarettes and
smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
the name of nearly every prostitute in this district
and can recognize these women at sight;
he stated that whenever he entered a house of
prostitution they would nearly always kiss him,
and at different times he had had sores on his
lips.</p>

<p>Another boy who was attending high school
was employed as a messenger in the downtown
district during Christmas week of 1910. He
was sent to deliver a message in a house of
prostitution, and the girl who received it offered
to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
present, stating that it was customary to do this
for messenger boys on Christmas Day.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>

<p>A number of other messengers told of similar
experiences, stating that they were often called
to houses of prostitution to perform small
personal services for the inmates. As to regulation
of the service, a police order was issued
in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that no
messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years
was to be allowed in the segregated districts at
any time.</p>

<p>In arguing against the further restriction
of the night messenger service, the telegraph
companies and other interested organizations
insist that the majority of these boys are working
to support their widowed mothers or incapacitated
fathers; a recent government report says,
in referring to the table of families in which
there are messengers and errand and office
boys ten to fourteen years of age, classified by
percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston,
Chicago, New York and Washington, "These
statistics point to the conclusion that the greater
part of the families now furnishing children
from ten to thirteen years of age and fourteen
years for the occupation of messengers and errand
and office boys are by no means either entirely
or largely dependent upon the earnings of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
children for the family support."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The restriction
advocated does not contemplate the prohibition
of this work to boys of fourteen years
and upwards in the <i>daytime</i>; its object is to
shield the youths from the vile associations
necessarily connected with this work at <i>night</i>.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Night Service by Men&mdash;Not by Boys</h3>

<p>Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child
Labor Committee, in speaking of the study of
the night messenger service undertaken by this
organization, says: "The evidence collected
justified the committee in cooperating with its
affiliated organizations to secure legislation, and,
counting on the <i>moral interest of the public</i>
to promote the effort, we made the question
one for practical and immediate decision.
Results apparently justify the policy chosen.
A bill was unanimously passed by the legislature
of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
person under twenty-one years of age from this
occupation between ten o'clock at night and
five o'clock in the morning."</p>

<p>Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
of messengers under twenty-one years of age
between the hours of 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, except
by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age
limit for this work in cities of first and second
classes between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> New Jersey
did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing
the age limit at eighteen years for smaller
places, the prohibited hours being from 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>

<p>Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting
the employment of any one under twenty-one
years of age as a messenger between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> in cities of the first, second and third
classes. Ohio, in 1910, fixed the age limit for
messenger service between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> at
eighteen years.</p>

<p>Michigan now prohibits the employment of
messengers under eighteen years between 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
Tennessee and California.</p>

<p>Other states having the advanced type of
child labor law prohibit the employment of
children under fourteen years in the messenger
service during the day and under sixteen years
at night. The states of Alabama, Arkansas,
Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do not yet provide
any age limit for this work.</p>

<p>The evil effects of the messenger service have
also been noted in Great Britain. A schoolmaster
of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness
are the chief products of message going
by boys."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>

<p>A London health officer has testified as follows:
"There is a very large employment of boy
labour now, boys employed as messengers and
errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful
for their future life; and when they have outgrown
the age at which they can be employed
in this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks
of the unskilled labourer is a very large one."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>

<p>"The government post office telegraph messengers
are not employed unless they have
passed the seventh standard at school and each
candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate
of health from his own medical attendant.
A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
eight inches in height. The minimum starting
wage in London is seven shillings a week, rising
by a shilling a week annually to eleven shillings.
On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to
pass a further examination in order to qualify
for retention. The various <i>private</i> telegraph
companies offer much the same terms, though in
some cases they are able to get boys slightly
cheaper, as the qualifying standard is not such
a high one. It is only during the rare periods
when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful
than usual that the private telegraph companies
will refuse a boy on account of his size. The
varied nature of the work they are called upon
to perform is an undoubted attraction in the
eyes of many.... That it is bad for them morally
is less open to doubt. Even when they are
more actively employed the most that they can
hope to learn is a very small amount of discipline.
A more serious point is the future of the boys
when they cease to be messengers."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>

<p>"It is well to point out that the commonest
of these occupations, that of errand boy or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere.
It lacks almost necessarily what the
boy most needs&mdash;the compulsory training of
the habit of disciplined effort."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>

<p>As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of
the work, however, should be not whether boys
can do it, but what it does to boys."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN</span></h2>


<p>All the evil effects of street work upon children
observed by students of the problem have
been here divided into three groups, under the
headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration.
It must be understood that this is
a summary of such effects and that while the
influences of the street are unquestionably bad,
any one child exposed to them is not likely to
suffer to the full extent suggested below. However,
deterioration in one form or another is
invariably noted in children who have been
engaged in street work for any length of time,
and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability
of such employment for our boys and girls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>



<table class="intext" summary="Effects of Street Work on Children">
<caption><span class="smcap">Effects of Street Work on Children</span></caption>
 <tr>
  <td class="bb vmiddle" rowspan="3">Material Deterioration</td>
  <td rowspan="3" class="bb bracket">&#123;</td>
  <td> Form distaste for regular employment.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Small chance of acquiring a trade.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bb" > Drift into large class of casual workers.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bb vmiddle"  rowspan="6">Physical Deterioration</td>
  <td  rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
  <td> Night work.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Excessive fatigue.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Exposure to bad weather.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Irregularity of sleep and meals.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Use of stimulants&mdash;cigarettes, coffee, liquor.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bb" > Disease through contact with vices.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="vmiddle bb"  rowspan="6">Moral Deterioration</td>
  <td rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
  <td> Encouragement to truancy.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Independence and defiance of parental control.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Form liking for petty excitements of street.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td> Opportunities to become delinquent.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bb"> Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>These are the insidious influences permeating
street work and rampant in all our cities. They
are minimized and even denied by certain ignorant
or interested parties who base their assertions
upon the fact that prominent men of to-day
were once newsboys or bootblacks, and therefore
jump to the conclusion that their success is
due to the training received in this way when
young. The truth is more likely to be that such
individuals have succeeded, not because of this
early training, but in spite of it. Boys of
exceptionally strong character will force them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>selves
out of such an environment unscathed,
but the great majority of children have not
sufficient mental and moral stamina to withstand
these influences. The minority will take
care of itself under any circumstances,&mdash;it is
with the weaker majority that we must deal.
The problem is an urgent one, but generally
ignored, for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public
sees the street worker at his best and neglects
him at his worst.</p>

<p>The charge that in street work a child has
small chance of acquiring a suitable trade is
one of the worst counts in the indictment.
Street work leads to nothing else; the various
occupations are so many industrial pitfalls, and
the children who get into them must sooner or
later struggle out and begin over again at some
other line of work, if they would succeed.</p>

<p>"These children (street traders) furnish a
very large proportion of recruits to the criminal
population. Those who do not graduate into
crime form a liking for the petty excitements of
the street and a distaste for regular employment.
They lack skill and perseverance, shun the
monotony of a permanent job, and as they
grow older either follow itinerant and question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>able
trades or become ill-paid and inefficient
casual laborers. Therefore these young people
are a source of waste to society rather than of
profit."<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>

<p>The large percentage of former newsboys
among the inmates of boys' reformatories
recently induced an active social worker to send
an inquiry to the superintendents of such
institutions and to juvenile court judges in
different parts of the country relative to the
effect of newspaper selling on schoolboys.
The statements received in reply are set forth
in a leaflet which was published in 1910.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>

<p>These officials are practically unanimous in
condemning street trading by boys, declaring
that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
always morally defiled; that the pittance they
earn is bought at great sacrifice; that the
spending of their earnings without supervision
is the worst thing that can befall them; that the
life leads to gambling, dishonesty and spendthrift<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil
temptations; that the boys are comparatively
idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
and heard on the street; that the work subjects
boys to bad influences before they are strong
enough to resist them; that delinquency results
from their enforced association with all classes
of boys; and concluding that every possible
protection should be thrown about the young
boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration
to the advantages of street trading, and one
made the naïve statement that newspaper selling
was not a bad business for a boy who could
withstand its temptations.</p>

<p>Although the law of New York State provides
a modicum of regulation for street trading,
nevertheless it has not been effective because
of extremely indifferent enforcement. Like
almost all other street-trading laws in the United
States, it places the age limit at the ridiculous
age of ten years. A movement was started
recently in Buffalo to remedy the situation, and
the following statement was published:&mdash;</p>

<p>"During the past year we have sought to
discover, not by theorizing, but by uncovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys
were secured. Eighteen per cent were reported
as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor
in attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight
per cent stood poor or very poor in scholarship,
while only 15 per cent of the other children in
the same schools failed in their work. An
investigation at the truant school showed that
46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged
in the street trades. On the basis of these facts
and studies made in connection with the schools,
juvenile courts and reformatories elsewhere,
we hope to secure legislation raising the age
below which boys may not engage in the street
trades to twelve years, and making it illegal
for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
We are also striving to secure better enforcement
of this law in Buffalo and other
cities."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>

<p>This folder also states that circular letters
were sent to all Buffalo school principals asking
about the effect on scholarship of the early
morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
and also to physicians inquiring about the effect
of such work on physical development. The
hours for such newspaper delivery were from
4.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> Eight principals and six
physicians denounced such work to every one
who favored it. Referring to the occupational
history of reformatory inmates, a recent report
for New York City says: "The parental school
(school for truants) statistics show that 80 out
of its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per
cent of the entire number have been street
traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of
Italians (noted as street traders), gives us a
record of 469 or 80 per cent out of their 590
boys interviewed, who have followed the street
profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been
newsboys selling over three months. The New
York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of
its inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as
street traders. The House of Refuge repeats
the same story: 63 per cent of those committed
to that institution had been street traders, of
whom 32 per cent were newsboys. If 63 per cent
of the House of Refuge inmates have been street
traders, and if the majority of such have begun
their so-called criminal careers, which end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
invariably in the state penitentiary, why do we
permit children to trade on our streets?"<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>

<p>Another American writer says: "Whatever
the cause, the effect on the newsboy is always the
same. He lives on the streets at night in an
atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes
in vice and evil with the air he breathes. If he
grows into manhood and escapes the tuberculosis
which seizes so many of these boys of
the street, the things that he has learned as a
professional newsboy lead in one direction,&mdash;toward
crime and things criminal. The professional
newsboy is the embryo criminal."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>

<p>The dangers to the morals of children are
particularly emphasized by those who have given
this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo
says: "Nor is it only in factories that these
grosser forms of immorality flourish. They are
even more prevalent among the children of the
street trades,&mdash;newsboys, bootblacks, messengers
and the like. The proportion of newsboys who
suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly great.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
The superintendent of the John Worthy School
of Chicago, Mr. Sloan, asserts that 'one third
of all the newsboys who come to the John
Worthy School have venereal diseases and that
10 per cent of the remaining newsboys at present
in the Bridewell are, according to the physician's
diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The
newsboys who come to the school are, according
to Mr. Sloan, on an average of one third below
the ordinary standard of physical development,
a condition which will be readily understood by
those who know the ways of the newsboys of
our great cities&mdash;their irregular habits, scant
feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping
in hallways, basements, stables and quiet
corners. With such a low physical standard
the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
increased."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>

<p>The economic aspect of this work is magnified
by most people beyond its true proportion;
the earnings of street-working children are not
needed by their families in most cases, and even
in those instances where their poverty demands
such relief it is wrong to purchase it at the price
paid in evil training and bad effects of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
kind. Commenting on this point the chief
truant officer for Indianapolis says: "A large
number of truants are recruited from that large
unrestricted class whose members are to be
found competing with one another on our street
corners from early until late. The pennies
which many of them earn are a material aid
in replenishing the depleted resources of some
of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether
such child laborers will not in the future bequeath
to society an abundant reward of human
wreckage which may be traced to such traffic
and its many temptations."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>

<p>As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking
the premature earnings of their children, a
Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy,
if he works 365 days a year, does not earn over
a hundred dollars; if he becomes delinquent
it costs the state at least two hundred dollars
a year to care for him. When we remember
that twelve out of every one hundred boys
between ten and sixteen become delinquent,
and that over 60 per cent of these boys come
from street trades, it does not take long for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
business man to figure out that it is rather poor
economy to let a ten-year-old boy go into at
least this field of labor.... From an economic
standpoint the family that sends out
a ten-year-old boy to sell papers loses a great
deal more in actual money from the boy's lack
of future earning capacity than the boy can
possibly earn by his youthful efforts. In other
words, this sort of labor from an economic
standpoint is an absurdity."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>

<p>In its splendid report on street trading, the
British departmental committee of 1910 stated:
"We learnt that much of this money, so readily
made, is spent with equal dispatch. The
children spend it on sweets and cigarettes, and
in attending music halls, and in very many cases
only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is
taken home.... In many towns the traders are
drawn from the poorest of homes, but numerous
witnesses have emphatically stated that their
experience leads them to think that cases where
real benefits accrue to the home are rare."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>

<p>The lack of proper training during childhood
almost invariably brings about a tragedy in
the lives of working people. The premature
employment of children at any kind of labor
which interferes with their education and their
training in work for which they are fitted is
most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs
in future misery the little income thus secured
in childhood. A careful student of the working
class declares: "Many bright and capable men
and women in this neighborhood [Greenwich
Village, New York City] would undoubtedly
have been able to occupy high positions in the
industrial world if they had not been <i>forced
into unskilled work when young</i>."<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>

<p>With reference to the effects of street trading
an English writer says: "It is difficult to
imagine a life which could be worse for a young
boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a
means of earning a livelihood which perhaps
more than any other is subject to the most
violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of
the income is a trifling evil by comparison with
the certainty of the bad moral effects of street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
trading on boys and youths. The life of the
street trader is a continual gamble, unredeemed
by any steady work; it is undisciplined and
casual, and exposed to all the temptations of
the street at its worst. The great majority of
the boys who sell papers drift away into crime
or idleness or some form of living by their wits."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
The same writer also declares: "Few things
could have a worse effect than this street trading
on those engaged in it. It initiates them into
the mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds
in them the craving for an irregular, undisciplined
method of life."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> And the editor of
these English studies adds: "It is part of the
street-bred child's precocity that he acquires
a too early acquaintance with matters which as
a child he ought not to know at all. His language
and conversation often reveal a familiarity
with vice which would be terrible were it not
so superficial."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>

<p>Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
of the word, the same writer says: "We do not
believe that immorality of this kind is universal
among the boys and girls of the labouring classes,
nor do we believe that the town youth is any
worse than his brother and sister of the country.
Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
mark of any one class or any one place. We
question whether comparison of sins and self-indulgence
would work out at all to the disadvantage
of the town labouring class as a whole.
It must be remembered that one commonplace
factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all
on the side of the town youth's virtue. The
street has its safeguards as well as its dangers."<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>

<p>With reference to the blind alley character
of street work, another English writer avers:
"As in London, the labours of the school children
[in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship
or preparation for their future lives. The
grocer's little errand boy will be discharged
when he grows bigger and needs higher wages;
the chemist's runner is not in training to become
a chemist. The three farthings an hour on the
one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
degeneration on the other, are all that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
the little ones here, as elsewhere, get out of toil
from which many a grown man would shrink."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>

<p>Another English student of labor conditions
declares: "Teachers&mdash;together with magistrates,
police authorities, ministers of religion
and social workers&mdash;are practically unanimous
in condemning street trading as an employment
of children of school age. In this occupation
children deteriorate rapidly from the physical,
mental and moral point of view."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>

<p>Still another writer says: "One great evil
which results from this life of street trading in
childhood is the fact that it is fatal to industrial
efficiency in after life."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>

<p>The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D.,
given in 1904, on the occasion of the inquiry
into physical deterioration in Great Britain, is to
the point, in spite of the fact that the committee
directing the inquiry stated that "The impressions
gathered from the great majority of the
witnesses examined do not support the belief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
that there is any general progressive deterioration."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>
Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony was
as follows: "The causes of deficient physique
are very numerous ... it is very likely that
in order to eke out the scanty earnings of the
father and mother the child is sent, out of school
hours, to earn a penny or two, and so it comes
to school wearied out in body by having had to
work early in the morning, exhausted by not
having had food, and then is sent to learn.
Well, it cannot learn."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Later the same witness
testified, "One of the very worst causes [of
physical deterioration] is that children in actual
attendance at school, work before and after
schooltime."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>

<p>In a special inquiry into the physical effects
of work upon 600 boys of school age made in
1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
officer to the London County Council's education
department, it was found that many of the
children suffered from nervous strain, heart
disease and deformities as a result of prolonged
labor. Of the 600 boys, 134 were shop boys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
others were scattered among various employments.
It was found that work during the
dinner hour and also the long work-day on
Saturday were particularly harmful. As to
fatigue among the newsboys, of those working
20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected;
of those working between 20 and 30 hours,
70 per cent; while of those working more than
30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue.
As to anæmia, among the newsboys, of those
working 20 hours or less it appeared among
only 19 per cent; but of those working 20 to
30 hours, 30 per cent showed it; while of those
working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of
those working 20 hours or less 16 per cent were
suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over
30 hours, 37 per cent showed nerve strain. As
to deformities, none were noted among boys
working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per
cent of those working 20 to 30 hours or more
were found to be afflicted. All elementary
schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of
8 per cent, but of those engaged in different kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
of work from 20 to 30 hours a week, 21 per cent
showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be
the chief deformity produced by newspaper
selling, this being caused by the boys' having
to be on their feet too much.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>

<p>One of the most decisive blows delivered
against street work by children in Great Britain
was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
Liverpool City Council, a son of working
people, who had lived in a crowded city street
for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
school until fourteen years of age, where the
number of child street traders was very large,
and had become convinced that "work after
school hours was decidedly injurious to health and
character." Referring to the material condition
of his street-trading acquaintances, he said:
"Almost all the boys sent out to work after school
hours from the school referred to have failed in
the battle of life. Not one is a member of any
of the regular trades, while all who were sent to
trade in the streets have gone down to the depths
of social misery if not degradation ... a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
proportion of those who did not work after school
hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper sellers,
occupy respectable positions in the city."<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>

<p>Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of
Social Economy in a study of St. Louis newsboys
made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys
under 11 years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to
cheap shows and 23 used tobacco; while of
100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled,
92 went to cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>

<p>Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental
committee of 1901 is the following:
"Street hawking is not injurious to the health if
the hours are not long, and the work is not done
late at night; but its moral effects are far worse
than the physical, and this employment in the
center of many large towns makes the streets
hotbeds for the corruption of children who learn
to drink, to gamble and to use vile language,
while girls are exposed to even worse things."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>

<p>The British departmental committee of 1910<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
declared: "In the case of both boys and girls
the effect of this occupation on future prospects
cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except,
possibly, in casual and exceptional cases. We
learn that many boys who sell while at school
manage to obtain other work upon becoming
fourteen, but for those who remain in the street
the tendency is to develop into loafers and
'corner boys.' The period between fourteen
and sixteen is a critical time in a boy's life.
Street trading provides him with no training;
he gets no discipline, he is not occupied the
whole of his time; for a few years he makes more
money and makes it more easily than in an
office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a
variety of actively evil influences."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>

<p>An important division of the study of street-working
children concerns their standing in
the schools. In New York City a few figures
are available through a study recently made
there. The distribution of 200 newsboys under
fourteen years of age among the school grades
is shown in the following table:<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>&mdash;</p>

<table class="lined" summary="Distribution of newsboys among school grades NYC">
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Ages</th>
  <th colspan="8">Grades</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Special</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Totals</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th> 1</th>
  <th> 2</th>
  <th> 3</th>
  <th> 4</th>
  <th> 5</th>
  <th> 6</th>
  <th> 7</th>
  <th> 8</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right">10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">19</td>
  <td class="bl right">21</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 62</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">15</td>
  <td class="bl right">10</td>
  <td class="bl right">23</td>
  <td class="bl right">17</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb center">Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right">10</td>
  <td class="ball right">22</td>
  <td class="ball right">48</td>
  <td class="ball right">41</td>
  <td class="ball right">36</td>
  <td class="ball right">25</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 200</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>Applying the rule that in order to be normal
a child must enter the first grade at the age of
either six or seven years and progress with
enough regularity to enable him to attend the
eighth grade at the age of either thirteen or
fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are
backward, 57 are normal and 2 are beyond their
grades. This is shown in the following table:&mdash;</p>

<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of newsboys">
 <tr>
  <th> Ages</th>
  <th colspan="2">Backward</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl center"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl center"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 22</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl center"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 42</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 16</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 59</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl center"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 48</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 24</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 72</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl vmiddle center">Totals</td>
  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 118</td>
  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 57</td>
  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 2</td>
  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bt dcright">177&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="br bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  </tr>
 <tr><td class="bl bb vmiddle center">Percentages</td>
  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 67</td>
  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 32</td>
  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 1</td>
  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb dcright">100</td>
  <td class="bb br dcleft">%</td>
 </tr>
</table>




<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten
to thirteen years of age, 67 per cent are backward
and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1 per
cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these
ages are subject to the restrictions prescribed
by the state law as to hours, and it is probable
that the percentage of retardation would have
been even greater if work at night had not
been to some extent prevented.</p>

<p>A report of New York City conditions
made in 1907, before the newsboy law was
enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed,
sharp-witted lad is stupid and sleepy in the
schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
non-working boys in the same class were found
to fall below the average in proficiency. They
were also usually older than their classmates,
that is, backward in their grades."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>

<p>Referring to Manchester newsboys above
the age of fourteen years, an English report<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
backward, judged by school standards.... As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
they grow older they sink to a lower level,
both morally and economically&mdash;in fact,
little better than loafers, without aspiration,
and content with the squalor of the common
lodging-houses in which they live, if only
they have enough money for their drink
and their gambling." Concerning the younger
newsboys the same report continues: "Those
who are the children of extremely poor, and
often worthless parents, are often upon the
streets selling their papers during school
hours, and their attendance at the schools,
in spite of prosecution of their parents, is
so irregular that they make very little progress.
These boys take to the streets permanently
for their livelihood; a few of them
continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn
their living by selling newspapers, but most
of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
occupation." In connection with these statements
it should be remembered that they portray
conditions existing prior to the adoption
in 1902 of local rules on street trading.
With reference to the alleged cleverness of
street Arabs, a British observer draws this
distinction: "Street-trading children are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
cunning than other children, but not more intelligent."<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>

<p>In St. Louis there was no regulation until the
Missouri law of 1911 was passed; and in 1910
Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
that city, found the following conditions:&mdash;</p>

<table class="intext" summary="Conditions of newsboys in St. Louis">
 <tr>
  <th class="harmonized">Years </th>
  <th colspan="4"  class="harmonized">Number below Normal School Grade</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">10</td>
  <td class="right"> 10</td>
  <td class="right"> out of</td>
  <td class="right">16</td>
  <td class="right">62%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">11</td>
  <td class="right"> 12</td>
  <td class="right"> out of</td>
  <td class="right">16</td>
  <td class="right">75%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">12</td>
  <td class="right"> 16</td>
  <td class="right"> out of</td>
  <td class="right">28</td>
  <td class="right">57%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">13</td>
  <td class="right"> 25</td>
  <td class="right"> out of</td>
  <td class="right">33</td>
  <td class="right">75%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center">14</td>
  <td class="right"> <span class="u">11</span></td>
  <td class="right"> out of</td>
  <td class="right"><span class="u">&nbsp;13</span></td>
  <td class="right"><span class="u">84%</span></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="center"></td>
  <td class="right"> 74</td>
  <td class="right"> &nbsp;</td>
  <td class="right">106</td>
  <td class="right">70%</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>These figures were copied by the writer from
charts displayed at the child labor exhibit of
the National Conference of Charities and Correction
in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain
the method of determining these percentages
were unavailing. Therefore they cannot be
compared with the figures in the preceding
tables, because it is by no means certain that
the standard ages for normal school standing
were adopted in the compilation of this table.</p>

<p>In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>ing
street work by children, although a local
association makes an effort to look after the
welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the
writer visited the four public common school
buildings nearest the business district of this
city and found 287 children in attendance who
were regularly engaged in some form of street
work out of school hours. The great majority
of them were newsboys. The distribution of
these children according to age and grade is
given below:&mdash;</p>


<table class="lined" summary="Working pupils in Toledo">
 <tr>
  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
  <th class="noline" colspan="12">Ages</th>
  <th  class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc">Grade</th>
  <th> 5</th>
  <th> 6</th>
  <th> 7</th>
  <th> 8</th>
  <th> 9</th>
  <th> 10</th>
  <th> 11</th>
  <th> 12</th>
  <th> 13</th>
  <th> 14</th>
  <th> 15</th>
  <th> 16</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 23</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right">12</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 34</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 51</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 58</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 44</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 15</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball center">Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 13</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 24</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 50</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 287</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>Adopting the same method for determining
retardation as in the case of the New York<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
figures, we find that of these 287 street-working
school children of Toledo, 55 per cent are
backward, 43 per cent are normal and 2 per cent
are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the
children ten to thirteen years of age, as was
done with the New York figures, we have the
following results:&mdash;</p>

<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of Toledo school children">
<tr>
  <th> Ages</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Backward</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">25</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">16</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 17</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">28</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl center"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">34</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 45</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Totals</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">103</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 65</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 169</td>
  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftnarrow">Percentages</td>
  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">61</td>
  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 38</td>
  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">1</td>
  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 100</td>
  <td class="bb bt br dcleft">%</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<p>These percentages show that conditions in
Toledo are only slightly better than in New
York City. This is surprising because of the
great difference in the working conditions of
the two cities, the metropolitan street children
being subjected to far greater nervous strain
because of the more congested population and
heavier street traffic.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>

<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo), 1910-1911">
<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo)</span>, 1910-1911</caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w875" span="8" />
  <col class="w5" span="2" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
  <th>First</th>
  <th> Second</th>
  <th> Third</th>
  <th> Fourth</th>
  <th> Fifth</th>
  <th> Sixth</th>
  <th> Seventh</th>
  <th> Eighth</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 325</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 449</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 500</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 483</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 528</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 507</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 366</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 209</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3,367</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 53.5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 91</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 170</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 215</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 346</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 384</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 324</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 194</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 72</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1,796</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 28.5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 101</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 152</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 219</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 727</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 11.5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more years</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 42</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 74</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 131</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 105</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 395</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 6.2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 465</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 714</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 890</td>
  <td class="bl right">1112</td>
  <td class="bl right">1236</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 969</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 596</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 303</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6,285</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment each grade</td>
  <td class="bl right">3114</td>
  <td class="bl right">2680</td>
  <td class="bl right">2548</td>
  <td class="bl right">2400</td>
  <td class="bl right">2209</td>
  <td class="bl right">1856</td>
  <td class="bl right">1284</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 901</td>
  <td class="bl right">16,992</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent each grade</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">14.9</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">26.6</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">34.8</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">46.3</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">55.9</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">52.2</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">46.4</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">33.6</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 36.9</td>
  <td class="bl br bb right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
</table>



<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October, 1911">
<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October</span>, 1911<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w875" span="8" />
  <col class="w5" span="2" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
  <th>First</th>
  <th> Second</th>
  <th> Third</th>
  <th> Fourth</th>
  <th> Fifth</th>
  <th> Sixth</th>
  <th> Seventh</th>
  <th> Eighth</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 81</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 51.6</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 21.7</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 17.2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more</td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 9.5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 26</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 157</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment street workers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 51</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 58</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 287</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">39.1</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">44.1</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">72.5</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">53.4</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 59</td>
  <td class="bl bb right">62.1</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 52</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 20</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 54.7</td>
  <td class="bl bb br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
</table>





<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>A comparison between the table given in the
report of the Toledo Board of Education for
1911 showing the total number of retarded children
in the elementary schools, and a similar
table compiled from the figures for the street-trading
children in four Toledo schools given
on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, is most significant. The
retardation among the total number of pupils
enrolled is to be found on page <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>

<p>The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading
children in the four schools are to be
found on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>

<p>It is especially noteworthy that the percentage
of retardation among the street workers is
very much greater than among the total number
of pupils, in every grade except the eighth,
while for all the grades it is 17.8 per cent greater.
This becomes all the more significant when it is
remembered that the figures for the total enrollment
include the street workers; hence the
excess of retardation among the latter makes
the showing of the former worse than if they
were excluded, and consequently the comparison
on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a> does not appear to be as unfavorable
to the street workers as it is in reality.</p>

<p>On consideration of the figures in the tables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, the conclusion is inevitable
that street work greatly promotes the
retardation of school children. There are, of
course, other factors which contribute to bring
about this condition of backwardness, such as
poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but
there can be no doubt that the evil effects of
street work are in large measure responsible for
the poor showing made in the schools by the
children who follow such occupations.</p>

<p>The many quotations in this chapter from
authoritative sources with reference to the harmful
effects of street work upon children constitute
a most severe indictment. Students of labor
conditions, specialists and official committees
bitterly denounce the practice of permitting
children to trade in city streets, and cite the
consequences of such neglect. Material, physical
and moral deterioration are strikingly apparent
in most children who have followed street careers
and been exposed to their bad environment for
any length of time. We have provided splendid
facilities for the correction of our delinquent
children through the medium of juvenile courts,
state reformatories and the probation system,
but surely it would be wise to provide at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
same time an ounce of prevention in addition
to this pound of cure. Social workers have
returned a true bill against street work by
children. What will the verdict of the people
be?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY</span></h2>


<p>The most convincing proof so far adduced to
show that delinquency is a common result of
street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
being part of the Report on the Condition of
Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
States, prepared under the direction of Dr.
Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner
of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
1907 authorizing the study. The object of
this official inquiry into the subject of juvenile
delinquency was to discover what connection
exists between delinquency and occupation or
non-occupation, giving due consideration to
other factors such as the character of the child's
family, its home and environment. This study
is based upon the records of the juvenile courts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York, Boston,
Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing
cases of delinquency of children sixteen years of
age or younger coming before these courts during
the year 1907-1908. The total number
of delinquents included in the study is 4839, of
whom 2767 had at some time been employed
and 2072 had never been employed. The entire
number of offenses recorded for all the delinquents
was 8797, the working children being
responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent,
while the non-working children were responsible
for 3326 offenses, of 37.8 per cent.
This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed
by working children. The ages of the
children committing the offenses recorded,
ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report
adds, "When it is remembered that a majority,
and presumably a large majority, of all the children
between these ages are not working, this
preponderance of offenses among the workers
assumes impressive proportions."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>

<p>With reference to the character of the offenses
it was found that the working children inclined
to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
found to be far more numerous among the
workers than among the non-workers. Summing
up the results of the discussion to this
point the report says: "It is found that the
working children contribute to the ranks of
delinquency a slightly larger number and a
much larger proportion than do the non-workers,
that this excess appears in offenses of every
kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
recidivists even more markedly than among
first offenders."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>

<p>With reference to the connection between
recidivism and street work the report says:
"The proportion of recidivism is also large among
those who are working while attending school,
and the numbers here are very much larger
than one would wish to see. Some part of the
recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind
of occupations which a child can carry on while
attending school. Selling newspapers and blacking
shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy,
peddling and working about amusement resorts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
account for over two-thirds of these boys (478
of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits).
These are all occupations in which the
chances of going wrong are numerous, involving
as they usually do night work, irregular hours,
dubious or actively harmful associations and
frequent temptations to dishonesty. In addition,
something may perhaps be attributed to
the overstrain due to the attempt to combine
school and work. When a child of 13, a bootblack,
is 'often on the street to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,' or when
a boy one year older works six hours daily
outside of school time, 'often at night,' as a
telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school
work is not the only thing which is likely to suffer
from the excessive strain upon the immature
strength, and from the character of his occupation."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>

<p>While reflecting on the excess of working
children among the delinquents, one may be
inclined to attribute this to bad home influences;
but the report shows that only one-fifth of the
workers as opposed to nearly one-third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
non-workers come from distinctly bad homes,
while from fair and good homes the proportion
is approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent.
Consequently, the working child goes wrong more
frequently than the non-working child in spite
of his more favorable home surroundings.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>

<p>Of the total number of delinquent boys, both
working and non-working, under twelve years
of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of
those twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent
were workers, and of those fourteen to sixteen
years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
comparatively few children under twelve years
are at work, the fact that more than one-fifth
of the delinquent boys in this age group are
working children "becomes exceedingly significant."
Of all children twelve to thirteen
years of age, the great majority are not employed
because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing
in all the states studied except Maryland;
hence the larger proportion of working offenders
cannot be explained by the influences of age.
The increase of working delinquents above
fourteen years is to be expected, because so many
children go to work on reaching that age.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>

<p>Remembering that the proportionate excess
of workers varies from two to nine times the
ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this
excess cannot be explained by a corresponding
excess of orphanage, foreign parentage, bad
home conditions or unfavorable age. As the
report says, "It seems rather difficult to escape
the conclusion that being at work has something
to do with their going wrong."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>

<p>The strongest argument against street work
by children is to be found in the following table<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
of occupations pursued by the largest number
of delinquents and giving the percentage of
total delinquents engaged in each.</p>

<p>As the report says, the following classification
shows that the largest number of delinquent
boys were found in those occupations in which
the nature of the employment does not permit
of supervision&mdash;namely, newspaper selling,
errand running, delivery service and messenger
service. Boys engaged in these occupations,
together with bootblacks and peddlers, all work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
under conditions "which bring them into
continual temptations to dishonesty and to
other offenses."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>


<table class="lined w70" summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment">
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w40" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w40" />
  <col class="w10" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th>Boys <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Boys</th>
  <th> Girls <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Girls</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 21.83</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Domestic service:</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand boys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 17.80</td>
  <td class="bl leftindent"> Servant in private house</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 32.18</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Drivers and helpers, wagon</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7.30</td>
  <td class="bl  leftindent"> In hotel, restaurant or boarding house</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 5.44</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4.23</td>
  <td class="bl  leftindent"> Home workers</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 16.33</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers, telegraph</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2.59</td>
  <td class="bl left" style="padding-left: 2.5em;"> Total in domestic service</td>
  <td class="bl bt  br right"> 53.95</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
  <td class="bl  br right"> 12.36</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.77</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Stores and markets</td>
  <td class="bl  br right"> 5.44</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.71</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Clothing makers</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 4.95</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Building trades</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.64</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Candy and confectionery</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 4.45</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Theater</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.57</td>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Laundry</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1.98</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Office boys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1.43</td>
  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Glass</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 1.30</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>The offenses with which the boys were charged
are divided in the report into sixteen classes.
The messenger service furnishes the largest
proportionate number of offenders charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
with "assault and battery" and "immoral
conduct"; the delivery service those charged
with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged
with "craps and gambling," "incorrigibility
and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny
and runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway."
The report calls attention to the greater tendency
of messengers to immorality, and remarks that
it is easy to see a connection between bootblacking
and the offenses in which bootblacks
lead. The report continues: "It is worthy
to note that neither the newsboys nor errand
boys, both following pursuits looked upon with
disfavor, are found as contributing a <i>leading</i>
proportion of any one offense. They seem to
maintain what might be called a high general
level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
particular direction, errand boys being found
in fourteen and newsboys in fifteen of the sixteen
separate offense groups."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>

<p>For the purpose of clearly defining the connection
between occupation and delinquency, and
determining whether the delinquency inheres<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
in the occupation or in the conditions under
which it is carried on, there were selected six
kinds of employments which are generally
looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe
for children, and a comparison was made of
conditions as to the parentage, home surroundings,
etc., prevailing among the workers in
these occupations, the working delinquents
generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
both working and non-working. Of the delinquent
boys under twelve years engaged in these
six groups of employments (delivery and errand
boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys,
street vendors, telegraph messengers and in
amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were
found to be newsboys and bootblacks. As
four-fifths of the working delinquents under
twelve years of age in all occupations are found
in these six groups, it is evident that this class
is largely responsible for the employment of
young boys, and "comparing these figures with
those for the working delinquents in all occupations
we find that 58.6 per cent, or nearly three-fifths
of all the working delinquents up to twelve,
come from among the newsboys."<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>

<p>It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the
working delinquents had both parents living,
while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors
and telegraph messengers were found to be
more fortunate in this respect than the great
mass of working delinquents, even surpassing
the whole body of delinquents, working and
non-working. As the report says, "One so
frequently hears of the newsboy who has no
one but himself to look to that it is rather a
surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
child appears among them only about half as
often relatively as among the whole group of
workers."<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>

<p>Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys,
78.9 per cent were found to have fair or good
homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8
per cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and
of the telegraph messengers 78.9 per cent, and
in this connection the report declares, "Certainly
the predominance of these selected occupations
among the employments of delinquents cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
be explained by the home conditions of the
children entering them."<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>

<p>The findings with respect to the messenger
service fully corroborate the charges brought
against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
The report says: "Turning to the
messengers, it is seen that they are in every respect
above the average of favorable conditions.
Moreover, it is well known that boys taking
up this work must be bright and quick; there
is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak.
Plainly, then, in this case the occupation, not
the kind of children who enter it, must be
held responsible for its position among the
pursuits from which delinquents come ...
the chief charges brought against it are that
the irregular work and night employment tend
to break down health, that the opportunities
for overcharge and for appropriating packages
or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty,
and that the places to which the boy is sent
familiarize him with all forms of vice and tend
to lead him into immorality."<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Referring again
to the messenger service, the report says:
"The unfortunate effects of the inherent condi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>tions
of the work are, however, manifest. Its
irregularity, the lack of any supervision during
a considerable part of the time, the associations
of the street and of the places to which messengers
are sent, and the frequency of night work
with all its demoralizing features, afford an
explanation of the impatience of restraint, the
reckless yielding to impulse shown in the
large percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly
conduct. A glance at the main table shows
that the two offenses next in order are assault
and battery and malicious mischief, both of
which indicate the same traits. On the whole,
there seems abundant reason for considering
that the messenger service deserves its bad
name."<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>

<p>With reference to errand and delivery boys,
the report finds that as the level of favorable
conditions keeps so near to the average, it seems
necessary to attribute the number of delinquents
furnished by this class more to the conditions
of the work than to the kind of children
taking it up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>

<p>The occupational influences of amusement
resorts, street vending and newspaper selling
"are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation
of the number of delinquents they furnish is
unquestionably in the kind of children who enter
them. It is a case of action and reaction.
These occupations are easily taken up by immature
children, with little or no education and
no preliminary training. Such children are
least likely to resist evil influences, most likely
to yield to all that is bad in their environment."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>

<p>Having shown that a connection can be traced
between certain occupations and the number
and kind of offenses committed by the children
working in them, the report next determines
to what extent a direct connection can be traced
between occupation and offense. If a working
child commits an offense, first, during working
hours, second, in some place to which his work
calls him, and third, against some person with
whom his work brings him in contact, a connection
may be said to exist between the misdemeanor
and the employment. The report
insists that either all three of the connection
elements must be present, or else the offense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
must be very clearly the outcome of conditions
related to the work, before a connection can be
asserted; and it reminds the reader that the
number of connection cases shown represents
an understatement, probably to a considerable
degree, of the real situation. The number of
boy delinquents in occupations which show more
than five cases of delinquency chargeable to
occupation was found to be 308; of these, 100
were errand or delivery boys, 129 were newsboys,
16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors
and 10 were messengers.</p>

<p>The number of boy delinquents working
at time of last offense and the number whose
offenses show a connection with the occupation
are compared, by occupation, in the following
table,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> p. 173.</p>


<table class="lined w60"  summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relationship to Employment">
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w40" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w10" />
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w20" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Occupation or Industry</th>
  <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Boy Delinquents working at Time of Last Offense</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Boy Delinquents whose Offenses show a Connection with Occupation</th></tr>
 <tr>
  <th>Number</th>
  <th>Per Cent of <br />Boy Delinquents in <br />Occupation Working</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">In amusement resorts</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 17.5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Domestic service</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 28.0</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Driver or helper</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 107</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 14.9</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand or delivery boys</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 261</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 100</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 38.3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel workers</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 27</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 25.9</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 38</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 26.3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys and bootblacks</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 346</td>
  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></td>
  <td class="bl right"> 129</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 37.2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Street vendors</td>
  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 52.0</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 62</td>
  <td class="bb dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bb right"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl bb br right"> 19.3</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<p>"Among the errand and delivery boys the
percentage (of connection cases) is large and the
connection close. Larceny accounts for over
nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually
being from the employer when the boy was sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
out with goods, though in some cases it was
from the house to which the boy was sent. It
will be remembered that in respect to parental
and home condition, age, etc., the delinquent
errand boys came very close to the average, and
their antecedents gave no reason to expect they
would go wrong so numerously. That fact,
together with the large proportion of connection
cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is
distinctly a dangerous one morally."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>


<p>As the various forms of immorality are practiced
in secret, the report truly says that the
evils which are most associated with a messenger's
life could hardly appear in these studies.
"A trace of them is found in the case of one boy
sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine,
having acquired the habit in the disreputable
houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
something of the same kind is indicated by the
fact that one of the few cases of drunkenness
occurring among working delinquents came, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
a connection case, from this small group of
messengers. For the most part, however, the
connection offenses (by messengers) were some
form of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels
sent out for delivery, though in some cases
collecting charges on prepaid packages was
added to this."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>

<p>The newsboys almost equal the errand boys
in their percentage of connection cases, though
their offenses have a much wider range; in fact,
the connection cases for newsboys include a
greater variety of offenses than any other
occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
first time, there being two cases, in both of
which the selling of papers was a mere pretext,
enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
Street vendors were found to show the highest
percentage of connection cases, larceny being
the leading offense.</p>

<p>The report concludes: "It is a striking fact
that in spite of the incompleteness of the data,
a direct connection between the occupation and
the offense has been found to exist in the cases
of practically one-fourth of the boys employed
at the time of their latest offense. It is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
a striking fact that while the delinquent boys
working at the time of their latest offense
were scattered through more than fifty occupations,
over six-sevenths of the connection
cases are found among those working in street
occupations, and that more than three-fifths
come from two groups of workers&mdash;the errand
or delivery boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks.
It is also significant that the connection
cases form so large a percentage of the total
cases among the street traders, the messengers,
and the errand or delivery boys, their proportion
ranging from over one-fourth to over
one-half, according to the occupation."<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>

<p>In considering the effect of night work upon
the morals of children, the report says, "The
messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
and large percentages of night work, thus
giving additional ground for the general opinion
as to the undesirable character of their work";
and again, "In the following occupations the
cases of night work are more numerous than they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
should be in proportion to the number ever
employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling
alley and pool room, glass, hotel, messengers,
newsboys and theaters and other amusement
resorts."<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>

<p>More than one-fourth of the working boy
delinquents were found to be attending day
school. More than half of these pupils were
newsboys and bootblacks. It was found that
the more youthful the worker, the stronger is
his tendency toward irregular attendance at
school.</p>

<p>Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting
eleven or more hours per day to work, and of
these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and
2 were newsboys or bootblacks.</p>

<p>"For both sexes, the workers show a greater
tendency than the non-workers to go wrong,
even where home and neighborhood surroundings
appear favorable, but this tendency is not so
marked among the girls as among the boys."<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>

<p>This report of the government investigation
furnishes most conclusive evidence as to the
evil character of street trading in general. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
bears out the description so aptly made by a
recent writer: "The streets are the proverbial
schools of vice and crime. If the factory is the
Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p>

<p>Another American writer has lately declared:
"A prolific cause of juvenile delinquency is the
influence of the street trades on the working
boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
consequences.... These boys are
brought into the juvenile court, and their misdemeanors
are often so great that reformatory
treatment is necessary for them. Accordingly
they represent a large proportion of the boys in
the different institutions. The demoralization
produced by the street trades affects others
than those engaged in such trades, but the latter
are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance
of legislation which will shut off this source of
infection."<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>

<p>A Chicago physician took occasion to look
into the records of the juvenile court of that
city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
and 25 girls examined that year were representa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>tive
of the 2500 delinquents brought into the
court during the preceding year. Not less
than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street
work&mdash;43 as newsboys, 12 as errand boys and
messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out
of the entire number had never been employed.
Sixty of them were physically subnormal; the
general physical condition of the girls was
found to be much better than that of the boys
of the same age, although 40 per cent of the
girls were suffering from acquired venereal
disease.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>

<p>In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys
confined in the Indiana state reformatory,
which is known as the Indiana Boys' School,
at Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per
cent, had formerly been engaged in street work.
To determine the relative delinquency of street
workers and boys who have never pursued such
occupations, it would be necessary to compare
these 219 delinquents with the total number of
street workers in Indiana and also to compare
the total number of inmates who had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
followed street occupations with the total
number of boys within the same age limits in
Indiana. A comparison of the two percentages
would be illuminating, but is impossible because
it is not known how many street workers there
are in the state. However, it is safe to assume
that the number of street-working boys in
Indiana is much less than one third of the total
number of boys. If we accept this as true, then
the figures indicate that street work promotes
delinquency, because one third of all the delinquents
in the state reformatory had been so
engaged. The frequent assertion that, merely
because a large percentage of the inmates of
correctional institutions were at some time
engaged in street work, such employment is
therefore responsible for their delinquency, cannot
be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
character of this class of occupations, as it is
not known how long each offender was engaged
in such work, nor are the other causes contributing
to the delinquency of each boy properly
considered or even known. This defect is
avoided in the government's Report on Juvenile
Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,
which, with reference to the common practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
of jumping at conclusions in this way, says,
"This appears to show that selling newspapers
is a morally dangerous occupation, but the
danger cannot be measured, since it is not known
what proportion of the working children are
newsboys, or what proportion of the newsboys
never come to grief."<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The following tables
are of interest as showing in detail the facts as
to Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who
are confined in the state reformatory:&mdash;</p>

<h3 class="smcap">Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</h3>

<table class="lined" summary="Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations">
<caption><i><a name="tablea" id="tablea">Table A. </a>Distribution among Street Occupations</i></caption>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Messengers</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Newsboys</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Bootblacks</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Peddlers</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Delivery Boys</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Cab Driver</th>
  <th rowspan="2">Total</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc"> Day</th>
  <th class="nosc">Night</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 88</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 36</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 156</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 12</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
 </tr>
</table>




<table class="lined" summary="Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations">
<caption><i><a name="tableb" id="tableb">Table B.</a> Ages when at Work at these Occupations</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w2125" />
  <col class="w875" span="9" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th>&nbsp;</th>
  <th>Under 10</th>
  <th> 10</th>
  <th> 11</th>
  <th> 12</th>
  <th> 13</th>
  <th> 14</th>
  <th> 15</th>
  <th> 16</th>
  <th> Totals</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 4</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 36</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 156</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab drivers</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 37</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 31</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 38</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 28</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table class="lined" summary="Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment">
<caption><i><a name="Table_C" id="Table_C">Table C.</a> Ages at Time of Commitment</i></caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w45" />
  <col class="w5" span="11" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th> Committed for</th>
  <th> Under 9</th>
  <th> 9</th>
  <th> 10</th>
  <th> 11</th>
  <th> 12</th>
  <th> 13</th>
  <th> 14</th>
  <th> 15</th>
  <th> 16</th>
  <th> 17</th>
  <th> Total</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 52</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 33</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table class="lined" summary="Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers">
<caption><i><a name="Table_D" id="Table_D">Table D.</a> Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></caption>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Occupations</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Scotch</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 69</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 59</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 107</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 49</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 110</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 70</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 6</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 157</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 62</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 174</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table class="lined" summary="Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers">
<caption><i><a name="Table_E" id="Table_E">Table E.</a> Hours and Earnings of Street Workers</i> <br /> (In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116 cases.)</caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w20" />
  <col class="w5" span="7" />
  <col class="w10" span="4" />
  <col class="w5" />
 </colgroup>

 <tr>
  <th rowspan="3"> Occupations</th>
  <th colspan="7"> Hours</th>
  <th colspan="5" rowspan="2" class="blstrong"> Daily Earnings</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc" colspan="3"> Day</th>
  <th class="nosc blstrong" colspan="4"> Night</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc"> All</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Morning</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Afternoon</th>
  <th class="nosc blstrong"> All</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Before midnight</th>
  <th class="nosc"> After midnight</th>
  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Totals</th>
  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Under 50 cents</th>
  <th class="nosc"> 50-75 cents</th>
  <th class="nosc"> 75 cents-$1.00</th>
  <th class="nosc"> $1.25-$1.50</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 3</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 9</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 13</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 56</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 47</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 78</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 4</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 12</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 12</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br  right"> 5</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 53</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 11</td>
  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 7</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 91</td>
  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 55</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 41</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 116</td>
 </tr>
</table>

<table class="lined" summary="Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
<caption><i><a name="Table_F" id="Table_F">Table F.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> English</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Swedish</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Mexican</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Hungarian</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th class="nosc">Yes</th>
  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
  <td class="bl right">156</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 40</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">234</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 168</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 182</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 52</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 86</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 24</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility </td>
  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 75</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 50</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right">293</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 65</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 23</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
  <td class="ball right">428</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 298</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 130</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 323</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 105</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table class="lined" summary="Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
<caption><i><a name="Table_G" id="Table_G">Table G.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
 <colgroup>
  <col class="w40" />
  <col class="w5" span="12" />
 </colgroup>
 <tr>
  <th rowspan="2"> Committed for</th>
  <th colspan="11"> Ages at Commitment</th>
  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <th> Under 9</th>
  <th> 9</th>
  <th> 10</th>
  <th> 11</th>
  <th> 12</th>
  <th> 13</th>
  <th> 14</th>
  <th> 15</th>
  <th> 16</th>
  <th> 17</th>
  <th> Over 17</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 20</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 46</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 47</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 234</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 86</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl br right"> 19</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 51</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 61</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 73</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 66</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 14</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
  <td class="ball right"> 428</td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table class="lined" summary="Table H. Behavior in Institution">
<caption><i><a name="Table_H" id="Table_H">Table H.</a> Behavior in Institution</i></caption>
 <tr>
  <th>&nbsp;</th>
  <th colspan="3"> Street Workers</th>
  <th colspan="3"> Non-Street Workers</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">Good</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 39</td>
  <td class="dcright">or</td>
  <td class="right"> 18%</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 95 </td>
  <td class="dcright">or</td>
  <td class="br right"> 22%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">Average</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 175  </td>
  <td class="dcright">or</td>
  <td class="right">80%</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 321 </td>
  <td class="dcright">or </td>
  <td class="br right">75%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="bl left">Bad</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
  <td class="right"> 2%</td>
  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
  <td class="br right"> 3%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball left"> Totals</td>
  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 219</td>
  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb right">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 428</td>
  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb br right">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
</table>

<p>By far the largest number of street-working
delinquents had been newsboys, these being
followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks
and delivery boys in the order given. From
a hasty glance at these tables one might conclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
that street workers are not so liable to become
delinquent as those who never follow street
occupations, because of the smaller number of
the former; but it should be remembered that
the ratio of street-working inmates to the entire
number of street-working boys in Indiana is
much greater than the ratio of the other inmates
to the whole body of non-street-working children
in the state.</p>

<p>In comparing Tables <a href="#Table_C">C</a> and <a href="#Table_G">G</a> it is seen that
the street workers and the non-street workers
were committed for practically the same offenses,
and that their distribution according to offense
does not vary widely. It is significant that a
much smaller proportion of the street workers
were committed to the institution under the
age of ten years, than of the non-street workers,
indicating that street occupations (which are
not usually entered upon before the age of ten
years), if followed for a year or two, contribute
largely to the promotion of delinquency.</p>

<p>From a comparison of Tables <a href="#Table_D">D</a> and <a href="#Table_F">F</a> it will
be observed that the prevalence of delinquency
among the street workers cannot be explained
on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent
were fatherless and 21 per cent motherless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
while of the non-street workers 30 per cent
were fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless.
This indicates (1) that street work in the great
majority of cases is not made necessary by orphanage,
and (2) that street work causes delinquency
in spite of good home conditions so far as the
presence of both parents contributes to the
making of a good home. Furthermore, it will
be noted in Table <a href="#Table_E">E</a> that nearly half of the children
for whom figures on income could be obtained
earned less than fifty cents per day&mdash;a
small return on the heavy investment in the
risk of health and character.</p>

<p>The difference in behavior at the institution
between the street workers and the others is
shown in Table <a href="#Table_H">H</a> to be almost negligible, the
latter making a slightly better showing.</p>

<p>An English writer says: "There is no difficulty
in understanding how street trading and newspaper
selling lead to gambling. We are told
by those who are best able to judge, that of
the young thieves and prostitutes in the city
of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
hawkers. For the younger boys and girls
such an occupation, especially at night, turns
the streets into nurseries of crime. The news<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>paper
sellers are not exposed to quite the same
dangers, but they are nearly all gamblers.
They gamble on anything and everything, from
the horse races reported hour by hour in the
papers they sell, to the numbers on the passing
cabs, and they end by gambling with their
lives."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED
STATES
</span></h2>

<p>The economic activities of children in city
streets, commonly called street trades, are not
specifically covered by the provisions of child
labor laws except in the District of Columbia
and the states of Massachusetts, Missouri,
New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of
many other states as well as of those mentioned,
however, prohibit children under fourteen years
of age from being employed or permitted to
work in the distribution or transmission of
merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
merchandise, then children under fourteen years
would not be allowed to deliver newspapers under
the provision just stated. This raises a nice
question as to what is included in the term
"merchandise." That there is any distinction
between newspapers and merchandise is prac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>tically
denied by the street-trades laws of Utah
and New Hampshire which provide that children
under certain ages shall not sell "newspapers,
magazines, periodicals or <i>other</i> merchandise
in any street or public place"; the question of
delivery, however, is left open by these laws.
The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
in the case of District of Columbia
<i>vs.</i> Reider, sustained the juvenile court of the
District in its decision that newspapers are not
merchandise and consequently that children
under fourteen years of age engaged in delivering
newspapers are not affected by the law.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>
The judge of the trial court stated in his opinion,
"No one will seriously contend that the nature
of the employment in the case at bar is at all
harmful to the child." The case at bar was
the prosecution of a route agent for a morning
newspaper on account of having employed a
minor under fourteen years of age to deliver
newspapers. This opinion is typical of the
misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed
upon these young "merchants" of the street.
In the case cited, the court permitted itself to
be drawn aside into an interpretation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
letter of the law instead of viewing the matter
in the light of its spirit. The purpose of such
a law is to <i>prevent the labor</i> of children, not to
distinguish between closely related forms of
labor. Its object is to afford protection, not
to provoke discussion of purely technical points.
The <i>labor</i> of delivering merchandise does not
differ in any respect from the <i>labor</i> of delivering
newspapers (the possibly greater weight of
merchandise does not alter the case, inasmuch as
it is usually carried about in wagons); and as
the child labor law of the District of Columbia
forbids the delivery of merchandise by children
under fourteen years at any time, it follows that
the delivery of newspapers by such children
should not be allowed, because the intent of
the law is to protect them from the probable
consequences of such work. Moreover, the
District of Columbia law prohibits children
under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under
the interpretation given by the juvenile court,
it is perfectly proper for a child even under the
age of <i>fourteen</i> years to perform the <i>labor</i> of
delivery before that hour, provided he handles
newspapers instead of packages. The incon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>sistency
of this is only too apparent. The spirit
of the law is lost sight of in the close interpretation
of its wording. This is one of the obstacles
always encountered in the movement for child
labor reform after prohibitory legislation has
been enacted.</p>

<p>American legislation on street trading still
clings persistently and pathetically to the theory
that uncontrolled labor is much better for
children than labor under the supervision of
adults, and consequently authorizes very young
children to do certain kinds of work in the
streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding
them to work at other street occupations
even under the control of older and more
experienced persons. This official incongruity
must ultimately be rescinded and replaced by
more rational and comprehensive legislation.
The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on
the ground that the child is an independent
"merchant" in the one case and an employee
in the other, must also be abandoned in favor
of a more enlightened policy.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Present Laws and Ordinances</h3>

<p>The following table shows all the laws and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
ordinances governing street trading by children
in existence in the United States in 1911.</p>

<p>The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance
in 1877 which forbids newsboys and
bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets
without a permit from the mayor. No age
limit is fixed, no distinction is made between
the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants
for the permit are customarily referred
to the chief truant officer for approval, and as
a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten
years of age or to girls. An annual license fee
of ten cents is charged, and the license holder
is supplied with a numbered badge which must
be worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest
weakness, this ordinance is of little avail.</p>

<p>It will be observed from the following table
that the common age limit for boys in street
trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect
on the import of this, it is hard to realize that
intelligent American communities actually tolerate
such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
the movement for reform has progressed even
this far in only a very small part of the country&mdash;in
most places there is no restriction whatever!
Some day, and that not in the very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
remote future, we shall look back upon the
authorized exploitation of the present period
with the same degree of incredulity with which
we now regard the horrors of child labor in
England during the early part of the nineteenth
century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>



<table class="lined" summary="State Laws">
<caption><span class="smcap">State Laws</span></caption>
 <tr>
  <th>States</th>
  <th> Age Limit</th>
  <th> Licenses</th>
  <th> Hours</th>
  <th> Enforcement</th>
  <th> Penalties</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Colorado, 1911</td>
  <td class="ball">Girls, 10; any work in streets</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
  <td class="ball">$5-$100 fine for first offense, $100-$200 fine or imprisonment 90 days for 2d offense for employers. $5-$25 fine for parents</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">District of Columbia, 1908</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; Girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-15</td>
  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
  <td class="ball">Left to discretion of juvenile court</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Missouri, 1911</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
  <td class="ball">Max. fine $100 or max. imprisonment one year, for child</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Nevada, 1911</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">Child dealt with as delinquent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">New Hampshire, 1911</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications or other mdse. Boys, 10; girls, 10; bootblacking</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors; truant officers</td>
  <td class="ball">$5-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">New York, 1903</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
  <td class="ball">Dealt with according to law</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Oklahoma, 1909</td>
  <td class="ball">Girls, 16; publications</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td class="ball">Commissioner of Labor</td>
  <td class="ball">$10-$50 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days for child</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td rowspan="2" class="ball">Utah, 1911, 1st &amp; 2d class cities</td>
  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12; girls 16; publications or other mdse. </td>
  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12-15 </td>
  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">Not after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">$25-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12; girls, 12; bootblacking</td>
  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12-15 <br /> Girls 12-15</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Wisconsin, 1909, as amended 1911, 1st class cities</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 12; girls, 18; publications. Boys, 14; girls, 18, all others</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 12-15</td>
  <td class="ball">5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>  <br />6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter  <br />7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer; publications</td>
  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
  <td class="ball">$25-$100 fine or imprisonment 10-60 days for parents permitting, and others employing, child under 16 to peddle without permit. Same for newspapers allowing boys under 16 about office between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on school days</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Massachusetts, 1902 as amended, 1910</td>
  <td colspan="4" class="ball">Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make regulations of bootblacking and sale of newspapers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such sale or trades; or may require license to be obtained from them. School committees in cities have these powers as to children under 14 years.</td>
  <td class="ball">Max. fine $10 for child; max. fine $200 or max. imprisonment 6 months for parent allowing, person employing, or any one furnishing articles to, a child to sell</td>
 </tr>
</table>




<table class="lined" summary="City Ordinances">
<caption><span class="smcap">City Ordinances</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></caption>
 <tr>
  <th>Cities</th>
  <th>Age Limit</th>
  <th>Licenses</th>
  <th>Hours</th>
  <th>Enforcement</th>
  <th>Penalties</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Boston, 1902, by school committee</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 11; girls, 14; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 11-13</td>
  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter <br />9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer</td>
  <td class="ball">Supervisor of licensed minors, police and truant officers</td>
  <td class="ball">Revocation of license and fine as stated for Massachusetts</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Cincinnati, 1909</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td class="ball">Police, truant and probation officers</td>
  <td class="ball">Fine $1-$5 for child</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Hartford, 1910</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 Girls, 10-13</td>
  <td class="ball">Not during school hours or after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td class="ball">&nbsp; 	</td>
  <td class="ball">Revocation of license by school superintendent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="ball">Newark, 1904</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; newspapers 	</td>
  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 	</td>
  <td class="ball">Not between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> nor after 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
  <td class="ball">Child placed on probation or committed to Newark City Home at expense of parent</td>
 </tr>
</table>



<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of
street trading most of the communities which
have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and
in some cases also to girls, in the belief that in
this way the work of the children can best be
brought under some degree of control. However,
this is merely temporizing, although it
affords an opportunity to gather facts and
undoubtedly marks a step toward a better
solution of the problem. This is brought out
clearly by a recent British report on street
trading: "Our general impression, gathered in
towns in which by-laws had been made, was
that, though in exceptional cases much good
had resulted from their adoption, on the whole
this method of dealing with what we have
come to consider an unquestionable evil, has
not proved adequate or satisfactory. In many
instances it has been pointed out to us that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
system of licensing and badging is but a method
of legalizing what is indisputably an evil, and
that a set of by-laws, however rigorously enforced,
can at best only modify the difficulties
of the position."<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>

<p>The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive
to the menace of the situation, bewail the lack
of protection for street workers in the following
words: "The child labor law and the compulsory
school law and the juvenile court law form
the body of protective legislation which has
been developing in behalf of the children of
Illinois during the past twenty years. By none
of the three, however, except in so far as street
trading by a child under ten is counted an element
in dependency, is the street-trading child
safeguarded against parental neglect or greed,
the vicious sights and sounds of the city street
and the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>


<h3 class="italic">Opposition to Regulation</h3>

<p>The opposition to bringing the street trades
under some degree of restriction has come, as
might be expected, from very interested sources.
In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured
prominently in the movement to prevent the
passage of the street-trades measure introduced
in the legislature of that state at its session of
1911. This has not always been the case, however,
as the circulation managers of the five
leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring
the passage of that section of the child labor
bill of 1911, which provided that boys under
ten years and girls under sixteen years should
not sell anything in any street or public place
within the state. This provision was enacted
into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational
age limit of sixteen years for boys had been
advocated instead of ten years, the newspapers
would have been most active in opposing this
section. In Cincinnati the circulation managers
of the newspapers most affected by the street-trades
ordinance passed by the City Council
in 1909 agreed to its provisions before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
measure was submitted to the Council, and
consequently it passed without opposition.</p>

<p>In New Haven and Hartford repeated
attempts have been made to secure regulation
of street trading by means of city ordinances,
and at two sessions of the state legislature bills
have been introduced which provided for such
restriction, but all these efforts have been persistently
fought by a leading newspaper of
Hartford in which city it has always been customary
to have girls as well as boys selling
newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city
ordinance was passed in Hartford providing
that boys and girls under ten years should be
prohibited from trading in the streets and that
between the ages of ten and fourteen years
they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> The newsgirls were not banished
from the street because it was held that they
were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
that so long as it could not be proved that they
were <i>demoralized</i> by the work, they should be
permitted to go on with it. In other words,
the city clings to the fine old American policy
of delaying action until some calamity makes
it necessary.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>

<p>The objections offered by interested parties
to the by-laws drafted by the London County
Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the
law of self preservation operates in England as
in other quarters of the Earth. News agents,
employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
declared that conditions were not bad; that the
work was healthful; that the wages were a great
help to poor parents; that they could not
afford to employ older boys; that the lads
should be allowed to begin at 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and work
not more than ten hours a day outside of school
with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five
hours; that to prohibit the delivery of newspapers
before 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and after 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> would be
a great injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't
stay in bed even if 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> were fixed as the hour
for beginning work; that such work does not
interfere with schooling; that the boys are well
looked after; in short, that the by-laws would
ruin them and bring starvation to the children.
One news agent in declaiming against the hours
fixed for the delivery of newspapers, insisted
that the restriction would throw boys out of
employment and send them to trade in the streets
with their undesirable associations, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
unmindful of the fact that delivery boys themselves
worked in that environment. The dairymen
were horrified at the limit placed on hours,
urging that the little boys in their employ
should begin to deliver milk at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as early
work was beneficial and the wages useful to
poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced the by-laws
as too drastic, because they would prevent
such light work as errand running at noon and
casual employment in the evening after 7,
resulting in hardship to both parents and children;
one acknowledged that if he were prevented
from employing cheap labor his business
would suffer; another said that he employed
a boy at noon and also from 5.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
the work being light and the parents satisfied,
and that the training was good for boys. A
fruiterer actually declared that the limit of
eight hours on Saturday would make a boy
valueless to him; another said he employed a
boy for one hour in the morning, from 6 to 9
in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
and evening, in running errands, and that the
work was not heavy; another employed boys
after school from 6 to 9.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, insisting that
the work was good for them, as it kept them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
the street and gave them an insight into business
habits.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It should be remembered that all
this work was performed by the children in
addition to attending school both morning and
afternoon.</p>

<p>The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental
Committee of 1901 by the secretary
of an association representing many thousand
retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if
it were not so sinister. He presented the subject
of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
declaring that the wages were needed on account
of poverty in the families; that the work was
light and had a <i>very beneficial</i> effect on health
because it was done in the open air; that
good meals were given in addition to cash wages
and were <i>very beneficial</i>; that the effect on the
boys' character was <i>very beneficial</i>, as the work
cultivated businesslike habits and kept the
boys from running the streets, frequently
affording promotion to the higher grades of
shopkeeping.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Another British Committee, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>vestigating
conditions in Ireland, reported,
"We found but one witness (a newspaper
manager of Belfast) to testify that the present
conditions of selling papers in the street were
satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
instead of tending to demoralize, they have the
opposite effect."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work</h3>

<p>As to the control of street trading by children
there are two methods by which the desired
end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
as to self-imposed restrictions among the
managers of all the business interests in connection
with which children work on the streets.
This method, however, can be dismissed from
consideration at once on account of its impracticability.
Street work embraces many different
kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager
is the competitor of all others in the same line
of business and is free to adopt such lawful
means of placing his wares on the market as
he sees fit, it would be clearly impossible to
force any one into such an agreement against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter
the field at any time who would not be bound
by the agreement of the others, and consequently
this would soon be broken by the force of competition
following the intrusion of these new
parties.</p>

<p>Second, regulation by constituted legislative
authority. This is the more feasible method,
and such regulation may be obtained from either
of two sources&mdash;the municipality or the state.
There is a question as to which of the two is
the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
state has the advantage of making the provisions
apply uniformly to all cities within its
borders and is obtained by no more effort than
is required to get an ordinance through the
Council of a single municipality. On the other
hand, the municipal ordinance has the advantage
of being secured by residents of the community
who are intelligently concerned in the local
problem and who will therefore take an active
interest in having its provisions enforced.
However, the good features of both these
methods are united in the English plan, a modification
of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
According to this plan the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
fixes a minimum amount of restriction and
authorizes local authorities, including boards of
education, to increase the scope of restriction,
and provides penalties for violation of the same.</p>

<p>As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative
measure would prohibit boys under
ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
anything at any time in the streets or public
places of cities, while the age limit for boys is
raised to fourteen years for night work. The
issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen
years of age who wish to engage in street trading
is the usual accompaniment of such restriction,
and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be
made of some assistance to truant and probation
officers in their efforts to enforce the compulsory
education and delinquency laws. The
age limit for boys has been advanced to eleven
years by the School Committee of Boston, and
to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years
for other street workers by the state of Wisconsin.
But all efforts to secure such regulation should
be based upon the principle that street trading
is an undesirable form of labor for children, and
consequently should be subject to at least the
same restrictions as other forms of child labor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>


<h3 class="italic">Probable Course of Regulation in Future</h3>

<p>American child labor laws usually contain
a provision to the effect that no child under
sixteen years shall engage in any employment
that may be considered dangerous to its life
or limb or where its health may be injured or
morals depraved. This is sonorous, but ineffective,&mdash;the
particular kinds of improper
work should be specified. In this list of undesirable
forms of labor, street work should be
included. Great Britain has had far more
experience in the matter of regulating the
work of children than any state of this country,
and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
committee of 1910 has emphatically
declared that street trading by boys under
seventeen and girls under eighteen years should
be absolutely prohibited. This should be our
ideal in America. Commenting on the banishment
of young girls from the streets of New
York City, Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the
law against street selling and peddling by girls
to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty
among the immigrants are so frightful as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
are in New York, there is no reason for assuming
that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street
selling by boys."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Girls under eighteen years
should never be allowed to go out in the streets
for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
these purposes may be in themselves. One of
the most important features of the movement
in America should be the absolute prohibition
of such work by minors under eighteen years
at night; this is urged because it is in harmony
with the provisions of our most advanced child
labor laws and is fully justified because of the
evil character of the influences rampant in
cities after dark, and because such night work
affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate
their acquaintance with, if not to know
for the first time, conditions from which every
effort should be made to isolate them. For
night messenger service the age limit should
be twenty-one years.</p>

<p>The enforcement of such regulation as is
now provided by the few states and cities which
have given this subject any attention, is variously
intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant
and probation officers, but in Boston the school<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
committee has delivered this task into the hands
of one man who is known as the supervisor of
licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement
seems to have given better results than
the common system of intrusting the enforcement
to officers already overburdened with
other duties, but it is clearly impossible for one
officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
city&mdash;the plan would be considerably improved
by the appointment of several assistants.</p>

<p>"The licensing by the Boston School Committee
of minors of school age to trade in the
streets of Boston came about through an act
of legislature in 1902. The need of supervision
of minors licensed under this act became very
apparent, as their numbers increased and their
street influences reacting on their school life
became better understood. To meet this need
a supervisor of licensed minors was appointed
whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement
of the law, regulations governing the various
forms of street work of children of school age,
also to have general supervision of the details
of the licensing department."<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>

<p>Human nature in children is not in the least
unlike human nature in adults. Just as we
need an interstate commerce commission backed
by the federal government to supervise the
large business affairs of men, so do we need a
supervisor of children's commercial activities
in city streets, clothed with authority by the
municipal government.</p>

<p>The Boston plan is now being advocated for
New York City: "In the street trades the Committee
recommends that the principle of supervision
of licensed minors, as practised for a
number of years in Boston, be adopted, and that
an office be created in the Department of Education
that shall have supervisory control of all
minors engaged in street trades. It recommends
furthermore that the minimum age limit for
licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen
years, and that the legal limit for selling at
night be reduced from 10 to 8, to correspond
more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
dealing with children in factories."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>

<p>The first attempt to control the situation in
New York City was intrusted to the police,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
but the results were not satisfactory, as they
looked upon the matter with indifference.
Subsequently the truant officers also were
charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men
were assigned to give their entire attention to
this work between 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and at
present eight men are so engaged, but no very
marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester
the enforcement of the state law was
brought about through the efforts of the women
of that city; both business women and shoppers
were asked to consider themselves members
of a vigilance committee and to notify the
board of education and the police department
by telephone whenever any violations of the
law were observed upon the streets. Within
five days so many complaints had been received
that both the superintendent of schools and the
president of the board of education arranged
a meeting at which their attention was invited
to the widespread disregard of the law. As
a result, steps were taken at once to insure
enforcement, and finally the board of education
appointed one truant officer, and the commissioner
of police detailed a policeman especially
for the work of reporting violations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>

<p>In addition to providing an improved method
of enforcement, efforts have been made in
Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
problem of keeping street traders out of saloons,
the licensing board having issued an order to
all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit minors
from loitering upon the licensed premises, more
especially newsboys and messenger boys.</p>

<p>The efforts of the school committee to regulate
street trading in Boston have been further
supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps
the most important result of supervision
so far has been the gradual introduction of a
plan for self government among the licensed
newsboys through the so-called Boston School
Newsboys' Association. This association is
pledged to the enforcement of the license rules
and the suppression of smoking, gambling and
other street vices, more or less common among
the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The
association is run by the boys themselves,
through officers of their own choosing, consisting
of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants
for each school district; also a chief captain
and general secretary and an executive board<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
of seven elected from the ranks of the captains.
The general duties of the captains and lieutenants
are, first, to see that all licensed newsboys
of their respective school districts live up
to their license rules, and the principles of the
association. Secondly, to see that all boys not
licensed shall not interfere with or in any way
hurt the business of the licensed newsboys.
These duties are performed through weekly
inspections on the street, supplemented by
monthly inspection at schools, at which time
branch meetings of all the boys in each district
are frequently held."<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />

<span class="h2sub">DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION
IN EUROPE</span></h2>


<h3 class="italic">Great Britain</h3>

<p>Attention was called to the problem of
street trading by children in England for the
first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897.
A few close observers of social conditions noticed
that the situation was so grave as to demand
an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon
their initiative, an organization was effected
for the purpose of studying the subject. This
organization took the form of a private association
known as the Committee on Wage-Earning
Children. The committee conferred with the
officers of the board of education and succeeded
in arousing their interest to the extent of securing
a promise for the collection of a return from
the elementary schools of England and Wales
concerning the labor of public school pupils,
their ages, and other relevant information.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
In 1898, the House of Commons ordered this
inquiry to be made, and in June of that year
copies of a schedule were sent by the educational
department to all the public elementary schools
in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters
misunderstood the meaning of this schedule
and failed to report the children of their schools
who were actually engaged in various forms
of work outside of school hours. Only about
half of the schedules were filled and returned,
but these showed that 144,026 children were
following some kind of gainful occupation in
addition to attending school. Many schoolmasters
reported pitiable cases of child exploitation,
as, for example, the following: "Boys
helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in the
morning, whilst those selling papers are about
the streets to a very late hour at night. During
lessons many fall off to sleep, and if not asleep
the effort to keep awake is truly painful both
to boy and teacher. The educational time, as
a consequence, is materially wasted."<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> "These
are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
boy, for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a week, from 8 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from
12 to 1.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and from 4.30 to 7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
On Saturday from 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Another
boy, aged ten in Standard III, works also as a
grocer's errand boy for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per week, from
8.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to
8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 8.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
And all this in addition to twenty-seven and
one half hours of school every week! A boy
who works for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers,
is employed as follows: "Monday to Friday,
from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 8.45 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and
from 4 to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, to
10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 2 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and from 3 to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
"This is a very bad case: called at 2 and
3 o'clock <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, the boy (aged eight) is so tired
that he is obliged to go to bed again, and is
often absent from school, and made to work
in the evening as well."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Many schoolmasters
also testified to the need of a remedy; one of
these wrote on the schedule: "May I be allowed
to express my gratitude to the education department
for making this inquiry, and express the
hope that the department will be able to frame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
conditions under which many of the young
have to gain education. Without exaggeration
I can truthfully assert that there are to-day
in our national and board schools thousands of
little white slaves."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>

<p>Nothing more came of the movement until
January, 1901, when the Secretary of State for
the Home Department appointed an interdepartmental
committee "to inquire into the
question of the employment of children during
school age, and to report what alterations are
desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
school attendance and in the administration of
these laws." After making careful investigation
this committee declared: "In the case of
street-trading children very strong powers of
regulation are required. These children are
exposed to the worst influences; they enter
public houses to ply their trade, they are kept
up late at night and exposed to inclement
weather, and the precarious nature of their
trade disinclines them to steady work, and
encourages them to dissipate their earnings in
gambling ... there should be power to pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>hibit
street trading by children; to make regulations
as to the age and sex of street traders,
and the days and hours on which they may ply
their trade; to grant licenses to those permitted
to trade and to require the wearing of
badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to
enter public houses or to importune or obstruct
passengers; and generally to control their
conduct and to cope with the evil in every
reasonable way."<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> The committee further reported:
"Our main recommendation is that the
overworking of children in those occupations
which are still unregulated by law should be
prevented by giving to the county and borough
councils a power to make labour by-laws; ...
further we suggest that the gaps that may be
left by local by-laws should be filled up by a
general prohibition of night labour by children
and of labour manifestly injurious to health."<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>
This committee reported that the number of
children in England and Wales attending school
and also in paid employment was far greater
than as reported by the parliamentary return,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
estimating that the total number was no less
than 300,000 in 1898.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>

<p>One of the witnesses before this committee
was a London truant officer of eighteen years'
experience, who testified that every month he
met with hundreds of cases of milk boys who
"go to work at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and knock off at 8.30 and
get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
work, and after school at 4.30 they go again
and wash up. The latest hour they work is
about 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> I have frequently seen these
children fast asleep in school. It is a common
thing to see children of tender age outside the
different theatres trying to sell newspapers at
11 o'clock at night. The percentage of cases
in which this work is necessary is very small;
it simply means that a little more money is
spent in the public houses."<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> The report of
this committee contains a great mass of testimony
from persons in many walks of life, nearly
all of whom declared that street trading by
children is bad and should be regulated. They
differentiated between the hawking of articles
in the streets and their delivery for employers,
and one of the witnesses from Liverpool testi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>fied
that the local regulation of street trading
by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
nor to boys who carried parcels because
they were not selling anything.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>

<p>In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was
appointed to study the subject in Ireland, and in
its report stated: "The principal dangers to
which they [street traders] are exposed are those
arising from late hours in the streets, truancy,
insufficient clothing, entering licensed premises
to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
or importuning passengers, begging, fighting
with other children, playing football or other
games in the streets, using bad language, playing
pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking&mdash;all
of which are matters of common observation,
and have been testified to by many
of the witnesses. In our opinion these evils
can be lessened, if not entirely removed, by the
simple system of regulation, licenses and badges."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>

<p>The direct result of the reports of these
committees was the passage by Parliament of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section
3 of this act provides, first, that no child under
eleven years shall engage in street trading;
second, no child under fourteen years shall be
employed between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>; third,
no factory or workshop half-timer shall be
employed in any other occupation; fourth,
no child under fourteen years shall handle heavy
weights likely to result in injury; fifth, no
child under fourteen years shall engage in any
injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of
this act give to local authorities power to make
by-laws regulating the employment of children.
The provisions of Section 2 concerning street
trading are in substance as follows: any local
authority may make by-laws with respect to
street trading by persons under the age of sixteen
years and may prohibit such street trading
subject to age, sex or the holding of a license;
may regulate the conditions on which such
licenses may be granted and revoked; may
determine the days and hours during which
and the places at which such street trading
may be carried on; may require such street
traders to wear badges and may regulate generally
the conduct of such street traders; pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>vided
that the right to trade shall not be made
subject to any conditions having reference to the
poverty or general bad character of the person
applying for this right, and provided also that
the local authority shall have special regard to
the desirability of preventing the employment
of girls under sixteen years in streets and public
places.</p>

<p>Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children Act, 1904, imposes a penalty upon
<i>adults</i> who cause, procure or allow boys under
fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the
streets between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>

<p>An official report made in 1907 gives the
names of all counties, boroughs and urban
districts in Great Britain which had up to that
time made by-laws to regulate street trading
by children. In England and Wales, 2 counties,
60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the
school board districts of 11 burghs and 12
parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs
and 1 urban district had made such by-laws.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>

<p>By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England
and Wales, not less than 50 had made street-trading
by-laws, and these included most of the
larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs
and smaller urban districts only 41 had done so;
while among 62 administrative counties only 3
had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4
county boroughs and 2 of the smaller boroughs
had made street-trading by-laws under local
acts.</p>

<p>In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered
to make by-laws, not one had done so
by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed
by-laws; of 979 school boards only 27 had made
such regulations. Edinburgh passed by-laws
under a private act.</p>

<p>In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one
had made by-laws; of the 43 councils of urban
districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
had passed regulations.</p>

<p>In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home
Department appointed a departmental committee
to inquire into the operation of the
Employment of Children Act, 1903, and to
consider whether any and what further legislative
regulation or restriction was required in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
respect of street trading and other employments
dealt with in that act. This committee confined
its report, which was submitted in 1910,
to the subject of street trading; and its great
contribution to the cause of child welfare is
its recommendation that street trading should
be <i>prohibited</i> rather than regulated. The statute
of 1903 prohibits all work by children under
the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
on street employment by children above that
limit, out of school hours, are prohibitions of
<i>night</i> work after nine o'clock, consequently a
child above the age of eleven years who engages
in street trading is restrained, during the day,
only by such by-laws as may have been adopted
by the local authority. The committee found
that even in communities where by-laws had
been adopted they were not always observed,
and also that where no by-laws had been passed
the minimum statutory restrictions were frequently
ignored. The report declared that:
"A considerable amount of street trading is
still done by children under eleven. Special
censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed the fact
that children as young as seven were trading in
the streets. The great bulk of the evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
received in and from Scotland points to the
conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost
a dead-letter in that country.... Infringements
of the Act in Ireland are no less common.
In Waterford newspapers are sold by children
of nine years old up to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and later."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
The issuance of licenses and badges was denounced
as giving the stamp of official approval
to what is recognized as an evil, the adoption
of by-laws resulting merely in a partial improvement
of conditions even when rigorously enforced.</p>

<p>After having devoted several months to the
inquiry, during which evidence was gathered
in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool
in addition to receiving the testimony of witnesses
from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton
and other centers, the committee made this
very noteworthy and significant declaration:
"We have come to the conclusion ... that
the effect of street trading upon the character
of those who engage in it is only too frequently
disastrous. The youthful street trader is ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>posed
to many of the worst of moral risks;
he associates with, and acquires the habits of,
the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter.
If a match seller, he is likely to become a beggar&mdash;if
a newspaper seller, a gambler; the evidence
before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
extent to which begging prevails among the boy
vendors of evening papers. There was an
almost equally strong body of testimony to
the effect that, at any rate in crowded centres
of population, street trading tends to produce
a dislike or disability for more regular employment;
the child finds that for a few years money
is easily earned without discipline or special
skill; and the occupation is one which sharpens
the wits without developing the intelligence.
It leads to nothing practically, and in no way
helps him to a future career. There can be no
doubt that large numbers of those who were
once street traders drift into vagrancy and crime....
Much evidence was given to the effect
that the practice of street trading, even though
only carried on in the intervals of school attendance,
tends to produce a restless disposition,
and a dislike of restraint which makes children
unwilling to settle down to any regular employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>ment.
So far as girls are concerned, there
must be added to the above evils an unquestionable
danger to morals in the narrower sense.
The evidence presented to us on this point
was unanimous and most emphatic. Again and
again persons specially qualified to speak, assured
us that, when a girl took up street trading, she
almost invariably was taking a first step toward
a life of immorality. The statement that the
temptations are great, and the children practically
defenseless, needs no amplification. An
occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
unfit for girls."<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p>

<p>The need for <i>prohibition</i> of street trading was
realized by this committee, the change being
urged in the following epoch-making statement:
"After carefully considering the operation of
the by-laws adopted since 1903, and comparing
the present state of affairs with that existing
before the passing of the act, we have come
to the conclusion that the difficulties of the
situation cannot be said to have been met, or
any substantial contribution to a solution of
the problem made, by the existing law and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
machinery set up for its enforcement. Regulation,
however well organized and complete,
will not turn a wasteful and uneconomic use
of the energies of children into a system which
is beneficial to the community. Consequently
we feel that we have no choice but to recommend
the complete statutory prohibition of street trading
either by boys or by girls up to a specific
age. In the case of boys we feel that it would
be wise to name an age which would render it
likely that they would have had full opportunities
of taking to regular work before they
could legally trade in the streets. We think
the most suitable age would be seventeen, which
gives an interval of three or four years after
the ordinary time of leaving an elementary
school.... So far as girls are concerned, we
feel that the arguments in favor of prohibiting
trading increase rather than diminish in force
as the age of the traders advances. The entire
body of testimony laid before us has forced upon
us the conclusion that street trading by girls is
entirely indefensible, and that no system of
regulation is sufficient to rid the employment
of its risks and objections. On the other hand,
we have not been able to discover any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
hardship having resulted in any of those towns
in which by-laws have prohibited trading by
girls, or have restricted the ages during which
trading is permitted. We think that the age of
prohibition should be higher for girls than for
boys, and, while we feel that it should, in any
event, not be less than eighteen, we should be
willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>

<p>As to the administration of the law, the committee
declared that this should be delivered
into the hands of the education authorities
who could charge the regular truant officers with
the work of enforcement or employ special
officers for the purpose. The placing of responsibility
upon the parents of child offenders was
indorsed, but the committee criticised administrators
because of the small penalties imposed
as fines, the amounts being easily covered by
the earnings of the traders, and hence an increase
of the maximum fine was recommended.</p>

<p>A minority report was submitted by four
members of this committee who declined to
support the recommendation of the majority
that street trading should be immediately and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
universally prohibited in the case of boys up
to the age of seventeen. These members held
that the cause of street trading should first
be removed by organizing employment bureaus
for children, by giving the children the benefit
of vocational direction, and by promoting
industrial education for boys both while attending
the elementary schools and after.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Liverpool</h3>

<p>As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading
evil, the first steps were taken in Liverpool.
In this city the condition of child street
traders was particularly bad; half of them were
girls, and the stock in trade was usually newspapers
and matches&mdash;the children were dirty,
ragged and running the streets at all hours of
the night, the apparent trade in newspapers
and other articles being frequently used to
cover up much worse things; in fact, many of
the girls were practically prostitutes. Quite
a number of these children were nothing more
or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared
in ragged clothing for the purpose of exciting
sympathy. A local association undertook to
supply them with clothing, but many refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
this aid "because it would interfere with their
trade." Commenting on similar practices
among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert
H. Ormsby, M.D., said in 1904: "They sell
other things besides ... matches principally.
Of course the selling of matches is merely a
means of evading being taken up by the police
for begging. The matches are only humbug;
they do not want to sell them ... they do it
for begging purposes."<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> In 1897 the Liverpool
Watch Committee appointed a subcommittee
to consider the question of children trading in
streets, and this subcommittee reported that:
"The practice is attended, first, with injury
to the health of the children; second, with
interference with the education of such as are
of school age; third, with danger to the moral
welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice
frequently leads to street gambling, begging,
sleeping out and other undesirable practices,
and in some cases to crime." They were of
opinion&mdash;in which the inspector of reformatories
concurred&mdash;that much of the money earned
by the children went to indulge the vicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
and intemperate propensities of parents and
guardians.</p>

<p>By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898,
Parliament gave the city power to regulate
street trading by children, and accordingly
the following provisions were made by the city
council: (1) no licenses to any child under eleven;
(2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven
to fifteen inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally
or physically deficient, with consent of
parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year;
(4) badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for
license or badge; (6) licenses may be revoked
by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
child to trade after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, nor unless decently
clothed, nor without badge, nor in streets
during school hours unless exempted from school
attendance, and no licensed child may alter
or dispose of badge, or enter public houses to
trade, or importune passengers. These regulations
took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the
formal beginning of the movement against
street trading by children.</p>

<p>In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported
that it was "of opinion that the application of
the powers conferred by the Act has had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
effect of greatly reducing the number of children
trading in the streets, especially during school
hours and late in the evenings, and of improving
the condition, appearance, and behaviour of
those children who still engage in street trading."
This subcommittee recommended raising the
boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total
prohibition of street trading by girls.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">London</h3>

<p>Under the powers conferred on local authorities
by the Employment of Children Act
1903, the London County Council framed in
February, 1905, a set of by-laws, the provisions
of which seemed quite innocuous. Nevertheless
a considerable outcry was raised by persons
whom they would affect, and thereupon the
Secretary of State withheld his confirmation
and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an
inquiry at which complaints could be heard as
well as arguments in favor of the by-laws. This
inquiry was held in June and July of 1905,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
and schoolmasters, attendance officers, police
inspectors, news agents and others testified.
Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour
to discover where the line should be drawn, and
that it was not open to argument either that
child labour should entirely be prohibited or
that it should be unregulated."<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p>

<p>In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law
separately and discussed it, recommending that
it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
with his findings. He also drafted a set of
by-laws and submitted them with the recommendation
that they be adopted instead of the
ones originally passed by the London County
Council. Referring to these, he says: "An
important respect in which my suggested by-laws
differ from the County Council by-laws is in
differentiating between employment in connection
with street stalls and other forms of street
trading. It seemed to be the general opinion
[of witnesses] that the former employment,
being under the supervision of some adult
person, probably the parent, is not so harmful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
in its effects on the morals of the child as the
latter, and it must be remembered that the
main objection to street trading was on the
ground rather of its affecting the morality than
the health and education of the children."<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
The regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not
even so drastic as those proposed by the London
County Council, and in recommending milder
restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws
should not err upon the side of overstringency,
nor should they be in advance of public opinion;
the first, because taking a step more or less in
the dark might cause hardships impossible to
avoid, and the second, because any by-laws of
this sort, being most difficult of enforcement,
will certainly be evaded unless backed up by
the weight of public opinion."<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>

<p>The County Council, however, did not follow
Mr. Jones's recommendations in their entirety,
but adopted a more stringent set of by-laws
which were put in force in October, 1906.
In December, 1909, the County Council again
amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative to
these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen
Buckmaster in October, 1910. Mr. Buckmaster<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
recommended a number of changes of minor
importance which were adopted by the Council,
and accordingly the new by-laws were adopted
and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.
The most significant feature which they present
is the raising of the age limit for boys to fourteen
years and for girls to sixteen years without
exemption. The old by-laws prohibited street
trading by children under sixteen years between
the hours of 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, and this provision
was retained in the new by-laws, applying, however,
only to boys, inasmuch as girls under that
age are prohibited from trading in the streets
at any time. These London by-laws on street
trading are identical with the provisions of the
most advanced American child labor laws on
factory employment, and consequently they
blaze the way for the application of these provisions
in the United States to street trading as
well as to employment in factories, mills and
mines.</p>


<h3 class="italic">Manchester</h3>

<p>Although the British departmental committee
of 1910 was not favorably impressed by the
results of regulation as a cure for the evils of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit
to the city of Manchester for what had been
accomplished there under the license system.
Referring to this city, the report says: "In
Manchester such good results as can be arrived
at by the method of regulation were, perhaps,
more apparent than anywhere else. In that
city the entire evidence testified to the fact that
the regulation of street trading is very highly
organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
officers, giving their whole time to the
work, knowing the traders personally, visiting
the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
children and apparently exerting a most beneficial
influence. All that can be done through
the instrument of regulation seems to be done
there, the various authorities working together
to that end."<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>

<p>An English writer says that regulation in
Manchester "has greatly improved the conditions
of the newspaper boys and others who earned
their living by hawking goods in the streets.
It is something to the good at any rate that a
boy should be compelled to be decently dressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing
to the sympathies of the public by the
picturesque raggedness of his clothing. At the
same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
legislation of this sort is only playing with the
problem and that the only really satisfactory
law would be one which prohibited street trading
by children altogether."<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">New South Wales</h3>

<p>The British Colony of New South Wales has
adopted some mild restrictions under the Employment
of Children Act, 1903, and the president
of the State Children Relief Board for New
South Wales states in his report for the year
ending April 5, 1910, that "the Board is not
favorably impressed with the principle of street
trading by juveniles, realizing that even under
the most careful administration children, when
once licensed to engage in street trading, are
exposed to great temptations."</p>


<h3 class="italic">Canada</h3>

<p>The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids
children under twelve years from trading in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed
to sell after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Some boys have been denied
licenses because of their poor school record,
others because of lack of proof as to age, others
on account of not being physically qualified,
and still others because there was no need
for their earning money in this way. The
licensed boys are kept under supervision; their
attendance at school is watched; and if they
persist in selling after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> or disobey instructions,
their licenses are revoked.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>


<h3 class="italic">Germany</h3>

<p>The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits
children under fourteen years from offering
goods for sale on public roads, streets or places,
and peddling them from house to house. In
localities in which such sale or peddling is
customary, the local police authorities may
permit it for certain periods of time not exceeding
a total of four weeks in any calendar year.
"Under this provision there was considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
street trading, especially in the larger cities.
In Berlin, for instance, during the weeks preceding
Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
were thus employed. Protests against the
practice were made by the Consumers' League
and similar organizations, and resulted in the
passage of a police regulation, for its restriction;
and in 1909 a further step was taken by providing
that no exceptions of this sort be thereafter
permitted, so that now the employment of
children under fourteen years of age in street
trading is absolutely forbidden in Berlin."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>

<p>The Industrial Code forbids children under
twelve years to deliver goods or perform other
errands except for their own parents. Children
over twelve years may so engage for not more
than three hours daily between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
but not before morning school nor during the
noon recess nor until one hour after school has
closed in the afternoon; on Sundays and holidays
such children may do this work only for
two hours between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, but not
during the principal church service or the
half hour preceding it. Such children must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
first obtain the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Arbeitskarte</i></span> from the local police
authority, which is issued upon request of the
child's legal representative. Employers must
notify the police authority in advance of the
employment of such children.</p>


<h3 class="italic">France</h3>

<p>The labor of children in France is regulated
by the law of November 2, 1892, as amended
by the act of March 30, 1900. This law
applies to factories, workshops, mines and
quarries, exempting home industries, agricultural
work and purely mercantile establishments.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
The work of children in city streets is not
even mentioned. New legislation has recently
been proposed to regulate the employment of
minors under 18 years of age and of women in
the sale of merchandise from stands and tables
on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores.
According to its provisions, the work of such
persons would be prohibited for more than two
hours at a time and for more than six hours a
day, while seats and heating facilities would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
have to be supplied the same as for employees
inside the large establishments.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p>

<p>In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively
at kiosks on street corners, presided over
by middle-aged women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2>


<p>Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense
labor, beginning too early in life, continued too
long every day, stunting the growth of the mind,
leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time
for intellectual culture, must impair all those
high qualities that have made our country great.
Your overworked boys will become a feeble and
ignoble race of men, the parents of a more feeble
progeny; nor will it be long before the deterioration
of the laborer will injuriously affect those
very interests to which his physical and moral
interests have been sacrificed. If ever we are
forced to yield the foremost place among commercial
nations, we shall yield it to some people
preëminently vigorous in body and in mind."
To-day these words seem to us a veritable prophecy&mdash;but
we must not forget that they apply
to America no less than to England. If our
civilization is to continue and to improve with
time, every child must have a proper opportunity
to grow under conditions as nearly normal as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
possible; we must secure to the children their
birthright&mdash;the right to play and to dream, the
right to healthful sleep, the right to education
and training, the right to grow into manhood
and into womanhood with cleanness and
strength both of body and of mind, the right of
a chance to become useful citizens of the future.
Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
childhood, and while "Women and children first"
is a rigid law of the sea, "Children first" is
the fundamental law both of Nature and civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>



<div class="footnotes">
<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h2>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes
of Evidence, Q. 71. Cf. also Great Britain&mdash;Employment
of Children Act, 1903, Section 13.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>The Newsboy</i>, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Great Britain&mdash;Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child
Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
Streets," a folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and
a committee representing local organizations, 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
Work," 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>The Survey</i>, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by
E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population,
Part II, p. 506.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports,
Occupations, 1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of
the United States, pp. 32-34.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> These tables were copied from charts displayed at the
Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare
Exhibit, Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 25.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
of Chicago, 1911, pp. 241-242.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
representing local organizations, 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
Work," 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
Greek Padrone System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found
in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 21.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 17.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 10.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Report of President of State Children Relief Board of
New South Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts</span>,
1900, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heft</span> III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of
Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 63.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 65.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>The Hustler</i>, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February,
1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington,
D.C., 1863-1864, p. 7.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac
and C. E. B. Russell; Great Britain, Report of
Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911,
p. 33.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of New
York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
D.C., 1889, p. 10.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
and Russell, 1901.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered
in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National
Child Labor Committee.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor
Committee, pp. 6-7.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of
Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
p. 12.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before
Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of
New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14
of National Child Labor Committee.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
Committee on Employment of Children Act,
1903, 1910, Q. 1837 <i>et seq.</i>
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of
Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
1911, p. 102.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
pp. 42-44.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the
North American Civic League for Immigrants, December,
1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
Greek Padrone System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United
States, by Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
p. 133.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of
Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered
in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of
National Child Labor Committee.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
of Chicago, 1911, p. 244.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the
United States," 1907, p. 170.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
Life in Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904,
p. 121.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
1904, p. 305.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in
Great Britain," Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor,
p. 28.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
and Others think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National
Child Labor Committee, 1910.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New
York Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
Work," 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin
of Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
p. 12.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907,
p. 148.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904,
p. 131.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 135.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904,
p. 307.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 309.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp.
179-180.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children
in the United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908,
p. 118.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
Committee on Employment of Children Act,
1903, 1910, Q. 9503 <i>et seq.</i>
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National
Conference of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
Work," 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child
Labor Committee, <i>The Newsboy</i>, 1907.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
and Russell, 1901.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City
School District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 42.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 59.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 69.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 71.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 84.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 87.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 90.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 92.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in
theaters and other places of amusement.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in
private families.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 106-107.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 116-117.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 134.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of
To-day," 1907, p. 40.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee,
1909.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child
Wage Earners in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
1904, p. 304.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
the Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
representing local organizations, 1911.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Report on Bylaws made by London County Council
under Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones,
1906, pp. 24-27.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
pp. 34-35.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New
York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
p. 36.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 24.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Q. 1123.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on the Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland,
1902, p. 6.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have
made By-laws under the Employment of Children Act,
1903, 1907.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Report on the By-laws made by the London County
Council under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by
Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 15.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of
Boy Life in our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent
of Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba,
Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Henry Ferrette, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de législation industrielle</span>,"
1909, p. 149.
</div>

<div class="footnote">
 <a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No.
106, p. 566.
</div>
</div>



<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>


<h3>BOOKS</h3>


<div class="bibliography">
<span class="smcap">Adams, Myron E.</span>, <i>Children in American Street
Trades</i>, in Proceedings of First Annual Meeting
of National Child Labor Committee, 1905, pp.
25-46.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Municipal Regulations of Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings
of National Conference of Charities and
Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI, pp. 294-300.
</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Alden, Margaret</span>, <i>Child Life and Labour</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Britton, James A.</span>, <i>Child Labor and the Juvenile
Court</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of
National Child Labor Committee, 1909, p. 111.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Brown, Emma E.</span>, <i>Child Toilers of Boston Streets</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Buffalo Child Labor Problems</i>, folder issued by
New York Child Labor Committee, 1911.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Campagnac and Russell</span>, <i>Education, Earnings and
Social Condition of Boys Engaged in Street
Trading in Manchester</i>, Board of Education
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902,
Vol. VIII, pp. 653-670.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories</i>, in
Report of United States Commissioner of Education,
1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor on the Street&mdash;The Newsboy</i>, leaflet
of New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in the United States</i>, Bulletin 69 of
Bureau of Census, 1907.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Davis W.</span>, <i>American Child and Moloch of
To-day</i>, 1907, p. 40.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Victor S.</span>, <i>Woman and Child Wage Earners
in Great Britain</i>, in Bulletin 80 of United States
Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Cloete, J. G.</span>, <i>The Boy and his Work</i>, in <i>Studies of
Boy Life in Our Cities</i>, edited by E. J. Urwick,
1904, pp. 129-133.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clopper, Edward N.</span>, <i>Children on the Streets of
Cincinnati</i>, in Proceedings of Fourth Annual
Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
1908, pp. 113-123.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Child Labor in Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of
Sixth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Conant, Richard K.</span>, <i>Street Trades and Reformatories</i>,
in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
pp. 105-107.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Employment of Children Act</i>, 1903, Great Britain,
in J. N. Larned's <i>History for Ready Reference</i>,
1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Davis, Philip</span>, <i>Child Life on the Street</i>, National
Conference of Charities and Correction, 1909.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fieser, James L.</span>, <i>Causes of Truancy</i>, in Indiana
Bulletin of Charities and Correction, June,
1910, p. 227.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fleisher, Alexander</span>, <i>The Newsboys of Milwaukee</i>,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>in Fifteenth Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin
Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912, pp. 61-96.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gibbs, S. P.</span>, <i>Problem of Boy Work</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>, Elementary Schools (Children Working
for Wages), Parliament Sessional Papers
1899, Vol. 75.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
Employment of School Children, 1901.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
Employment of Children during School Age in
Ireland, 1902.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479,
10,440, 12,757.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial
Exemption from School Attendance.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Departmental Committee on Employment
of Children Act, 1903, 1910.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report on By-laws made by London County
Council under Employment of Children Act,
1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Education Committee of London
County Council, March 21, 1911, pp. 690-696.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Report of President of State Children Relief Board
of New South Wales for year ending April 5,
1910, pp. 39-40.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent
of Neglected Children for Province
of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Greek Padrone System in United States</i>, Abstract
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>of Immigration Commission's Report on,
1911.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gunckel, J. E.</span>, <i>Boyville</i>, 1905.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Hall, George A.</span>, <i>The Newsboy</i>, in Proceedings of
Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child
Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Henderson, Charles R.</span>, <i>Street Trading of Children</i>,
in his <i>Preventive Agencies and Methods</i>, 1910,
Vol. III, pp. 97-100.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment</i>,
Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of
Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d
Session.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Kelley, Florence</span>, <i>Children in Street Trades</i> and
<i>Telegraph and Messenger Boys</i>, in her <i>Some
Ethical Gains through Legislation</i>, 1905, pp.
11-26.</div>

<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
1911, pp. 108-110.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Mangold, George B.</span>, <i>Child Problems</i>, 1910, p. 232.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Neill, Charles P.</span>, <i>Child Labor at the National
Capital</i>, in Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting
of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
pp. 17-20.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of</i>,
1911, p. 33.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
Report of</i>, 1863-1864.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Law</i>, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation,
1908, National Consumers' League,
p. 63.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
D.C.</i>, 1889.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
and Others Think about its Effects</i>, Leaflet
32 of National Child Labor Committee, 1910.</div>

<div class="bibliography">North American Civic League for Immigrants,
Report of New York-New Jersey Committee,
December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Peacock, Robert</span>, <i>Employment of Children with
Special Reference to Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings
of Third International Congress for Welfare
and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
Streets</i>, a folder issued by Chicago Board of
Education and a committee representing local
organizations, 1911.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Problems of Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth
Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
1909, pp. 230-240.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>Saving the Barren Years</i>, in The Child in the
City, Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.</div>

<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public
Schools, pp. 41-44.</div>

<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public
Schools, pp. 132-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public
Schools, pp. 34-37.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Scott, Leroy</span>, <i>The Voice of the Street</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Sherard, Robert H.</span>, <i>Child Slaves of Britain</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Smith, Constance</span>, <i>Report on Employment of Children
in United Kingdom</i>.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><i>The Social Evil in Chicago</i>, Report of Chicago Vice
Commission, 1911, pp. 241-245.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Spargo, John</span>, <i>Street Trades</i> in his <i>Bitter Cry of the
Children</i>, 1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Stelzle, Charles</span>, <i>The Boy of the Street</i>, New York,
1904, pp. 7, 41.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Urwick, E. J.</span>, editor of <i>Studies of Boy Life in Our
Cities</i> (England), 1904.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Veditz, C. W. A.</span>, <i>Child Labor Legislation in Europe</i>,
Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor,
July, 1910.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Watson, Elizabeth C.</span>, <i>New York Newsboys and
their Work</i>, 1911.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Whitin, E. S.</span>, <i>Child Labor: Street Trades</i>, in his
<i>Factory Legislation in Maine</i>, 1908, pp. 137-138.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williams, M.</span>, <i>The Street Boy: Who He is and
What to do with Him</i>, National Conference of
Charities and Correction, 1903.</div>

<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williamson, E. E.</span>, <i>The Street Arab</i>, in Proceedings
of National Conference of Charities and Correction,
1898, Vol. XXV, pp. 358-361.</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>



<h3>MAGAZINE ARTICLES</h3>

<div class="bibliography">Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, <i>Twentieth Century</i>,
1911, Vol. V, pp. 30-34.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Child Laborers of the Street&mdash;The New York
Bills, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
205-206.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by
Owen R. Lovejoy, <i>The Survey</i>, Vol. XXIV, pp.
311-317.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Child Street Trades in London, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
1903, Vol. X, pp. 149-150.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Sellers, <i>Fortnightly
Review</i>, 1903, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Committee on Wage-earning Children&mdash;Third
Annual Report, <i>Economic Review</i>, 1904, Vol.
XIV, pp. 208-211.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Convalescent Men for Newsboys, <i>The Survey</i>, 1910,
Vol. XXV, p. 809.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and
Newark, by J. K. Paulding, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, <i>Western</i>,
Vol. CLVIII, pp. 575-578.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune,
<i>The Survey</i>, 1911, Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, <i>The Survey</i>, 1911,
Vol. XXVI, p. 591.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, <i>The Survey</i>,
1910, Vol. XXV, p. 511.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography">Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union
and What It Thinks of a College Education,
by R. W. Bruère, <i>Outlook</i>, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
pp. 878-883.</div>

<div class="bibliography">John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist,
by A. E. Winship, <i>World To-day</i>, 1908,
Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.</div>

<div class="bibliography">De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard,
<i>Everybody's</i>, 1908, Vol. XVIII, pp. 25-37.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades&mdash;Other
Wisconsin Child Labor Advances, <i>Survey</i>, 1909,
Vol. XXII, p. 589.</div>

<div class="bibliography">New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B.
Butler, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. XVII,
pp. 1062-1064.</div>

<div class="bibliography">New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a
Comparison of Regulations in Liverpool, <i>Charities
and Commons</i>, 1909, Vol. XXI, pp. 953-954.</div>

<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboy Lodging House, <i>Charities and
Commons</i>, 1908, Vol. XXI, pp. 147-148.</div>

<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboys Licensed, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
1903, Vol. XI, pp. 188-189.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott
Nearing, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
XVII, pp. 778-784.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, <i>Charities and
Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. XI, pp. 482, 568.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by
Ernest Poole, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903,
Vol. X, pp. 160-162.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography">Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, <i>Survey</i>, 1910, Vol.
XXV, p. 312.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy,
<i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXV, p. 504.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder,
<i>World To-day</i>, 1907, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-739.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular
and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.</div>

<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg,
<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, 1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.</div>

<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Trading
in Liverpool, by J. E. Gorst, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, <i>Contemporary
Review</i>, 1888, Vol. LIII, pp. 825-835.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine
C. Goldmark, <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 1904,
Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Street Trades and Delinquency, <i>Survey</i>, 1911, Vol.
XXVI, p. 285.</div>

<div class="bibliography">The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by
Thomas Burke, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, 1900, Vol.
LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England),
Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year,
No. 89, p. 246.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing,
<i>The Independent</i>, 1912, Vol. LXXII, No. 3297,
pp. 288-289.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></div>

<div class="bibliography">A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B.
Forbush, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
XIX, pp. 798-802.</div>

<div class="bibliography">Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, <i>McClure's</i>,
Vol. XXI, pp. 40-48.</div>

<div class="bibliography">What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street
Trades for Children, by Pauline Goldmark,
<i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 159-160.</div>

<div class="bibliography">What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations
carried on in Buffalo, <i>Charities and
Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>



<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</a></h2>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
<h3>APPENDIX A <br />

LAWS</h3>

<p>The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading,
as amended in 1911, is given below in its entirety,
because it is the most advanced law of its kind in
the United States.</p>


<h4 class="italic">Wisconsin</h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 p. The term "street trade," as
used in this act, shall mean any business or occupation
in which any street, alley, court, square or
other public place is used for the sale, display or
offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise.
No boy under the age of twelve years, and
no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in any
city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or
offer for sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals
in any street or public place.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of
age, shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade,
or shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for
sale or distribute hand bills or circulars or any
other articles, except newspapers, magazines or
periodicals as hereinafter provided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of
age shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or
any other articles upon the street or from house to
house.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of
age shall, in any city of the first class, distribute,
sell or expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
magazines or periodicals in any street or public
place or work as a bootblack, or in any other street
or public trade or sell or offer for sale or distribute
any hand bills or other articles, unless he complies
with all the legal requirements concerning school
attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as
hereinafter provided, shall have been issued to him
by the state factory inspector. No such permit
and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing
the same shall have received an application in
writing therefor, signed by the parent or guardian
or other person having the custody of the child,
desiring such permit and badge, and until such
officer shall have received, examined and placed on
file the written statement of the principal or chief
executive officer of the public, private or parochial
school, which the said child is attending, stating
that such child is an attendant at such school with
the grade such child shall have attained, and provided
that no such permit and badge shall be issued,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such
child is mentally and physically able to do such
work besides his regular school work as required
by law.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued,
the state factory inspector shall demand and be
furnished with proof of such child's age by the production
of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates
cannot be secured, by the record of age stated in
the first school enrollment of such child. Whenever
it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong
or false statements as to any child's age, the officer
who granted such permit shall forthwith revoke the
same. After having received, examined and placed
on file such papers, the officer shall issue to the
child a permit and badge. The principal or chief
executive officer of schools, in which children under
fourteen years of age are pupils, shall keep a complete
list of all children in their school to whom a
permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place
and date of birth of the child, the name and address
of its parents, guardian, custodian or next friend,
as the case may be, and describe the color of hair
and eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing
facial marks of such child, and shall further
state that the papers required by the preceding
section have been duly examined and filed; and
that the child named in such permit has appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
before the officer issuing the permit. The badge
furnished by the officer issuing the permit shall
bear on its face a number corresponding to the
number of the permit, and the name of the child.
Every such permit, and every such badge on its
reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
officer issuing the same by the child in whose name
it is issued. Provided, that in case of carrier boys
working on salary for newspaper publishers delivering
papers, a card of identification shall be issued
to such carriers by the factory inspector, which
they shall carry on their person, and exhibit to any
officer authorized under this act, who may accost
them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
carriers.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 v. The badge provided for herein
shall be such as the state factory inspector shall
designate, and shall be worn conspicuously in sight
at all times in such position as may be designated
by the said factory inspector by such child while
so working. No child to whom such permit and
badge or identification card are issued shall transfer
the same to any other person.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of
age shall, in any city of the first class, sell, expose
or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
evening, between the first day of October and the
first day of April, nor after seven-thirty o'clock in
the evening between the first day of April and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
morning; and no child under sixteen years of age
shall distribute, sell, expose or offer for sale any
newspapers, magazines or periodicals or shall work
as a bootblack or in any street or public trades or
distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted
to work in the distribution or sale or exposing
or offering for sale of any newspapers, magazines
or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other street
or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills
during the hours when the public schools of the
city where such child shall reside are in session.
Provided, that any boy between the ages of fourteen
and sixteen years, who is complying and shall
continue to comply with all the legal requirements
concerning school attendance, and who is mentally
and physically able to do such delivery besides his
regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver
newspapers between the hours of four and six in the
morning.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or
any factory inspector acting under his direction
shall enforce the provisions of this law, and he is
hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 y. The permit of any child, who
in any city of the first class distributes, sells or
offers for sale any newspapers, magazines or periodicals
in any street or public place or works as a
bootblack or in any other street trade, or sells or
offers for sale or distributes any hand bills or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
articles in violation of the provisions of this act, or
who becomes delinquent or fails to comply with all
the legal requirements concerning school attendances
shall forthwith be revoked for a period of six
months and his badge taken from said child. The
refusal of any child to surrender such permit, and
the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
magazines or periodicals or any goods or
merchandise, or the working by such child as a
bootblack or in any other street or public trade, or
in distributing hand bills or other articles, after
notice, by any officer authorized to grant permits
under this law of the revocation of such permit and
a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said
child may also be revoked by the officer who issued
such permit, and the badge taken from such child,
upon the complaint of any police officer or other
attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile
court, and such child shall surrender his permit
and badge upon the demand of any police officer,
truancy or other attendance officer or probation
officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged
with the duty of enforcing this act. In case of a
second violation of this act by any child, he shall be
brought before the juvenile court, if there shall be
any juvenile court in the city where such child
resides, or, if not, before any court or magistrate
having jurisdiction of offenses committed by minors
and be dealt with according to law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 z. Any parent or other person who
employs a minor under the age of sixteen years in
peddling without a license or who, having the care
or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the
child to engage in such employment, or to violate
sections 1728 p to 1728 za, inclusive, shall be punished
by a fine not to exceed one hundred dollars nor less
than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
county jail for not more than sixty days or less
than ten days.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall
be issued for a boy selling papers between the ages
of twelve and sixteen years by the state factory
inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
either public, parochial or other private school
attended by said boy, stating and setting forth that
said boy is a regular attendant upon said school.
No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
by any newspaper publisher or printer or
persons having for sale newspapers or periodicals of
any character, to loiter or remain around any salesroom,
assembly room, circulation room or office for
the sale of newspapers, between the hours of nine
in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, on days
when school is in session. Any newspaper publisher,
printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers
shall upon conviction for permitting newsboys to
loiter or hang around any assembly room, circulation
room, salesroom or office where papers are
distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
to exceed one hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five
dollars, or by commitment to the county jail
for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.</p>


<h4 class="italic">London, England</h4>

<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By-laws adopted by the London County Council
and put in Force on June 3, 1911</span></p>

<p class="center">By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children
generally.</p>

<p>10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be
employed in or carry on street trading.</p>

<p>11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be
employed in or carry on street trading.</p>

<p>12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be
employed in or carry on street trading before 6 in
the morning or after 9 in the evening.</p>

<p>13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any
time be employed in or carry on street trading unless</p>

<p>(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and</p>

<p>(2) He first procures a badge from the London
County Council, which he shall wear whilst engaged
in street trading on the upper part of the right arm
in such a manner as to be conspicuous.</p>

<p>The badge shall be deemed to be a license to
trade, and may be withheld or withdrawn for such
period as the London County Council think fit in
any of the following cases&mdash;</p>

<p>(<i>a</i>) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to
him, been convicted of any offense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>

<p>(<i>b</i>) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London
County Council that the boy has used his
badge for the purpose of begging or receiving alms,
or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
imposition, or for any other improper purpose.</p>

<p>(<i>c</i>) If the boy fails to notify the London County
Council within one week of any change in his place
of residence.</p>

<p>(<i>d</i>) If the boy commits a breach of any of the
conditions under which such badge is issued; such
conditions to be stated on such badge or delivered to
the boy in writing.</p>

<p>14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by
the London County Council shall in no way alter,
lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise dispose of,
or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
remain the property of the London County Council,
and he shall, on receiving notice in writing from the
London County Council (which may be served by
post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver
up the same forthwith to the London County
Council.</p>

<p>15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
in street trading, shall not enter any premises
used for public entertainment or licensed for the
sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the
premises for the purpose of trading.</p>

<p>16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
in street trading, shall not annoy any person
by importuning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>

<p>17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict
the employment of children in the occupations
specified in section 3 (<i>a</i>) of the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
employment is already restricted by statute.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>


<h3>APPENDIX B<br />

TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.</h3>


<div class="figcenter">
<a href="images/fz267_1.jpg">
<img src="images/thn267_1.jpg" alt="Badge used in Cincinnati." title="Badge used in Cincinnati." />
</a>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
<a href="images/fz267_2.jpg">
<img src="images/thn267_2.jpg" alt="Badge used in Boston." title="Badge used in Boston." />
</a>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>


<h3>APPENDIX C<br />

CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS</h3>

<p>The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy
situations of Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced
here, in the hope that they will be of use
in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
individual who contemplates making such an investigation
elsewhere. It will be observed that
these cards are practically confined to questions
affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
amplified, if intended for use in a general
study of street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>


<h4>Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses</h4>


<div class="figcenter">
<a href="images/fz269.jpg">
<img src="images/thn269.jpg" alt="Application for a License" title="Application for a License" />
</a>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
  <a href="images/fz270.jpg">
<img src="images/thn270.jpg" alt="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" title="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" />
</a>
</div>


<h4>Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.</h4>

<div class="figcenter">
  <a href="images/fz271.jpg">
<img src="images/thn271.jpg" alt="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" title="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" />
</a>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>


<h4>Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of
a Badge in Province of Manitoba, Canada.</h4>

<div class="figcenter">
  <a href="images/fz272.jpg">
<img src="images/thn272.jpg" alt="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" title="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" />
</a>
</div>



<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>


<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia</h4>

<div class="figcenter">
<a href="images/fz273.jpg">
<img src="images/thn273.jpg" alt="Philadelphia Investigation Card" title="Philadelphia Investigation Card" />
</a>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>


<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee</h4>


<div class="figcenter">
  <a href="images/fz274.jpg">
<img src="images/thn274.jpg" alt="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" title="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" />
</a>
</div>



<div class="figcenter">
  <a href="images/fz275.jpg">
<img src="images/thn275.jpg" alt="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" title="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" />
</a>
</div>


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>



<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>

<ul class="not">
<li>Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>

<li>Age limit (<i>see</i> Laws and Ordinances), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Austria, investigation of 1907, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>


<li>Begging, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>

<li>Berlin regulations, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>

<li>Bootblacks, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
  <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
  <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_194">165</a>.</li>
  <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
  <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
  <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
  <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
  <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
  <li>Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
     <ul class="not mless">
     <li>Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
     </ul>
  </li>
 </ul>
</li>
<li>Boston, license statistics, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Boston Newsboys' Court, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>

<li>Boston Newsboys' Republic, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Buffalo conditions, report on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>


<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>

<li>Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

<li>Chicago statistics of local studies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

<li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>

<li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
 <li>New York, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Cincinnati, license statistics, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Market children, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
 <li>Newsboy conditions, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
 <li class="break">Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>


<li>Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Chicago juvenile court records, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
 <li>Connection between occupation and offense, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 <li>Records of Indiana Boys' School, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>
<li>Delivery Service, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Detroit, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>


<li>Edinburgh, conditions in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>

<li>Effects of street work, classified, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>In Buffalo, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
 <li>In physical deterioration, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
 <li>Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>
<li>Employment distinguished from independent work, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li>

<li>Enforcement of regulations, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

<li>Errand running, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li class="break">Delinquency, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li class="break">France, regulations, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>


<li>Germany, inquiry of 1898, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Girls as newspaper sellers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

<li>Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Employment of Children Act, 1903, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
 <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
 <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
 <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
 <li class="break">Parliamentary return of 1899, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>


<li>Hartford, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Housing problem's relation to street trading, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>


<li>Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>

<li>Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>


<li class="break">Kelley, Florence, on street trading, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>


<li>Laws, table of state, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

<li>Licenses for street work required, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>

<li>License statistics, of Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Of Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
 <li>Of New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Liverpool, conditions, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>London County Council bylaws, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>


<li>Manchester regulations, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>

<li>Market children, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
 <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
 <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
 <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
 <li>Nationalities, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
 <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
 <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

<li>Messenger boys, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
 <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
 <li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
 <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
 <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
 <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
 <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 <li>Investigation in Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
 <li>Lack of prospects, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
 <li>Poverty as excuse for work, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
 <li class="break">Use of men instead of boys, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Nationality of street workers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>

<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>

<li>Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>On messenger service, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
 <li>Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Newark, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

<li>New York, report of newsboy investigation, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>
<li>Newsboys, ages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Associations, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
 <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
 <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
 <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
 <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
 <li>Earnings compared with factory wages, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
 <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
 <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
 <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
 <li>Irregularity of meals, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
 <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
 <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 <li>Substitutes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
 <li>Tricks of the trade, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Newsboys' Court of Boston, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>

<li>Newsboys' Republic of Boston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

<li>New South Wales, license statistics, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Newspapers, as merchandise, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Attitude toward regulation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Night work, of messengers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li class="break">Of newsboys, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li class="break">Ordinances, table of city, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>


<li>Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Cincinnati statistics, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
 <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
 <li>Immigration Commission's report, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Philadelphia conditions, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>

<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>

<li>Poverty as an excuse for street work, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>

<li>Prohibition, of night work, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li class="break">Of street work by children, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>


<li>Regulation, by municipality or state, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Degree of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
 <li>In future, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
 <li>Unsatisfactory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Retardation in school of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Rochester, method of enforcement, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>


<li>St. Louis statistics, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>

<li>School, as social center, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Scotland, conditions, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>

<li>Spargo, John, on effects of street work, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>

<li>Statistics, of U.S. Census, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Austria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
 <li>Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
 <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
 <li>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
 <li>Germany, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
 <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
 <li>New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Street as a social agent, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>

<li>Street employments, distinction between, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>

<li>Street occupations, of minor importance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 <li>Contrasted with regular work, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li>Street trading defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.
 <ul class="not mless">
 <li>Neglected in legislation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
 </ul>
</li>

<li class="break">Street trading problem related to other problems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>


<li class="break">Toledo, retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>


<li>Vagrants, Chicago report on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

<li class="break">Vice Commission of Chicago, report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>


<li>Wisconsin, law, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
</ul>


<hr class="hr45" />

<p class="center">The following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.</p>




<p class="bookadintro1">NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS</p>


<p class="bookadhead">A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil</p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p>

<p>It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams,
both through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made
for herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of constructive, her
aim being always to better the conditions in the particular field which she is
considering. In "A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil," she considers
sanely and frankly questions which civilized society has always had confronting
it and in all probability always will. Something of her attitude of
mind and of her purpose in writing this book as well as a glimpse of the
character of the volume may be seen from the following paragraph taken
from her preface:</p>

<p>"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a counter-knowledge
to a bewildering mass of information which came to me through
the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports which its
twenty field officers daily brought to its main office adjoining Hull-House
became to me a revelation of the dangers incident to city conditions and of
the allurements which are designedly placed around many young girls in
order to draw them into an evil life."</p>

<hr class="hr45" />

<p class="bookadsmall">"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle for
social purity."&mdash;<i>The Nation.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the dark-covered
evil at which it is aimed."&mdash;<i>The Continent.</i></p>


<p  class="bookadhead">The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets</p>

<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>

<p>A protest against the practice of every large city of
turning over to commercialism practically all the provisions
for public recreation, leaving it possible for private greed
to starve or demoralize the nature of youth.</p>

<hr class="hr45" />

<p class="bookadsmall">"Few persons in this country are better qualified to
speak with authority on any subject connected with the
betterment of the poor than is Jane Addams."&mdash;<i>New York Herald.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"The book should be in the hands of every preacher
and laborer for humanity. I wish that parents might make
it a text-book."&mdash;Rev. <span class="smcap">Madison C. Peter</span> in <i>The New
Orleans Daily News</i>.</p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and
yearning, and also shows such sanity, such breadth and
tolerance of mind, and such philosophic penetration into
the inner meanings of outward phenomena as to make it a
book which no one who cares seriously about its subject
can afford to miss."&mdash;<i>New York Times.</i></p>


<p class="bookadhead">Newer Ideals of Peace</p>

<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against the
waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that must ensue
when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their right places in
the minds of men.... Back of it lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable
pity, a spirit as free as that of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness
that Marcus Aurelius might have found similar to his own."&mdash;<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">The editor of <i>Collier's</i> writes: "To us it seems the most comprehensive
talk yet given about how to help humanity in America to-day."</p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of
insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book
shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has
characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism
in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."&mdash;<i>Annals of the American Academy.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and
weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her sensible
suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, her buoyant
yet practical optimism."&mdash;<i>Examiner.</i></p>


<p class="bookadhead">Democracy and Social Ethics</p>

<p class="right"><i>Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained
in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and
economic facts."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia Ledger.</i></p>


<p  class="bookadhead">Twenty Years at Hull-House</p>

<p class="right"><i>Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo, $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68</i></p>

<p>Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout
the civilized world. In the present volume she tells
of her endeavors and of their success&mdash;of the beginning of
Hull-House, of its growth and its present influence. For
every one at all interested in the improvement of our cities,
in the moral education of those who are forced to spend
much of their time on the streets or in cheap places of
amusement&mdash;"Twenty Years at Hull-House" is a volume
of more than ordinary interest and value.</p>

<hr class="hr45" />

<p class="bookadsmall">"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements
of that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which
America means to stand before the world."&mdash;<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in
the early days, the unsuspected resources that were developed
among the crowded city population of foreign birth, and the
efforts continuously made for the betterment of labor legislation
in the State of Illinois, are all set forth with simplicity and
directness. On the whole it is a wonderful record of accomplishment,
full of suggestion to social reformers the world over."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."&mdash;<i>Bellman.</i></p>

<p class="bookadsmall">"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity
with the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
humanity."&mdash;<i>Bookman.</i></p>


<div>
<div class="bookadhead">On City Government<br /></div>
<div class="bookadsubt">The American City</div>
</div>

<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.</p>

<p class="bookad2">"In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the tenement,
public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices, municipal revenue
and municipal debt, with all their related and subsidiary problems, are
clearly and fully considered."&mdash;<i>Pittsburgh Gazette.</i></p>

<p class="right"><i>6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>


<div>
<div class="bookadhead">Great American Cities<br /></div>
<div class="bookadsubt">Their Problems and Their Government</div>
</div>



<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of
the Public Service Commission for the first District, New York</p>

<p class="bookad2">A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest cities
of the country, including Chicago.</p>

<p class="right"><i>Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net</i></p>



<div>
<div class="bookadhead">On Industrial Legislation<br /></div>
<div class="bookadsubt">Some Ethical Gains through Legislation</div>
</div>

<p class="bookadauthor">By <span class="smcap">Mrs.</span> FLORENCE KELLEY</p>

<p class="bookad2">The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector of
Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the National
Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a resident at
Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New York.</p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>

<div>
<div class="bookadhead">On Charitable Effort<br /></div>
<div class="bookadsubt">How to Help</div>
</div>


<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and
Labor, Washington</p>

<p class="bookad2">Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice as to
the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but the non-professional
worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special training, is even
more emphatically in need of such guidance as this sound and competent
book gives.</p>

<p class="right"><i>New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net</i></p>


<p class="bookadhead">The Development of Thrift</p>

<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's
Aid Society, Baltimore</p>

<p class="bookad2">"An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their scope and
their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in suggestions of
value."&mdash;<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>


<p  class="bookadhead">Friendly Visiting among the Poor</p>

<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity
Organization Society of Baltimore</p>

<p class="bookad2">"A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely practical."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Charles Richmond Henderson.</span></p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net</i></p>

<p  class="bookadhead">
The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and
Delinquent Children</p>

<p class="bookadauthor">By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New
York City</p>

<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private Charities
for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children from Almshouse;
The State School and Placing Out System; The County Children's Home
System; The System of Public Support in Private Institutions; The
Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and Societies for the
Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities for Destitute and Neglected
Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent Children; Present Tendencies.</p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>


<p  class="bookadhead">Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</p>

<p class="bookadauthor">By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic
League</p>

<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
Grown People; Conclusion.</p>

<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>

<hr class="hr45" />

<div>
<p class="bookadintro1">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p>
<p class="center"> <span class="bad1">Publishers</span>  <span class="bad2">64-66 Fifth Avenue</span>  <span class="bad2">New York</span></p>
</div>



<div class="tn spaced">
<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes - Part II</b></p>

<p>  The following changes have been made to the text:</p>

<ul>
 <li>In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be    classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;" Newspaper sellers was written     as one word once.</li>

 <li>In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,     introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made     according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly     hyphenated.</li>

 <li>In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header     "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.</li>

 <li>In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as     "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de     législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.</li>

 <li>In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204. </li>
</ul>

</div>

<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***</div>
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