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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Child Labor in City Streets + +Author: Edward Nicholas Clopper + +Release Date: December 9, 2013 [EBook #44396] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Heike Leichsenring and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="titlepage"> + + <h1>CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS</h1> + + + <p class="center"> + BY <br /> + <span class="middle">EDWARD N. CLOPPER, Ph.D.</span><br/> + SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY + </p> + + + <p class="center spaced"> + <span class="special">New York</span><br/> + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/> + 1913<br/> + + <span class="small italic">All rights reserved</span> + </p> + + <p class="figcenter spaced"> + <img src="images/logo.png" width="20%" alt="logo" title="logo" /> + </p> + + <p class="center spaced"> + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/> + <span class="small">NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO</span> <br /> + <span class="small">DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO</span><br /> + </p> + + <p class="center spaced"> + MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> + <span class="small">LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA</span><br /> + <span class="small">MELBOURNE</span> + </p> + + <p class="center spaced"> + THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br/> + <span class="small">TORONTO</span> + </p> + + + <p class="small center spaced"> + <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912,</span><br/> + By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + </p> + + <p class="small center">Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted + January, 1913.</p> + + + <p class="small center spaced"> + <span class="special">Norwood Press</span><br/> + J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br/> + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + </p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2> + + +<p>This volume is devoted to the discussion of +a neglected form of child labor. Just why +the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should +have been ignored in the general movement for +child welfare is hard to understand. Perhaps +it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street +workers have always been far more conspicuous +than any other child laborers, and it seems that +this very proximity has been their misfortune. +If we could have focused our attention upon +them as we did upon children in factories, they +would have been banished from the streets +long ago. But they were too close to us. We +could not get a comprehensive view and saw +only what we happened to want at the moment—their +paltry little stock in trade. Now that +we are getting a broader sense of social responsibility, +we are beginning to realize how blind +and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment +of them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first five chapters of the book review +present conditions and discuss causes, the next +two deal with effects, and the final ones are +concerned with the remedy. The scope has +been made as broad as possible. All forms of +street work that engage any considerable number +of children have been described at length, and +opinions and findings of others have been freely +quoted. I have attempted to show the bad +results of the policy of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>laissez-faire</i></span> as applied +to this problem. Simply because these little +boys and girls have been ministering to its +wants, the public has given them scarcely +a passing thought. It has been so convenient +to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at +one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake +of the children, such work would better be done +by other means. Although good examples have +been set by European cities, we have not introduced +any innovations to clear the streets of +working children.</p> + +<p>The free rein at present given to child labor +in our city streets is productive of nothing but +harmful results, and it is high time that a determined +stand was taken for the rights of children +so exposed. A few feeble efforts at regulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> +have been made in some parts of this country, +but this is an evil that requires prohibition +rather than regulation. There is no valid +reason why just as efficient service in streets +could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it +would be far more suitable and humane to +reserve such work for old men and women who +need outdoor life and are physically unable +to earn their living in other ways. We could +buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a +stand just as easily as we get it now from an +urchin who shivers on the street corner. It is +only a question of habit, and we ought to be +glad of the change for the good of all concerned.</p> + +<p class="right"> +E. N. C.<br /> +</p> + +<p> +Cincinnati, 1912.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> + + + + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<table id="toc" summary="Content"> + <tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">I.</td> + <td class="middle">The Problem of the Street-working Child—Public Apathy—Relation to Other Problems</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">II.</td> + <td class="middle">Extent to which Children engage in Street Activities in America and Europe</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">24</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">III.</td> + <td class="middle">Newspaper Sellers</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IV.</td> + <td class="middle">Bootblacks, Peddlers and Market Children</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">V.</td> + <td class="middle">Messengers, Errand and Delivery Children</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">101</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VI.</td> + <td class="middle">Effects of Street Work upon Children</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VII.</td> + <td class="middle">Relation of Street Work to Delinquency</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">159</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td> + <td class="middle">The Struggle for Regulation in the United States</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IX.</td> + <td class="middle">Development of Street Trades Regulation in Europe</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">214</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="middle">Conclusion</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#CONCLUSION">243</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="middle">Bibliography</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">245</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="middle">Appendices</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#APPENDICES">255</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="middle">Index</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#INDEX">277</a></td> + </tr> + +</table> + + + + + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD—PUBLIC +APATHY—RELATION TO OTHER +PROBLEMS</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span>The efforts which have so far been made in +the United States to solve the child labor +problem have been directed almost exclusively +toward improvement of conditions in mines +and manufacturing and mercantile establishments. +This singling out of one phase of the +problem for correction was due to the uneducated +state of public opinion which made +necessary a long and determined campaign along +one line, vividly portraying the wrongs of children +in this one form of exploitation, before general +interest could be aroused. Within very recent +years this campaign has met with signal success, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +and many states have granted a goodly measure +of protection to the children of their working +classes as far as the factory, the store and the +mine are concerned. The time has now come +for attention to be directed toward the premature +employment of children in work other than that +connected with mining and manufacturing, for +there are other phases of this problem which involve +large numbers of children and which, up to +the present, have received but little thought from +students of labor conditions. The three most +important of these other phases are the employment +of children in agricultural work, in home +industries and in street occupations. This +volume will deal with the last-named phase—with +the economic activities of children in the +streets and public places of our cities, their +effects and the remedies they demand.</p> + +<p>The street occupations in which children +commonly engage are: newspaper selling, peddling, +bootblacking, messenger service, delivery +service, running errands and the tending of +market stands. The first three are known as +street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy +that the children who follow them are little +"merchants," and are therefore entitled to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>dignity of separate classification. Careful usage +would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers +and bootblacks who work independently of any +employer. Many children are employed by +other persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods +and polish shoes, and such children technically +are street traders no more than those who run +errands, carry messages or deliver parcels. +Consequently the term "street trades" is limited +in its application, and by no means embraces +all the economic activities of children in our +streets and public places.</p> + +<p>Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition +of street trading, declaring that it is "any +business or occupation in which any street, +alley, court, square or other public place is used +for the sale, display or offering for sale of any +articles, goods or merchandise."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> This covers +neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain the expression "street +trading" has been officially defined as including: +"the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers, +and other articles; playing, singing, or performing +for profit; plying for hire in carrying luggage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> or messages; shoe blacking, or any other like +occupations carried on in streets or public +places."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Street traders and street employees may be +classified by occupation as follows:—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Classification of street traders and street employees by occupation"> + <tr> + <th>Street Traders<br /> (Working for Themselves)</th> + <th>Street Employees <br /> (Working for Others)</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Newspaper sellers<br /> + Peddlers<br /> + Bootblacks (on street)</td> + <td>Newspaper sellers (on salary) <br /> + Peddlers (on salary)<br /> + Bootblacks (in stands)<br /> + Market stand tenders<br /> + Messengers<br /> + Errand children<br /> + Delivery children</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>This classification is based upon the well-known +economic distinction between profits +and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction +has been applied to juvenile street +workers, for it has operated to the great disadvantage +of the "traders." This class has been +practically ignored in the general movement for +child welfare, on the ground that these little +laborers were in business for themselves, and +therefore should not be disturbed. Recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +the conviction has been dawning upon observant +people that, in the case of young children at +least, the effects of work on an independent +basis, particularly in city streets, are just as bad +and perhaps even worse than work under the +direction of employers. The mute appeal of +the street-working child for protection has at +last reached the heart of the welfare movement, +and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now +being put forth, regardless of whether he toils +for profits or for wages.</p> + +<p>This alleged distinction between street trading +and street employment should be clearly understood, +as any movement designed to remedy +present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive +to avoid the great mistake of protecting +one class and ignoring the other. On the one +hand there is said to be an army of little independent +"merchants" conducting business +affairs of their own, while on the other there is +an array of juvenile employees performing the +tasks set them by their masters. For purposes +of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting, +narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made +to defeat in part the beneficent aim of the great +campaign for child welfare, but nevertheless it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen +years of age at work in factories and mines +are often properly called "slaves," and their +plight is regarded with pity coupled with a +clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny +workers in the streets are referred to approvingly +as "little merchants" and are freely patronized +even by the avowed friends of children, who +thereby contribute their moral support toward +continuing these conditions and maintaining +this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood. +As an instance of this remarkable attitude, +there was proudly printed in the Pittsburgh +<i>Gazette-Times</i> of April 11, 1910, the picture of +a four-year-old child who had been a newsboy +in an Ohio town since the age of <i>thirty months</i>, +and this was described as a most worthy achievement!</p> + +<p>That the term "child labor," whose meaning +has so long been popularly restricted to the +employment of children in factories, mills, +mines and stores, is properly applicable to the +activities of children in all kinds of work for +profit, is now virtually recognized by a few +states which prohibit employment of children +under fourteen years of age "in any gainful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +occupation." But unfortunately the courts +have rigidly construed the word "employ" +to mean the purchasing of the services of one +person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers, +bootblacks and others who work on their own +account, do not enjoy the protection of such +a statute because they are not "employed." +Under this interpretation a fatal loophole is +afforded through which thousands of boys and +girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks +to prevent their <i>labor</i> rather than their mere +employment. It is for this reason that, in +states having otherwise excellent provisions +for the conservation of childhood, we see little +children freely exploiting themselves on city +streets. This situation has been calmly accepted +without protest by the general public, for, +while the people condemn child labor in factories, +they tolerate and even approve of it on the street. +They labor under the delusion that merely +because a few of our successful business men +were newsboys in the past, these little "merchants" +of the street are receiving valuable +training in business methods and will later +develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A +glaring example of this attitude was given by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +a monthly magazine<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> which fondly referred +to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants +from whose ranks will be recruited the +coming statesmen, soldiers, financiers, merchants +and manufacturers of our land."</p> + +<p>It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow +conception has prevailed, as it raises the tremendous +obstacle of popular prejudice which +must be broken down before these child street +workers can receive their share of justice at +the hands of the law. The only fair and +logical method of approach toward a solution +of the child labor problem in all its phases is +to take high ground and view the subject broadly +in the light of what is for the best interests of +children in general.</p> + +<p>The state recognizes the need of an intelligent +citizenship and accordingly provides a system of +public schools, requiring the attendance of all +children up to the age of fourteen years. In +order that nothing shall interfere with the +operation of this plan for general education, +the state forbids the employment of children +of school age. In respect of both these mandates, +the state has really assumed the guardianship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +of the child; it has accepted the principle +that the child is the ward of the state and has +based its action on this principle. A guardian +should be ever mindful of the welfare of his +wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should +carefully shield its children from all forms of +exploitation as well as from other abuses.</p> + +<p>However, in the matter of the regulation of +child labor, a curious anomaly has arisen—no +one may employ a child under fourteen years +in a <i>factory</i> for even one hour a day without +being liable to prosecution for disobeying the +law of the state, because such work might interfere +with the child's growth and education; +all of which is right and indorsed by public +opinion, but—merely because a child is working +independently of any employer, he is allowed +to sell newspapers, peddle chewing gum and +black boots for any number of hours, providing +he attends school during school hours! Could +anything be more inconsistent? To this extent +the state, as a guardian, has neglected the welfare +of its ward.</p> + +<p>This lack of consideration for street workers +was emphasized in a British government report +a number of years ago. Referring to the statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +provisions for preventing overwork by +children in factories, workshops and mines, the +report declared: "But the labour of children +for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated, +although many of them work longer +than the factory hours allowed for children of +the same age, and are at the same time undergoing +compulsory educational training, which +makes a considerable demand on their energies. +We think this is inconsistent. In the interests +of their health and education, it seems only +reasonable that remedies which have proved so +valuable in the case of factory children should +in some form be extended to cover the whole +field of child labour."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation +as well as planting; to effect a cure, a +patient requires nursing as well as prescription. +So with the aim of the state—to insure a +strong, intelligent citizenship, its children must +be cared for, as well as provided with schools. +If a patient is not nursed while the physician +is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if +children are not protected out of school hours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the purpose of the school is defeated. No +manufacturer would allow his machinery to run, +unwatched, outside regular work hours, for +he knows how disastrous would be the consequences; +yet this is precisely what the state +is doing by ignoring the activities of children +in our city streets—the delicate machinery of +their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild +out of schools hours, and the state seems to +think nothing will happen! These thoughts +impel us to the conclusion that the state must +watch over the child at least until he has reached +the age limit for school attendance, and in the +matter of labor regulation its care must not +be confined to the prevention of one form of +exploitation while other forms, equally injurious, +are permitted to flourish unchecked.</p> + +<p>Legislation regulating street trading by children +in this country is now in the stage corresponding +to that of the English factory acts in +the early part of the nineteenth century,—the +first meager restrictions are being tried. Several +of the street occupations, viz. messenger service, +delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily +included among those prohibited to children +under fourteen years by state child labor laws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +because to engage in such work children have to +be employed by other persons. These occupations +are covered by the provision common to +such laws which forbids employment of such +children "in the distribution or transmission +of merchandise or messages." The street +"trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and +bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by +legislation in the United States, for there exist +only a very few state laws and city ordinances +relative to this matter, and these of the most +primitive kind. The public does not yet realize +the injustice of permitting young children to +engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading +activities. It was slow to appreciate the +dangers involved in the unrestricted employment +of children in factories, mills and mines, but +when the awakening finally came, the demand +for reform was insistent. This gradual development +of a sentiment favoring regulation characterizes +also the problem of street employment; the +present stage is that of calm indifference, ruffled +only by occasional misgivings. Even this is an +encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation +passed through the same experience, and +emerged triumphant, crystallized in statute form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is hard to understand how the public +conscience can reconcile itself to the chasm +between the age limit of fourteen years for messenger +service and freedom from all restraint +in newspaper selling—both essentially street +occupations. Child labor laws are framed in +accordance with public sentiment, hence the +people by legislative omission practically indorse +street trading by little children while condemning +their employment in other kinds of work. +Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable +position that it is right to allow a child of +tender years to labor in the streets as a newsboy +without any oversight or care whatever, and +that it is wrong for him to work in the same field +as a messenger, or an errand boy, or a delivery +boy, although such occupations are subject to +some degree of supervision by older persons. +In other words, it is held that little children are +capable of self-control in some street occupations, +but not able to withstand the dangers of other +similar street work, even under the control of +adults! After having described the conditions +prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys, +Mr. Scott Nearing says: "There are many +causes leading up to this condition. Beneath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +all others lies the fundamental one—the lack +of public sentiment in favor of protecting these +children. Closely allied to this is another almost +equally strong—the lack of public knowledge +of the true state of affairs."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed +out the fact that street trades are quite untouched +by child labor legislation in the city +and also in the state, declaring that in Illinois +a boy or girl too young to be permitted to do +any other work may haunt the newspaper +offices, the five-cent shows, the theaters and +saloons, selling chewing gum and newspapers +at all hours of the night.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>Among the arguments advanced in support +of the unsuccessful effort to secure legislation +on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the +following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a +merchant in his or her own right, and therefore +before the law is not considered a wage earner, +although there is merely a fine-spun distinction +between the child who secures <i>wages</i> as the result +of his work and one who obtains his reward in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +the form of <i>profits</i>. The effect on the child +of work performed under unsuitable conditions, +at unsuitable hours and demanding the exercise +of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no +wise determined by the form in which his earnings +are calculated. That the results of street +trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys +and girls is universally recognized."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Miss +Jane Addams has deplored this situation in a +public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant +and does not come within the child labor regulations +of Illinois. The city of Chicago is a +little careless, if not recreant, toward the children +who are not reached by the operation of the state +law."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>Even in the few localities where regulation +of street trading has been attempted, the delusion +that there is some essential difference between +child labor in factories and child labor +in streets persists in the legislation itself. The +latter form of exploitation is assumed to merit +a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is +hedged about by much less stringent rules.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +Attention is invited to this inconsistency by +the report of a recent investigation in New York +City: "We have in New York 4148 children +between 14 and 16 years employed in factories +with their daily hours of labor limited from +8 <span class="smcap lowercase lowercase">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, while in mercantile establishments +there are 1645 more of similar age limit, +none of whom can work before 8 in the morning +or after 7 in the evening. But on the streets +of New York City we have approximately +4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little +fellows too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers. +That means 4500 legalized to work +at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the +morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save +during the school year, when they are supposed +to attend school from 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) any day +and every day, seven days to the week if they +so desire to do."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Broader Aspects of the Problem</h3> + +<p>Let us consider the matter from another +point of view and discuss the opportunities for +constructive work rather than confine our atten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>tion +to the need of the merely negative remedy +of restrictive legislation.</p> + +<p>The street is painted as a black monster by +some social workers, who can discern nothing +but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely +woven into the life of every city dweller, for his +contact with it is daily and continuous. If it +is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as this is +impossible, we must study it to see what it +really is and what needs to be done with it. +It is the medium by which people are brought +into closer touch with one another, where they +meet and converse, where they pass in transit, +where they rub elbows with all the elements +making up their little world, where they absorb +the principles of democracy,—for the street is +a great leveler.</p> + +<p>Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject +"What is Philadelphia Doing to Protect Her +Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The +street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity, +the channel of the common life, the thing +that makes the city.... I fancy that the +civic renaissance which must surely come, ... +will never get very far until we have awakened +to a realization of the dignity of the street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>—the +common street where the city's children +play, through which the milk wagon drives, +where the young men are educated, along which +the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<p>An English writer has expressed a similar +thought: "We have spoken of the street as a +dangerous environment from which we would +gladly rescue the children if we could, and so +it undoubtedly is in so far as it supplants the +influence of the home, tends to nullify that of +the school and lets the boys and girls run wild +just when they most need to be tamed.... +It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and +evil, so complex an influence in the growth of +boy and girl, of youth and man, among our +great city population, that it is necessary to +attempt to analyze it a little more exactly. +It is for the majority the medium in which the +social conscience is formed, and through which +it makes its power felt. In it the all-powerful +agents of progress, example, imitation, the spread +of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are +incessantly at work."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is only natural that such a general agency +for communication should have been abused. +Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to +such a result, with no restrictions imposed upon +street intercourse. The very popularity of the +games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing +led to their abuse and consequent disrepute +in the eyes of many persons who were blinded +to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by the +abuses to which they were subjected. The +marked success attending the proper use of +all these amusements in social settlements and +parish houses stimulates the imagination as to +what might be accomplished with the street if +its abuses also were eliminated.</p> + +<p>It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily +upon the street, for the street can exert +no influence of itself; the evil issues from its +abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this +abuse that should be suppressed. This immediately +raises the question as to what constitutes +this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real +purpose of the street is to serve as a means of +communication, a passageway for the transit +of passengers and commerce. It was never +intended for a playground, nor a field for child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor a depository +for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct +the public. These fungous growths from civic +neglect ought to be cut away. "A place for +everything and everything in its place" would +be an efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy: +playgrounds for the children, workshops for the +idlers, reduction plants for the garbage and +asylums for the beggars. With these reforms +effected and carefully maintained, the street +would soon become much more wholesome and +attractive.</p> + +<p>These considerations have been advanced +to indicate the intimate relation which exists +between the problem of the child street worker +and many other problems with which social +workers are now struggling. Child labor in +city streets must be abolished, but at the same +time coöperation with other movements is +necessary before a satisfactory solution of the +problem can be assured.</p> + +<p>For example, it would be a short-sighted +policy to prohibit young children from selling +goods in home market stands without reporting +to the housing authorities cases in which large +families live in one or two filthy rooms, display<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ing +and selling their wares in the doorway and +from the window. Our Italian citizens are not +committing race suicide, but in spite of their +numerous progeny they crowd together in extremely +limited space, combining their home life +with the customary business of selling fruit. +Their young children assist in tending the stands +on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk +selling baskets to passers-by; at closing +time their goods are often stored in the same +room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots +being brought out from some dark hiding place. +In such circumstances the mere prevention of +child labor is not sufficient—the housing conditions +also should be remedied so as to give +the children a more suitable place in which to +play, study and sleep, a better home in which +to use their leisure.</p> + +<p>Again, a movement to prohibit street work +by children should give impetus to that which +seeks to make the public school a social center, +and especially to that for public vacation schools. +Many of the homes of city children very +largely lack the element of attractiveness which +is so essential in holding children under the +influence of their parents, and this want must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +be filled as far as possible by making the school +an instrument not merely for instruction, but +also for the entertainment and socializing of +the entire neighborhood.</p> + +<p>Again, the regulating of street trading should +be undertaken jointly with the movement to +supply adequate playground facilities. Playgrounds +are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary. +Children must have some suitable place +for recreation. It is not a function of the street +to furnish the space for play, and as children +cannot and should not be kept at home all the +time, it follows that ground must be set apart +for the purpose. On these points a British +report says: "We have no doubt that insanitary +homes and immoral surroundings, with the want +of any open spaces where the children could +enjoy healthy exercise and recreation, are strong +factors in determining towards evil courses in +the cases of the children of the poor."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The +need for more playgrounds in Chicago was +partially supplied by having one block in a congested +district closed to traffic during August, +1911, so that children could play there without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +risking their lives, from eight in the morning +to eight in the evening. In providing this +emergency playground, Chicago has set an +example that will undoubtedly be imitated by +other cities.</p> + +<p>In this way the abolition of child labor in +city streets would result in benefit not only to +the children, but to the entire community as +well. It would promote a general civic awakening +that would make each town and city a better +place to live in, a better home for our citizens +of the future.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET +ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND EUROPE</span></h2> + + +<p>There are no reliable figures either official +or unofficial showing the number of children +engaged in street activities in any city of the +United States or in the country at large. The +figures given by the United States Census of +1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly +mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers +of observation. It solemnly declares that in +that year there was a grand total of 6904 newspaper +carriers and newsboys, both adults and +children, in the entire United States, of whom +69 were females.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In all probability there was a +greater number at that time in some of our larger +cities alone. In the group called "other persons +in trade and transportation" only 3557 children +ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although +this group embraces nine specified occupations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +of which that of the newsboy is only one. +Besides these, many other occupations (in +which 63 per cent of the total number of +persons reported are engaged) are not specified.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> +Consequently the number of newsboys ten to +fifteen years old reported by the enumerators for +the entire country must have been ridiculously +small.</p> + +<p>Again, the total number of bootblacks ten +years of age and upwards in the country was +reported as 8230, they being included in the +group called "other domestic and personal service." +Only 2953 children ten to fifteen years +of age were reported in this group, which includes +five specified occupations, of which that +of the bootblacks is only one, and many others +(in which 67 per cent of the total number of +persons reported are engaged) which are not +specified.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>The inadequacy of these figures to convey any +idea whatsoever as to the extent of child labor +in street occupations in this country is painfully +apparent; they are quoted here merely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +show the poverty of statistics on this subject. +Their inaccuracy is practically conceded by the +report itself in the following words: "The limitations +connected with the taking of a great +national census preclude proper care upon the +question of child employment. There is great +uncertainty as to the accuracy of a mass of +information of this character taken by enumerators +and special agents, who either do not +appreciate the importance of the investigation +or find it impracticable to devote the time to +the inquiry necessary to secure good results."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>There is reason to hope for more reliable data +from the 1910 census; but unfortunately the +figures will probably not be available until 1913. +The enumerators employed by the Federal +government for the Census of 1910, were instructed +to make an entry in the occupation +column of the population schedule for every +person enumerated, giving the exact occupation +if employed, writing the word "none" if +unemployed, or the words "own income" if +living upon an independent income. It was +stated positively that the occupation followed +by a child of any age was just as important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +for census purposes as the occupation followed +by a man, and that it should never be taken for +granted without inquiry that a child had no +occupation.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p>However, upon inquiry by enumerators at +the time of the census taking as to the occupation +of children, many parents undoubtedly +replied in the negative, even though their children +may have been devoting several hours +daily outside of school to street work, under the +impression that this was not an occupation. +Consequently it is safe to assume that the +figures for street-working children in the United +States according to the Census of 1910 when +published will be under the true number. +Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect conditions +far better than did the figures for 1900.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Chicago</h3> + +<p>It is only from the reports of occasional and +very limited local investigations that material +as to the actual state of affairs can be obtained. +Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced +into the Illinois legislature at its session of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +1911, providing that boys under ten years and +girls under sixteen years should be prohibited +from selling anything in city streets, and some +material was gathered to be used in support +of this measure. In connection with what has +already been said in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, it is interesting +to note that although the provisions of this bill +were very mild, and strong efforts were put +forth by social workers to secure its passage, it +was not allowed to become a law largely because +of the absence of public opinion and partly +because of the opposition by newspaper publishers +and others who were afraid that their +interests might suffer through the granting of +protection to such little children.</p> + +<p>In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were +found to be trading in the streets in addition to +attending school in the following percentages:—</p> + + +<div class="listcontainer"> +<ul class="not"> +<li>65 per cent of 5th grade children</li> +<li>35 per cent of 4th grade children</li> +<li>15 per cent of 2d grade children</li> +<li>12 per cent of 1st grade children</li> +</ul> +(Figures for 3d grade were not given.) +</div> + +<p>All of these children were attending school +twenty-five hours a week, and many cases of +excessive work out of school hours were found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +Some allowance should be made for possible +exaggeration on the part of these children, but +nevertheless it is certain that many of them +were working to an injurious extent. The hours +given were as follows:—</p> + +<div class="listcontainer"> +<ul class="not"> + <li>1 boy over 50 hours</li> + <li>4 boys over 40 hours</li> + <li>5 boys over 35 hours</li> + <li>7 boys over 30 hours</li> + <li>18 boys over 20 hours</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>Their average earnings per week were found +to be as follows:<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Average earnings of street-trading children"> + <tr> + <td class="left">5th grade children</td> + <td class="right">$1.18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">4th grade children</td> + <td class="right">.85</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">3d grade children</td> + <td class="right">.60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">2d grade children</td> + <td class="right">.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">1st grade children</td> + <td class="right">.36</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>In referring to the weekly income of the +children from this source, the Handbook of the +Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that +it was "a pitiable sum to compensate for the +physical weariness and moral risk attending +street trades in a large city. School reports +show that street trades, when carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +young children, lead to truancy, low vitality, +dullness and the breaking down of parental +control. Since the children are on the streets +at all hours, careless habits are developed which +often lead to moral ruin to both boys and girls."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>An instance was related wherein the teacher +of a fifth grade in a Chicago school asked those +of her pupils who worked for money to raise +their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26 +acknowledged that they were little breadwinners! +One boy said he worked ten hours a +day besides attending school; others had less +striking records, spending from twenty to forty +hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers, +blacking boots and pursuing the various +other street occupations which the Illinois law +leaves open to children of all ages.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>Referring to the economic and home conditions +surrounding young children in Chicago +and the many phases of danger to their moral +well-being, the Vice Commission of that city +reported that its agents had found small boys +selling newspapers in segregated districts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +that one night an investigator had counted +twenty newsboys from eleven years upwards so +engaged at midnight and after. Besides these +newsboys, many little boys and girls were found +peddling chewing gum near disorderly saloons +where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous +examples of employment in vicious environment +are cited, principally of the peddling of newspapers +and chewing gum by young children at +all hours of the night in the "red light" districts, +about saloons and museums of anatomy. +Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were +seen offering their wares and heard to join in +obscene conversation with the patrons of these +resorts.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>A folder published in Chicago by the advocates +of street-trade regulation calls attention +to these conditions, and states, with regard to +little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice +regions: "It is not surprising if some of them, +becoming so familiar with the practices of the +district, take up the profession of the neighborhood. +The Juvenile Protective Association +reports one little girl who entered the life of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +professional prostitute at the age of fourteen, +after having sold newspapers for years in the +district."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p>Another element of this problem, seldom +considered, is described also in this folder—the +vagrants, who constitute a large and growing +class deserving the attention of both city +and citizen. "Three classes of persons, who +add little to the general circulation, while detracting +much from the tone of the business +and working a real injury to themselves, are +engaged in selling newspapers; these are the +small boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young +girl. The business of selling newspapers in +Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant' +cannot prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in +our midst. He can be found on State Street +at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one +newspaper under his arm—not attempting to +sell it, but using it as a bait to beg from the +passers-by. He can be found in the <i>American</i> +news alley, sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred +strong, sleeping on bags, under boxes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +on the floor of the newspaper restaurant. +With this boy, and with all those who are obviously +too young to be permitted to engage in +street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are +to preserve the attitude the American city +takes toward the dependent child."</p> + +<table class="lined w50" summary="Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders</span></caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w5" /> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w5" /> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w20" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th colspan="4">Place of Birth</th> + <th>Number</th> + <th>Percentage</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="3" class="bl left">America</td> + <td rowspan="3" style="font-size:550%; text-align:right; padding: 0em; vertical-align: top;">{</td> + <td>Boston</td> + <td class="br right">1,556</td> + <td rowspan="3" class="br right">1860</td> + <td rowspan="3" class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">70</span>.<span class="nachkomma"> </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Elsewhere in Mass.</td> + <td class="br right">171</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Other states</td> + <td class="br right">133</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Russia</td> + <td class="br right">473</td> + <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">17</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Italy</td> + <td class="br right">161</td> + <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma"> </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Other foreign countries</td> + <td class="br right">162</td> + <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma"> </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Not given</td> + <td class="br right">8</td> + <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma"> </span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="4" class="br bl bb"> </td> + <td class="br bl bb bt right">2664</td> + <td class="br bl bb bt right"><span class="vorkomma">100</span>.<span class="nachkomma">0</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<h3 class="italic">Boston</h3> + +<p>In Boston, during the year 1910, there were +issued to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks +from eleven to thirteen years of age inclusive, +2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were +issued to newsboys, while 114 were issued to +bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of these license<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were +twelve years old, and 860 were thirteen years +old. It is interesting to note that nearly three +fourths of these children were born in the +United States; the table on <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a> shows their +distribution among nationalities.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">New York City</h3> + +<p>The actual number of children engaged in +street activities at any given time is less than +the number of licenses issued during the year, +inasmuch as not all such children persist in +pursuing this work, many of them working only +a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the +tasks which they have been licensed to perform. +This is borne out by the experience of investigators +in New York City; the report of a study +made there recently says: "We are told by +the department of education issuing newsboy +badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet +when we secured the addresses of some of these +from their application cards ... we found that +not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated +lived at listed addresses. Many such were +bogus numbers, open lots, factories, wharves, +and in some cases the middle of East River<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +would wash over the house number given. +When we did find a correct address, the children +so located in six cases out of ten were not following +the trade. In some instances they never +sold papers, obtaining badges simply because +other boys were applying for them, and after +receiving a badge tucked it away in a drawer +or maybe sold it or gave it away."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Cincinnati</h3> + +<p>In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909, +1951 boys from ten to thirteen years of age +were licensed to sell newspapers, this number +being about 15 per cent of the total number of +boys of these ages in the city. Their distribution +according to age was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Licensed newspaper sellers Cincinnati"> + <tr> + <td class="left">10 years</td> + <td class="right">424</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">11 years</td> + <td class="right">466</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">12 years</td> + <td class="right">539</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">13 years</td> + <td class="right">522</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">Total</td> + <td class="right bt">1951</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<p>The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks, +peddlers or market children, as no +licenses were issued for such occupations, al<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>though +they are specifically covered by the municipal +ordinance regulating street trades.</p> + +<p>The above data were available only because +there has been some attempt in Boston, New +York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment +of children in street occupations; as in the great +majority of cities and states there is absolutely +no regulation of this kind, there are of course +no figures to indicate conditions.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3> + +<p>In almost every city of the United States +having a population of more than 10,000, there +is to be found the padrone system, which is +operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking +business which the Greeks control. +The peddling of flowers, fruit and vegetables +in Chicago and New York is partly subject to +the same methods. The labor supply furnished +by this system for peddling and bootblacking +consists generally of children from twelve to +seventeen years of age.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> + +<p>The Immigration Commission states in its +report that there are several thousand shoe-shining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +establishments in the United States +operated by Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks, +and that with few exceptions they are +under the padrone system.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> A few boys under +sixteen years of age are employed under the +Greek padrone system as flower vendors, and +these are found chiefly in New York City. +They are hired by florists to sell flowers in the +streets and public places—largely old stock +that cannot be handled in the shops. These +boys usually live in good quarters, are well fed +and receive their board and from $50 to $100 +a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling, +they deliver flowers ordered at the shops. The +boys employed by the padrones to peddle +candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in +basements or in filthy rooms; here they are +crowded two, three and sometimes four in one +bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid +catching cold. The fruit and vegetables still +on hand are stored for the night in these bedrooms +and in the kitchen. In each peddling +company there are usually three or four wagons +and from four to eight boys.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Minor Street Occupations</h3> + +<p>There are a few so-called street trades in +which a relatively small number of children are +engaged which so far have not been mentioned +in this volume. These are the leading of blind +persons and the accompanying of beggars in +general, little children being found valuable +for such work because they help to excite the +sympathy of passers-by. A few children also +are employed as lamplighters to go about +towns lighting street lamps in the evening and +extinguishing them in the early morning. A +class of street boys who have as yet received +no name in this country, but in England are +called "touts," haunt the neighborhood of railroad +depots and lie in wait for passengers with +hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train +for a small fee.</p> + +<p>Some children are used as singers or performers +upon musical instruments, but this is +in reality only another form of begging. The +writer found one instance of a young boy who +was employed by the public library of one of +our large cities to gather up overdue books +about the city and to collect the fines imposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +for failure to return the same. Very frequently +in the course of his work this boy had to enter +houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady +patrons of the public library, reading light literature, +and are quite negligent in the matter +of returning the books within the prescribed +time. Immediately upon the librarian's learning +of the situation, he was relieved of this duty, +and a man was detailed to perform the task. +Such special occupations as these do not constitute +a real factor in the problem because of +the small number of children involved, and +hence they are omitted from consideration.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Great Britain</h3> + +<p>Turning to Europe we find much more information +on this subject. In Great Britain +the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an +inquiry to be made into the extent of child +labor among public school pupils, and the education +department sent schedules to the 20,022 +public elementary schools in England and Wales +for the purpose of determining the facts. A little +more than half of the schools returned the +schedules blank, stating that no children were +employed; this introduced a large element of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +error into the return, as many of the schoolmasters +misunderstood the meaning of the +schedules, and consequently quite a number of +children who should have been included were +omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules +which were filled and returned showed that +144,026 children (about three fourths boys and +one fourth girls) were in attendance full time +at the public elementary schools of England and +Wales and known to be employed for profit +outside of school hours.</p> + +<p>The ages of these children reported as employed +were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Age of working pupils in England and Wales"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="left">Under 7 years</td> + <td class="right">131</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">7</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">1,120</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">8</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">4,211</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">9</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">11,027</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">10</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">22,131</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">11</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">36,775</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">12</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">47,471</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">13</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">18,556</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">14</td> + <td class="left">and over</td> + <td class="right">1,787</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="left">Not given</td> + <td class="right">817</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td> + <td class="right bt">144,026</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>The standards or school grades in which these +working children were enrolled and the total +enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898, +were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>—</p> + +<table class="lined" summary="School grades into which working children were enrolled"> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Working Children</th> + <th>Total Enrollment</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">No Standard</td> + <td class="right br">329</td> + <td class="right br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">1st standard</td> + <td class="right br"> 3,890</td> + <td class="right br">2,875,088</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">2d standard</td> + <td class="right br">11,686</td> + <td class="right br">723,582</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">3d standard</td> + <td class="right br">24,624</td> + <td class="right br">679,096</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">4th standard</td> + <td class="right br">36,907</td> + <td class="right br">590,850</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">5th standard</td> + <td class="right br">37,315</td> + <td class="right br">421,728</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">6th standard</td> + <td class="right br">21,975</td> + <td class="right br">212,546</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">7th standard</td> + <td class="right br">6,382</td> + <td class="right br">66,442</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">Ex-7 standard</td> + <td class="right br">382</td> + <td class="right br">7,534</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">Not stated</td> + <td class="right br">536</td> + <td class="right br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="leftindent bl bb">Total</td> + <td class="right br bb bt">144,026</td> + <td class="right br bb bt">5,576,866</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The occupations followed by these children +were divided into three main groups, and each +of these groups was further divided into three +classes. These divisions and the number of +children in each were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>—</p> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Occupations of working pupils"> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Piecework, chiefly Boys</th> + <th colspan="2">Time-work, chiefly Boys</th> + <th colspan="2">Domestic Employment, girls only, with One or Two Exceptions</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Selling newspapers</td> + <td class="br rightbottom">15,182</td> + <td class="leftnarrow">In shops or running errands for shopkeepers</td> + <td class="rightbottom">76,173</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Minding babies</td> + <td class="br rightbottom">11,585</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Hawking goods</td> + <td class="br rightbottom">2,435</td> + <td class="leftnarrow">Agricultural occupations</td> + <td class="rightbottom">6,115</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other housework, including laundry work, etc.</td> + <td class="br rightbottom">9,254</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Sports, taking dinners, knocking-up, etc.</td> + <td class="br bb rightbottom">8,627</td> + <td class="leftnarrow bb">Boot and knife cleaning, etc. (house boys)</td> + <td class="rightbottom bb">10,636</td> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Needlework and like occupations</td> + <td class="br bb rightbottom">4,019</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The return revealed a surprising variety of +occupations followed by these children—about +200 different kinds in all.</p> +<table class="intext" summary="Working hours per week"> + <tr> + <th class="harmonized">Hours per Week</th> + <th class="right harmonized">Number of Children</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Under 10</td> + <td class="right">39,355</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">10-20</td> + <td class="right">60,268</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">21-30</td> + <td class="right">27,008</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">31-40</td> + <td class="right">9,778</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">41-50</td> + <td class="right">2,390</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">51-60</td> + <td class="right">576</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">61-70</td> + <td class="right">142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">71-80</td> + <td class="right">59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Over 81</td> + <td class="right">16</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Not stated</td> + <td class="right">4,434</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Total</td> + <td class="right bt">144,026</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The number of hours per week devoted by +these children to the various employments will +be found in the above table; it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +remembered that these hours were given to work +in addition to the time spent at school.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>It was recognized that the figures given by +this parliamentary return did not represent the +real situation, but nevertheless its revelations +were sufficiently startling to show the need of +further investigation. Accordingly in 1901 there +was appointed an interdepartmental committee +which after careful study reported that the +figures in the parliamentary return were well +within the actual numbers, but that the facts +it contained were substantially correct.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> This +committee estimated the total number of children +who were both in attendance at school +and in paid employments in England and Wales +at 300,000;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> it declared that cases of excessive +employment were "sufficiently numerous to +leave no doubt that a substantial number of children +are being worked to an injurious extent."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>Referring to the amount of time devoted by +the children to gainful employment outside of +school, the committee reported, "On a review<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +of the evidence we consider it is proved that in +England and Wales a substantial number of +children, amounting probably to 50,000, are +being worked more than twenty hours a week +in addition to twenty-seven and one-half hours +at school, that a considerable proportion of +this number are being worked to thirty or forty +and some even to fifty hours a week, and that +the effect of this work is in many cases detrimental +to their health, their morals and their +education, besides being often so unremitting +as to deprive them of all reasonable opportunity +for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing +on so large a scale, we think that some remedy +ought to be found."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The committee estimated +the total number of children selling newspapers +and in street hawking at 25,000.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p>With reference to conditions in Edinburgh, +an English writer says, "Of the 1406 children +employed out of school hours in Edinburgh, +307 are ten years of age or under. Four of them +are six years old, and eleven are seven years +of age. We hear of boys working seventeen +hours (from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) on Saturday.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +For children to work twelve, thirteen and fourteen +hours on Saturday is quite common. The +average wage seems to be three farthings an hour, +but one hears of children who are paid one shilling +and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>In New South Wales boys are permitted to +trade on the streets at the age of ten years, and +up to fourteen years may engage in such work +between the hours of 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> except +while the schools are in session; after they are +fourteen years old they may trade between +6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Such children are licensed, +and during the six months ending March 31, +1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of +them being to children under fourteen years of +age; 92 per cent of these children were engaged +in hawking newspapers, the others being scattered +through such occupations as peddling +flowers, fruit and vegetables, fish, fancy goods, +matches, bottles, pies and milk.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Germany</h3> + +<p>In December, 1897, the German Imperial +Chancellor, referring to the incomplete census<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +returns as to child labor, requested the governments +to furnish him with information as to +the total number of children under fourteen +employed in labor other than factory labor, +agricultural employment and domestic service, +and the kinds of work done. In this circular +he said: "But, above all, where the kind of +occupation is unsuitable for children, where +the work continues too long, where it takes +place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable +places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration; +in such cases it is not only dangerous +to the health and morality of the children, but +school discipline is impaired and compulsory +education becomes illusory. For children cannot +possibly give the necessary attention to +their lessons when they are tired out and +when they have been working hard in unhealthful +rooms until late at night. I need +only instance employment in skittle alleys +late in the evening, in the delivery of newspapers +in the early morning and the employment +of children in many branches of home +industry. The most recent researches undertaken +in different localities show that the +employment of children in labor demands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +earnest attention in the interests of the rising +generation."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>Inquiries extending over almost the whole +German Empire were accordingly made by the +different states from January to April, 1898. +It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen +years were employed in labor other than +factory labor, agricultural employment and +domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of +the total number of children of school age +(8,334,919).</p> + +<p>With regard to the effects of such work, this +German report says: "As the children who carry +around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from +one inn to another, they are exposed to evil +influences, and are liable to contract at an early +age, bad habits of smoking, lying, drinking.... +The delivery of newspapers is a particularly +great strain on the children, as it occupies them +both before and after school hours."</p> + +<p>Seven divisions of these children were made +according to occupation, four of them relating +to street work. Under the heading <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Handel</i></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +were included children in many kinds of work, +among them hawking fruit, milk, bread, brooms, +flowers, newspapers, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Austragedienste</i></span> +were included only the delivery and +carrying around of bread, milk, vegetables, +beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars, +bills, coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing, +clothes, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</i></span> +were included only errand boys and messengers; +under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit</i></span> were included, +among other occupations, blacking +boots, leading the blind, street singers and +players, etc.</p> + +<table class="lined w80" summary="Situation in Germany"> + <colgroup> + <col class="w50" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w10" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th> </th> + <th>Boys</th> + <th>Girls</th> + <th>Sex not stated</th> + <th>Total</th> + <th>Percentage</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Handel</span> (retail trade)</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">7,507</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">4,540</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">5,576</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">17,623</td> + <td class="bl br rightbottom">3.31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Austragedienste</span> (delivery service)</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">67,188</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">36,966</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">31,676</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">135,830</td> + <td class="bl br rightbottom">25.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</span> (general messenger service)</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">23,321</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">2,134</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">10,454</td> + <td class="bl rightbottom">35,909</td> + <td class="bl br rightbottom">6.75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit</span> (other forms of labor)</td> + <td class="bl bb rightbottom">6,281</td> + <td class="bl bb rightbottom">2,387</td> + <td class="bl bb rightbottom">3,119</td> + <td class="bl bb rightbottom">11,787</td> + <td class="bl br bb rightbottom">2.21</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Austria</h3> + +<p>The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an +investigation of actual conditions in Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a +new law that would regulate child labor not +only in factories, but also in home industries, +in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his +Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, +Mr. C. W. A. Veditz refers to the findings of +this investigation in a number of the provinces. +In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation, +but still attending school, 169 were +engaged in peddling and huckstering; in delivering +goods and going errands 1554 children were +employed, being generally hired to deliver +bread, milk, meats, groceries, newspapers, books, +telegrams, circulars—in fact, all manner of +goods.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> In the province of Upper Austria +children are paid from two to seven crowns +(40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for delivering +newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg +the pay varies from twenty to fifty hellers +(4 to 10 cents) a day for delivering bread or +newspapers.</p> + +<p>In the province of Lower Austria, "referring +now to the other main occupations in which +school children are employed outside of industry +proper, the report [of the investigation] shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +that ... those working in trade and transportation +usually help wait on customers in +their parents' stores; a number, however, sell +flowers, shoe laces, etc., or huckster bread, +butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage +to and from railway stations. Most of those +put down as delivering goods are engaged in delivering +bread, milk, newspapers and washing."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> +Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in +Vienna earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents) +a day during the week, and on Sundays as much +as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children +employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods +and run errands are also usually employed by +non-relatives and receive wages in money. +Those who deliver milk, and who work one half +to one hour a day, generally receive twenty +hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly; +in exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents), +and in some instances only food and old clothes. +For delivering bread and pastry, wages are +reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and +some meals, or fifty hellers to two crowns +(10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in +exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +For delivering papers, which requires one to +two hours a day, children receive two to ten +crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For +delivering of washing, thirty hellers (6 cents) +for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to two +crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children +who carry dinner to mill laborers, requiring +one half to one hour daily, get eighty hellers +to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month. +Messengers for stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of +two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents) per errand, or, +if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one +crown (4 to 20.3 cents) a week."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> + +<p>"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers, +etc., in which many children are employed in +Vienna and other large cities, does not cause +frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy +arrival at school in the morning and for the +fatigue that reduces attention and prevents +mental alertness."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">NEWSPAPER SELLERS</span></h2> + + +<p>By far the majority of the children in street +occupations are engaged in the sale or delivery +of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to +such an extent that he is taken as a matter +of course. As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "For +more than one generation, it has been almost +invariably assumed that there must be little +newsboys." Ever since he became an institution +of our city life, the public has been pleased +to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman +of penetrating mind and keen sense of +humor. There seems to be a tacit indorsement +of the newsboy as such.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys +to be found in all large cities—(1) the corner +boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on +salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission, +(4) those who sell for themselves, and +(5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of +the business is handled by the first three of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +classes, which are always associated together +and found on the busy corners of the downtown +sections of all our cities. The choice localities +for the sale of newspapers, namely, the corners +in the downtown sections where thousands of +pedestrians are daily passing, come under the +control of individuals by virtue of long tenure +or by purchase, and their title to these corners +is not disputed largely on account of the support +they receive from the circulation managers of +the newspapers. In former years the proprietorship +of the corner was settled by a fight, but +now it undergoes change of ownership by the +formal transfer of location, fixtures and goodwill +in accordance with the most approved legal +practice.</p> + +<p>In Chicago a system of routes has been +established by the newspapers which send wagons +out with the different editions published each +day to supply the men who control the delivery +and sale of newspapers in the various districts. +These route men employ boys to deliver for +them to regular customers and also to sell on +street corners on a commission basis. In Boston, +ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are +employed by the publishers at a fixed salary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +to distribute the editions by wholesale among +the twenty odd places in the city from which +the street sellers are supplied.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work</h3> + +<p>The following individual cases will serve +to illustrate the various forms this business +takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65 +for his corner in Cincinnati about five years +ago; he now earns from $4 to $5 a day clear +and would not sell the location for many times +its cost. He works there from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to +6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on week days, starting an hour earlier +on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the +morning newspapers over a route to regular +customers. Two boys of about twelve years of +age work for him, to one of whom he pays +25 cents a day and to the other 30 cents a day; +their duties are to hawk the different editions +and to dispose of as many copies as possible by +hopping the street cars and offering the papers +to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> daily on +week days. If they do not hustle and make a +large number of sales, they lose their job.</p> + +<p>A corner in another part of the city is "owned" +by a thirteen-year-old boy who earns about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours, +and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two +boys working for him on commission, to whom +he pays one cent for every four papers sold; +they average about 15 cents a day apiece for +three hours' work. When questioned, these +commission boys admitted that they could +make more money if working for themselves, +but in that case would have to work until all +the copies they had bought were sold, while on +the commission plan they did not have to shoulder +so much responsibility.</p> + +<p>Regulations made by the circulation managers +of newspapers concerning the return of unsold +copies greatly affect the newsboys' business. +Naturally these regulations are made with an +eye to extending the circulation. Corner boys +are allowed to return only one copy out of +every ten bought, being reimbursed by the +office for its cost. Consequently they urge their +newsboy employees and commission workers +to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply +purchased. The independent sellers are never +permitted to return any unsold copies, except +in the case of certain energetic boys who can +be relied upon to work hard in any event. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +are known as "hustlers," and owing to their +having won the confidence of the circulation +manager they are granted the special privilege +of returning at cost all copies they have been +unable to sell.</p> + +<p>In Boston, beginners are often on a commission +basis; "in this way they secure the advice and +protection of the more experienced while serving +their apprenticeship. These <i>strikers</i>, as they +are called, keep one cent for every four collected; +few of them earn more than 25 cents a day, while +many of them earn less than 10."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been +a newsboy for several years now controls a +comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where +he nets from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about +three hours. This boy's father and mother +are both living.</p> + +<p>Submission to older persons is natural among +children, and an interesting instance of tyranny +over small boys by adults was found in the case +of a newspaper employee who works inside the +plant and employs several young boys to sell +newspapers on the streets for him. These boys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +together earn about $1.30 when working about +seven hours, but only half of this amount goes +into their pockets, the other half being paid +to their "employer." In New York City certain +busy sections having points of strategic +value are under the control of men who employ +small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance, +usually the price of admission to a moving-picture +show. However, under certain circumstances, +these little fellows often display a sturdy +spirit of independence. An amusing instance +is innocently recorded by an old wartime report +of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided +to give the boys a free dinner on Sundays, on +condition that they attend the Sunday School; +but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say +that they were able and willing to pay for the +dinner."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> + +<p>Independent newsboys must not stand in +the territory controlled by another; they must +select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about +hither and yon, selling where they can. Under +the unwritten law of this business a boy who +chances to sell in another's territory must give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper +in exchange; this results the same as if +the corner boy himself had made the sale. The +earnings of these independent boys range from +15 to 65 cents daily out of school hours, while +on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50 +working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></p> + +<p>An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy +for three years, selling on his own account, +disposes of most of his copies in saloons located +in the middle of a busy square, earning from +50 cents to $1.25 a day even when attending +school. His mother and father are both living. +Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old +boy who devotes all his time to the trade, +his net income averaging about $7.50 per week. +His attitude toward regular work is both interesting +and significant; he hopes to get a better +job, but says that although he has hunted for +one, so little is offered for what he can do +($2 to $3 per week) that it would hardly suffice +for spending money. Discussing this difference +between factory wages and street-trading profits, +an English report says: "Working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> +to 7 or 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, with intervals for gambling, +newsboys over 14 years old can make from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +10<i>s.</i> to 14<i>s.</i> a week if they have an ordinary +share of alertness. In a factory or foundry, +working from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, a boy earns about +13<i>s.</i> a week. The comparison needs no comment. +The excitement of their career tends to make +them more and more reluctant to work steadily.... +Many newsboys protest that they want +more permanent work, but they rarely keep it +when it is found for them."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The life of the +streets lacks the discipline involved in steady +work and fixed earnings.</p> + +<p>As an example of the route boy there is a +fourteen-year-old lad in Cincinnati who has a +list of fifty customers to whom he delivers +newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25 +cents daily, delivering after school hours. He +declares that he finds it much easier to work +on a route than to sell on the corners or at +random.</p> + +<p>The morning papers employ a man as circulation +manager for the residence districts who +controls all the corners in those sections. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to +it. These older boys are not to sell their corners +nor to dispose of them in any way, nor are they +allowed to have any one working for them; +they must "hop" all the street cars passing their +corners and are expected to put forth every +effort to accomplish a great number of sales. +They get their supply of copies at the branch +office at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, hurrying then to their corners, +where they remain until nearly noon, averaging +in this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly +all of the afternoon papers sold in the residence +districts are delivered by route boys; after +having gone over their routes, some of these +boys go to the busier localities and sell the +sporting extra during the baseball season until +about seven o'clock.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Environment</h3> + +<p>Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of +street trading by the New York Child Welfare +Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and +Wages declaring that "The ordinary newsboy +is surrounded by influences that are extremely +bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his +work; (2) of the character of street life; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +(3) of the lack of discipline or restraint in this +work. The occupation is characterized by +'rush hours,' during which the boy will work +himself into exhaustion trying to keep pace with +his trade, and long hours in which there is +little or nothing to do, during which the boy +has unlimited opportunities to make such use +of the street freedom as he sees fit. During +these light hours newsboys congregate in the +streets and commit many acts of vandalism. +They learn all forms of petty theft and usually +are accomplished in most of the vices of the +street. In building up their routes, the boys +often include places of the most degrading and +detrimental character. On the economic side, +the loss is due to failure of the occupation to +furnish any training for industrial careers."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the +questionable character of their food form one +of the worst features of street work and are a +real menace to health. Many newsboys are in +the habit of eating hurriedly at lunch counters +at intervals during the day and night, while +some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +York City their diet has been found to consist +chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as frankfürters, +mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches, +cakes and 'sinkers'."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The use of stimulants +is common, and the demand for them is to be +expected because of the nervous strain of the +work. Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable +extent by street-trading children, but +coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest +cities, where "night gangs" are found, from +four to six bowls of coffee are usually taken +every evening. Tobacco is used in great +quantities and in all its forms; many boys even +appease their hunger for the time by smoking +cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are +addicted to the habit. Evidence that this is +not a recent development among street workers +is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a +century ago, which, with reference to newsboys, +says "many of them soon spend their gains in +pool rooms, low places of amusement and for +the poisonous cigarette."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>An English report on the street traders of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +Manchester says: "Drunkenness is rare among +these boys ... they are in many ways attractive; +but the closer our acquaintance grows +with them the more overwhelming does this +propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it +may reasonably be said that the whole career +of the street trader is one long game of chance.... +They tend to become more and more +unwilling to work hard; they are the creatures +of accident and lose the power of foresight; +they never form habits of thrift; and their word +can be taken only by those who have learnt how +to interpret it."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>There are tricks in newspaper selling as well +as in other trades, and children are not slow to +learn them. A careful observer cannot fail +to note that certain newsboys seem always to +be without change. Their patrons are generally +in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change +from a nickel, even priding themselves on their +unselfishness in thus helping to relieve the supposed +poverty of the newsboys. As a matter +of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +the cupidity of boys and leads them to believe +that honesty is not the best policy. The temptation +for newsboys to develop into "short +change artists" is an ever present one, for the +bustle of the street creates a most favorable +condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet +in spite of the many temptations which assail +them, numbers of newsboys are scrupulously +exact in the matter of making change, even under +the most trying circumstances. Another +common form of deceit, used to play upon the +sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall +by boys of all ages in offering a solitary newspaper +for sale and crying in plaintive tone, +"Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted +person readily falls a victim to this ruse, +and as soon as he has passed by, the newsboy +draws another copy from his hidden supply and +repeats his importuning. Commenting on these +features of street trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill, +United States Commissioner of Labor, has said: +"Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic +virtue, the newsboy trade is a training in either +knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere else are the +wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage, +nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +early learned that dishonesty and trickery are +more profitable than honesty, and that sympathy +coins more pennies than does industry."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Hours</h3> + +<p>Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous +in its effects upon growing children, and the +newspaper trade is one that engages the labor +of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the +night. This fact is not generally known. A +prominent social worker recently said: "I +was astounded to find the other day that my +newspaper comes to me in Chicago every morning +because two little boys, one twelve and the +other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night. +These little boys, who go to school, carry papers +around so that we get them in the morning at +four o'clock all the year around. They are +working for a man with whom we contract for +our newspapers. I was quite shocked in St. +Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or +six years of age selling newspapers near the +railroad station in the worst part of town after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental +talk about newsboys' societies doing so much +for newsboys, but they do not seem to care +anything for work of this kind."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In passing +it may be remarked that in the city of Toledo +there is an active association organized for the +benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages +street work by boys of from eight to seventeen +years. The manager insists that such work +affords the means of alleviating the poverty in +the families of these boys, but upon inquiry +it was found that he had never heard of the +provision for the financial relief of such cases +of child labor, which is made by the Ohio law, +and which had been, at the time, most successfully +administered for three years by the Board +of Education of his own city.</p> + +<p>The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday +editions distributed on Saturday night, consequently +the newsboys are up all night so as to +assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence +of public opinion in the matter, this abuse flourishes +unrestricted, and the children's health is +sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +of the Chicago Vice Commission reported having +seen boys from ten to fifteen years of age selling +morning papers at midnight Saturday in the +evil districts of the city.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>The early rising of newsboys to deliver the +morning week-day editions also contributes to +the breaking down of their health. The old +adage is a mockery in their case. There is +abundant testimony relative to the evil effects +of such untimely work. "Children who go to +school and sell papers get up so early in the +morning that they are so stupid during the day +they cannot do anything. That was clearly +demonstrated to me during my experience in +teaching school."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>Another teacher said: "I have had instances +in school where children have gone to sleep +over their tasks because they got up at two or +three o'clock in the morning to put out city +lights and to sell papers. In those instances +we wanted the parents to take the children away +from their work. Where they would not do it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +we prosecuted them for contributing to the +delinquency of their children."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> + +<p>The delivery of newspapers by young boys in +the strictly residence sections of cities appears +to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple +work should be under restriction as to hours, +because otherwise the boys would continue +to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order +to reach the branch offices in time to get the +newspapers fresh from the press. In fact, +every phase of street work should be under +control. Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector +of schools to the Essex County Council, has +testified that among the most injurious forms +of labor performed by boys is the early morning +delivery of newspapers and milk.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In his +Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. +C. W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before +school in the morning must be condemned, because +it fatigues the children so that they become, +to say the least, intellectually less receptive."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +Philadelphia,"<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Mr. Scott Nearing gives a +graphic account of conditions in the City of +Brotherly Love. Although this description was +written some years ago, local social workers +find that the same conditions still obtain, as +there is neither law nor ordinance to bring +about a change. In this city the closing of +the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning +of Saturday night's work. The last +editions of the evening newspapers are offered +at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After +the theater, the restaurant patrons are available +as customers until midnight. Then the morning +papers begin to come from the press, and the +newsboys abandon their begging and gambling +and rush to the offices for their supplies. A +load of forty pounds is often carried by the +smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets +in the early morning hours. The cream of the +business is done at this time, for most of the +purchasers are more or less intoxicated and +therefore inclined to be generous with tips and +indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy +takes in as much money on Saturday night and +Sunday morning as during the entire remainder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr. +Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys +in a group just as the policeman was chasing +them out of Chinatown at half-past three +Sunday morning; the youngest boy was clearly +not over ten and the oldest was barely sixteen." +At this hour the officers of the law interfere +and quell the revels of the district. The open +gratings in sidewalks through which warm air +comes from basements, are then sought, and here +the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when +they go abroad again to cry the Sunday papers.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Home Conditions—Poverty</h3> + +<p>One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent +toward the street worker is that it takes +for granted that the child is making a manly +effort to support a widowed mother and several +starving little brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence +Kelley calls this "perverted reasoning" +and scores the public which "unhesitatingly +places the burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance +upon the slender shoulders of the +child."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Poverty has been made an excuse for +child labor from time immemorial by those +who profit by the system. Newspapers are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend +their circulation and incidentally give them free +advertising in the streets—hence they see +nothing but good in the newsboys' work and +fight lustily to defend what they claim to be the +mainstay of the widows. That this popular +impression and appealing argument are false +and without justification has been shown by +students of the problem everywhere. The +following table gives the family condition of +Cincinnati newsboys:—</p> + + +<table class="intext" summary="Family condition of Cincinnati newsboys"> + <tr> + <td class="leftint">Both parents dead </td> + <td class="right">12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Father dead </td> + <td class="right">239</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Mother dead </td> + <td class="right">69</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left">Both parents living </td> + <td class="right">1432</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="left"> Total </td> + <td class="right bt">1752</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>Through a special inquiry it was found that +in only 363 cases out of this total were the +earnings of the children really needed. These +1752 children, ten to thirteen years of age, were +licensed from July to December, 1909; their +distribution as to age was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Licensed Cincinnati newsboys under 14"> + <tr> + <td class="right">10 </td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">303</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">11</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">348</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">12</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">564</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">13</td> + <td class="left">years</td> + <td class="right">537</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td> + <td class="right bt">1752</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Upon investigation of the home conditions of +several hundred newsboys in New York City it +was declared that "in the majority of cases parents +are not dependent on the boys' earnings. +The poverty plea—that boys must sell papers to +help widowed mothers or disabled fathers—is, +for the most part, gross exaggeration."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys, +Myron E. Adams says, "A careful investigation +of the records of the Charity Organization +Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated, +the names of but sixteen families are +found, and of these ... only four received +direct help, such as coal, clothing or food."<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the +boys want to go on the streets in order to have +the pocket money which this life affords, and +the ignorant or indifferent parents make no +objections, but take the street life as a matter +of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as +often as is generally supposed, there is real need +for the selling."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p>The British interdepartmental committee +appointed in 1901 to inquire into the employment +of school children, denounced the tolerance +of street trading on the ground of necessity: +"We think that in framing regulations with regard +to child labour and school attendance ... the poverty +of the child or its parents +ought not to be made a test of the right to +labour.... We do not think it is needed; +we think that all children should have liberty +to work as much and in such ways as is good +for them and no more."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<p>Another argument in favor of street trading +advanced by those who are interested in maintaining +present conditions, is that it affords a +splendid training for a business career because +of the competition that rages among the boys. +This is doubtless true, as far as it goes, but the +great difficulty is that street trading leads +nowhere. It is a blind alley that sooner or +later leaves its followers helpless against the +solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An +occupation that fits a boy for <i>nothing</i> and is +devoid of <i>prospects</i>, is a curse rather than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +blessing in this day of specialization. In spite +of the division of labor so elaborately realized +to-day, a boy or girl who enters any of the +regular industries has at least a fighting chance +for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest, +capable and diligent he will be promoted to a +better position in time if misfortune does not +overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine +is in a fair way to become a miner. The lad who +works in a machine shop has the opportunity +to make a machinist of himself. The girl who +begins as a wrapper in a dry goods shop may +become a saleswoman, and then possibly a +buyer for her department. Yet in most states +children may not enter upon such work until +they have reached the age of fourteen years, +while some states prohibit boys under sixteen +years from being employed in mines or in connection +with dangerous machinery either in machine +shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught +us that these restrictions are right and just, +and we now have no hesitancy in barring young +children from such employment, regardless of +the training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt +many forms of street work from the operation +of the law? Why do we allow little children to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys, +bootblacks and peddlers in the essentially +dangerous environment of the street? Such +employment offers but a gloomy future—the +useless life of the casual worker. There is no +better position to which it leads, no chance for the +discovery and development of ability, no reward +for good service. It seems incredible that we +have been so engrossed with throwing safeguards +about the children in regular industries that we +have altogether neglected the street worker, for the +arguments against child labor in factories, mills, +mines and retail shops apply with even greater +force to the work of children in our city streets.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Better Substitutes</h3> + +<p>There is no reason why newsboys should not +be replaced as the medium for the sale and +delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples, +the tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated +for regular work. In London, the <i>Westminster +Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, the <i>Evening +Standard</i> and the <i>Globe</i> (all penny papers) +are sold in the streets by old men; the <i>Westminster +Gazette</i> pays them a wage of 1<i>s.</i> for selling +eighteen copies and after having disposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +of this number they are given a commission of +8<i>d.</i> a quire of twenty-six copies, a few men +selling from six to eight quires a day. This +newspaper has followed this method for many +years, and its general manager declares that it +is the most satisfactory system that they have +been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of +responsibility, while old men cling to their +posts very faithfully. He admitted that the +<i>Westminster Gazette</i> employed some boys as +carriers and that the whole subject lay somewhat +heavily on his conscience because, "practically +speaking, these boys have no future ... a +few of them may become cyclists carrying the +newspapers ... in a few years their usefulness +as cyclists has gone ... then they +simply drift away, we don't know where, but +we do know that they drift to places like Salvation +Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their +living is always one of the mysteries of London.... +But they have learned nothing from us, +nothing that gives them any usefulness for any +other occupation.... The great majority +become casual labourers dependent entirely +on casual work.... It is a life in which very +little is gained, although one would suppose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +that the open air would be of great benefit. +But one must remember the insufficient food +that these street traders have, and the bad +conditions of living and the irregular hours. +Many of these boys, of course, are up all hours +of the night.... It is quite as bad for a boy +in the long run to be engaged as a carrier distributor +as for him to sell newspapers in the +street. There is no possible argument for the +system except that one's competitors do it, and +that so long as they do it we must do the same.... +We get practically all our men from +Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters. +There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary +man whom we employ is over fifty years of +age and runs up to about seventy years.... +I think if the police would give us every facility +for introducing kiosks it would be a great improvement +upon the present system. If boys were +prohibited from selling newspapers altogether +on the streets, it would automatically send the +public to the kiosk; ... the public get into the +habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> + +<p>It should be remembered in connection with +the above statements that the <i>Westminster +Gazette</i> is a penny paper, and its manager was +of opinion that the half-penny papers could not +afford to employ men because they depended +largely for their circulation upon the persistence +of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention +of people in the streets; he believed that the +use of old men would curtail their circulation +because men are not so active as boys. On the +other hand, news agents protested against the +competition of street traders and maintained +that they alone were fully able to meet the +demands of the public. The departmental +committee of 1910 reported: "There can, we +think, be little doubt that an active child is an +effective agent in promoting the circulation of +half-penny papers, and that if the employment +of children were forbidden, newspapers would +have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and +less mobile character. But we see no reason +to think that purchasers of newspapers need be +put to any inconvenience, since the news agents +would be in a position considerably to extend +their business, and it might reasonably be +expected that the system of employing old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +men as salesmen would also be developed. It +appears to us economically unjustifiable to use +children to their own detriment for work which +can be done by other means."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p>Referring to the great possibilities for good +involved in confining the sale and delivery of +newspapers to adults who need outdoor work +and are unable to provide for themselves in +other ways, the Secretary of the New York +Child Labor Committee says: "Where such +cities as Paris and Berlin do entirely without +newsboys—corner stands taking their places—it +would seem that the least that can be done +in American cities is to adopt some adequate +system of regulation. In this connection, the +opportunity presented in newspaper selling to +give work to the aged and handicapped—who +otherwise would have to be supported by private +charity—should not be overlooked."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">The Newsboys' Court</h3> + +<p>In an effort to control to some extent the tendency +of newsboys to become delinquent and to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +imbue them with a sense of personal responsibility, +an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and +jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.</p> + +<p>During the year 1909, about three hundred +newsboys were taken before the juvenile court +of that city charged with violation of the local +license rules. As the docket of this court was +crowded, these newsboy cases were necessarily +delayed, and as a result of this situation the boys +conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys' +court which should have jurisdiction in all cases +of failure to observe the rules governing their +trade. The following year a petition was presented +to the Boston School Committee which +was favorably acted upon by that body, and +accordingly on the regular election day of that +year the newsboys cast their ballots to select +three juvenile judges of the court. These +three boys, together with two adults appointed +by the School Committee, compose +the court. Election of these boy judges is +held annually, and all licensed newsboys who +attend the public schools are qualified electors. +The court is empowered to investigate and +report its findings with recommendations to +the School Committee in all cases of infraction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts +law the School Committee is authorized +to regulate street trading by children under +fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are +subject to purely local supervision. The supervisor +of licensed minors, also an appointee of +the School Committee, can, in his discretion, +take complaints in his department before the +newsboys' court instead of the juvenile court. +The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for +their attendance at each official session of the +court. The charges made before the Trial +Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called, +range from selling without a badge or after +eight o'clock in the evening or on street cars, +to bad conduct, irregular school attendance, +gambling or smoking. The disposition of these +cases varies from reprimands and warnings to +probation or suspension of license for a definite +period, or complete revocation of license.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Summary</h3> + +<p>Although the work of selling newspapers has +been, to some extent, subdivided and systema<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>tized +by circulation managers, it has so many +features highly objectionable for children that +a radical departure from present methods of +handling this business should be taken. We +know that the work of the newsboy lacks the +oversight and discipline of adults, that it +exposes the children to the varied physical +dangers lurking in the streets, that the early +and late hours cause fatigue, that the opportunities +for bad companionship are frequent, that +irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend +to weaken their constitutions, that it offers no +chance for promotion and leads nowhere. We +know further that the presence of the newsboy +in our streets cannot be justified on the ground +of poverty. It has been demonstrated in other +countries that children are not essential to the +sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has +been shown that selling at stands and the use +of men instead of children in the streets are +both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot +such practices be introduced into the United +States? There can be but little doubt as to +the advisability of this step, but the innovation +will certainly not be made voluntarily by the +newspapers. The law must force the issue by +prohibiting street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN</span></h2> + + +<h3 class="italic">Bootblacks</h3> + +<p>The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing +from our cities, but he is still found +in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few +other places. He is being supplanted by the +worker at stands, which are conducted almost +invariably by Greeks. As a result of this +change the bootblacking business will soon cease +to be a street occupation; it is discussed here +because of the abuses it involves and because +it is unregulated in many states, owing to its +omission from the list of employments covered +by child labor laws.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3> + +<p>The New York-New Jersey Committee of +the North American Civic League for Immigrants +reports that: "The condition of Greek boys +and young men in such occupations as pushcart +peddling, shoe-shining parlors and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +flower trade is one of servitude and peonage. +It has been found that many boys apparently +from fourteen to eighteen years of age arrive +here alone, stating that they are eighteen years +old, but in reality less than this, and that they +are going to relatives. They have been found +working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days +a week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and living with the +'boss' in groups varying from five to twenty-five +under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding +and irregularity of meals wholly undesirable +for young boys. They are isolated from learning +English or from American contact, and receive +for their work from $7 to $15 a month and +board and lodging. The majority of the flower +peddlers have been unable to obtain permits, +with the result that the boys who work for +them are arrested for violating the law. Boys +who have been in the country from three +months to a year state they have been arrested +several times—their first experience in this +country—and are already hardened so that they +think nothing of paying fines."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> + +<p>The bootblack business is the chief industry +to which the Greek padrone system is applied. +The United States Immigration Commission +found<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> that boys employed as bootblacks live +in extremely unwholesome quarters. Wherever +the room is large enough, several beds are +gathered together with three and sometimes four +boys sleeping in each bed. In some places the +boys merely roll themselves up in blankets and +sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are +opened for business about 6 o'clock in the morning, +consequently the boys are obliged to rise about an +hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping quarters +are located at considerable distance from the +stands, they have to get up as early as 4.30. +Arrived at the stands, they remain working until +9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and +Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later. +The boys eat their lunch in the rear of the establishment, +this meal consisting generally of bread +and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after +the boys reach "home," and after having eaten +it they retire without removing their clothes. +Even after their excessively long work day, two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +of the boys are required to wash the dirty rags +used for polishing the shoes daily so they can +be used the next day.</p> + +<p>These boys are compelled to work every day +in the year without vacation. The Immigration +Commission found that they are under constant +espionage, as at every stand the padrone places +relatives who both work for him and act as +spies on the other boys. Their employer +instructs them to make false statements to +questions asked by outsiders relative to their +ages or conditions of work; many padrones also +censor the letters written by the boys to their +parents or others and examine all incoming +mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by +outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other +places.</p> + +<p>The majority of them cannot read or write +their own language, and are unable to secure +any education in this country because of their +long work hours. According to the Immigration +Commission their mental development is perceptibly +arrested by the physical fatigue they +suffer as a result of their long-sustained work +without recreation. They receive no good +advice, nor do they hear anything that would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +tend to elevate them morally. The Commission +does not hesitate to brand these conditions +as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on +the constitutions of these boys laboring in +shoe-shining establishments under this system +are appalling. It attributes these effects to +the following causes: long hours, close confinement +to their work in poorly ventilated places, +unsanitary living conditions, unhealthful manner +of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their +work, inadequate nourishment due to the +"economy" of the padrones who furnish the +food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the +inhaling of injurious chemicals from the polish +they use, the filthy condition of their bodies +resulting from their failure to bathe and the +lack of proper clothing for the winter season.</p> + +<p>The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself +a physician, in a letter to the Immigration +Inspector of that city under date of November 16, +1910, declared that as a result of his experience +in examining and treating boy bootblacks he +was convinced that all boys under eighteen years +of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining +establishments, develop serious chronic stomachic +and hepatic troubles which predispose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +them to pulmonary disease; he further declared +that because of the conditions under which they +work the majority of them ultimately contract +tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would +be more humane and infinitely better for young +Greeks to be denied admission into the United +States than to be permitted to land if they are +intended for such employment. Similar statements +are made by other Greek physicians of +Chicago.</p> + +<p>The importation of Greek boys for use as +bootblacks in the United States started about +1895, when the Greeks began to secure their +monopoly of the industry by taking it away +from the Italians and the Negroes, confining it, +however, to stands or booths. Most of the +early padrones have become financially independent. +Their success attracted other Greeks +to this industry, and in a short time almost every +American city with a population of more than +10,000 had bootblack stands operated by them. +Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to flourish.</p> + +<p>The Bureau of Immigration helped to have +a number of padrones indicted and convicted +for offenses against the conspiracy statute and +the Immigration Act, and these prosecutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +made the importers very careful as to their +manner of procedure. They now bring the +boys here through the instrumentality of relatives +in Greece in such a way that the padrones +are almost beyond the reach of our criminal +statutes.</p> + +<p>In some cases it has been found that on leaving +Greece for this country the boys are told to +report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or in some +other western city, hence they do not know their +final destination. The saloon keeper has his +instructions from the padrones and acts as their +distributing agent. Padrones who operate in +places distant from ports of entry easily avoid +detection in this way.</p> + +<p>In most cases these padrones derive an income +from each boy of from $100 to as high as $500 +a year. The Commission explains this as follows: +The wages paid by the padrones now to +Greek boys in shoe-shining establishments range +from $80 to $250 per year, the average wages +being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys +are bound by agreement to turn their tips over +to their padrones: in most cases as soon as the +tipping patron has departed the boy deposits +his tip in the register, while in other places tips<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +are put into a separate box to which the padrone +holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the +poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed +the sum of 50 cents per day, while in large +cities they average higher. The Greek padrone, +therefore, receives in return from tips alone +nearly double the amount of wages paid. By +deducting the wages and the annual boarding +expenses for each boy—an expenditure seldom +exceeding the sum of $40 per year—there is +still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for +the privilege of allowing the boy to work in +his place. In other words, from the total +amount of tips—money that belongs to the +boy by right—the padrone is enabled to pay the +boy's annual wages and still have a respectable +sum left, all this independently of the legitimate +profits of his business.</p> + +<p>Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay +the steamship passage of boys with the understanding +that they are to go to the United States +and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse +him for the passage money advanced. A mortgage +is placed on the property of the boys' +father as security, purporting that the father +is to receive in cash an amount equal to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for +one year in the United States, but as a matter of +fact a steamship ticket and $12 or $15 in money +are all that is given. The cash is to serve as +"show money" to help secure admission to +this country past the immigration officers at +the ports of entry. Advertising is systematically +carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece +with a view to exciting the interest of the parents +so that they will send their boys to the United +States, and no efforts are spared in letting it +become known that there is a great demand here +for boy labor at the bootblack stands. The +padrones themselves even go to Greece every +two or three years, and while there manage to +become godfathers to the children of many +families; this relationship gives them great +influence, and through it they are able to secure +many boys for their service.</p> + +<p>Concerning the prevention of these abuses, +the report says: "In the investigations conducted +by the Bureau of Immigration many +conferences were held with United States +attorneys in various jurisdictions with the view +of instituting proceedings against padrones, +if possible, under the peonage statutes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +attorneys generally agreed that under the evidence +submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining +establishments are peons, but as the +elements of indebtedness and physical compulsion +to work out the indebtedness are missing, +peonage laws cannot apply.</p> + +<p>"Our immigration laws as now on the statute +books provide specifically for the exclusion of +boys under sixteen years of age only when not +accompanied by one or both of their parents. +This provision cannot apply to those boys that +come in company with their parents, nor to +those who have their parents in the United +States, nor to such as successfully deceive +immigration officers by posing as the sons of +immigrants in whose charge they come. If +held for special inspection at the ports of entry, +these aliens can only be excluded if it appears +that they are destined to an occupation unsuited +to their tender years. In the absence of any +such evidence, the boards of inquiry generally +admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard +matter to trace them and almost impossible +to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for +the boys understand that they will be punished +by deportation. This knowledge makes them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +persistent in withholding any information as +to the manner of their entry into the United +States."<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p>Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who +was working at a stand in an Indianapolis +office building confessed to a truant officer that +he was twelve years old, whereupon the chief +truant officer of the city went to the place, but +on his arrival the boy had changed his mind +and declared that he was fourteen years old, and +every one connected with the stand supported +the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant +officer proceeded with the case and found that +the boy had been in this country only about +six months, his parents being still in Greece. +An older brother had a position as a railroad +porter but did not stay with the little fellow +even on the few occasions he was in the city. +The boy lived at the home of the proprietor +of the stand, whose relationship to him was a +combination of employer and guardian. This +man operated four stands in the city, and his +dozen or more other employees all lived at the +same place. The chief truant officer charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +the man with having worked the boy from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> +to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> seven days in the week, which was +admitted before the Juvenile Court by the +defendant, who also volunteered the information +that the boy worked until 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on holidays +and on Saturdays. Of course the boy was +being kept out of school.</p> + +<p>In its issue of August 12, 1911, the <i>Survey</i> +published a letter from a correspondent concerning +a case of peonage among bootblacks in the +city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case +was of a pale, thin, under-sized Greek lad who +worked at a large stand in a local office building. +He explained that he worked every day in the +week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, including Sundays, +and that on Saturdays the hours were lengthened +to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, adding that he had not +been absent from his stand one day in four years +except at one time when he was sick in the +hospital.</p> + +<p>A letter which was written by a Greek in +Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4, 1911, to the editor +of the Syracuse <i>Post-Standard</i> was printed in +the same magazine.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This letter recites the +wrongs of the bootblacks and is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +below because of its value as one of the rare +protests which come from the victims of the +system:—</p> + +<p>"Before I came to this country from Greece, +I heard that this country is free, but I don't +think so. It is free for the Americans, not for +the shoe shiners. In this city are too many +shoe shiners' stands, and the boys which work +there—they work fifteen hours a day, and +Sunday, and almost eighteen on Saturdays. +They make only from $12 to $18 a month and +board, but we don't have any good board neither, +but our patrons give us bread, tea and a piece +of cheese for dinner, supper, but no breakfast. +We don't have any time to go to the church, +not in school, and without them we won't be +good citizens. They won't let us read newspapers, +because they are afraid if we learn +something we will quit, but we can't quit +because we can't speak English, and we can't +find another job. Now I don't mean the boys +working in the barber shops. They make +$10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard +as we do. We wish to work as they do. We +want the public and Mr. Mayor to cut the +hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +we want time for school, and weekly work, not +monthly. I think I wrote enough."</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Peddlers and Market Children</h3> + +<p>The licensed peddlers of Boston are under +orders not to engage little children to sell for +them with or without compensation. "These +peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of +this city by inviting children to help them in +the business, frequently for no other compensation +than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>The peddling of chewing gum is a common +form of street occupation for children. In +reality it is merely begging in disguise. The +Chicago Vice Commission reports that its +agents found boys under fourteen years of age +selling gum late at night in the segregated +districts of the city. At intervals of from two +to three hours their investigators returned to +the same neighborhood and found these little +children still engaged in this very questionable +form of work. One agent reported having +seen two little girls of about eleven years in the +company of a small boy of about eight years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +selling chewing gum in front of a saloon in the +vice district between nine and ten o'clock at +night.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<p>The following table gives the sex, age, nationality, +standing in school, orphanage and occupation +of seventeen children found by one +person in a single trip through the markets of +Cincinnati:—</p> + +<table class="lined" summary="Seventeen market children in Cincinnati"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Boys</th> + <th rowspan="2">Girls</th> + <th rowspan="2">Age</th> + <th rowspan="2">Grade</th> + <th rowspan="2">Nationality</th> + <th colspan="2">Father Living</th> + <th colspan="2">Mother Living</th> + <th rowspan="2">Selling</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Yes</th> + <th>No</th> + <th>Yes</th> + <th>No</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">9</td> + <td class="bl">2d</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1 </td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">baskets</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">10</td> + <td class="bl">4th</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">fruit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">10</td> + <td class="bl">3d</td> + <td class="bl">German</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">vegetables</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">10</td> + <td class="bl">2d</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">fruit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">10</td> + <td class="bl">4th</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">fruit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">10</td> + <td class="bl">3d</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">baskets</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">11</td> + <td class="bl">4th</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">fruit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">11</td> + <td class="bl">3d</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">baskets</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl">11</td> + <td class="bl">6th</td> + <td class="bl">German</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl br">vegetables</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">12</td> + <td class="bl">4th</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">vegetables</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">12</td> + <td class="bl">3d</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl br">baskets</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">12</td> + <td class="bl">4th</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">sassafras</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">12</td> + <td class="bl">6th</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">fruit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">13</td> + <td class="bl">5th</td> + <td class="bl">Italian</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">baskets</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">14</td> + <td class="bl">3d</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">sassafras</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">14</td> + <td class="bl">8th</td> + <td class="bl">American</td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl">1</td> + <td class="bl"> </td> + <td class="bl br">vegetables</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb"> </td> + <td class="bl bb">1</td> + <td class="bl bb">14</td> + <td class="bl bb">4th</td> + <td class="bl bb">Italian</td> + <td class="bl bb"> </td> + <td class="bl bb">1</td> + <td class="bl bb">1</td> + <td class="bl bb"> </td> + <td class="bl br bb">fruit</td> + </tr> + + +</table> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>Of these seventeen children nine were Italians, +six were Americans, two were Germans. Five +of the children, all of whom except one were +Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the +passers-by in markets. Six of the children, +all of whom except one were Italian, were +selling fruit. Six of the children were selling +vegetables and herbs, all of them being Americans +and Germans. The occupational characteristics +of these different peoples are shown +by their children, the Italians predominating +in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale +of the products of their market gardens, the +Americans, all of whom were boys, in the sale +of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables +cultivated on their home farms.</p> + +<p>Of these seventeen children nine were in their +normal grades at school, while eight were backward +and none ahead of their proper grades. +This large percentage of retardation is due principally +to the lack of time for preparation of +school lessons on the part of these children, as +much of their afternoons and evenings is taken +up either with the work of selling in the markets +or with the work of assisting with the garden +duties at home. Of the eight backward chil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>dren, +four were Italians and four were Americans. +One of the backward Italian girls was fourteen +years of age and had left school three weeks +prior to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six +children; her father was dead, and she was working +for her mother in their fruit store selling +the fruit from early morning until midnight +every day in the week except Sunday. As she +was the oldest child in the family, it is of course +easily seen that her retardation in school was +largely due to her having been kept at work in +the shop during the afternoons and evenings +while she was still attending school. An American +boy, who, although twelve years of age, was +only in the third grade at school, was employed +by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in +spite of the fact that his father had a store and +was fully able to support the child properly. +This boy was found, as were many other such +children, selling baskets in the market at eleven +o'clock at night after having been there since +early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old +Italian boy was only in the fifth grade; he was +selling baskets in one market in the morning +and in another market during the afternoon and +evening; both of his parents were living, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +his father had a "city job." There were six +children in the family, two of whom were older +and employed. The entire family of eight persons +occupied two rooms.</p> + +<p>It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve +of the children were living, only five being dead; +while the mothers of fifteen were living, only two +being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan. +In the great majority of cases it was not necessary +for these children to work so prematurely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN</span></h2> + + +<p>Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged +during the day in the unobjectionable task of +delivering telegrams to residences and business +offices, one is likely to regard this service as an +occupation quite suitable for children and to +give it no further thought. However, the +character of the work done by the messenger +boy changes radically after nine or ten o'clock +at night. At that hour most legitimate business +has ceased, and the evil phases of city life begin +to manifest themselves. From that time on +until nearly dawn the messenger's work is largely +in connection with the vicious features of city +life. The ignorance of the general public as to +the evil influences surrounding the night messenger +service is strikingly illustrated by what +one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared +that if his father knew what kind of +work he was doing, a strap would be laid across +his back and he would be compelled to abandon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +it. But the father did not know; he thought +his boy was simply delivering telegrams.</p> + +<p>The delivery of telegrams forms but a small +part of the boy's work at night, because few +messages are dispatched after business hours. +Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers +to go on errands. The boys wait upon the +characters of the underworld and perform a +surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry +notes to and from the inmates of houses of prostitution +and their patrons, take lunches, chop +suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women, +procure liquor after the closing hour, purchase +opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to drug +stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles +used in their trade, and perform other tasks +that oblige them to cultivate their acquaintance +with the worst side of human nature. One +instance was found in which the boy was required +to clean up the room of a prostitute and +to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the +messenger boy is a badge of secrecy and enables +him to get liquor at illegal hours or to procure +opium and other drugs where plain citizens would +be refused; hence these boys are thrown into +associations of the lowest kind, night after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +night, and come to regard these evil conditions +as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest +boys on the night force become the favorites +of the prostitutes; the women take a fancy to +particular boys because of their personal attractiveness +and show them many favors, so that +the most promising boys in this work are the +ones most liable to suffer complete moral +degradation.</p> + +<p>Messenger service not only gives boys the +opportunity to learn what life is at night in +"tenderloin" districts, but the character of the +work actually <i>forces</i> them into contact with the +vilest conditions and subjects them to the fearful +influences always exerted by such associations. +Some believe that this evil could be +prevented by forbidding the office to allow +messenger boys to go on such errands, but this +is not practicable for two reasons: first, because +an essential feature of the messenger service is +secrecy—the office does not inquire into the +nature of the errand to be performed, and even +if it did so, a false statement could easily be +made by the patron over the telephone; and +second, it would be necessary to send a detective +along with the boy on each trip to see that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +observed the rules. Boys are eager to run +errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one +being the extra income assured, as these women +give tips with liberal hand.</p> + +<p>Like other street occupations, the messenger +service is a blind alley; it leads nowhere. A +very few boys are promoted to the position of +check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer +still have an opportunity to learn telegraphy. +Some of the boys become cab drivers because +they have familiarized themselves with the city +streets; others become saloon keepers because +they have become well acquainted with this +method of making a livelihood; some are +attracted by the life of "ease" which opens +before them and enter into agreement with +prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist; +others have the courage to get away from these +influences and secure work as office boys or in +some other line entirely different from the messenger +service.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of the inmates of state +reform schools were formerly messenger boys, +indicating that this service is one of the roads +to delinquency. As the immoral influences +surrounding this work are especially active<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +among youths, the age limit for such employment +at night should be made high enough to prevent +their being so exposed. New York State was +first to declare that if this work is to be done at +night it must be done by men, and has fixed +the age limit at twenty-one years. The late +Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile +Court, speaking before the Conference of +Juvenile Court Officers held in that city in November, +1910, said that messenger boys, and +newsboys who sell papers in the downtown +streets, were the boys most frequently charged +with delinquency before his court, and declared +that twenty-one years was low enough as an +age limit for night messenger service.</p> + +<p>Other temptations assail the messenger boy +in his work, and are frequently yielded to. The +old practice of raising the amount of charges +on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and +is still an ever present problem to the companies. +When a boy has been detected in this petty +crime and is questioned about it, he too often +adds to the one misdeed the other equally grievous +one of lying, whereupon his dismissal +usually follows.</p> + +<p>Under the direction of the writer an investi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>gation +of the night messenger service was made +in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the +following cases being typical of the conditions +found in all cities. In one of the larger towns +of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger boy +was interviewed one night by an agent of the +National Child Labor Committee who had +called up the telegraph office by telephone +requesting that a messenger be sent to him. +Early in the course of conversation, of his own +volition, the boy referred to houses of prostitution. +Upon being asked what he knew about +such places, he replied: "Too much—I am +there half the night. You see they call for +messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes +I get them drinks, opium, medicines from drug +stores or anything they want. No matter +what they ask us to do—it's our business +to go ahead and do it." The boy led the agent +to a disreputable negro district and described +his activities in this region. "No night passes +without my making a dollar down here," said +he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium, +and I get it for them; they give me a little jar, +and I have it filled up for them. It costs them +$1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more +information, whereupon the boy offered to get +some opium if he were given a tip. The agent +gave the boy one dollar and told him he might +keep the change; in ten minutes he returned +with a card of opium which was subsequently +analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the +kind ordinarily prepared for smoking purposes. +This experience was repeated again and again +by agents of the National Child Labor Committee +in different cities and proved beyond the +shadow of a doubt that these young boys are +forced into familiarity with the most degrading +conditions.</p> + +<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in +the same town told the agent that there were +but few business calls at night, and that nearly +all of their work was in connection with houses +of prostitution. This boy spoke of the money +he received in tips from inmates and patrons +of these houses, of his receiving liquor and +cigarettes from them, and remarked, "I do +not have to do this work, but I like it; this job +is too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of +things." This little fellow described some extremely +revolting scenes of which he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +witness in these houses, and upon being asked +whether his manager was aware of the kind of +places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he +does, for he gets the message over the telephone, +then he calls one of the boys and sends him to +the house."</p> + +<p>Another messenger in the same city, who was +seventeen years old and had been in this service +for four years, working daily until half past +two in the morning, said, in talking about the +use of drugs by prostitutes, "When they are +so full of dope that they don't know what to +do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes +I have had them send me out to a drug store +for paris green; they want to kill themselves, +they are crazy with opium; of course I take +their money and never show up again." This +boy also bought a small package of opium for +the agent. He declared that he knew every +house of prostitution in the city and was well +acquainted with their proprietresses. To prove +this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such places, +putting down the streets and numbers at once +from memory. These were subsequently referred +to persons familiar with the city and +verified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is very distressing to read the testimony +of a fourteen-year-old messenger boy of another +city who had been thrown by his work so much +in contact with evil conditions that he had +come to regard these as normal. Although +only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith +in womankind. In walking through the segregated +district with the agent, this boy called +out in advance the number of each house of +prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with +the whole region. In his childish, schoolboy +hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of the +bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly +from memory the names of the proprietresses, +the names of the streets and numbers of the +houses.</p> + +<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in +this city related many disgusting details of his +experiences in the service at night—of prostitutes +smoking, cursing and sprawling on the +floor dead drunk. He stated that he had never +smoked before he became a messenger, but that +when he saw the women using tobacco in all +the houses, he thought there could be no harm in +it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I +began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +a day. I get twenty for a nickel and smoke +all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep. +I once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in +one of the houses—but no more opium for +me." When asked whether his manager knew +that he was sent to these houses, he replied: +"Sure he does, he's the one that sends us; +if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the +women, too, because he jokes with them over the +telephone when they call up for a boy."</p> + +<p>A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when +asked what he did with the money he received +as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a +crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows +during the day and buy different things; I +suppose if my people knew the kind of work I +was doing, I would get a thick leather strap over +my back. They have an idea that the messenger +business is just taking telegrams to reputable +people. There are very few business calls at +night at our office; almost all of them come from +houses of prostitution. This is going to be a +very busy week with us because a convention +starts to-morrow, and the delegates will want +us to take them to the houses."</p> + +<p>Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +years of age, although he had been in the service +of one company for four years and had previously +been discharged from another company +for having defrauded a patron. This lad was a +typical boy of the street; his features were +drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his +walk could be described best as a drag. "I +know every single house of prostitution in this +city," said he. "I have been in every one. +I get drinks in most of them, and many a time +I was drunk for a whole day in some woman's +room." This boy, having been in the service +several years, spoke of the ravages dissipation +had wrought on the women of the underworld. +He had known many of them when they were +just starting in their life of shame, and remarked +their rapid decline. Voluntarily he spoke of +the venereal diseases from which he had suffered. +He said that he had been discharged from his +first job as a messenger for having defrauded +patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked, +he said: "A woman wanted me to carry a +package to some place and asked me what it +would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she +wouldn't pay it because it was too much. I +told her to speak to the manager and gave her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +the telephone number where my pal was waiting +for the call. She asked him whether he was +the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she +asked how much the charge was, and he answered +one dollar. Then I went on the errand, and we +split the difference. Somehow the manager got +wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation +was a continuous flow of vulgarity. When +the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew +from his pocket two sets of dice and said they +were "ready at any time to do business. When +the first of the month comes around, I am +generally short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once. +When I have no ready cash, I play on account +of my salary."</p> + +<p>An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have +been in this business here for five years, and a +night never passes that I don't go to a house of +prostitution; that's our main business at night. +They could not afford to have a messenger +service in this town at night if it were not for +the red light district. We have to do all their +work, because they trust us." This boy spoke +of the venereal diseases other boys in the service +had, and admitted that he had contracted +them twice himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy, +who has been in the service four years and is +afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal +infection, said among other things, "There are +lots of messengers who are kept by women. +The boys work only for appearances. I knew +two messengers who worked with me who were +kept by two prostitutes for a year, then they +gave up the job at the same time and took the +prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked +for them. One of these boys is only about +nineteen years old now. You don't learn +anything in the messenger business except to +knock down (overcharge a patron) and to go +around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills +a fellow. I know, because I went down the line, +and I'm coming out the wrong end." When +asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied: +"You don't suppose I want to work for $3 or +$4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good +money and having a good time." He said that +he made from $40 to $75 a month according to +the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he +got it. Most of it went in gambling.</p> + +<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another +city who works from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, in speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +of the use of whisky in houses of prostitution, +said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the +messengers, and we stand in with them; the +more a house sends for whisky the better they +stand in with the saloon keeper. If the proprietress +gets locked up, she will always be bailed +out by the saloon keeper, but if she don't buy +enough stuff from him, he will refuse to do it. +When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring +up for a messenger from the station house, and +they send me to the cell where the woman is, +and she always gives me a note to take to the +saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her +out." This boy said his manager knew the kind +of places he visited, but was not in the office all +night. During the late hours of the night the +telegraph operator and the clerk were left in +charge, and the boy remarked that they had +told him to try to get a woman into the office +if he found one on the street, and related instances +in which this had been done. He was +paid a salary of $22 a month.</p> + +<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this +town is paid $17 a month salary and makes +$10 or $12 a month in tips.</p> + +<p>A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +after having related some of his experiences in +the segregated district, said: "I tell you, it's +mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I +suppose a fellow has to learn these things somehow, +and I may as well learn them in the messenger +service as in any other way. I smoke +perique so I can sleep in the daytime."</p> + +<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same +city, employed from noon to midnight, had +been in the service only one week when interviewed +by the agent; among other things he +said: "All the last week I have been doing nothing +but go to the red light district. I didn't know +what this messenger business was until I got +into it, and I am going to quit just as soon as I +see a little more of that kind of thing."</p> + +<p>In a certain Indiana city there was found a +"kid line" messenger service, so called because +the proprietor was a mere boy who was formerly +in the service of another messenger company. +He had two day boys, but at night answered the +calls himself. He was fourteen years old and +told the agent that he had lived in the "red +light" district more than at his home on account +of the number of calls he had to answer there, +but of course this was exaggeration intended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +convey the fact that most of his business was +with that region. When he entered into business +for himself, he went to all the prostitutes +in the "red light" district and told them that +he was commencing on his own account and +that he wanted them to be his customers. "I +get a good deal of their business. I get it because +I know how to treat them. I can get them beer +on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses. +I know all the women and can introduce you +to any of them, and can get you any amount +of beer or whisky that you want. When I +was working for the—— messenger company +there was another boy on the force who tried +to take all the good calls; he divided his tips +with the manager, so he was sent to all the +houses where good tips were given. There was +one prostitute who liked me pretty well and +gave me ten or fifteen cents for myself every time I +went to her house. I started to answer a call there +one night, and the other boy ran after me. We +got to the place at the same time and had a +fight in the hall; the men and women in the +place gathered around us and offered to give us +two dollars each if we would scrap for them, +so we started right in, and before I was through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +with him he had two black eyes and his face +was bleeding, then he pulled out a knife, but +they took it away from him, and the next day +I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the +houses who is a chambermaid and wants me +to live with her, and maybe I will but I'm +afraid my mother will get wise."</p> + +<p>The fifteen-year-old messenger of another +office showed the agent the list of about one +hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly +every one of which came from the "red light" +district.</p> + +<p>After weighing such evidence we can readily +comprehend the justice of the opinion rendered +by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words: +"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but +the messenger service is debauching.... And, +saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to +the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing +boy would itself incline him to like these +calls to houses of prostitution, but they quickly +learn also that women who live in these sections +are more generous with their earnings in the +way of tips than are the people in the more +respectable sections of the city.... It can +be said that all the boys who go into the messen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>ger +service do not go to the bad, but it can be +said with equal truth that it ruins children by +the dozens, and that if any boy comes out of +this service without having suffered moral shipwreck +he can thank the mercy of God for it, +and not the protecting arm of the community +that stands idly by and makes no attempt to +save him from temptation."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> + +<p>In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law +for the District of Columbia which provided, +among other restrictions, that no messenger +boy under sixteen years should be employed +between 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>,—<i>sixteen years</i>, the +beginning of the period of adolescence, when +boys have the greatest need of protection from +the vices running riot in cities!</p> + +<p>The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several +pages of its report to a recital of the experiences +of messenger boys in connection with their +work in the segregated districts. One of the +telegraph companies maintains a branch office +close to one of these districts, where eight boys +from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +as messengers. These boys are called upon to +work at all hours of the day and night, their +tasks being the same as those of the messengers +in other cities. A number of specific instances +of the wretched environment into which these +boys are thrown, are given. One of them who +works from midnight until 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> was sent by a +prostitute to a drug store for a package of cocaine +hydrochloride, for which he paid $5.78, receiving +$1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service. +Another messenger was sent out on a similar +errand by another prostitute two weeks later +and purchased for her a hypodermic needle +for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle, +the cost to the druggist being 19 cents. A +few days later a boy was called by another prostitute +who confided to him that she had discontinued +the use of messenger boys for purchasing +"dope" because she found that they talked +too much and could not be trusted, adding that +she now had a newsboy, who sold papers at a +near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her. A +woman who lives in an apartment house and is +the owner and proprietor of houses of prostitution +in the restricted district, is in the habit +of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +who calls a messenger boy to deliver it to her +residence. This messenger opened one of the +packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine, +sniffed a little of it himself. He confessed that +he had done this quite often since, and it appeared +that he had derived a good deal of pleasure +from it. The same messenger is sent about +three times monthly by a certain man to a Chinaman, +from whom he buys a package of opium +for $4. On returning from one of these trips +he watched the man open the package, take a +quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at +this point the messenger was told to leave the +room. Another messenger boy has been employed +at this particular branch office for more +than three years, although he is now only +seventeen years old; his earnings average +about $10 per week, including tips. He is +of small stature, not mentally bright and at +present is afflicted with syphilis of three +months' duration. Another messenger is a +boy of foreign parentage, only fifteen years of +age, who said he had recently been called quite +often to a certain house of prostitution where an +inmate gave him a box with a note to a druggist; +the contents cost $1.75, but upon returning to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +the woman he would declare that he had paid +$2.50, thus obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses, +and in addition a tip of half a dollar. On one +of his trips for this prostitute he had opened +the note and found that it was a requisition for +cocaine; on returning he placed some of the +contents upon his tongue, but did not like the +sensation and never repeated it. He is in the +habit of picking up discarded cigarettes and +smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows +the name of nearly every prostitute in this district +and can recognize these women at sight; +he stated that whenever he entered a house of +prostitution they would nearly always kiss him, +and at different times he had had sores on his +lips.</p> + +<p>Another boy who was attending high school +was employed as a messenger in the downtown +district during Christmas week of 1910. He +was sent to deliver a message in a house of +prostitution, and the girl who received it offered +to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas +present, stating that it was customary to do this +for messenger boys on Christmas Day.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> + +<p>A number of other messengers told of similar +experiences, stating that they were often called +to houses of prostitution to perform small +personal services for the inmates. As to regulation +of the service, a police order was issued +in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that no +messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years +was to be allowed in the segregated districts at +any time.</p> + +<p>In arguing against the further restriction +of the night messenger service, the telegraph +companies and other interested organizations +insist that the majority of these boys are working +to support their widowed mothers or incapacitated +fathers; a recent government report says, +in referring to the table of families in which +there are messengers and errand and office +boys ten to fourteen years of age, classified by +percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston, +Chicago, New York and Washington, "These +statistics point to the conclusion that the greater +part of the families now furnishing children +from ten to thirteen years of age and fourteen +years for the occupation of messengers and errand +and office boys are by no means either entirely +or largely dependent upon the earnings of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +children for the family support."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The restriction +advocated does not contemplate the prohibition +of this work to boys of fourteen years +and upwards in the <i>daytime</i>; its object is to +shield the youths from the vile associations +necessarily connected with this work at <i>night</i>.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Night Service by Men—Not by Boys</h3> + +<p>Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child +Labor Committee, in speaking of the study of +the night messenger service undertaken by this +organization, says: "The evidence collected +justified the committee in cooperating with its +affiliated organizations to secure legislation, and, +counting on the <i>moral interest of the public</i> +to promote the effort, we made the question +one for practical and immediate decision. +Results apparently justify the policy chosen. +A bill was unanimously passed by the legislature +of New York State [in 1910], excluding any +person under twenty-one years of age from this +occupation between ten o'clock at night and +five o'clock in the morning."</p> + +<p>Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +of messengers under twenty-one years of age +between the hours of 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, except +by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age +limit for this work in cities of first and second +classes between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> New Jersey +did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing +the age limit at eighteen years for smaller +places, the prohibited hours being from 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> +to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p> + +<p>Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting +the employment of any one under twenty-one +years of age as a messenger between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> +and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> in cities of the first, second and third +classes. Ohio, in 1910, fixed the age limit for +messenger service between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> at +eighteen years.</p> + +<p>Michigan now prohibits the employment of +messengers under eighteen years between 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> +and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as do also New Hampshire, Oregon, +Tennessee and California.</p> + +<p>Other states having the advanced type of +child labor law prohibit the employment of +children under fourteen years in the messenger +service during the day and under sixteen years +at night. The states of Alabama, Arkansas, +Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, +Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do not yet provide +any age limit for this work.</p> + +<p>The evil effects of the messenger service have +also been noted in Great Britain. A schoolmaster +of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse +intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness +are the chief products of message going +by boys."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> + +<p>A London health officer has testified as follows: +"There is a very large employment of boy +labour now, boys employed as messengers and +errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful +for their future life; and when they have outgrown +the age at which they can be employed +in this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks +of the unskilled labourer is a very large one."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> + +<p>"The government post office telegraph messengers +are not employed unless they have +passed the seventh standard at school and each +candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate +of health from his own medical attendant. +A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +eight inches in height. The minimum starting +wage in London is seven shillings a week, rising +by a shilling a week annually to eleven shillings. +On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to +pass a further examination in order to qualify +for retention. The various <i>private</i> telegraph +companies offer much the same terms, though in +some cases they are able to get boys slightly +cheaper, as the qualifying standard is not such +a high one. It is only during the rare periods +when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful +than usual that the private telegraph companies +will refuse a boy on account of his size. The +varied nature of the work they are called upon +to perform is an undoubted attraction in the +eyes of many.... That it is bad for them morally +is less open to doubt. Even when they are +more actively employed the most that they can +hope to learn is a very small amount of discipline. +A more serious point is the future of the boys +when they cease to be messengers."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> + +<p>"It is well to point out that the commonest +of these occupations, that of errand boy or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite +apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere. +It lacks almost necessarily what the +boy most needs—the compulsory training of +the habit of disciplined effort."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + +<p>As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of +the work, however, should be not whether boys +can do it, but what it does to boys."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN</span></h2> + + +<p>All the evil effects of street work upon children +observed by students of the problem have +been here divided into three groups, under the +headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration. +It must be understood that this is +a summary of such effects and that while the +influences of the street are unquestionably bad, +any one child exposed to them is not likely to +suffer to the full extent suggested below. However, +deterioration in one form or another is +invariably noted in children who have been +engaged in street work for any length of time, +and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability +of such employment for our boys and girls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + + + +<table class="intext" summary="Effects of Street Work on Children"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Effects of Street Work on Children</span></caption> + <tr> + <td class="bb vmiddle" rowspan="3">Material Deterioration</td> + <td rowspan="3" class="bb bracket">{</td> + <td> Form distaste for regular employment.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Small chance of acquiring a trade.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bb" > Drift into large class of casual workers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bb vmiddle" rowspan="6">Physical Deterioration</td> + <td rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">{</td> + <td> Night work.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Excessive fatigue.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Exposure to bad weather.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Irregularity of sleep and meals.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Use of stimulants—cigarettes, coffee, liquor.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bb" > Disease through contact with vices.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="vmiddle bb" rowspan="6">Moral Deterioration</td> + <td rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">{</td> + <td> Encouragement to truancy.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Independence and defiance of parental control.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Form liking for petty excitements of street.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> Opportunities to become delinquent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bb"> Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>These are the insidious influences permeating +street work and rampant in all our cities. They +are minimized and even denied by certain ignorant +or interested parties who base their assertions +upon the fact that prominent men of to-day +were once newsboys or bootblacks, and therefore +jump to the conclusion that their success is +due to the training received in this way when +young. The truth is more likely to be that such +individuals have succeeded, not because of this +early training, but in spite of it. Boys of +exceptionally strong character will force them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>selves +out of such an environment unscathed, +but the great majority of children have not +sufficient mental and moral stamina to withstand +these influences. The minority will take +care of itself under any circumstances,—it is +with the weaker majority that we must deal. +The problem is an urgent one, but generally +ignored, for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public +sees the street worker at his best and neglects +him at his worst.</p> + +<p>The charge that in street work a child has +small chance of acquiring a suitable trade is +one of the worst counts in the indictment. +Street work leads to nothing else; the various +occupations are so many industrial pitfalls, and +the children who get into them must sooner or +later struggle out and begin over again at some +other line of work, if they would succeed.</p> + +<p>"These children (street traders) furnish a +very large proportion of recruits to the criminal +population. Those who do not graduate into +crime form a liking for the petty excitements of +the street and a distaste for regular employment. +They lack skill and perseverance, shun the +monotony of a permanent job, and as they +grow older either follow itinerant and question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>able +trades or become ill-paid and inefficient +casual laborers. Therefore these young people +are a source of waste to society rather than of +profit."<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> + +<p>The large percentage of former newsboys +among the inmates of boys' reformatories +recently induced an active social worker to send +an inquiry to the superintendents of such +institutions and to juvenile court judges in +different parts of the country relative to the +effect of newspaper selling on schoolboys. +The statements received in reply are set forth +in a leaflet which was published in 1910.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> + +<p>These officials are practically unanimous in +condemning street trading by boys, declaring +that newsboys are generally stupid and almost +always morally defiled; that the pittance they +earn is bought at great sacrifice; that the +spending of their earnings without supervision +is the worst thing that can befall them; that the +life leads to gambling, dishonesty and spendthrift<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +habits; that it is a dead-end occupation +leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil +temptations; that the boys are comparatively +idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen +and heard on the street; that the work subjects +boys to bad influences before they are strong +enough to resist them; that delinquency results +from their enforced association with all classes +of boys; and concluding that every possible +protection should be thrown about the young +boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration +to the advantages of street trading, and one +made the naïve statement that newspaper selling +was not a bad business for a boy who could +withstand its temptations.</p> + +<p>Although the law of New York State provides +a modicum of regulation for street trading, +nevertheless it has not been effective because +of extremely indifferent enforcement. Like +almost all other street-trading laws in the United +States, it places the age limit at the ridiculous +age of ten years. A movement was started +recently in Buffalo to remedy the situation, and +the following statement was published:—</p> + +<p>"During the past year we have sought to +discover, not by theorizing, but by uncovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +the facts, what is the effect of street work on the +boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys +were secured. Eighteen per cent were reported +as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor +in attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight +per cent stood poor or very poor in scholarship, +while only 15 per cent of the other children in +the same schools failed in their work. An +investigation at the truant school showed that +46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged +in the street trades. On the basis of these facts +and studies made in connection with the schools, +juvenile courts and reformatories elsewhere, +we hope to secure legislation raising the age +below which boys may not engage in the street +trades to twelve years, and making it illegal +for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> +We are also striving to secure better enforcement +of this law in Buffalo and other +cities."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> + +<p>This folder also states that circular letters +were sent to all Buffalo school principals asking +about the effect on scholarship of the early +morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +and also to physicians inquiring about the effect +of such work on physical development. The +hours for such newspaper delivery were from +4.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> Eight principals and six +physicians denounced such work to every one +who favored it. Referring to the occupational +history of reformatory inmates, a recent report +for New York City says: "The parental school +(school for truants) statistics show that 80 out +of its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per +cent of the entire number have been street +traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of +Italians (noted as street traders), gives us a +record of 469 or 80 per cent out of their 590 +boys interviewed, who have followed the street +profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been +newsboys selling over three months. The New +York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of +its inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as +street traders. The House of Refuge repeats +the same story: 63 per cent of those committed +to that institution had been street traders, of +whom 32 per cent were newsboys. If 63 per cent +of the House of Refuge inmates have been street +traders, and if the majority of such have begun +their so-called criminal careers, which end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +invariably in the state penitentiary, why do we +permit children to trade on our streets?"<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>Another American writer says: "Whatever +the cause, the effect on the newsboy is always the +same. He lives on the streets at night in an +atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes +in vice and evil with the air he breathes. If he +grows into manhood and escapes the tuberculosis +which seizes so many of these boys of +the street, the things that he has learned as a +professional newsboy lead in one direction,—toward +crime and things criminal. The professional +newsboy is the embryo criminal."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>The dangers to the morals of children are +particularly emphasized by those who have given +this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo +says: "Nor is it only in factories that these +grosser forms of immorality flourish. They are +even more prevalent among the children of the +street trades,—newsboys, bootblacks, messengers +and the like. The proportion of newsboys who +suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly great.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +The superintendent of the John Worthy School +of Chicago, Mr. Sloan, asserts that 'one third +of all the newsboys who come to the John +Worthy School have venereal diseases and that +10 per cent of the remaining newsboys at present +in the Bridewell are, according to the physician's +diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The +newsboys who come to the school are, according +to Mr. Sloan, on an average of one third below +the ordinary standard of physical development, +a condition which will be readily understood by +those who know the ways of the newsboys of +our great cities—their irregular habits, scant +feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping +in hallways, basements, stables and quiet +corners. With such a low physical standard +the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously +increased."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<p>The economic aspect of this work is magnified +by most people beyond its true proportion; +the earnings of street-working children are not +needed by their families in most cases, and even +in those instances where their poverty demands +such relief it is wrong to purchase it at the price +paid in evil training and bad effects of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +kind. Commenting on this point the chief +truant officer for Indianapolis says: "A large +number of truants are recruited from that large +unrestricted class whose members are to be +found competing with one another on our street +corners from early until late. The pennies +which many of them earn are a material aid +in replenishing the depleted resources of some +of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether +such child laborers will not in the future bequeath +to society an abundant reward of human +wreckage which may be traced to such traffic +and its many temptations."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p>As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking +the premature earnings of their children, a +Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy, +if he works 365 days a year, does not earn over +a hundred dollars; if he becomes delinquent +it costs the state at least two hundred dollars +a year to care for him. When we remember +that twelve out of every one hundred boys +between ten and sixteen become delinquent, +and that over 60 per cent of these boys come +from street trades, it does not take long for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +business man to figure out that it is rather poor +economy to let a ten-year-old boy go into at +least this field of labor.... From an economic +standpoint the family that sends out +a ten-year-old boy to sell papers loses a great +deal more in actual money from the boy's lack +of future earning capacity than the boy can +possibly earn by his youthful efforts. In other +words, this sort of labor from an economic +standpoint is an absurdity."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> + +<p>In its splendid report on street trading, the +British departmental committee of 1910 stated: +"We learnt that much of this money, so readily +made, is spent with equal dispatch. The +children spend it on sweets and cigarettes, and +in attending music halls, and in very many cases +only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is +taken home.... In many towns the traders are +drawn from the poorest of homes, but numerous +witnesses have emphatically stated that their +experience leads them to think that cases where +real benefits accrue to the home are rare."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> + +<p>The lack of proper training during childhood +almost invariably brings about a tragedy in +the lives of working people. The premature +employment of children at any kind of labor +which interferes with their education and their +training in work for which they are fitted is +most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs +in future misery the little income thus secured +in childhood. A careful student of the working +class declares: "Many bright and capable men +and women in this neighborhood [Greenwich +Village, New York City] would undoubtedly +have been able to occupy high positions in the +industrial world if they had not been <i>forced +into unskilled work when young</i>."<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> + +<p>With reference to the effects of street trading +an English writer says: "It is difficult to +imagine a life which could be worse for a young +boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a +means of earning a livelihood which perhaps +more than any other is subject to the most +violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of +the income is a trifling evil by comparison with +the certainty of the bad moral effects of street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +trading on boys and youths. The life of the +street trader is a continual gamble, unredeemed +by any steady work; it is undisciplined and +casual, and exposed to all the temptations of +the street at its worst. The great majority of +the boys who sell papers drift away into crime +or idleness or some form of living by their wits."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> +The same writer also declares: "Few things +could have a worse effect than this street trading +on those engaged in it. It initiates them into +the mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds +in them the craving for an irregular, undisciplined +method of life."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> And the editor of +these English studies adds: "It is part of the +street-bred child's precocity that he acquires +a too early acquaintance with matters which as +a child he ought not to know at all. His language +and conversation often reveal a familiarity +with vice which would be terrible were it not +so superficial."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> + +<p>Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +of the word, the same writer says: "We do not +believe that immorality of this kind is universal +among the boys and girls of the labouring classes, +nor do we believe that the town youth is any +worse than his brother and sister of the country. +Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing +mark of any one class or any one place. We +question whether comparison of sins and self-indulgence +would work out at all to the disadvantage +of the town labouring class as a whole. +It must be remembered that one commonplace +factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all +on the side of the town youth's virtue. The +street has its safeguards as well as its dangers."<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p>With reference to the blind alley character +of street work, another English writer avers: +"As in London, the labours of the school children +[in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship +or preparation for their future lives. The +grocer's little errand boy will be discharged +when he grows bigger and needs higher wages; +the chemist's runner is not in training to become +a chemist. The three farthings an hour on the +one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual +degeneration on the other, are all that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +the little ones here, as elsewhere, get out of toil +from which many a grown man would shrink."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>Another English student of labor conditions +declares: "Teachers—together with magistrates, +police authorities, ministers of religion +and social workers—are practically unanimous +in condemning street trading as an employment +of children of school age. In this occupation +children deteriorate rapidly from the physical, +mental and moral point of view."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> + +<p>Still another writer says: "One great evil +which results from this life of street trading in +childhood is the fact that it is fatal to industrial +efficiency in after life."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> + +<p>The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D., +given in 1904, on the occasion of the inquiry +into physical deterioration in Great Britain, is to +the point, in spite of the fact that the committee +directing the inquiry stated that "The impressions +gathered from the great majority of the +witnesses examined do not support the belief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +that there is any general progressive deterioration."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> +Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony was +as follows: "The causes of deficient physique +are very numerous ... it is very likely that +in order to eke out the scanty earnings of the +father and mother the child is sent, out of school +hours, to earn a penny or two, and so it comes +to school wearied out in body by having had to +work early in the morning, exhausted by not +having had food, and then is sent to learn. +Well, it cannot learn."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Later the same witness +testified, "One of the very worst causes [of +physical deterioration] is that children in actual +attendance at school, work before and after +schooltime."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> + +<p>In a special inquiry into the physical effects +of work upon 600 boys of school age made in +1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health +officer to the London County Council's education +department, it was found that many of the +children suffered from nervous strain, heart +disease and deformities as a result of prolonged +labor. Of the 600 boys, 134 were shop boys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the +others were scattered among various employments. +It was found that work during the +dinner hour and also the long work-day on +Saturday were particularly harmful. As to +fatigue among the newsboys, of those working +20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected; +of those working between 20 and 30 hours, +70 per cent; while of those working more than +30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue. +As to anæmia, among the newsboys, of those +working 20 hours or less it appeared among +only 19 per cent; but of those working 20 to +30 hours, 30 per cent showed it; while of those +working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were +afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of +those working 20 hours or less 16 per cent were +suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30 +hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over +30 hours, 37 per cent showed nerve strain. As +to deformities, none were noted among boys +working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per +cent of those working 20 to 30 hours or more +were found to be afflicted. All elementary +schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of +8 per cent, but of those engaged in different kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +of work from 20 to 30 hours a week, 21 per cent +showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be +the chief deformity produced by newspaper +selling, this being caused by the boys' having +to be on their feet too much.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> + +<p>One of the most decisive blows delivered +against street work by children in Great Britain +was the statement of Thomas Burke of the +Liverpool City Council, a son of working +people, who had lived in a crowded city street +for twenty years, had attended a public elementary +school until fourteen years of age, where the +number of child street traders was very large, +and had become convinced that "work after +school hours was decidedly injurious to health and +character." Referring to the material condition +of his street-trading acquaintances, he said: +"Almost all the boys sent out to work after school +hours from the school referred to have failed in +the battle of life. Not one is a member of any +of the regular trades, while all who were sent to +trade in the streets have gone down to the depths +of social misery if not degradation ... a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +proportion of those who did not work after school +hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper sellers, +occupy respectable positions in the city."<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of +Social Economy in a study of St. Louis newsboys +made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys +under 11 years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to +cheap shows and 23 used tobacco; while of +100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled, +92 went to cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> + +<p>Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental +committee of 1901 is the following: +"Street hawking is not injurious to the health if +the hours are not long, and the work is not done +late at night; but its moral effects are far worse +than the physical, and this employment in the +center of many large towns makes the streets +hotbeds for the corruption of children who learn +to drink, to gamble and to use vile language, +while girls are exposed to even worse things."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p>The British departmental committee of 1910<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +declared: "In the case of both boys and girls +the effect of this occupation on future prospects +cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except, +possibly, in casual and exceptional cases. We +learn that many boys who sell while at school +manage to obtain other work upon becoming +fourteen, but for those who remain in the street +the tendency is to develop into loafers and +'corner boys.' The period between fourteen +and sixteen is a critical time in a boy's life. +Street trading provides him with no training; +he gets no discipline, he is not occupied the +whole of his time; for a few years he makes more +money and makes it more easily than in an +office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a +variety of actively evil influences."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>An important division of the study of street-working +children concerns their standing in +the schools. In New York City a few figures +are available through a study recently made +there. The distribution of 200 newsboys under +fourteen years of age among the school grades +is shown in the following table:<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>—</p> + +<table class="lined" summary="Distribution of newsboys among school grades NYC"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Ages</th> + <th colspan="8">Grades</th> + <th rowspan="2">Special</th> + <th rowspan="2">Totals</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th> 1</th> + <th> 2</th> + <th> 3</th> + <th> 4</th> + <th> 5</th> + <th> 6</th> + <th> 7</th> + <th> 8</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right">10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 12</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right">19</td> + <td class="bl right">21</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 62</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl right"> 13</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right">15</td> + <td class="bl right">10</td> + <td class="bl right">23</td> + <td class="bl right">17</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb center">Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right">10</td> + <td class="ball right">22</td> + <td class="ball right">48</td> + <td class="ball right">41</td> + <td class="ball right">36</td> + <td class="ball right">25</td> + <td class="ball right"> 8</td> + <td class="ball right"> 8</td> + <td class="ball right"> 200</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Applying the rule that in order to be normal +a child must enter the first grade at the age of +either six or seven years and progress with +enough regularity to enable him to attend the +eighth grade at the age of either thirteen or +fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys +ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are +backward, 57 are normal and 2 are beyond their +grades. This is shown in the following table:—</p> + +<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of newsboys"> + <tr> + <th> Ages</th> + <th colspan="2">Backward</th> + <th colspan="2"> Normal</th> + <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th> + <th colspan="2"> Total</th> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl center"> 10</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl center"> 11</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 22</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl center"> 12</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 42</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 16</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 59</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl center"> 13</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 48</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 24</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 72</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl vmiddle center">Totals</td> + <td class="bl bt dcright"> 118</td> + <td class="bt dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl bt dcright"> 57</td> + <td class="bt dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl bt dcright"> 2</td> + <td class="bt dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl bt dcright">177 </td> + <td class="br bt dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class="bl bb vmiddle center">Percentages</td> + <td class="bl bb dcright"> 67</td> + <td class="bb dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb dcright"> 32</td> + <td class="bb dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb dcright"> 1</td> + <td class="bb dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb dcright">100</td> + <td class="bb br dcleft">%</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten +to thirteen years of age, 67 per cent are backward +and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1 per +cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these +ages are subject to the restrictions prescribed +by the state law as to hours, and it is probable +that the percentage of retardation would have +been even greater if work at night had not +been to some extent prevented.</p> + +<p>A report of New York City conditions +made in 1907, before the newsboy law was +enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed, +sharp-witted lad is stupid and sleepy in the +schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with +non-working boys in the same class were found +to fall below the average in proficiency. They +were also usually older than their classmates, +that is, backward in their grades."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> + +<p>Referring to Manchester newsboys above +the age of fourteen years, an English report<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> +says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly +backward, judged by school standards.... As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +they grow older they sink to a lower level, +both morally and economically—in fact, +little better than loafers, without aspiration, +and content with the squalor of the common +lodging-houses in which they live, if only +they have enough money for their drink +and their gambling." Concerning the younger +newsboys the same report continues: "Those +who are the children of extremely poor, and +often worthless parents, are often upon the +streets selling their papers during school +hours, and their attendance at the schools, +in spite of prosecution of their parents, is +so irregular that they make very little progress. +These boys take to the streets permanently +for their livelihood; a few of them +continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn +their living by selling newspapers, but most +of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of +occupation." In connection with these statements +it should be remembered that they portray +conditions existing prior to the adoption +in 1902 of local rules on street trading. +With reference to the alleged cleverness of +street Arabs, a British observer draws this +distinction: "Street-trading children are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +cunning than other children, but not more intelligent."<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> + +<p>In St. Louis there was no regulation until the +Missouri law of 1911 was passed; and in 1910 +Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of +that city, found the following conditions:—</p> + +<table class="intext" summary="Conditions of newsboys in St. Louis"> + <tr> + <th class="harmonized">Years </th> + <th colspan="4" class="harmonized">Number below Normal School Grade</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">10</td> + <td class="right"> 10</td> + <td class="right"> out of</td> + <td class="right">16</td> + <td class="right">62%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">11</td> + <td class="right"> 12</td> + <td class="right"> out of</td> + <td class="right">16</td> + <td class="right">75%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">12</td> + <td class="right"> 16</td> + <td class="right"> out of</td> + <td class="right">28</td> + <td class="right">57%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">13</td> + <td class="right"> 25</td> + <td class="right"> out of</td> + <td class="right">33</td> + <td class="right">75%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center">14</td> + <td class="right"> <span class="u">11</span></td> + <td class="right"> out of</td> + <td class="right"><span class="u"> 13</span></td> + <td class="right"><span class="u">84%</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="center"></td> + <td class="right"> 74</td> + <td class="right"> </td> + <td class="right">106</td> + <td class="right">70%</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures were copied by the writer from +charts displayed at the child labor exhibit of +the National Conference of Charities and Correction +in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain +the method of determining these percentages +were unavailing. Therefore they cannot be +compared with the figures in the preceding +tables, because it is by no means certain that +the standard ages for normal school standing +were adopted in the compilation of this table.</p> + +<p>In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>ing +street work by children, although a local +association makes an effort to look after the +welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the +writer visited the four public common school +buildings nearest the business district of this +city and found 287 children in attendance who +were regularly engaged in some form of street +work out of school hours. The great majority +of them were newsboys. The distribution of +these children according to age and grade is +given below:—</p> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Working pupils in Toledo"> + <tr> + <th class="noline"> </th> + <th class="noline" colspan="12">Ages</th> + <th class="noline"> </th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc">Grade</th> + <th> 5</th> + <th> 6</th> + <th> 7</th> + <th> 8</th> + <th> 9</th> + <th> 10</th> + <th> 11</th> + <th> 12</th> + <th> 13</th> + <th> 14</th> + <th> 15</th> + <th> 16</th> + <th class="nosc"> Totals</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right">12</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 34</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 22</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 51</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 17</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball center">Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 8</td> + <td class="ball right"> 13</td> + <td class="ball right"> 24</td> + <td class="ball right"> 27</td> + <td class="ball right"> 50</td> + <td class="ball right"> 34</td> + <td class="ball right"> 40</td> + <td class="ball right"> 45</td> + <td class="ball right"> 27</td> + <td class="ball right"> 15</td> + <td class="ball right"> 3</td> + <td class="ball right"> 287</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>Adopting the same method for determining +retardation as in the case of the New York<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +figures, we find that of these 287 street-working +school children of Toledo, 55 per cent are +backward, 43 per cent are normal and 2 per cent +are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the +children ten to thirteen years of age, as was +done with the New York figures, we have the +following results:—</p> + +<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of Toledo school children"> +<tr> + <th> Ages</th> + <th colspan="2"> Backward</th> + <th colspan="2"> Normal</th> + <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th> + <th colspan="2"> Total</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 10</td> + <td class="bl dcright">25</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> </td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 11</td> + <td class="bl dcright">16</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 17</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright">1</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 12</td> + <td class="bl dcright">28</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> </td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl center"> 13</td> + <td class="bl dcright">34</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> </td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 45</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Totals</td> + <td class="bl dcright">103</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 65</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright">1</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 169</td> + <td class="br dcleft"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftnarrow">Percentages</td> + <td class="bl bb bt dcright">61</td> + <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 38</td> + <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb bt dcright">1</td> + <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td> + <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 100</td> + <td class="bb bt br dcleft">%</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>These percentages show that conditions in +Toledo are only slightly better than in New +York City. This is surprising because of the +great difference in the working conditions of +the two cities, the metropolitan street children +being subjected to far greater nervous strain +because of the more congested population and +heavier street traffic.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + +<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo), 1910-1911"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo)</span>, 1910-1911</caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w875" span="8" /> + <col class="w5" span="2" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th class="noline"> </th> + <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th> + <th class="noline" colspan="2"> </th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2"> </th> + <th>First</th> + <th> Second</th> + <th> Third</th> + <th> Fourth</th> + <th> Fifth</th> + <th> Sixth</th> + <th> Seventh</th> + <th> Eighth</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Total</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 8-9</th> + <th> Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 10-11</th> + <th> Normal Age 11-12</th> + <th> Normal Age 12-13</th> + <th> Normal Age 13-14</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td> + <td class="bl right"> 325</td> + <td class="bl right"> 449</td> + <td class="bl right"> 500</td> + <td class="bl right"> 483</td> + <td class="bl right"> 528</td> + <td class="bl right"> 507</td> + <td class="bl right"> 366</td> + <td class="bl right"> 209</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3,367</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 53.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td> + <td class="bl right"> 91</td> + <td class="bl right"> 170</td> + <td class="bl right"> 215</td> + <td class="bl right"> 346</td> + <td class="bl right"> 384</td> + <td class="bl right"> 324</td> + <td class="bl right"> 194</td> + <td class="bl right"> 72</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1,796</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 28.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td> + <td class="bl right"> 33</td> + <td class="bl right"> 53</td> + <td class="bl right"> 101</td> + <td class="bl right"> 152</td> + <td class="bl right"> 219</td> + <td class="bl right"> 119</td> + <td class="bl right"> 33</td> + <td class="bl right"> 17</td> + <td class="bl right"> 727</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 11.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more years</td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl right"> 42</td> + <td class="bl right"> 74</td> + <td class="bl right"> 131</td> + <td class="bl right"> 105</td> + <td class="bl right"> 19</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 395</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 6.2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td> + <td class="bl right"> 465</td> + <td class="bl right"> 714</td> + <td class="bl right"> 890</td> + <td class="bl right">1112</td> + <td class="bl right">1236</td> + <td class="bl right"> 969</td> + <td class="bl right"> 596</td> + <td class="bl right"> 303</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6,285</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment each grade</td> + <td class="bl right">3114</td> + <td class="bl right">2680</td> + <td class="bl right">2548</td> + <td class="bl right">2400</td> + <td class="bl right">2209</td> + <td class="bl right">1856</td> + <td class="bl right">1284</td> + <td class="bl right"> 901</td> + <td class="bl right">16,992</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent each grade</td> + <td class="bl bb right">14.9</td> + <td class="bl bb right">26.6</td> + <td class="bl bb right">34.8</td> + <td class="bl bb right">46.3</td> + <td class="bl bb right">55.9</td> + <td class="bl bb right">52.2</td> + <td class="bl bb right">46.4</td> + <td class="bl bb right">33.6</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 36.9</td> + <td class="bl br bb right"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October, 1911"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October</span>, 1911<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w875" span="8" /> + <col class="w5" span="2" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th class="noline"> </th> + <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th> + <th class="noline" colspan="2"> </th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2"> </th> + <th>First</th> + <th> Second</th> + <th> Third</th> + <th> Fourth</th> + <th> Fifth</th> + <th> Sixth</th> + <th> Seventh</th> + <th> Eighth</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Total</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 8-9</th> + <th> Normal Age 7-8</th> + <th> Normal Age 10-11</th> + <th> Normal Age 11-12</th> + <th> Normal Age 12-13</th> + <th> Normal Age 13-14</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 22</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 81</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 51.6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"> 34</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 21.7</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"> 27</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 17.2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more</td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"></td> + <td class="bl right"> 15</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 9.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 15</td> + <td class="bl right"> 37</td> + <td class="bl right"> 31</td> + <td class="bl right"> 26</td> + <td class="bl right"> 23</td> + <td class="bl right"> 13</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 157</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment street workers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 23</td> + <td class="bl right"> 34</td> + <td class="bl right"> 51</td> + <td class="bl right"> 58</td> + <td class="bl right"> 44</td> + <td class="bl right"> 37</td> + <td class="bl right"> 25</td> + <td class="bl right"> 15</td> + <td class="bl right"> 287</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent</td> + <td class="bl bb right">39.1</td> + <td class="bl bb right">44.1</td> + <td class="bl bb right">72.5</td> + <td class="bl bb right">53.4</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 59</td> + <td class="bl bb right">62.1</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 52</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 20</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 54.7</td> + <td class="bl bb br right"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>A comparison between the table given in the +report of the Toledo Board of Education for +1911 showing the total number of retarded children +in the elementary schools, and a similar +table compiled from the figures for the street-trading +children in four Toledo schools given +on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, is most significant. The +retardation among the total number of pupils +enrolled is to be found on page <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> + +<p>The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading +children in the four schools are to be +found on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> + +<p>It is especially noteworthy that the percentage +of retardation among the street workers is +very much greater than among the total number +of pupils, in every grade except the eighth, +while for all the grades it is 17.8 per cent greater. +This becomes all the more significant when it is +remembered that the figures for the total enrollment +include the street workers; hence the +excess of retardation among the latter makes +the showing of the former worse than if they +were excluded, and consequently the comparison +on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a> does not appear to be as unfavorable +to the street workers as it is in reality.</p> + +<p>On consideration of the figures in the tables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, the conclusion is inevitable +that street work greatly promotes the +retardation of school children. There are, of +course, other factors which contribute to bring +about this condition of backwardness, such as +poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but +there can be no doubt that the evil effects of +street work are in large measure responsible for +the poor showing made in the schools by the +children who follow such occupations.</p> + +<p>The many quotations in this chapter from +authoritative sources with reference to the harmful +effects of street work upon children constitute +a most severe indictment. Students of labor +conditions, specialists and official committees +bitterly denounce the practice of permitting +children to trade in city streets, and cite the +consequences of such neglect. Material, physical +and moral deterioration are strikingly apparent +in most children who have followed street careers +and been exposed to their bad environment for +any length of time. We have provided splendid +facilities for the correction of our delinquent +children through the medium of juvenile courts, +state reformatories and the probation system, +but surely it would be wise to provide at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +same time an ounce of prevention in addition +to this pound of cure. Social workers have +returned a true bill against street work by +children. What will the verdict of the people +be?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY</span></h2> + + +<p>The most convincing proof so far adduced to +show that delinquency is a common result of +street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile +Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> +being part of the Report on the Condition of +Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United +States, prepared under the direction of Dr. +Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner +of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in +1907 authorizing the study. The object of +this official inquiry into the subject of juvenile +delinquency was to discover what connection +exists between delinquency and occupation or +non-occupation, giving due consideration to +other factors such as the character of the child's +family, its home and environment. This study +is based upon the records of the juvenile courts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York, Boston, +Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing +cases of delinquency of children sixteen years of +age or younger coming before these courts during +the year 1907-1908. The total number +of delinquents included in the study is 4839, of +whom 2767 had at some time been employed +and 2072 had never been employed. The entire +number of offenses recorded for all the delinquents +was 8797, the working children being +responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent, +while the non-working children were responsible +for 3326 offenses, of 37.8 per cent. +This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed +by working children. The ages of the +children committing the offenses recorded, +ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report +adds, "When it is remembered that a majority, +and presumably a large majority, of all the children +between these ages are not working, this +preponderance of offenses among the workers +assumes impressive proportions."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> + +<p>With reference to the character of the offenses +it was found that the working children inclined +to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were +found to be far more numerous among the +workers than among the non-workers. Summing +up the results of the discussion to this +point the report says: "It is found that the +working children contribute to the ranks of +delinquency a slightly larger number and a +much larger proportion than do the non-workers, +that this excess appears in offenses of every +kind, whether trivial or serious, and among +recidivists even more markedly than among +first offenders."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>With reference to the connection between +recidivism and street work the report says: +"The proportion of recidivism is also large among +those who are working while attending school, +and the numbers here are very much larger +than one would wish to see. Some part of the +recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind +of occupations which a child can carry on while +attending school. Selling newspapers and blacking +shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy, +peddling and working about amusement resorts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +account for over two-thirds of these boys (478 +of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits). +These are all occupations in which the +chances of going wrong are numerous, involving +as they usually do night work, irregular hours, +dubious or actively harmful associations and +frequent temptations to dishonesty. In addition, +something may perhaps be attributed to +the overstrain due to the attempt to combine +school and work. When a child of 13, a bootblack, +is 'often on the street to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,' or when +a boy one year older works six hours daily +outside of school time, 'often at night,' as a +telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school +work is not the only thing which is likely to suffer +from the excessive strain upon the immature +strength, and from the character of his occupation."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> + +<p>While reflecting on the excess of working +children among the delinquents, one may be +inclined to attribute this to bad home influences; +but the report shows that only one-fifth of the +workers as opposed to nearly one-third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +non-workers come from distinctly bad homes, +while from fair and good homes the proportion +is approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent. +Consequently, the working child goes wrong more +frequently than the non-working child in spite +of his more favorable home surroundings.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> + +<p>Of the total number of delinquent boys, both +working and non-working, under twelve years +of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of +those twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent +were workers, and of those fourteen to sixteen +years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As +comparatively few children under twelve years +are at work, the fact that more than one-fifth +of the delinquent boys in this age group are +working children "becomes exceedingly significant." +Of all children twelve to thirteen +years of age, the great majority are not employed +because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing +in all the states studied except Maryland; +hence the larger proportion of working offenders +cannot be explained by the influences of age. +The increase of working delinquents above +fourteen years is to be expected, because so many +children go to work on reaching that age.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> + +<p>Remembering that the proportionate excess +of workers varies from two to nine times the +ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this +excess cannot be explained by a corresponding +excess of orphanage, foreign parentage, bad +home conditions or unfavorable age. As the +report says, "It seems rather difficult to escape +the conclusion that being at work has something +to do with their going wrong."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> + +<p>The strongest argument against street work +by children is to be found in the following table<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> +of occupations pursued by the largest number +of delinquents and giving the percentage of +total delinquents engaged in each.</p> + +<p>As the report says, the following classification +shows that the largest number of delinquent +boys were found in those occupations in which +the nature of the employment does not permit +of supervision—namely, newspaper selling, +errand running, delivery service and messenger +service. Boys engaged in these occupations, +together with bootblacks and peddlers, all work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +under conditions "which bring them into +continual temptations to dishonesty and to +other offenses."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> + + +<table class="lined w70" summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment"> + <colgroup> + <col class="w40" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w40" /> + <col class="w10" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th>Boys <br /> Industry or Occupation</th> + <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Boys</th> + <th> Girls <br /> Industry or Occupation</th> + <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Girls</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 21.83</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Domestic service:</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand boys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 17.80</td> + <td class="bl leftindent"> Servant in private house</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 32.18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Drivers and helpers, wagon</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7.30</td> + <td class="bl leftindent"> In hotel, restaurant or boarding house</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5.44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4.23</td> + <td class="bl leftindent"> Home workers</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 16.33</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers, telegraph</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2.59</td> + <td class="bl left" style="padding-left: 2.5em;"> Total in domestic service</td> + <td class="bl bt br right"> 53.95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 12.36</td> + </tr> +<tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.77</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Stores and markets</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5.44</td> + </tr> +<tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.71</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Clothing makers</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 4.95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Building trades</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.64</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Candy and confectionery</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 4.45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Theater</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.57</td> + <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Laundry</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1.98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Office boys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1.43</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Glass</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 1.30</td> + <td class="bl bb right"> </td> + <td class="bl br bb right"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The offenses with which the boys were charged +are divided in the report into sixteen classes. +The messenger service furnishes the largest +proportionate number of offenders charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +with "assault and battery" and "immoral +conduct"; the delivery service those charged +with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged +with "craps and gambling," "incorrigibility +and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny +and runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway." +The report calls attention to the greater tendency +of messengers to immorality, and remarks that +it is easy to see a connection between bootblacking +and the offenses in which bootblacks +lead. The report continues: "It is worthy +to note that neither the newsboys nor errand +boys, both following pursuits looked upon with +disfavor, are found as contributing a <i>leading</i> +proportion of any one offense. They seem to +maintain what might be called a high general +level of delinquency rather than to lead in any +particular direction, errand boys being found +in fourteen and newsboys in fifteen of the sixteen +separate offense groups."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p> + +<p>For the purpose of clearly defining the connection +between occupation and delinquency, and +determining whether the delinquency inheres<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +in the occupation or in the conditions under +which it is carried on, there were selected six +kinds of employments which are generally +looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe +for children, and a comparison was made of +conditions as to the parentage, home surroundings, +etc., prevailing among the workers in +these occupations, the working delinquents +generally, and the whole body of delinquents, +both working and non-working. Of the delinquent +boys under twelve years engaged in these +six groups of employments (delivery and errand +boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys, +street vendors, telegraph messengers and in +amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were +found to be newsboys and bootblacks. As +four-fifths of the working delinquents under +twelve years of age in all occupations are found +in these six groups, it is evident that this class +is largely responsible for the employment of +young boys, and "comparing these figures with +those for the working delinquents in all occupations +we find that 58.6 per cent, or nearly three-fifths +of all the working delinquents up to twelve, +come from among the newsboys."<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the +working delinquents had both parents living, +while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors +and telegraph messengers were found to be +more fortunate in this respect than the great +mass of working delinquents, even surpassing +the whole body of delinquents, working and +non-working. As the report says, "One so +frequently hears of the newsboy who has no +one but himself to look to that it is rather a +surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted +child appears among them only about half as +often relatively as among the whole group of +workers."<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> + +<p>Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys, +78.9 per cent were found to have fair or good +homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8 +per cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and +of the telegraph messengers 78.9 per cent, and +in this connection the report declares, "Certainly +the predominance of these selected occupations +among the employments of delinquents cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +be explained by the home conditions of the +children entering them."<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> + +<p>The findings with respect to the messenger +service fully corroborate the charges brought +against it by the National Child Labor Committee. +The report says: "Turning to the +messengers, it is seen that they are in every respect +above the average of favorable conditions. +Moreover, it is well known that boys taking +up this work must be bright and quick; there +is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak. +Plainly, then, in this case the occupation, not +the kind of children who enter it, must be +held responsible for its position among the +pursuits from which delinquents come ... +the chief charges brought against it are that +the irregular work and night employment tend +to break down health, that the opportunities +for overcharge and for appropriating packages +or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty, +and that the places to which the boy is sent +familiarize him with all forms of vice and tend +to lead him into immorality."<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Referring again +to the messenger service, the report says: +"The unfortunate effects of the inherent condi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>tions +of the work are, however, manifest. Its +irregularity, the lack of any supervision during +a considerable part of the time, the associations +of the street and of the places to which messengers +are sent, and the frequency of night work +with all its demoralizing features, afford an +explanation of the impatience of restraint, the +reckless yielding to impulse shown in the +large percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly +conduct. A glance at the main table shows +that the two offenses next in order are assault +and battery and malicious mischief, both of +which indicate the same traits. On the whole, +there seems abundant reason for considering +that the messenger service deserves its bad +name."<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p> + +<p>With reference to errand and delivery boys, +the report finds that as the level of favorable +conditions keeps so near to the average, it seems +necessary to attribute the number of delinquents +furnished by this class more to the conditions +of the work than to the kind of children +taking it up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> + +<p>The occupational influences of amusement +resorts, street vending and newspaper selling +"are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation +of the number of delinquents they furnish is +unquestionably in the kind of children who enter +them. It is a case of action and reaction. +These occupations are easily taken up by immature +children, with little or no education and +no preliminary training. Such children are +least likely to resist evil influences, most likely +to yield to all that is bad in their environment."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p> + +<p>Having shown that a connection can be traced +between certain occupations and the number +and kind of offenses committed by the children +working in them, the report next determines +to what extent a direct connection can be traced +between occupation and offense. If a working +child commits an offense, first, during working +hours, second, in some place to which his work +calls him, and third, against some person with +whom his work brings him in contact, a connection +may be said to exist between the misdemeanor +and the employment. The report +insists that either all three of the connection +elements must be present, or else the offense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +must be very clearly the outcome of conditions +related to the work, before a connection can be +asserted; and it reminds the reader that the +number of connection cases shown represents +an understatement, probably to a considerable +degree, of the real situation. The number of +boy delinquents in occupations which show more +than five cases of delinquency chargeable to +occupation was found to be 308; of these, 100 +were errand or delivery boys, 129 were newsboys, +16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors +and 10 were messengers.</p> + +<p>The number of boy delinquents working +at time of last offense and the number whose +offenses show a connection with the occupation +are compared, by occupation, in the following +table,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> p. 173.</p> + + +<table class="lined w60" summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relationship to Employment"> + <colgroup> + <col class="w40" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w10" /> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w20" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Occupation or Industry</th> + <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Boy Delinquents working at Time of Last Offense</th> + <th colspan="2"> Boy Delinquents whose Offenses show a Connection with Occupation</th></tr> + <tr> + <th>Number</th> + <th>Per Cent of <br />Boy Delinquents in <br />Occupation Working</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">In amusement resorts</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td> + <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 17.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Domestic service</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td> + <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></td> + <td class="bl right"> 14</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 28.0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Driver or helper</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 107</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 14.9</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand or delivery boys</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 261</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 100</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 38.3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel workers</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 27</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 25.9</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 38</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 26.3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys and bootblacks</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 346</td> + <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></td> + <td class="bl right"> 129</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 37.2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Street vendors</td> + <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td> + <td class="dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 13</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 52.0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td> + <td class="bl bb dcright"> 62</td> + <td class="bb dcleft"> </td> + <td class="bl bb right"> 12</td> + <td class="bl bb br right"> 19.3</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>"Among the errand and delivery boys the +percentage (of connection cases) is large and the +connection close. Larceny accounts for over +nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually +being from the employer when the boy was sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +out with goods, though in some cases it was +from the house to which the boy was sent. It +will be remembered that in respect to parental +and home condition, age, etc., the delinquent +errand boys came very close to the average, and +their antecedents gave no reason to expect they +would go wrong so numerously. That fact, +together with the large proportion of connection +cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is +distinctly a dangerous one morally."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p> + + +<p>As the various forms of immorality are practiced +in secret, the report truly says that the +evils which are most associated with a messenger's +life could hardly appear in these studies. +"A trace of them is found in the case of one boy +sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was +found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine, +having acquired the habit in the disreputable +houses to which his work took him. Perhaps +something of the same kind is indicated by the +fact that one of the few cases of drunkenness +occurring among working delinquents came, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +a connection case, from this small group of +messengers. For the most part, however, the +connection offenses (by messengers) were some +form of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels +sent out for delivery, though in some cases +collecting charges on prepaid packages was +added to this."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> + +<p>The newsboys almost equal the errand boys +in their percentage of connection cases, though +their offenses have a much wider range; in fact, +the connection cases for newsboys include a +greater variety of offenses than any other +occupation studied. Beggary appears for the +first time, there being two cases, in both of +which the selling of papers was a mere pretext, +enabling the boys to approach passers-by. +Street vendors were found to show the highest +percentage of connection cases, larceny being +the leading offense.</p> + +<p>The report concludes: "It is a striking fact +that in spite of the incompleteness of the data, +a direct connection between the occupation and +the offense has been found to exist in the cases +of practically one-fourth of the boys employed +at the time of their latest offense. It is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +a striking fact that while the delinquent boys +working at the time of their latest offense +were scattered through more than fifty occupations, +over six-sevenths of the connection +cases are found among those working in street +occupations, and that more than three-fifths +come from two groups of workers—the errand +or delivery boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks. +It is also significant that the connection +cases form so large a percentage of the total +cases among the street traders, the messengers, +and the errand or delivery boys, their proportion +ranging from over one-fourth to over +one-half, according to the occupation."<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> + +<p>In considering the effect of night work upon +the morals of children, the report says, "The +messengers and newsboys show both large numbers +and large percentages of night work, thus +giving additional ground for the general opinion +as to the undesirable character of their work"; +and again, "In the following occupations the +cases of night work are more numerous than they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +should be in proportion to the number ever +employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling +alley and pool room, glass, hotel, messengers, +newsboys and theaters and other amusement +resorts."<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> + +<p>More than one-fourth of the working boy +delinquents were found to be attending day +school. More than half of these pupils were +newsboys and bootblacks. It was found that +the more youthful the worker, the stronger is +his tendency toward irregular attendance at +school.</p> + +<p>Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting +eleven or more hours per day to work, and of +these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were +hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and +2 were newsboys or bootblacks.</p> + +<p>"For both sexes, the workers show a greater +tendency than the non-workers to go wrong, +even where home and neighborhood surroundings +appear favorable, but this tendency is not so +marked among the girls as among the boys."<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> + +<p>This report of the government investigation +furnishes most conclusive evidence as to the +evil character of street trading in general. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +bears out the description so aptly made by a +recent writer: "The streets are the proverbial +schools of vice and crime. If the factory is the +Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> + +<p>Another American writer has lately declared: +"A prolific cause of juvenile delinquency is the +influence of the street trades on the working +boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing +consequences.... These boys are +brought into the juvenile court, and their misdemeanors +are often so great that reformatory +treatment is necessary for them. Accordingly +they represent a large proportion of the boys in +the different institutions. The demoralization +produced by the street trades affects others +than those engaged in such trades, but the latter +are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance +of legislation which will shut off this source of +infection."<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>A Chicago physician took occasion to look +into the records of the juvenile court of that +city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys +and 25 girls examined that year were representa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>tive +of the 2500 delinquents brought into the +court during the preceding year. Not less +than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street +work—43 as newsboys, 12 as errand boys and +messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out +of the entire number had never been employed. +Sixty of them were physically subnormal; the +general physical condition of the girls was +found to be much better than that of the boys +of the same age, although 40 per cent of the +girls were suffering from acquired venereal +disease.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys +confined in the Indiana state reformatory, +which is known as the Indiana Boys' School, +at Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per +cent, had formerly been engaged in street work. +To determine the relative delinquency of street +workers and boys who have never pursued such +occupations, it would be necessary to compare +these 219 delinquents with the total number of +street workers in Indiana and also to compare +the total number of inmates who had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +followed street occupations with the total +number of boys within the same age limits in +Indiana. A comparison of the two percentages +would be illuminating, but is impossible because +it is not known how many street workers there +are in the state. However, it is safe to assume +that the number of street-working boys in +Indiana is much less than one third of the total +number of boys. If we accept this as true, then +the figures indicate that street work promotes +delinquency, because one third of all the delinquents +in the state reformatory had been so +engaged. The frequent assertion that, merely +because a large percentage of the inmates of +correctional institutions were at some time +engaged in street work, such employment is +therefore responsible for their delinquency, cannot +be accepted alone as proof of the injurious +character of this class of occupations, as it is +not known how long each offender was engaged +in such work, nor are the other causes contributing +to the delinquency of each boy properly +considered or even known. This defect is +avoided in the government's Report on Juvenile +Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, +which, with reference to the common practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +of jumping at conclusions in this way, says, +"This appears to show that selling newspapers +is a morally dangerous occupation, but the +danger cannot be measured, since it is not known +what proportion of the working children are +newsboys, or what proportion of the newsboys +never come to grief."<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The following tables +are of interest as showing in detail the facts as +to Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who +are confined in the state reformatory:—</p> + +<h3 class="smcap">Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</h3> + +<table class="lined" summary="Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations"> +<caption><i><a name="tablea" id="tablea">Table A. </a>Distribution among Street Occupations</i></caption> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th> + <th colspan="2"> Messengers</th> + <th rowspan="2">Newsboys</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Bootblacks</th> + <th rowspan="2">Peddlers</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Delivery Boys</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Cab Driver</th> + <th rowspan="2">Total</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc"> Day</th> + <th class="nosc">Night</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 22</td> + <td class="bl right"> 88</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 125</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 30</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 40</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 27</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 4</td> + <td class="ball right"> 36</td> + <td class="ball right"> 156</td> + <td class="ball right"> 5</td> + <td class="ball right"> 12</td> + <td class="ball right"> 5</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 219</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations"> +<caption><i><a name="tableb" id="tableb">Table B.</a> Ages when at Work at these Occupations</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w2125" /> + <col class="w875" span="9" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th> </th> + <th>Under 10</th> + <th> 10</th> + <th> 11</th> + <th> 12</th> + <th> 13</th> + <th> 14</th> + <th> 15</th> + <th> 16</th> + <th> Totals</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 4</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 12</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 29</td> + <td class="bl right"> 29</td> + <td class="bl right"> 28</td> + <td class="bl right"> 36</td> + <td class="bl right"> 19</td> + <td class="bl right"> 14</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 156</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab drivers</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 34</td> + <td class="ball right"> 37</td> + <td class="ball right"> 31</td> + <td class="ball right"> 45</td> + <td class="ball right"> 38</td> + <td class="ball right"> 28</td> + <td class="ball right"> 4</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 219</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_C" id="Table_C">Table C.</a> Ages at Time of Commitment</i></caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w45" /> + <col class="w5" span="11" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th> Committed for</th> + <th> Under 9</th> + <th> 9</th> + <th> 10</th> + <th> 11</th> + <th> 12</th> + <th> 13</th> + <th> 14</th> + <th> 15</th> + <th> 16</th> + <th> 17</th> + <th> Total</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl right"> 16</td> + <td class="bl right"> 24</td> + <td class="bl right"> 28</td> + <td class="bl right"> 19</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 125</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 40</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 5</td> + <td class="ball right"> 15</td> + <td class="ball right"> 26</td> + <td class="ball right"> 26</td> + <td class="ball right"> 40</td> + <td class="ball right"> 52</td> + <td class="ball right"> 33</td> + <td class="ball right"> 19</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 219</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_D" id="Table_D">Table D.</a> Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></caption> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Occupations</th> + <th rowspan="2"> American</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th> + <th rowspan="2"> German</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> French</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Scotch</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th> + <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th> + <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc"> Yes</th> + <th class="nosc"> No</th> + <th class="nosc"> Yes</th> + <th class="nosc"> No</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 25</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 30</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 30</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 69</td> + <td class="bl right"> 59</td> + <td class="bl right"> 13</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 107</td> + <td class="bl right"> 49</td> + <td class="bl right"> 119</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 110</td> + <td class="ball right"> 70</td> + <td class="ball right"> 17</td> + <td class="ball right"> 10</td> + <td class="ball right"> 6</td> + <td class="ball right"> 3</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 157</td> + <td class="ball right"> 62</td> + <td class="ball right"> 174</td> + <td class="ball right"> 45</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_E" id="Table_E">Table E.</a> Hours and Earnings of Street Workers</i> <br /> (In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116 cases.)</caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w20" /> + <col class="w5" span="7" /> + <col class="w10" span="4" /> + <col class="w5" /> + </colgroup> + + <tr> + <th rowspan="3"> Occupations</th> + <th colspan="7"> Hours</th> + <th colspan="5" rowspan="2" class="blstrong"> Daily Earnings</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc" colspan="3"> Day</th> + <th class="nosc blstrong" colspan="4"> Night</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc"> All</th> + <th class="nosc"> Morning</th> + <th class="nosc"> Afternoon</th> + <th class="nosc blstrong"> All</th> + <th class="nosc"> Before midnight</th> + <th class="nosc"> After midnight</th> + <th class="nosc blstrong"> Totals</th> + <th class="nosc blstrong"> Under 50 cents</th> + <th class="nosc"> 50-75 cents</th> + <th class="nosc"> 75 cents-$1.00</th> + <th class="nosc"> $1.25-$1.50</th> + <th class="nosc"> Totals</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 3</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 9</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 29</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 56</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 47</td> + <td class="bl right"> 23</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 78</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 4</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 12</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td> + <td class="blstrong right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 53</td> + <td class="ball right"> 10</td> + <td class="ball right"> 11</td> + <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 7</td> + <td class="ball right"> 8</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 91</td> + <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 55</td> + <td class="ball right"> 41</td> + <td class="ball right"> 16</td> + <td class="ball right"> 4</td> + <td class="ball right"> 116</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="lined" summary="Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_F" id="Table_F">Table F.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th> + <th rowspan="2"> American</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th> + <th rowspan="2"> German</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> English</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Swedish</th> + <th rowspan="2"> French</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Mexican</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Hungarian</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th> + <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th> + <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class="nosc">Yes</th> + <th class="nosc"> No</th> + <th class="nosc"> Yes</th> + <th class="nosc"> No</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td> + <td class="bl right">156</td> + <td class="bl right"> 40</td> + <td class="bl right"> 12</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right">234</td> + <td class="bl right"> 168</td> + <td class="bl right"> 66</td> + <td class="bl right"> 182</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 52</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td> + <td class="bl right"> 66</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 86</td> + <td class="bl right"> 62</td> + <td class="bl right"> 24</td> + <td class="bl right"> 62</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 24</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility </td> + <td class="bl right"> 53</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 75</td> + <td class="bl right"> 44</td> + <td class="bl right"> 31</td> + <td class="bl right"> 50</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 6</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td> + <td class="bl right"> 11</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 19</td> + <td class="bl right"> 15</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 17</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td> + <td class="ball right">293</td> + <td class="ball right"> 65</td> + <td class="ball right"> 23</td> + <td class="ball right"> 17</td> + <td class="ball right"> 16</td> + <td class="ball right"> 5</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 1</td> + <td class="ball right">428</td> + <td class="ball right"> 298</td> + <td class="ball right"> 130</td> + <td class="ball right"> 323</td> + <td class="ball right"> 105</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_G" id="Table_G">Table G.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption> + <colgroup> + <col class="w40" /> + <col class="w5" span="12" /> + </colgroup> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2"> Committed for</th> + <th colspan="11"> Ages at Commitment</th> + <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th> Under 9</th> + <th> 9</th> + <th> 10</th> + <th> 11</th> + <th> 12</th> + <th> 13</th> + <th> 14</th> + <th> 15</th> + <th> 16</th> + <th> 17</th> + <th> Over 17</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 20</td> + <td class="bl right"> 25</td> + <td class="bl right"> 33</td> + <td class="bl right"> 46</td> + <td class="bl right"> 47</td> + <td class="bl right"> 28</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 234</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 17</td> + <td class="bl right"> 14</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 86</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 7</td> + <td class="bl right"> 4</td> + <td class="bl right"> 9</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 10</td> + <td class="bl right"> 14</td> + <td class="bl right"> 8</td> + <td class="bl right"> 12</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl br right"> 6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 2</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 1</td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl right"> 3</td> + <td class="bl right"> </td> + <td class="bl br right"> 19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td> + <td class="ball right"> 19</td> + <td class="ball right"> 27</td> + <td class="ball right"> 27</td> + <td class="ball right"> 44</td> + <td class="ball right"> 51</td> + <td class="ball right"> 61</td> + <td class="ball right"> 73</td> + <td class="ball right"> 66</td> + <td class="ball right"> 44</td> + <td class="ball right"> 14</td> + <td class="ball right"> 2</td> + <td class="ball right"> 428</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<table class="lined" summary="Table H. Behavior in Institution"> +<caption><i><a name="Table_H" id="Table_H">Table H.</a> Behavior in Institution</i></caption> + <tr> + <th> </th> + <th colspan="3"> Street Workers</th> + <th colspan="3"> Non-Street Workers</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">Good</td> + <td class="bl right"> 39</td> + <td class="dcright">or</td> + <td class="right"> 18%</td> + <td class="bl right"> 95 </td> + <td class="dcright">or</td> + <td class="br right"> 22%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">Average</td> + <td class="bl right"> 175 </td> + <td class="dcright">or</td> + <td class="right">80%</td> + <td class="bl right"> 321 </td> + <td class="dcright">or </td> + <td class="br right">75%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl left">Bad</td> + <td class="bl right"> 5</td> + <td class="dcright"> or</td> + <td class="right"> 2%</td> + <td class="bl right"> 12</td> + <td class="dcright"> or</td> + <td class="br right"> 3%</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball left"> Totals</td> + <td class="bl bt bb right"> 219</td> + <td colspan="2" class="bt bb right"> </td> + <td class="bl bt bb right"> 428</td> + <td colspan="2" class="bt bb br right"> </td> </tr> +</table> + +<p>By far the largest number of street-working +delinquents had been newsboys, these being +followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks +and delivery boys in the order given. From +a hasty glance at these tables one might conclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +that street workers are not so liable to become +delinquent as those who never follow street +occupations, because of the smaller number of +the former; but it should be remembered that +the ratio of street-working inmates to the entire +number of street-working boys in Indiana is +much greater than the ratio of the other inmates +to the whole body of non-street-working children +in the state.</p> + +<p>In comparing Tables <a href="#Table_C">C</a> and <a href="#Table_G">G</a> it is seen that +the street workers and the non-street workers +were committed for practically the same offenses, +and that their distribution according to offense +does not vary widely. It is significant that a +much smaller proportion of the street workers +were committed to the institution under the +age of ten years, than of the non-street workers, +indicating that street occupations (which are +not usually entered upon before the age of ten +years), if followed for a year or two, contribute +largely to the promotion of delinquency.</p> + +<p>From a comparison of Tables <a href="#Table_D">D</a> and <a href="#Table_F">F</a> it will +be observed that the prevalence of delinquency +among the street workers cannot be explained +on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent +were fatherless and 21 per cent motherless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +while of the non-street workers 30 per cent +were fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless. +This indicates (1) that street work in the great +majority of cases is not made necessary by orphanage, +and (2) that street work causes delinquency +in spite of good home conditions so far as the +presence of both parents contributes to the +making of a good home. Furthermore, it will +be noted in Table <a href="#Table_E">E</a> that nearly half of the children +for whom figures on income could be obtained +earned less than fifty cents per day—a +small return on the heavy investment in the +risk of health and character.</p> + +<p>The difference in behavior at the institution +between the street workers and the others is +shown in Table <a href="#Table_H">H</a> to be almost negligible, the +latter making a slightly better showing.</p> + +<p>An English writer says: "There is no difficulty +in understanding how street trading and newspaper +selling lead to gambling. We are told +by those who are best able to judge, that of +the young thieves and prostitutes in the city +of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street +hawkers. For the younger boys and girls +such an occupation, especially at night, turns +the streets into nurseries of crime. The news<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>paper +sellers are not exposed to quite the same +dangers, but they are nearly all gamblers. +They gamble on anything and everything, from +the horse races reported hour by hour in the +papers they sell, to the numbers on the passing +cabs, and they end by gambling with their +lives."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED +STATES +</span></h2> + +<p>The economic activities of children in city +streets, commonly called street trades, are not +specifically covered by the provisions of child +labor laws except in the District of Columbia +and the states of Massachusetts, Missouri, +New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, +New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of +many other states as well as of those mentioned, +however, prohibit children under fourteen years +of age from being employed or permitted to +work in the distribution or transmission of +merchandise or messages. If newspapers are +merchandise, then children under fourteen years +would not be allowed to deliver newspapers under +the provision just stated. This raises a nice +question as to what is included in the term +"merchandise." That there is any distinction +between newspapers and merchandise is prac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>tically +denied by the street-trades laws of Utah +and New Hampshire which provide that children +under certain ages shall not sell "newspapers, +magazines, periodicals or <i>other</i> merchandise +in any street or public place"; the question of +delivery, however, is left open by these laws. +The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, +in the case of District of Columbia +<i>vs.</i> Reider, sustained the juvenile court of the +District in its decision that newspapers are not +merchandise and consequently that children +under fourteen years of age engaged in delivering +newspapers are not affected by the law.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> +The judge of the trial court stated in his opinion, +"No one will seriously contend that the nature +of the employment in the case at bar is at all +harmful to the child." The case at bar was +the prosecution of a route agent for a morning +newspaper on account of having employed a +minor under fourteen years of age to deliver +newspapers. This opinion is typical of the +misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed +upon these young "merchants" of the street. +In the case cited, the court permitted itself to +be drawn aside into an interpretation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +letter of the law instead of viewing the matter +in the light of its spirit. The purpose of such +a law is to <i>prevent the labor</i> of children, not to +distinguish between closely related forms of +labor. Its object is to afford protection, not +to provoke discussion of purely technical points. +The <i>labor</i> of delivering merchandise does not +differ in any respect from the <i>labor</i> of delivering +newspapers (the possibly greater weight of +merchandise does not alter the case, inasmuch as +it is usually carried about in wagons); and as +the child labor law of the District of Columbia +forbids the delivery of merchandise by children +under fourteen years at any time, it follows that +the delivery of newspapers by such children +should not be allowed, because the intent of +the law is to protect them from the probable +consequences of such work. Moreover, the +District of Columbia law prohibits children +under sixteen years from delivering merchandise +before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under +the interpretation given by the juvenile court, +it is perfectly proper for a child even under the +age of <i>fourteen</i> years to perform the <i>labor</i> of +delivery before that hour, provided he handles +newspapers instead of packages. The incon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>sistency +of this is only too apparent. The spirit +of the law is lost sight of in the close interpretation +of its wording. This is one of the obstacles +always encountered in the movement for child +labor reform after prohibitory legislation has +been enacted.</p> + +<p>American legislation on street trading still +clings persistently and pathetically to the theory +that uncontrolled labor is much better for +children than labor under the supervision of +adults, and consequently authorizes very young +children to do certain kinds of work in the +streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding +them to work at other street occupations +even under the control of older and more +experienced persons. This official incongruity +must ultimately be rescinded and replaced by +more rational and comprehensive legislation. +The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on +the ground that the child is an independent +"merchant" in the one case and an employee +in the other, must also be abandoned in favor +of a more enlightened policy.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Present Laws and Ordinances</h3> + +<p>The following table shows all the laws and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +ordinances governing street trading by children +in existence in the United States in 1911.</p> + +<p>The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance +in 1877 which forbids newsboys and +bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets +without a permit from the mayor. No age +limit is fixed, no distinction is made between +the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants +for the permit are customarily referred +to the chief truant officer for approval, and as +a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten +years of age or to girls. An annual license fee +of ten cents is charged, and the license holder +is supplied with a numbered badge which must +be worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest +weakness, this ordinance is of little avail.</p> + +<p>It will be observed from the following table +that the common age limit for boys in street +trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect +on the import of this, it is hard to realize that +intelligent American communities actually tolerate +such an absurdly meager restriction; yet +the movement for reform has progressed even +this far in only a very small part of the country—in +most places there is no restriction whatever! +Some day, and that not in the very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +remote future, we shall look back upon the +authorized exploitation of the present period +with the same degree of incredulity with which +we now regard the horrors of child labor in +England during the early part of the nineteenth +century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> + + + +<table class="lined" summary="State Laws"> +<caption><span class="smcap">State Laws</span></caption> + <tr> + <th>States</th> + <th> Age Limit</th> + <th> Licenses</th> + <th> Hours</th> + <th> Enforcement</th> + <th> Penalties</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Colorado, 1911</td> + <td class="ball">Girls, 10; any work in streets</td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td> + <td class="ball">$5-$100 fine for first offense, $100-$200 fine or imprisonment 90 days for 2d offense for employers. $5-$25 fine for parents</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">District of Columbia, 1908</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; Girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10-15</td> + <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td> + <td class="ball">Left to discretion of juvenile court</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Missouri, 1911</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; selling anything</td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td> + <td class="ball">Max. fine $100 or max. imprisonment one year, for child</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Nevada, 1911</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Child dealt with as delinquent</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">New Hampshire, 1911</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications or other mdse. Boys, 10; girls, 10; bootblacking</td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Factory inspectors; truant officers</td> + <td class="ball">$5-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">New York, 1903</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td> + <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td> + <td class="ball">Dealt with according to law</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Oklahoma, 1909</td> + <td class="ball">Girls, 16; publications</td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Commissioner of Labor</td> + <td class="ball">$10-$50 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days for child</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="ball">Utah, 1911, 1st & 2d class cities</td> + <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12; girls 16; publications or other mdse. </td> + <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12-15 </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="ball">Not after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td rowspan="2" class="ball"> </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="ball">$25-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bl br bb">Boys, 12; girls, 12; bootblacking</td> + <td class="bl br bb">Boys, 12-15 <br /> Girls 12-15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Wisconsin, 1909, as amended 1911, 1st class cities</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 12; girls, 18; publications. Boys, 14; girls, 18, all others</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 12-15</td> + <td class="ball">5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter <br />7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer; publications</td> + <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td> + <td class="ball">$25-$100 fine or imprisonment 10-60 days for parents permitting, and others employing, child under 16 to peddle without permit. Same for newspapers allowing boys under 16 about office between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on school days</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Massachusetts, 1902 as amended, 1910</td> + <td colspan="4" class="ball">Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make regulations of bootblacking and sale of newspapers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such sale or trades; or may require license to be obtained from them. School committees in cities have these powers as to children under 14 years.</td> + <td class="ball">Max. fine $10 for child; max. fine $200 or max. imprisonment 6 months for parent allowing, person employing, or any one furnishing articles to, a child to sell</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<table class="lined" summary="City Ordinances"> +<caption><span class="smcap">City Ordinances</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></caption> + <tr> + <th>Cities</th> + <th>Age Limit</th> + <th>Licenses</th> + <th>Hours</th> + <th>Enforcement</th> + <th>Penalties</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Boston, 1902, by school committee</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 11; girls, 14; bootblacking, selling anything</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 11-13</td> + <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter <br />9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer</td> + <td class="ball">Supervisor of licensed minors, police and truant officers</td> + <td class="ball">Revocation of license and fine as stated for Massachusetts</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Cincinnati, 1909</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td> + <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td class="ball">Police, truant and probation officers</td> + <td class="ball">Fine $1-$5 for child</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Hartford, 1910</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 Girls, 10-13</td> + <td class="ball">Not during school hours or after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td class="ball"> </td> + <td class="ball">Revocation of license by school superintendent</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ball">Newark, 1904</td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; newspapers </td> + <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 </td> + <td class="ball">Not between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> nor after 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td> + <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td> + <td class="ball">Child placed on probation or committed to Newark City Home at expense of parent</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of +street trading most of the communities which +have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject +provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and +in some cases also to girls, in the belief that in +this way the work of the children can best be +brought under some degree of control. However, +this is merely temporizing, although it +affords an opportunity to gather facts and +undoubtedly marks a step toward a better +solution of the problem. This is brought out +clearly by a recent British report on street +trading: "Our general impression, gathered in +towns in which by-laws had been made, was +that, though in exceptional cases much good +had resulted from their adoption, on the whole +this method of dealing with what we have +come to consider an unquestionable evil, has +not proved adequate or satisfactory. In many +instances it has been pointed out to us that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +system of licensing and badging is but a method +of legalizing what is indisputably an evil, and +that a set of by-laws, however rigorously enforced, +can at best only modify the difficulties +of the position."<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> + +<p>The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive +to the menace of the situation, bewail the lack +of protection for street workers in the following +words: "The child labor law and the compulsory +school law and the juvenile court law form +the body of protective legislation which has +been developing in behalf of the children of +Illinois during the past twenty years. By none +of the three, however, except in so far as street +trading by a child under ten is counted an element +in dependency, is the street-trading child +safeguarded against parental neglect or greed, +the vicious sights and sounds of the city street +and the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Opposition to Regulation</h3> + +<p>The opposition to bringing the street trades +under some degree of restriction has come, as +might be expected, from very interested sources. +In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured +prominently in the movement to prevent the +passage of the street-trades measure introduced +in the legislature of that state at its session of +1911. This has not always been the case, however, +as the circulation managers of the five +leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote +letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring +the passage of that section of the child labor +bill of 1911, which provided that boys under +ten years and girls under sixteen years should +not sell anything in any street or public place +within the state. This provision was enacted +into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational +age limit of sixteen years for boys had been +advocated instead of ten years, the newspapers +would have been most active in opposing this +section. In Cincinnati the circulation managers +of the newspapers most affected by the street-trades +ordinance passed by the City Council +in 1909 agreed to its provisions before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +measure was submitted to the Council, and +consequently it passed without opposition.</p> + +<p>In New Haven and Hartford repeated +attempts have been made to secure regulation +of street trading by means of city ordinances, +and at two sessions of the state legislature bills +have been introduced which provided for such +restriction, but all these efforts have been persistently +fought by a leading newspaper of +Hartford in which city it has always been customary +to have girls as well as boys selling +newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city +ordinance was passed in Hartford providing +that boys and girls under ten years should be +prohibited from trading in the streets and that +between the ages of ten and fourteen years +they should be licensed and not allowed to sell +after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> The newsgirls were not banished +from the street because it was held that they +were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and +that so long as it could not be proved that they +were <i>demoralized</i> by the work, they should be +permitted to go on with it. In other words, +the city clings to the fine old American policy +of delaying action until some calamity makes +it necessary.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> + +<p>The objections offered by interested parties +to the by-laws drafted by the London County +Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the +law of self preservation operates in England as +in other quarters of the Earth. News agents, +employing little boys to deliver newspapers, +declared that conditions were not bad; that the +work was healthful; that the wages were a great +help to poor parents; that they could not +afford to employ older boys; that the lads +should be allowed to begin at 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and work +not more than ten hours a day outside of school +with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five +hours; that to prohibit the delivery of newspapers +before 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and after 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> would be +a great injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't +stay in bed even if 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> were fixed as the hour +for beginning work; that such work does not +interfere with schooling; that the boys are well +looked after; in short, that the by-laws would +ruin them and bring starvation to the children. +One news agent in declaiming against the hours +fixed for the delivery of newspapers, insisted +that the restriction would throw boys out of +employment and send them to trade in the streets +with their undesirable associations, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +unmindful of the fact that delivery boys themselves +worked in that environment. The dairymen +were horrified at the limit placed on hours, +urging that the little boys in their employ +should begin to deliver milk at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as early +work was beneficial and the wages useful to +poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced the by-laws +as too drastic, because they would prevent +such light work as errand running at noon and +casual employment in the evening after 7, +resulting in hardship to both parents and children; +one acknowledged that if he were prevented +from employing cheap labor his business +would suffer; another said that he employed +a boy at noon and also from 5.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, +the work being light and the parents satisfied, +and that the training was good for boys. A +fruiterer actually declared that the limit of +eight hours on Saturday would make a boy +valueless to him; another said he employed a +boy for one hour in the morning, from 6 to 9 +in the evening, and also on Saturday morning +and evening, in running errands, and that the +work was not heavy; another employed boys +after school from 6 to 9.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, insisting that +the work was good for them, as it kept them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +the street and gave them an insight into business +habits.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It should be remembered that all +this work was performed by the children in +addition to attending school both morning and +afternoon.</p> + +<p>The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental +Committee of 1901 by the secretary +of an association representing many thousand +retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if +it were not so sinister. He presented the subject +of child labor in a most favorable aspect, +declaring that the wages were needed on account +of poverty in the families; that the work was +light and had a <i>very beneficial</i> effect on health +because it was done in the open air; that +good meals were given in addition to cash wages +and were <i>very beneficial</i>; that the effect on the +boys' character was <i>very beneficial</i>, as the work +cultivated businesslike habits and kept the +boys from running the streets, frequently +affording promotion to the higher grades of +shopkeeping.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Another British Committee, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>vestigating +conditions in Ireland, reported, +"We found but one witness (a newspaper +manager of Belfast) to testify that the present +conditions of selling papers in the street were +satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that +instead of tending to demoralize, they have the +opposite effect."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work</h3> + +<p>As to the control of street trading by children +there are two methods by which the desired +end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement +as to self-imposed restrictions among the +managers of all the business interests in connection +with which children work on the streets. +This method, however, can be dismissed from +consideration at once on account of its impracticability. +Street work embraces many different +kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager +is the competitor of all others in the same line +of business and is free to adopt such lawful +means of placing his wares on the market as +he sees fit, it would be clearly impossible to +force any one into such an agreement against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter +the field at any time who would not be bound +by the agreement of the others, and consequently +this would soon be broken by the force of competition +following the intrusion of these new +parties.</p> + +<p>Second, regulation by constituted legislative +authority. This is the more feasible method, +and such regulation may be obtained from either +of two sources—the municipality or the state. +There is a question as to which of the two is +the better for the purpose. Regulation by the +state has the advantage of making the provisions +apply uniformly to all cities within its +borders and is obtained by no more effort than +is required to get an ordinance through the +Council of a single municipality. On the other +hand, the municipal ordinance has the advantage +of being secured by residents of the community +who are intelligently concerned in the local +problem and who will therefore take an active +interest in having its provisions enforced. +However, the good features of both these +methods are united in the English plan, a modification +of which has been adopted by Massachusetts. +According to this plan the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +fixes a minimum amount of restriction and +authorizes local authorities, including boards of +education, to increase the scope of restriction, +and provides penalties for violation of the same.</p> + +<p>As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative +measure would prohibit boys under +ten and girls under sixteen years from selling +anything at any time in the streets or public +places of cities, while the age limit for boys is +raised to fourteen years for night work. The +issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen +years of age who wish to engage in street trading +is the usual accompaniment of such restriction, +and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be +made of some assistance to truant and probation +officers in their efforts to enforce the compulsory +education and delinquency laws. The +age limit for boys has been advanced to eleven +years by the School Committee of Boston, and +to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years +for other street workers by the state of Wisconsin. +But all efforts to secure such regulation should +be based upon the principle that street trading +is an undesirable form of labor for children, and +consequently should be subject to at least the +same restrictions as other forms of child labor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Probable Course of Regulation in Future</h3> + +<p>American child labor laws usually contain +a provision to the effect that no child under +sixteen years shall engage in any employment +that may be considered dangerous to its life +or limb or where its health may be injured or +morals depraved. This is sonorous, but ineffective,—the +particular kinds of improper +work should be specified. In this list of undesirable +forms of labor, street work should be +included. Great Britain has had far more +experience in the matter of regulating the +work of children than any state of this country, +and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental +committee of 1910 has emphatically +declared that street trading by boys under +seventeen and girls under eighteen years should +be absolutely prohibited. This should be our +ideal in America. Commenting on the banishment +of young girls from the streets of New +York City, Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the +law against street selling and peddling by girls +to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively +enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty +among the immigrants are so frightful as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +are in New York, there is no reason for assuming +that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street +selling by boys."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Girls under eighteen years +should never be allowed to go out in the streets +for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent +these purposes may be in themselves. One of +the most important features of the movement +in America should be the absolute prohibition +of such work by minors under eighteen years +at night; this is urged because it is in harmony +with the provisions of our most advanced child +labor laws and is fully justified because of the +evil character of the influences rampant in +cities after dark, and because such night work +affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate +their acquaintance with, if not to know +for the first time, conditions from which every +effort should be made to isolate them. For +night messenger service the age limit should +be twenty-one years.</p> + +<p>The enforcement of such regulation as is +now provided by the few states and cities which +have given this subject any attention, is variously +intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant +and probation officers, but in Boston the school<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +committee has delivered this task into the hands +of one man who is known as the supervisor of +licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement +seems to have given better results than +the common system of intrusting the enforcement +to officers already overburdened with +other duties, but it is clearly impossible for one +officer to handle the situation unaided in a large +city—the plan would be considerably improved +by the appointment of several assistants.</p> + +<p>"The licensing by the Boston School Committee +of minors of school age to trade in the +streets of Boston came about through an act +of legislature in 1902. The need of supervision +of minors licensed under this act became very +apparent, as their numbers increased and their +street influences reacting on their school life +became better understood. To meet this need +a supervisor of licensed minors was appointed +whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement +of the law, regulations governing the various +forms of street work of children of school age, +also to have general supervision of the details +of the licensing department."<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> + +<p>Human nature in children is not in the least +unlike human nature in adults. Just as we +need an interstate commerce commission backed +by the federal government to supervise the +large business affairs of men, so do we need a +supervisor of children's commercial activities +in city streets, clothed with authority by the +municipal government.</p> + +<p>The Boston plan is now being advocated for +New York City: "In the street trades the Committee +recommends that the principle of supervision +of licensed minors, as practised for a +number of years in Boston, be adopted, and that +an office be created in the Department of Education +that shall have supervisory control of all +minors engaged in street trades. It recommends +furthermore that the minimum age limit for +licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen +years, and that the legal limit for selling at +night be reduced from 10 to 8, to correspond +more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation +dealing with children in factories."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> + +<p>The first attempt to control the situation in +New York City was intrusted to the police,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +but the results were not satisfactory, as they +looked upon the matter with indifference. +Subsequently the truant officers also were +charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men +were assigned to give their entire attention to +this work between 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and at +present eight men are so engaged, but no very +marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester +the enforcement of the state law was +brought about through the efforts of the women +of that city; both business women and shoppers +were asked to consider themselves members +of a vigilance committee and to notify the +board of education and the police department +by telephone whenever any violations of the +law were observed upon the streets. Within +five days so many complaints had been received +that both the superintendent of schools and the +president of the board of education arranged +a meeting at which their attention was invited +to the widespread disregard of the law. As +a result, steps were taken at once to insure +enforcement, and finally the board of education +appointed one truant officer, and the commissioner +of police detailed a policeman especially +for the work of reporting violations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> + +<p>In addition to providing an improved method +of enforcement, efforts have been made in +Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult +problem of keeping street traders out of saloons, +the licensing board having issued an order to +all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit minors +from loitering upon the licensed premises, more +especially newsboys and messenger boys.</p> + +<p>The efforts of the school committee to regulate +street trading in Boston have been further +supplemented by organizing a Newsboys' +Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps +the most important result of supervision +so far has been the gradual introduction of a +plan for self government among the licensed +newsboys through the so-called Boston School +Newsboys' Association. This association is +pledged to the enforcement of the license rules +and the suppression of smoking, gambling and +other street vices, more or less common among +the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The +association is run by the boys themselves, +through officers of their own choosing, consisting +of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants +for each school district; also a chief captain +and general secretary and an executive board<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +of seven elected from the ranks of the captains. +The general duties of the captains and lieutenants +are, first, to see that all licensed newsboys +of their respective school districts live up +to their license rules, and the principles of the +association. Secondly, to see that all boys not +licensed shall not interfere with or in any way +hurt the business of the licensed newsboys. +These duties are performed through weekly +inspections on the street, supplemented by +monthly inspection at schools, at which time +branch meetings of all the boys in each district +are frequently held."<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br /> + +<span class="h2sub">DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION +IN EUROPE</span></h2> + + +<h3 class="italic">Great Britain</h3> + +<p>Attention was called to the problem of +street trading by children in England for the +first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897. +A few close observers of social conditions noticed +that the situation was so grave as to demand +an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon +their initiative, an organization was effected +for the purpose of studying the subject. This +organization took the form of a private association +known as the Committee on Wage-Earning +Children. The committee conferred with the +officers of the board of education and succeeded +in arousing their interest to the extent of securing +a promise for the collection of a return from +the elementary schools of England and Wales +concerning the labor of public school pupils, +their ages, and other relevant information.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +In 1898, the House of Commons ordered this +inquiry to be made, and in June of that year +copies of a schedule were sent by the educational +department to all the public elementary schools +in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters +misunderstood the meaning of this schedule +and failed to report the children of their schools +who were actually engaged in various forms +of work outside of school hours. Only about +half of the schedules were filled and returned, +but these showed that 144,026 children were +following some kind of gainful occupation in +addition to attending school. Many schoolmasters +reported pitiable cases of child exploitation, +as, for example, the following: "Boys +helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in the +morning, whilst those selling papers are about +the streets to a very late hour at night. During +lessons many fall off to sleep, and if not asleep +the effort to keep awake is truly painful both +to boy and teacher. The educational time, as +a consequence, is materially wasted."<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> "These +are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in +Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +boy, for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a week, from 8 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from +12 to 1.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and from 4.30 to 7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> +On Saturday from 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Another +boy, aged ten in Standard III, works also as a +grocer's errand boy for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per week, from +8.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to +8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 8.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>" +And all this in addition to twenty-seven and +one half hours of school every week! A boy +who works for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers, +is employed as follows: "Monday to Friday, +from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 8.45 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and +from 4 to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, to +10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 2 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and from 3 to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>" +"This is a very bad case: called at 2 and +3 o'clock <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, the boy (aged eight) is so tired +that he is obliged to go to bed again, and is +often absent from school, and made to work +in the evening as well."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Many schoolmasters +also testified to the need of a remedy; one of +these wrote on the schedule: "May I be allowed +to express my gratitude to the education department +for making this inquiry, and express the +hope that the department will be able to frame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous +conditions under which many of the young +have to gain education. Without exaggeration +I can truthfully assert that there are to-day +in our national and board schools thousands of +little white slaves."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p>Nothing more came of the movement until +January, 1901, when the Secretary of State for +the Home Department appointed an interdepartmental +committee "to inquire into the +question of the employment of children during +school age, and to report what alterations are +desirable in the laws relating to child labour and +school attendance and in the administration of +these laws." After making careful investigation +this committee declared: "In the case of +street-trading children very strong powers of +regulation are required. These children are +exposed to the worst influences; they enter +public houses to ply their trade, they are kept +up late at night and exposed to inclement +weather, and the precarious nature of their +trade disinclines them to steady work, and +encourages them to dissipate their earnings in +gambling ... there should be power to pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>hibit +street trading by children; to make regulations +as to the age and sex of street traders, +and the days and hours on which they may ply +their trade; to grant licenses to those permitted +to trade and to require the wearing of +badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to +enter public houses or to importune or obstruct +passengers; and generally to control their +conduct and to cope with the evil in every +reasonable way."<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> The committee further reported: +"Our main recommendation is that the +overworking of children in those occupations +which are still unregulated by law should be +prevented by giving to the county and borough +councils a power to make labour by-laws; ... +further we suggest that the gaps that may be +left by local by-laws should be filled up by a +general prohibition of night labour by children +and of labour manifestly injurious to health."<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> +This committee reported that the number of +children in England and Wales attending school +and also in paid employment was far greater +than as reported by the parliamentary return,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +estimating that the total number was no less +than 300,000 in 1898.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p> + +<p>One of the witnesses before this committee +was a London truant officer of eighteen years' +experience, who testified that every month he +met with hundreds of cases of milk boys who +"go to work at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and knock off at 8.30 and +get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to +work, and after school at 4.30 they go again +and wash up. The latest hour they work is +about 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> I have frequently seen these +children fast asleep in school. It is a common +thing to see children of tender age outside the +different theatres trying to sell newspapers at +11 o'clock at night. The percentage of cases +in which this work is necessary is very small; +it simply means that a little more money is +spent in the public houses."<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> The report of +this committee contains a great mass of testimony +from persons in many walks of life, nearly +all of whom declared that street trading by +children is bad and should be regulated. They +differentiated between the hawking of articles +in the streets and their delivery for employers, +and one of the witnesses from Liverpool testi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>fied +that the local regulation of street trading +by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks +nor to boys who carried parcels because +they were not selling anything.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p> + +<p>In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was +appointed to study the subject in Ireland, and in +its report stated: "The principal dangers to +which they [street traders] are exposed are those +arising from late hours in the streets, truancy, +insufficient clothing, entering licensed premises +to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying +or importuning passengers, begging, fighting +with other children, playing football or other +games in the streets, using bad language, playing +pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking—all +of which are matters of common observation, +and have been testified to by many +of the witnesses. In our opinion these evils +can be lessened, if not entirely removed, by the +simple system of regulation, licenses and badges."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> + +<p>The direct result of the reports of these +committees was the passage by Parliament of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section +3 of this act provides, first, that no child under +eleven years shall engage in street trading; +second, no child under fourteen years shall be +employed between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>; third, +no factory or workshop half-timer shall be +employed in any other occupation; fourth, +no child under fourteen years shall handle heavy +weights likely to result in injury; fifth, no +child under fourteen years shall engage in any +injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of +this act give to local authorities power to make +by-laws regulating the employment of children. +The provisions of Section 2 concerning street +trading are in substance as follows: any local +authority may make by-laws with respect to +street trading by persons under the age of sixteen +years and may prohibit such street trading +subject to age, sex or the holding of a license; +may regulate the conditions on which such +licenses may be granted and revoked; may +determine the days and hours during which +and the places at which such street trading +may be carried on; may require such street +traders to wear badges and may regulate generally +the conduct of such street traders; pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>vided +that the right to trade shall not be made +subject to any conditions having reference to the +poverty or general bad character of the person +applying for this right, and provided also that +the local authority shall have special regard to +the desirability of preventing the employment +of girls under sixteen years in streets and public +places.</p> + +<p>Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to +Children Act, 1904, imposes a penalty upon +<i>adults</i> who cause, procure or allow boys under +fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the +streets between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p> + +<p>An official report made in 1907 gives the +names of all counties, boroughs and urban +districts in Great Britain which had up to that +time made by-laws to regulate street trading +by children. In England and Wales, 2 counties, +60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts +had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the +school board districts of 11 burghs and 12 +parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs +and 1 urban district had made such by-laws.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> + +<p>By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England +and Wales, not less than 50 had made street-trading +by-laws, and these included most of the +larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs +and smaller urban districts only 41 had done so; +while among 62 administrative counties only 3 +had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4 +county boroughs and 2 of the smaller boroughs +had made street-trading by-laws under local +acts.</p> + +<p>In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered +to make by-laws, not one had done so +by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed +by-laws; of 979 school boards only 27 had made +such regulations. Edinburgh passed by-laws +under a private act.</p> + +<p>In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one +had made by-laws; of the 43 councils of urban +districts with a population of over 5000, only 5 +had passed regulations.</p> + +<p>In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home +Department appointed a departmental committee +to inquire into the operation of the +Employment of Children Act, 1903, and to +consider whether any and what further legislative +regulation or restriction was required in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +respect of street trading and other employments +dealt with in that act. This committee confined +its report, which was submitted in 1910, +to the subject of street trading; and its great +contribution to the cause of child welfare is +its recommendation that street trading should +be <i>prohibited</i> rather than regulated. The statute +of 1903 prohibits all work by children under +the age of eleven years, and its restrictions +on street employment by children above that +limit, out of school hours, are prohibitions of +<i>night</i> work after nine o'clock, consequently a +child above the age of eleven years who engages +in street trading is restrained, during the day, +only by such by-laws as may have been adopted +by the local authority. The committee found +that even in communities where by-laws had +been adopted they were not always observed, +and also that where no by-laws had been passed +the minimum statutory restrictions were frequently +ignored. The report declared that: +"A considerable amount of street trading is +still done by children under eleven. Special +censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed the fact +that children as young as seven were trading in +the streets. The great bulk of the evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +received in and from Scotland points to the +conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost +a dead-letter in that country.... Infringements +of the Act in Ireland are no less common. +In Waterford newspapers are sold by children +of nine years old up to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and later."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> +The issuance of licenses and badges was denounced +as giving the stamp of official approval +to what is recognized as an evil, the adoption +of by-laws resulting merely in a partial improvement +of conditions even when rigorously enforced.</p> + +<p>After having devoted several months to the +inquiry, during which evidence was gathered +in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow, +Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool +in addition to receiving the testimony of witnesses +from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton +and other centers, the committee made this +very noteworthy and significant declaration: +"We have come to the conclusion ... that +the effect of street trading upon the character +of those who engage in it is only too frequently +disastrous. The youthful street trader is ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>posed +to many of the worst of moral risks; +he associates with, and acquires the habits of, +the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter. +If a match seller, he is likely to become a beggar—if +a newspaper seller, a gambler; the evidence +before us was extraordinarily strong as to the +extent to which begging prevails among the boy +vendors of evening papers. There was an +almost equally strong body of testimony to +the effect that, at any rate in crowded centres +of population, street trading tends to produce +a dislike or disability for more regular employment; +the child finds that for a few years money +is easily earned without discipline or special +skill; and the occupation is one which sharpens +the wits without developing the intelligence. +It leads to nothing practically, and in no way +helps him to a future career. There can be no +doubt that large numbers of those who were +once street traders drift into vagrancy and crime.... +Much evidence was given to the effect +that the practice of street trading, even though +only carried on in the intervals of school attendance, +tends to produce a restless disposition, +and a dislike of restraint which makes children +unwilling to settle down to any regular employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>ment. +So far as girls are concerned, there +must be added to the above evils an unquestionable +danger to morals in the narrower sense. +The evidence presented to us on this point +was unanimous and most emphatic. Again and +again persons specially qualified to speak, assured +us that, when a girl took up street trading, she +almost invariably was taking a first step toward +a life of immorality. The statement that the +temptations are great, and the children practically +defenseless, needs no amplification. An +occupation entailing such perils is indisputably +unfit for girls."<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p> + +<p>The need for <i>prohibition</i> of street trading was +realized by this committee, the change being +urged in the following epoch-making statement: +"After carefully considering the operation of +the by-laws adopted since 1903, and comparing +the present state of affairs with that existing +before the passing of the act, we have come +to the conclusion that the difficulties of the +situation cannot be said to have been met, or +any substantial contribution to a solution of +the problem made, by the existing law and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +machinery set up for its enforcement. Regulation, +however well organized and complete, +will not turn a wasteful and uneconomic use +of the energies of children into a system which +is beneficial to the community. Consequently +we feel that we have no choice but to recommend +the complete statutory prohibition of street trading +either by boys or by girls up to a specific +age. In the case of boys we feel that it would +be wise to name an age which would render it +likely that they would have had full opportunities +of taking to regular work before they +could legally trade in the streets. We think +the most suitable age would be seventeen, which +gives an interval of three or four years after +the ordinary time of leaving an elementary +school.... So far as girls are concerned, we +feel that the arguments in favor of prohibiting +trading increase rather than diminish in force +as the age of the traders advances. The entire +body of testimony laid before us has forced upon +us the conclusion that street trading by girls is +entirely indefensible, and that no system of +regulation is sufficient to rid the employment +of its risks and objections. On the other hand, +we have not been able to discover any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +hardship having resulted in any of those towns +in which by-laws have prohibited trading by +girls, or have restricted the ages during which +trading is permitted. We think that the age of +prohibition should be higher for girls than for +boys, and, while we feel that it should, in any +event, not be less than eighteen, we should be +willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> + +<p>As to the administration of the law, the committee +declared that this should be delivered +into the hands of the education authorities +who could charge the regular truant officers with +the work of enforcement or employ special +officers for the purpose. The placing of responsibility +upon the parents of child offenders was +indorsed, but the committee criticised administrators +because of the small penalties imposed +as fines, the amounts being easily covered by +the earnings of the traders, and hence an increase +of the maximum fine was recommended.</p> + +<p>A minority report was submitted by four +members of this committee who declined to +support the recommendation of the majority +that street trading should be immediately and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +universally prohibited in the case of boys up +to the age of seventeen. These members held +that the cause of street trading should first +be removed by organizing employment bureaus +for children, by giving the children the benefit +of vocational direction, and by promoting +industrial education for boys both while attending +the elementary schools and after.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Liverpool</h3> + +<p>As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading +evil, the first steps were taken in Liverpool. +In this city the condition of child street +traders was particularly bad; half of them were +girls, and the stock in trade was usually newspapers +and matches—the children were dirty, +ragged and running the streets at all hours of +the night, the apparent trade in newspapers +and other articles being frequently used to +cover up much worse things; in fact, many of +the girls were practically prostitutes. Quite +a number of these children were nothing more +or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared +in ragged clothing for the purpose of exciting +sympathy. A local association undertook to +supply them with clothing, but many refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +this aid "because it would interfere with their +trade." Commenting on similar practices +among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert +H. Ormsby, M.D., said in 1904: "They sell +other things besides ... matches principally. +Of course the selling of matches is merely a +means of evading being taken up by the police +for begging. The matches are only humbug; +they do not want to sell them ... they do it +for begging purposes."<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> In 1897 the Liverpool +Watch Committee appointed a subcommittee +to consider the question of children trading in +streets, and this subcommittee reported that: +"The practice is attended, first, with injury +to the health of the children; second, with +interference with the education of such as are +of school age; third, with danger to the moral +welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice +frequently leads to street gambling, begging, +sleeping out and other undesirable practices, +and in some cases to crime." They were of +opinion—in which the inspector of reformatories +concurred—that much of the money earned +by the children went to indulge the vicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +and intemperate propensities of parents and +guardians.</p> + +<p>By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898, +Parliament gave the city power to regulate +street trading by children, and accordingly +the following provisions were made by the city +council: (1) no licenses to any child under eleven; +(2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven +to fifteen inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally +or physically deficient, with consent of +parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year; +(4) badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for +license or badge; (6) licenses may be revoked +by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed +child to trade after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, nor unless decently +clothed, nor without badge, nor in streets +during school hours unless exempted from school +attendance, and no licensed child may alter +or dispose of badge, or enter public houses to +trade, or importune passengers. These regulations +took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the +formal beginning of the movement against +street trading by children.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported +that it was "of opinion that the application of +the powers conferred by the Act has had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +effect of greatly reducing the number of children +trading in the streets, especially during school +hours and late in the evenings, and of improving +the condition, appearance, and behaviour of +those children who still engage in street trading." +This subcommittee recommended raising the +boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to +sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total +prohibition of street trading by girls.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">London</h3> + +<p>Under the powers conferred on local authorities +by the Employment of Children Act +1903, the London County Council framed in +February, 1905, a set of by-laws, the provisions +of which seemed quite innocuous. Nevertheless +a considerable outcry was raised by persons +whom they would affect, and thereupon the +Secretary of State withheld his confirmation +and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an +inquiry at which complaints could be heard as +well as arguments in favor of the by-laws. This +inquiry was held in June and July of 1905,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +and schoolmasters, attendance officers, police +inspectors, news agents and others testified. +Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour +to discover where the line should be drawn, and +that it was not open to argument either that +child labour should entirely be prohibited or +that it should be unregulated."<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p> + +<p>In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law +separately and discussed it, recommending that +it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance +with his findings. He also drafted a set of +by-laws and submitted them with the recommendation +that they be adopted instead of the +ones originally passed by the London County +Council. Referring to these, he says: "An +important respect in which my suggested by-laws +differ from the County Council by-laws is in +differentiating between employment in connection +with street stalls and other forms of street +trading. It seemed to be the general opinion +[of witnesses] that the former employment, +being under the supervision of some adult +person, probably the parent, is not so harmful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +in its effects on the morals of the child as the +latter, and it must be remembered that the +main objection to street trading was on the +ground rather of its affecting the morality than +the health and education of the children."<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> +The regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not +even so drastic as those proposed by the London +County Council, and in recommending milder +restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws +should not err upon the side of overstringency, +nor should they be in advance of public opinion; +the first, because taking a step more or less in +the dark might cause hardships impossible to +avoid, and the second, because any by-laws of +this sort, being most difficult of enforcement, +will certainly be evaded unless backed up by +the weight of public opinion."<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p> + +<p>The County Council, however, did not follow +Mr. Jones's recommendations in their entirety, +but adopted a more stringent set of by-laws +which were put in force in October, 1906. +In December, 1909, the County Council again +amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative to +these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen +Buckmaster in October, 1910. Mr. Buckmaster<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +recommended a number of changes of minor +importance which were adopted by the Council, +and accordingly the new by-laws were adopted +and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of +by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page <a href="#Page_264">264</a>. +The most significant feature which they present +is the raising of the age limit for boys to fourteen +years and for girls to sixteen years without +exemption. The old by-laws prohibited street +trading by children under sixteen years between +the hours of 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, and this provision +was retained in the new by-laws, applying, however, +only to boys, inasmuch as girls under that +age are prohibited from trading in the streets +at any time. These London by-laws on street +trading are identical with the provisions of the +most advanced American child labor laws on +factory employment, and consequently they +blaze the way for the application of these provisions +in the United States to street trading as +well as to employment in factories, mills and +mines.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Manchester</h3> + +<p>Although the British departmental committee +of 1910 was not favorably impressed by the +results of regulation as a cure for the evils of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit +to the city of Manchester for what had been +accomplished there under the license system. +Referring to this city, the report says: "In +Manchester such good results as can be arrived +at by the method of regulation were, perhaps, +more apparent than anywhere else. In that +city the entire evidence testified to the fact that +the regulation of street trading is very highly +organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes +officers, giving their whole time to the +work, knowing the traders personally, visiting +the homes, advising the parents, clothing the +children and apparently exerting a most beneficial +influence. All that can be done through +the instrument of regulation seems to be done +there, the various authorities working together +to that end."<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> + +<p>An English writer says that regulation in +Manchester "has greatly improved the conditions +of the newspaper boys and others who earned +their living by hawking goods in the streets. +It is something to the good at any rate that a +boy should be compelled to be decently dressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing +to the sympathies of the public by the +picturesque raggedness of his clothing. At the +same time one cannot help feeling that halfway +legislation of this sort is only playing with the +problem and that the only really satisfactory +law would be one which prohibited street trading +by children altogether."<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">New South Wales</h3> + +<p>The British Colony of New South Wales has +adopted some mild restrictions under the Employment +of Children Act, 1903, and the president +of the State Children Relief Board for New +South Wales states in his report for the year +ending April 5, 1910, that "the Board is not +favorably impressed with the principle of street +trading by juveniles, realizing that even under +the most careful administration children, when +once licensed to engage in street trading, are +exposed to great temptations."</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Canada</h3> + +<p>The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids +children under twelve years from trading in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys +twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed +to sell after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Some boys have been denied +licenses because of their poor school record, +others because of lack of proof as to age, others +on account of not being physically qualified, +and still others because there was no need +for their earning money in this way. The +licensed boys are kept under supervision; their +attendance at school is watched; and if they +persist in selling after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> or disobey instructions, +their licenses are revoked.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> + + +<h3 class="italic">Germany</h3> + +<p>The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits +children under fourteen years from offering +goods for sale on public roads, streets or places, +and peddling them from house to house. In +localities in which such sale or peddling is +customary, the local police authorities may +permit it for certain periods of time not exceeding +a total of four weeks in any calendar year. +"Under this provision there was considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +street trading, especially in the larger cities. +In Berlin, for instance, during the weeks preceding +Christmas, numerous children under fourteen +were thus employed. Protests against the +practice were made by the Consumers' League +and similar organizations, and resulted in the +passage of a police regulation, for its restriction; +and in 1909 a further step was taken by providing +that no exceptions of this sort be thereafter +permitted, so that now the employment of +children under fourteen years of age in street +trading is absolutely forbidden in Berlin."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p> + +<p>The Industrial Code forbids children under +twelve years to deliver goods or perform other +errands except for their own parents. Children +over twelve years may so engage for not more +than three hours daily between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, +but not before morning school nor during the +noon recess nor until one hour after school has +closed in the afternoon; on Sundays and holidays +such children may do this work only for +two hours between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, but not +during the principal church service or the +half hour preceding it. Such children must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +first obtain the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Arbeitskarte</i></span> from the local police +authority, which is issued upon request of the +child's legal representative. Employers must +notify the police authority in advance of the +employment of such children.</p> + + +<h3 class="italic">France</h3> + +<p>The labor of children in France is regulated +by the law of November 2, 1892, as amended +by the act of March 30, 1900. This law +applies to factories, workshops, mines and +quarries, exempting home industries, agricultural +work and purely mercantile establishments.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> +The work of children in city streets is not +even mentioned. New legislation has recently +been proposed to regulate the employment of +minors under 18 years of age and of women in +the sale of merchandise from stands and tables +on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores. +According to its provisions, the work of such +persons would be prohibited for more than two +hours at a time and for more than six hours a +day, while seats and heating facilities would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +have to be supplied the same as for employees +inside the large establishments.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p> + +<p>In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively +at kiosks on street corners, presided over +by middle-aged women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2> + + +<p>Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense +labor, beginning too early in life, continued too +long every day, stunting the growth of the mind, +leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time +for intellectual culture, must impair all those +high qualities that have made our country great. +Your overworked boys will become a feeble and +ignoble race of men, the parents of a more feeble +progeny; nor will it be long before the deterioration +of the laborer will injuriously affect those +very interests to which his physical and moral +interests have been sacrificed. If ever we are +forced to yield the foremost place among commercial +nations, we shall yield it to some people +preëminently vigorous in body and in mind." +To-day these words seem to us a veritable prophecy—but +we must not forget that they apply +to America no less than to England. If our +civilization is to continue and to improve with +time, every child must have a proper opportunity +to grow under conditions as nearly normal as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +possible; we must secure to the children their +birthright—the right to play and to dream, the +right to healthful sleep, the right to education +and training, the right to grow into manhood +and into womanhood with cleanness and +strength both of body and of mind, the right of +a chance to become useful citizens of the future. +Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for +childhood, and while "Women and children first" +is a rigid law of the sea, "Children first" is +the fundamental law both of Nature and civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h2> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment +of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes +of Evidence, Q. 71. Cf. also Great Britain—Employment +of Children Act, 1903, Section 13. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>The Newsboy</i>, Pittsburgh, April, 1909. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Great Britain—Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," +<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child +Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 25. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City +Streets," a folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and +a committee representing local organizations, 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their +Work," 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>The Survey</i>, April 22, 1911, p. 138. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by +E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 296. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment +of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population, +Part II, p. 506. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports, +Occupations, 1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of +the United States, pp. 32-34. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> These tables were copied from charts displayed at the +Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare +Exhibit, Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 25. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission +of Chicago, 1911, pp. 241-242. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City +Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee +representing local organizations, 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their +Work," 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the +Greek Padrone System in the United States, 1911, p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found +in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House +of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 21. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 17. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House +of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 10. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on +Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Report of President of State Children Relief Board of +New South Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts</span>, +1900, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heft</span> III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of +Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School +Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 63. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 65. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>The Hustler</i>, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February, +1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, +D.C., 1863-1864, p. 7. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys +Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac +and C. E. B. Russell; Great Britain, Report of +Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School +Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, +p. 33. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of New +York Child Labor Committee, 1907. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington, +D.C., 1889, p. 10. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys +Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac +and Russell, 1901. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered +in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National +Child Labor Committee. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor +Committee, pp. 6-7. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of +Chicago, 1911, p. 242. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, +p. 12. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before +Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act, +1903, 1910, Q. 9724. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of +New York Child Labor Committee, 1907. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14 +of National Child Labor Committee. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental +Committee on Employment of Children Act, +1903, 1910, Q. 1837 <i>et seq.</i> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of +Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, +1911, p. 102. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, +pp. 42-44. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the +North American Civic League for Immigrants, December, +1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the +Greek Padrone System in United States, 1911, p. 10. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United +States, by Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXVI, p. 591. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, +p. 133. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of +Chicago, 1911, p. 242. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered +in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of +National Child Labor Committee. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission +of Chicago, 1911, p. 244. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the +United States," 1907, p. 170. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy +Life in Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904, +p. 121. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England), +1904, p. 305. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in +Great Britain," Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor, +p. 28. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Newsboy Life—What Superintendents of Reformatories +and Others think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National +Child Labor Committee, 1910. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New +York Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their +Work," 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," +<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin +of Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile +Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, +p. 12. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907, +p. 148. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy +Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, +p. 131. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 135. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904, +p. 307. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 309. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp. +179-180. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children +in the United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908, +p. 118. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2453. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2479. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental +Committee on Employment of Children Act, +1903, 1910, Q. 9503 <i>et seq.</i> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National +Conference of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their +Work," 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child +Labor Committee, <i>The Newsboy</i>, 1907. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys +Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac +and Russell, 1901. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment +of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City +School District, 1910-1911, p. 141. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 42. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 59. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 69. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 71. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 84. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 87. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 90. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 92. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in +theaters and other places of amusement. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise +character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in +private families. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 106-107. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage +Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645, +61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 116-117. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 134. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of +To-day," 1907, p. 40. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile +Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, +1909. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child +Wage Earners in the United States, 1911, p. 22. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," +1904, p. 304. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +the Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, +p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City +Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee +representing local organizations, 1911. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Report on Bylaws made by London County Council +under Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, +1906, pp. 24-27. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment +of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting +of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, +pp. 34-35. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New +York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, +p. 36. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House +of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House +of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 24. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Q. 1123. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on the Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland, +1902, p. 6. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have +made By-laws under the Employment of Children Act, +1903, 1907. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee +on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Report on the By-laws made by the London County +Council under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by +Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 15. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on +Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of +Boy Life in our Cities," 1904, p. 131. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent +of Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba, +Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in +Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Henry Ferrette, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de législation industrielle</span>," +1909, p. 149. +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. +106, p. 566. +</div> +</div> + + + +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2> + + +<h3>BOOKS</h3> + + +<div class="bibliography"> +<span class="smcap">Adams, Myron E.</span>, <i>Children in American Street +Trades</i>, in Proceedings of First Annual Meeting +of National Child Labor Committee, 1905, pp. +25-46.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— <i>Municipal Regulations of Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings +of National Conference of Charities and +Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI, pp. 294-300. +</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Alden, Margaret</span>, <i>Child Life and Labour</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Britton, James A.</span>, <i>Child Labor and the Juvenile +Court</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of +National Child Labor Committee, 1909, p. 111.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Brown, Emma E.</span>, <i>Child Toilers of Boston Streets</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Buffalo Child Labor Problems</i>, folder issued by +New York Child Labor Committee, 1911.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Campagnac and Russell</span>, <i>Education, Earnings and +Social Condition of Boys Engaged in Street +Trading in Manchester</i>, Board of Education +Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902, +Vol. VIII, pp. 653-670.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories</i>, in +Report of United States Commissioner of Education, +1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor on the Street—The Newsboy</i>, leaflet +of New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in the United States</i>, Bulletin 69 of +Bureau of Census, 1907.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Davis W.</span>, <i>American Child and Moloch of +To-day</i>, 1907, p. 40.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Victor S.</span>, <i>Woman and Child Wage Earners +in Great Britain</i>, in Bulletin 80 of United States +Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Cloete, J. G.</span>, <i>The Boy and his Work</i>, in <i>Studies of +Boy Life in Our Cities</i>, edited by E. J. Urwick, +1904, pp. 129-133.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clopper, Edward N.</span>, <i>Children on the Streets of +Cincinnati</i>, in Proceedings of Fourth Annual +Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, +1908, pp. 113-123.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— <i>Child Labor in Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of +Sixth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor +Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Conant, Richard K.</span>, <i>Street Trades and Reformatories</i>, +in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting +of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, +pp. 105-107.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Employment of Children Act</i>, 1903, Great Britain, +in J. N. Larned's <i>History for Ready Reference</i>, +1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Davis, Philip</span>, <i>Child Life on the Street</i>, National +Conference of Charities and Correction, 1909.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fieser, James L.</span>, <i>Causes of Truancy</i>, in Indiana +Bulletin of Charities and Correction, June, +1910, p. 227.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fleisher, Alexander</span>, <i>The Newsboys of Milwaukee</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>in Fifteenth Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin +Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912, pp. 61-96.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gibbs, S. P.</span>, <i>Problem of Boy Work</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>, Elementary Schools (Children Working +for Wages), Parliament Sessional Papers +1899, Vol. 75.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Interdepartmental Committee on +Employment of School Children, 1901.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Interdepartmental Committee on +Employment of Children during School Age in +Ireland, 1902.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Interdepartmental Committee on +Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479, +10,440, 12,757.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial +Exemption from School Attendance.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Departmental Committee on Employment +of Children Act, 1903, 1910.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report on By-laws made by London County +Council under Employment of Children Act, +1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— Report of Education Committee of London +County Council, March 21, 1911, pp. 690-696.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Report of President of State Children Relief Board +of New South Wales for year ending April 5, +1910, pp. 39-40.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent +of Neglected Children for Province +of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Greek Padrone System in United States</i>, Abstract +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>of Immigration Commission's Report on, +1911.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gunckel, J. E.</span>, <i>Boyville</i>, 1905.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Hall, George A.</span>, <i>The Newsboy</i>, in Proceedings of +Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child +Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Henderson, Charles R.</span>, <i>Street Trading of Children</i>, +in his <i>Preventive Agencies and Methods</i>, 1910, +Vol. III, pp. 97-100.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment</i>, +Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of +Woman and Child Wage Earners in United +States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d +Session.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Kelley, Florence</span>, <i>Children in Street Trades</i> and +<i>Telegraph and Messenger Boys</i>, in her <i>Some +Ethical Gains through Legislation</i>, 1905, pp. +11-26.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">—— <i>Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual +Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, +1911, pp. 108-110.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Mangold, George B.</span>, <i>Child Problems</i>, 1910, p. 232.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Neill, Charles P.</span>, <i>Child Labor at the National +Capital</i>, in Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting +of National Child Labor Committee, 1905, +pp. 17-20.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of</i>, +1911, p. 33.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C., +Report of</i>, 1863-1864.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Law</i>, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation, +1908, National Consumers' League, +p. 63.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington, +D.C.</i>, 1889.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Life—What Superintendents of Reformatories +and Others Think about its Effects</i>, Leaflet +32 of National Child Labor Committee, 1910.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">North American Civic League for Immigrants, +Report of New York-New Jersey Committee, +December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Peacock, Robert</span>, <i>Employment of Children with +Special Reference to Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings +of Third International Congress for Welfare +and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City +Streets</i>, a folder issued by Chicago Board of +Education and a committee representing local +organizations, 1911.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Problems of Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth +Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, +1909, pp. 230-240.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>Saving the Barren Years</i>, in The Child in the +City, Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare +Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public +Schools, pp. 41-44.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public +Schools, pp. 132-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public +Schools, pp. 34-37.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Scott, Leroy</span>, <i>The Voice of the Street</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Sherard, Robert H.</span>, <i>Child Slaves of Britain</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Smith, Constance</span>, <i>Report on Employment of Children +in United Kingdom</i>.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><i>The Social Evil in Chicago</i>, Report of Chicago Vice +Commission, 1911, pp. 241-245.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Spargo, John</span>, <i>Street Trades</i> in his <i>Bitter Cry of the +Children</i>, 1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Stelzle, Charles</span>, <i>The Boy of the Street</i>, New York, +1904, pp. 7, 41.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Urwick, E. J.</span>, editor of <i>Studies of Boy Life in Our +Cities</i> (England), 1904.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Veditz, C. W. A.</span>, <i>Child Labor Legislation in Europe</i>, +Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, +July, 1910.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Watson, Elizabeth C.</span>, <i>New York Newsboys and +their Work</i>, 1911.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Whitin, E. S.</span>, <i>Child Labor: Street Trades</i>, in his +<i>Factory Legislation in Maine</i>, 1908, pp. 137-138.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williams, M.</span>, <i>The Street Boy: Who He is and +What to do with Him</i>, National Conference of +Charities and Correction, 1903.</div> + +<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williamson, E. E.</span>, <i>The Street Arab</i>, in Proceedings +of National Conference of Charities and Correction, +1898, Vol. XXV, pp. 358-361.</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3>MAGAZINE ARTICLES</h3> + +<div class="bibliography">Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, <i>Twentieth Century</i>, +1911, Vol. V, pp. 30-34.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Child Laborers of the Street—The New York +Bills, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. +205-206.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by +Owen R. Lovejoy, <i>The Survey</i>, Vol. XXIV, pp. +311-317.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Child Street Trades in London, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, +1903, Vol. X, pp. 149-150.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Children as Wage Earners—Street Sellers, <i>Fortnightly +Review</i>, 1903, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Committee on Wage-earning Children—Third +Annual Report, <i>Economic Review</i>, 1904, Vol. +XIV, pp. 208-211.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Convalescent Men for Newsboys, <i>The Survey</i>, 1910, +Vol. XXV, p. 809.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and +Newark, by J. K. Paulding, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, +1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, <i>Western</i>, +Vol. CLVIII, pp. 575-578.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune, +<i>The Survey</i>, 1911, Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, <i>The Survey</i>, 1911, +Vol. XXVI, p. 591.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, <i>The Survey</i>, +1910, Vol. XXV, p. 511.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography">Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union +and What It Thinks of a College Education, +by R. W. Bruère, <i>Outlook</i>, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV, +pp. 878-883.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist, +by A. E. Winship, <i>World To-day</i>, 1908, +Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard, +<i>Everybody's</i>, 1908, Vol. XVIII, pp. 25-37.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades—Other +Wisconsin Child Labor Advances, <i>Survey</i>, 1909, +Vol. XXII, p. 589.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B. +Butler, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. XVII, +pp. 1062-1064.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a +Comparison of Regulations in Liverpool, <i>Charities +and Commons</i>, 1909, Vol. XXI, pp. 953-954.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboy Lodging House, <i>Charities and +Commons</i>, 1908, Vol. XXI, pp. 147-148.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboys Licensed, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, +1903, Vol. XI, pp. 188-189.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott +Nearing, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. +XVII, pp. 778-784.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, <i>Charities and +Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. XI, pp. 482, 568.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by +Ernest Poole, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, +Vol. X, pp. 160-162.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography">Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, <i>Survey</i>, 1910, Vol. +XXV, p. 312.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, +<i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXV, p. 504.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder, +<i>World To-day</i>, 1907, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-739.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular +and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg, +<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, 1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners—Street Trading +in Liverpool, by J. E. Gorst, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, +1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, <i>Contemporary +Review</i>, 1888, Vol. LIII, pp. 825-835.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine +C. Goldmark, <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 1904, +Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Street Trades and Delinquency, <i>Survey</i>, 1911, Vol. +XXVI, p. 285.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by +Thomas Burke, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, 1900, Vol. +LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England), +Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, +No. 89, p. 246.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing, +<i>The Independent</i>, 1912, Vol. LXXII, No. 3297, +pp. 288-289.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></div> + +<div class="bibliography">A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B. +Forbush, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. +XIX, pp. 798-802.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, <i>McClure's</i>, +Vol. XXI, pp. 40-48.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street +Trades for Children, by Pauline Goldmark, +<i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 159-160.</div> + +<div class="bibliography">What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations +carried on in Buffalo, <i>Charities and +Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</a></h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> +<h3>APPENDIX A <br /> + +LAWS</h3> + +<p>The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading, +as amended in 1911, is given below in its entirety, +because it is the most advanced law of its kind in +the United States.</p> + + +<h4 class="italic">Wisconsin</h4> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 p. The term "street trade," as +used in this act, shall mean any business or occupation +in which any street, alley, court, square or +other public place is used for the sale, display or +offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise. +No boy under the age of twelve years, and +no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in any +city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or +offer for sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals +in any street or public place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of +age, shall, in any city of the first class, work at any +time, or be employed or permitted to work at any +time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade, +or shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for +sale or distribute hand bills or circulars or any +other articles, except newspapers, magazines or +periodicals as hereinafter provided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of +age shall, in any city of the first class, work at any +time, or be employed or permitted to work at any +time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in +the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or +any other articles upon the street or from house to +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of +age shall, in any city of the first class, distribute, +sell or expose or offer for sale any newspapers, +magazines or periodicals in any street or public +place or work as a bootblack, or in any other street +or public trade or sell or offer for sale or distribute +any hand bills or other articles, unless he complies +with all the legal requirements concerning school +attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as +hereinafter provided, shall have been issued to him +by the state factory inspector. No such permit +and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing +the same shall have received an application in +writing therefor, signed by the parent or guardian +or other person having the custody of the child, +desiring such permit and badge, and until such +officer shall have received, examined and placed on +file the written statement of the principal or chief +executive officer of the public, private or parochial +school, which the said child is attending, stating +that such child is an attendant at such school with +the grade such child shall have attained, and provided +that no such permit and badge shall be issued,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such +child is mentally and physically able to do such +work besides his regular school work as required +by law.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued, +the state factory inspector shall demand and be +furnished with proof of such child's age by the production +of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly +attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates +cannot be secured, by the record of age stated in +the first school enrollment of such child. Whenever +it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong +or false statements as to any child's age, the officer +who granted such permit shall forthwith revoke the +same. After having received, examined and placed +on file such papers, the officer shall issue to the +child a permit and badge. The principal or chief +executive officer of schools, in which children under +fourteen years of age are pupils, shall keep a complete +list of all children in their school to whom a +permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place +and date of birth of the child, the name and address +of its parents, guardian, custodian or next friend, +as the case may be, and describe the color of hair +and eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing +facial marks of such child, and shall further +state that the papers required by the preceding +section have been duly examined and filed; and +that the child named in such permit has appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +before the officer issuing the permit. The badge +furnished by the officer issuing the permit shall +bear on its face a number corresponding to the +number of the permit, and the name of the child. +Every such permit, and every such badge on its +reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the +officer issuing the same by the child in whose name +it is issued. Provided, that in case of carrier boys +working on salary for newspaper publishers delivering +papers, a card of identification shall be issued +to such carriers by the factory inspector, which +they shall carry on their person, and exhibit to any +officer authorized under this act, who may accost +them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such +carriers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 v. The badge provided for herein +shall be such as the state factory inspector shall +designate, and shall be worn conspicuously in sight +at all times in such position as may be designated +by the said factory inspector by such child while +so working. No child to whom such permit and +badge or identification card are issued shall transfer +the same to any other person.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of +age shall, in any city of the first class, sell, expose +or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or +periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the +evening, between the first day of October and the +first day of April, nor after seven-thirty o'clock in +the evening between the first day of April and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +first day of October, or before five o'clock in the +morning; and no child under sixteen years of age +shall distribute, sell, expose or offer for sale any +newspapers, magazines or periodicals or shall work +as a bootblack or in any street or public trades or +distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted +to work in the distribution or sale or exposing +or offering for sale of any newspapers, magazines +or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other street +or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills +during the hours when the public schools of the +city where such child shall reside are in session. +Provided, that any boy between the ages of fourteen +and sixteen years, who is complying and shall +continue to comply with all the legal requirements +concerning school attendance, and who is mentally +and physically able to do such delivery besides his +regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver +newspapers between the hours of four and six in the +morning.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or +any factory inspector acting under his direction +shall enforce the provisions of this law, and he is +hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 y. The permit of any child, who +in any city of the first class distributes, sells or +offers for sale any newspapers, magazines or periodicals +in any street or public place or works as a +bootblack or in any other street trade, or sells or +offers for sale or distributes any hand bills or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +articles in violation of the provisions of this act, or +who becomes delinquent or fails to comply with all +the legal requirements concerning school attendances +shall forthwith be revoked for a period of six +months and his badge taken from said child. The +refusal of any child to surrender such permit, and +the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers, +magazines or periodicals or any goods or +merchandise, or the working by such child as a +bootblack or in any other street or public trade, or +in distributing hand bills or other articles, after +notice, by any officer authorized to grant permits +under this law of the revocation of such permit and +a demand for the return of the badge, shall be +deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said +child may also be revoked by the officer who issued +such permit, and the badge taken from such child, +upon the complaint of any police officer or other +attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile +court, and such child shall surrender his permit +and badge upon the demand of any police officer, +truancy or other attendance officer or probation +officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged +with the duty of enforcing this act. In case of a +second violation of this act by any child, he shall be +brought before the juvenile court, if there shall be +any juvenile court in the city where such child +resides, or, if not, before any court or magistrate +having jurisdiction of offenses committed by minors +and be dealt with according to law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 z. Any parent or other person who +employs a minor under the age of sixteen years in +peddling without a license or who, having the care +or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the +child to engage in such employment, or to violate +sections 1728 p to 1728 za, inclusive, shall be punished +by a fine not to exceed one hundred dollars nor less +than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the +county jail for not more than sixty days or less +than ten days.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall +be issued for a boy selling papers between the ages +of twelve and sixteen years by the state factory +inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of +either public, parochial or other private school +attended by said boy, stating and setting forth that +said boy is a regular attendant upon said school. +No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted +by any newspaper publisher or printer or +persons having for sale newspapers or periodicals of +any character, to loiter or remain around any salesroom, +assembly room, circulation room or office for +the sale of newspapers, between the hours of nine +in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, on days +when school is in session. Any newspaper publisher, +printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers +shall upon conviction for permitting newsboys to +loiter or hang around any assembly room, circulation +room, salesroom or office where papers are +distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +to exceed one hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five +dollars, or by commitment to the county jail +for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.</p> + + +<h4 class="italic">London, England</h4> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By-laws adopted by the London County Council +and put in Force on June 3, 1911</span></p> + +<p class="center">By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children +generally.</p> + +<p>10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be +employed in or carry on street trading.</p> + +<p>11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be +employed in or carry on street trading.</p> + +<p>12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be +employed in or carry on street trading before 6 in +the morning or after 9 in the evening.</p> + +<p>13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any +time be employed in or carry on street trading unless</p> + +<p>(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and</p> + +<p>(2) He first procures a badge from the London +County Council, which he shall wear whilst engaged +in street trading on the upper part of the right arm +in such a manner as to be conspicuous.</p> + +<p>The badge shall be deemed to be a license to +trade, and may be withheld or withdrawn for such +period as the London County Council think fit in +any of the following cases—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to +him, been convicted of any offense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London +County Council that the boy has used his +badge for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, +or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of +imposition, or for any other improper purpose.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) If the boy fails to notify the London County +Council within one week of any change in his place +of residence.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) If the boy commits a breach of any of the +conditions under which such badge is issued; such +conditions to be stated on such badge or delivered to +the boy in writing.</p> + +<p>14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by +the London County Council shall in no way alter, +lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise dispose of, +or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall +remain the property of the London County Council, +and he shall, on receiving notice in writing from the +London County Council (which may be served by +post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver +up the same forthwith to the London County +Council.</p> + +<p>15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged +in street trading, shall not enter any premises +used for public entertainment or licensed for the +sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the +premises for the purpose of trading.</p> + +<p>16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged +in street trading, shall not annoy any person +by importuning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p> + +<p>17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict +the employment of children in the occupations +specified in section 3 (<i>a</i>) of the Prevention of +Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such +employment is already restricted by statute.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>APPENDIX B<br /> + +TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.</h3> + + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/fz267_1.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn267_1.jpg" alt="Badge used in Cincinnati." title="Badge used in Cincinnati." /> +</a> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/fz267_2.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn267_2.jpg" alt="Badge used in Boston." title="Badge used in Boston." /> +</a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>APPENDIX C<br /> + +CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS</h3> + +<p>The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy +situations of Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced +here, in the hope that they will be of use +in furnishing suggestions to any organization or +individual who contemplates making such an investigation +elsewhere. It will be observed that +these cards are practically confined to questions +affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably +amplified, if intended for use in a general +study of street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses</h4> + + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/fz269.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn269.jpg" alt="Application for a License" title="Application for a License" /> +</a> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/fz270.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn270.jpg" alt="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" title="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" /> +</a> +</div> + + +<h4>Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/fz271.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn271.jpg" alt="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" title="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" /> +</a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of +a Badge in Province of Manitoba, Canada.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/fz272.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn272.jpg" alt="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" title="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" /> +</a> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia</h4> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/fz273.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn273.jpg" alt="Philadelphia Investigation Card" title="Philadelphia Investigation Card" /> +</a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee</h4> + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/fz274.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn274.jpg" alt="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" title="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" /> +</a> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/fz275.jpg"> +<img src="images/thn275.jpg" alt="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" title="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" /> +</a> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> + +<ul class="not"> +<li>Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li>Age limit (<i>see</i> Laws and Ordinances), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Austria, investigation of 1907, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + + +<li>Begging, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Berlin regulations, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li>Bootblacks, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_194">165</a>.</li> + <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Boston, license statistics, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Boston Newsboys' Court, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Boston Newsboys' Republic, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Buffalo conditions, report on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + + +<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Chicago statistics of local studies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>New York, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Cincinnati, license statistics, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Market children, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>Newsboy conditions, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li class="break">Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + + +<li>Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Chicago juvenile court records, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Connection between occupation and offense, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li>Records of Indiana Boys' School, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Delivery Service, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Detroit, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + + +<li>Edinburgh, conditions in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Effects of street work, classified, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>In Buffalo, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + <li>In physical deterioration, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li>Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Employment distinguished from independent work, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li> + +<li>Enforcement of regulations, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Errand running, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li class="break">Delinquency, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li class="break">France, regulations, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + + +<li>Germany, inquiry of 1898, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Girls as newspaper sellers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Employment of Children Act, 1903, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + <li class="break">Parliamentary return of 1899, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + + +<li>Hartford, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Housing problem's relation to street trading, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + +<li>Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li>Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + + +<li class="break">Kelley, Florence, on street trading, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + +<li>Laws, table of state, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Licenses for street work required, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li>License statistics, of Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Of Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li>Of New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Liverpool, conditions, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>London County Council bylaws, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + +<li>Manchester regulations, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Market children, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li>Nationalities, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li>Messenger boys, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li>Investigation in Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li>Lack of prospects, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>Poverty as excuse for work, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + <li class="break">Use of men instead of boys, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Nationality of street workers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>On messenger service, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li>Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Newark, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>New York, report of newsboy investigation, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Newsboys, ages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Associations, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Earnings compared with factory wages, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li>Irregularity of meals, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + <li>Substitutes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + <li>Tricks of the trade, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Newsboys' Court of Boston, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Newsboys' Republic of Boston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>New South Wales, license statistics, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Newspapers, as merchandise, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Attitude toward regulation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Night work, of messengers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li class="break">Of newsboys, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li class="break">Ordinances, table of city, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + +<li>Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Cincinnati statistics, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + <li>Immigration Commission's report, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Philadelphia conditions, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Poverty as an excuse for street work, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Prohibition, of night work, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li class="break">Of street work by children, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + + +<li>Regulation, by municipality or state, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Degree of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li>In future, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + <li>Unsatisfactory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Retardation in school of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Rochester, method of enforcement, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + +<li>St. Louis statistics, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>School, as social center, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Scotland, conditions, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Spargo, John, on effects of street work, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Statistics, of U.S. Census, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Austria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + <li>Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li>Germany, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li>New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Street as a social agent, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Street employments, distinction between, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Street occupations, of minor importance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + <li>Contrasted with regular work, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Street trading defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. + <ul class="not mless"> + <li>Neglected in legislation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li class="break">Street trading problem related to other problems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + +<li class="break">Toledo, retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + +<li>Vagrants, Chicago report on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="break">Vice Commission of Chicago, report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + + +<li>Wisconsin, law, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p class="center">The following pages contain advertisements of a +few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.</p> + + + + +<p class="bookadintro1">NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS</p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p> + +<p>It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new +book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams, +both through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made +for herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a +standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of constructive, her +aim being always to better the conditions in the particular field which she is +considering. In "A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil," she considers +sanely and frankly questions which civilized society has always had confronting +it and in all probability always will. Something of her attitude of +mind and of her purpose in writing this book as well as a glimpse of the +character of the volume may be seen from the following paragraph taken +from her preface:</p> + +<p>"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the +point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a counter-knowledge +to a bewildering mass of information which came to me through +the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports which its +twenty field officers daily brought to its main office adjoining Hull-House +became to me a revelation of the dangers incident to city conditions and of +the allurements which are designedly placed around many young girls in +order to draw them into an evil life."</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it +might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug +complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle for +social purity."—<i>The Nation.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which +every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the dark-covered +evil at which it is aimed."—<i>The Continent.</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets</p> + +<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p>A protest against the practice of every large city of +turning over to commercialism practically all the provisions +for public recreation, leaving it possible for private greed +to starve or demoralize the nature of youth.</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"Few persons in this country are better qualified to +speak with authority on any subject connected with the +betterment of the poor than is Jane Addams."—<i>New York Herald.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The book should be in the hands of every preacher +and laborer for humanity. I wish that parents might make +it a text-book."—Rev. <span class="smcap">Madison C. Peter</span> in <i>The New +Orleans Daily News</i>.</p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and +yearning, and also shows such sanity, such breadth and +tolerance of mind, and such philosophic penetration into +the inner meanings of outward phenomena as to make it a +book which no one who cares seriously about its subject +can afford to miss."—<i>New York Times.</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">Newer Ideals of Peace</p> + +<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against the +waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that must ensue +when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their right places in +the minds of men.... Back of it lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable +pity, a spirit as free as that of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness +that Marcus Aurelius might have found similar to his own."—<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">The editor of <i>Collier's</i> writes: "To us it seems the most comprehensive +talk yet given about how to help humanity in America to-day."</p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of +insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book +shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has +characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism +in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume +is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."—<i>Annals of the American Academy.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts, +her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and +weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her sensible +suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, her buoyant +yet practical optimism."—<i>Examiner.</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">Democracy and Social Ethics</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social +problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss' +as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained +in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same +thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and +economic facts."—<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."—<i>Philadelphia Ledger.</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">Twenty Years at Hull-House</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo, $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68</i></p> + +<p>Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout +the civilized world. In the present volume she tells +of her endeavors and of their success—of the beginning of +Hull-House, of its growth and its present influence. For +every one at all interested in the improvement of our cities, +in the moral education of those who are forced to spend +much of their time on the streets or in cheap places of +amusement—"Twenty Years at Hull-House" is a volume +of more than ordinary interest and value.</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements +of that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which +America means to stand before the world."—<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking +(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in +the early days, the unsuspected resources that were developed +among the crowded city population of foreign birth, and the +efforts continuously made for the betterment of labor legislation +in the State of Illinois, are all set forth with simplicity and +directness. On the whole it is a wonderful record of accomplishment, +full of suggestion to social reformers the world over."—<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."—<i>Bellman.</i></p> + +<p class="bookadsmall">"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity +with the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of +humanity."—<i>Bookman.</i></p> + + +<div> +<div class="bookadhead">On City Government<br /></div> +<div class="bookadsubt">The American City</div> +</div> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.</p> + +<p class="bookad2">"In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every +thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the tenement, +public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices, municipal revenue +and municipal debt, with all their related and subsidiary problems, are +clearly and fully considered."—<i>Pittsburgh Gazette.</i></p> + +<p class="right"><i>6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p> + + +<div> +<div class="bookadhead">Great American Cities<br /></div> +<div class="bookadsubt">Their Problems and Their Government</div> +</div> + + + +<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of +the Public Service Commission for the first District, New York</p> + +<p class="bookad2">A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest cities +of the country, including Chicago.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net</i></p> + + + +<div> +<div class="bookadhead">On Industrial Legislation<br /></div> +<div class="bookadsubt">Some Ethical Gains through Legislation</div> +</div> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By <span class="smcap">Mrs.</span> FLORENCE KELLEY</p> + +<p class="bookad2">The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector of +Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the National +Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a resident at +Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New York.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p> + +<div> +<div class="bookadhead">On Charitable Effort<br /></div> +<div class="bookadsubt">How to Help</div> +</div> + + +<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and +Labor, Washington</p> + +<p class="bookad2">Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice as to +the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but the non-professional +worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special training, is even +more emphatically in need of such guidance as this sound and competent +book gives.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">The Development of Thrift</p> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's +Aid Society, Baltimore</p> + +<p class="bookad2">"An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their scope and +their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in suggestions of +value."—<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">Friendly Visiting among the Poor</p> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity +Organization Society of Baltimore</p> + +<p class="bookad2">"A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely practical."—<span class="smcap">Charles Richmond Henderson.</span></p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net</i></p> + +<p class="bookadhead"> +The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and +Delinquent Children</p> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New +York City</p> + +<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>—Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth +Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private Charities +for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children from Almshouse; +The State School and Placing Out System; The County Children's Home +System; The System of Public Support in Private Institutions; The +Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and Societies for the +Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities for Destitute and Neglected +Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent Children; Present Tendencies.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p> + + +<p class="bookadhead">Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</p> + +<p class="bookadauthor">By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic +League</p> + +<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>—Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860; +Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model +Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds +for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys; +Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For +Grown People; Conclusion.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<div> +<p class="bookadintro1">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p> +<p class="center"> <span class="bad1">Publishers</span> <span class="bad2">64-66 Fifth Avenue</span> <span class="bad2">New York</span></p> +</div> + + + +<div class="tn spaced"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes - Part II</b></p> + +<p> The following changes have been made to the text:</p> + +<ul> + <li>In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be classified by occupation as follows:—" Newspaper sellers was written as one word once.</li> + + <li>In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany, introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly hyphenated.</li> + + <li>In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.</li> + + <li>In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.</li> + + <li>In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204. </li> +</ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child Labor in City Streets, by +Edward Nicholas Clopper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS *** + +***** This file should be named 44396-h.htm or 44396-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/3/9/44396/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Heike Leichsenring and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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